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O R G / I A S

Low-cost
topologies for TPIM
drives in industrial
applications

24

BY FREDE BLAABJERG,
FLORIN LUNGEANU,
KENNETH SKAUG,
& MICHAEL TONNES

HERE IS A CONTINUOUS DEBATE

Although ac-drive technology [2], [3] for three-phase

today concerning the motor of the

induction motors is mature today, two-phase induction

future for low-power applications

motors (TPIM) still face difficulties when working with

requiring less than 12 kW. The special-

variable frequency. The lack of variable-speed drives for such

ists are focusing on superior motors [1] like brushless-

motors is a reality, despite the notable number of pumps,

dc, permanent-magnet synchronous, or electronically

fans, compressors, tools, household appliances to enumer-

commutated types, because they show improvements in

ate just a fewall using TPIMs but at a fixed speed. This

efficiency, reliability, torque-per-volume/mass ratio,

article attempts mainly to investigate the reasons for this

maintenance, and service life. Despite this effort, the

lack of variable-speed drives. Consequently, the aptitude of

industry seems to be responding with manifest rigidity

the TPIMs for operating at variable speed is to be estimated

in changing standard induction motor solutions when

and the suitable power electronic topologies identified.

considering the installed volume into the field, the

The most common form of a typical two-phase machine

investment in manufacturing base, and the easiness of

is the permanent split-capacitor motor (PSCM), usually

transition from fixed speed to variable speed.

recognized as the single-phase induction machine [4], [5] in

1077-2618/04/$20.002004 IEEE

Vs

Imain

Iaux
Vc

Vaux

Vaux

Vc
Iaux

Aux

Is

Main

220 V/50 Hz

TPIM Models
The classical technique for modelling the PSCM was the
revolving-field theory, which is still popular today [6]
[8]. However, the method has limitations in describing
the dynamic regime, and it makes comparison with its
three-phase motor complement difficult. An orthogonal
reference frame theory for developing the model of the
asymmetrical TPIM is employed here. There are two
advantages: separation of the ac capacitor from the TPIM
helps in considering different topologies for the ac drives,
and the reference frame theory takes advantages from the
natural orientation of the TPIM in dq coordinates.
Figure 2 presents the schematic view of a TPIM translated to orthogonal reference frames, the rotor cage being also
transformed in two short-circuited windings. The orthogonal axes direction for each winding coincides with the magnetizing axes direction for the respective winding. Further
approximations were made for the TPIM model, such as:
iron losses are ignored
stator windings present a sinusoidal distribution
across the stator circumference
winding resistances are assumed to be independent of
the supply frequency
the motor is mechanically symmetrical even though
the number of slots for each winding differs from one
to another
the magnetic material is linear and the iron permeability is infinite.

Vs
Is
Iaux

(a)

(b)

1
Two-phase permanent split-capacitor motor supplied from
the ac grid: (a) supplying scheme, (b) vector diagram.

Main

qs

qr

isq

Vsq

dr

Air-Gap

irq

Aux
ird

Rotor

ds

isq

r
Vsd

2
TPIM and the orthogonal dq systems.

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the literature. This particular motor is, by definition,

designed to work at a fixed speed and is supplied
directly from the single-phase grid, hence the name. In
reality, it consists from an asymmetrical TPIM coupled
with an ac capacitor [see Figure 1(a)]. The TPIM has
two windings: main and auxiliary, spatially displaced at
90 electrical degrees in the stator. The number of turns
for auxiliary winding is higher than the number of
turns for the main winding, and a higher supply voltage is needed for it. In series with the auxiliary winding, an ac capacitor is placed, permanently connected in
the circuit in both starting and running conditions,
thus called the running capacitor.
The phase difference introduced by the ac capacitor
makes the currents through the windings being displaced at approximately 90 between them, and a rotating field results in the air-gap, as shown in Figure 1(b).
The highest voltage across the capacitor [4], together
with a reduced current through auxiliary winding, makes
the necessary ac capacitor less expensive. With the capacitance properly calculated, the magnetomotive forces for
each winding are supposed to be equal and the pulsating
torque eliminated. But the optimum capacitance value is
strongly dependent on the load, as well as on the amplitude and frequency of the supplying voltage, thus, the
pulsating torque poses a permanent dilemma for PSCMs
running apart from the rated conditions. As previously
shown in [6] and further revealed in this article, the
PSCM has serious problems when it works at low frequencies, such as overheating, reduced pull-down torque,
and higher pulsating torque, and it is supplied as shown
in Figure 1(b). Still, this solution is widely implemented
and commercialized today, predominantly in the purpose
of driving fans and pumps.
Another approach is to remove the running capacitor,
and give to the TPIM the variable-speed easiness existing
for the three-phase induction motor by exploiting a socalled two-phase asymmetrical capacitor-less motor (CLM)
(see [5], [7][11]). Yet, it is not usually mentioned in the
literature that efficient operation of a CLM requires an
auxiliary voltage higher than the rated voltage of the
motor. In fact, many papers ignore this limitation!
But keeping the running capacitor in the circuit may
also be an advantage, in spite of its higher reactance at low
frequency; in [10], the presence of the running capacitor
helps in avoiding the need for a higher voltage across the
auxiliary winding, while the increased capacitive reactance
at low frequencies is partially compensated.
This article starts with a presentation of the mathematical model for an asymmetrical TPIM, the basis for
the future comparison. This is followed by an analysis
of TPIM behavior under variable frequency supply,
with the running capacitor placed or removed from the
circuit. Practical power electronic topologies characterized by the possibility of being implemented within
the low-cost demand are analyzed, using classic as well
as new control techniques for two-phase motors, leading to a group of solutions considered to be suitable for
drives with TPIMs. An experimental comparison of
such ac drives follows, and conclusions about drives
with TPIMs end the article.

25

The resulting stator reference-frame model is depicted

in (1), where the dq equations in the rotor frame have
been transformed to the stator reference frame, since this is
the only one capable of eliminating the mechanical angle
influence in the mutual inductances.

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vsq = Rsq isq + Lsq t(isq ) + Lmq t(irq )

vsd = Rsd isd + Lsd t(isd ) + Lmd t(ird )
0 = Rrq irq + Lrq t(irq ) + Lmq t(isq )
(m /n) (Lrd ird + Lmd isd )
0 = Rrd ird + Lrd t(ird ) + Lmd t(isd )
+ (m n) (Lrq irq + Lmq isq ).

26

(1)

The voltages and the currents involved in (1) do not

need to be explained, their meaning being evident from
Figure 2. The derivative operator is symbolized by t, and
the parameters (resistances and inductances) are as follows:
Rsq , Rsd , Rrq , Rrd : the resistances for the real asymmetric windings in the stator and for the fictive
windings in the rotor; in spite of the symmetric cage,
the resistances for the windings in the rotor are different due to the stator-frame transformation process.
Lmq , Lmd : the magnetising inductances for the main
and the auxiliary axis; they have the same significance as in the three-phase induction motor case,
but with a different magnetising flux in each axis.
Lsq , Lsd , Lrq , Lrd : the total inductances for the windings in stator and rotor, defined as the sum between
winding leakage inductance and the magnetising
inductance on the respective axis; same significance
as for the three-phase motor.
n: windings turns ratio, defined as the ratio between
number of turns for the auxiliary winding Naux and
the number of turns for the main winding Nmain ,
always higher than one.
m : the mechanical rotor pulsation, defined as the
product between the number of poles pair p and the
integral of the mechanical angle.
The steady-state model (2) arrives from (1), by replacing
the derivative operator with j 1 , and transforming the
time variables in complex vectors (underlined variables).
Vsq = Zsq Isq + j Xmq Irq
Vsd = Zsd Isd + j Xmd Ird
0 = j Xmq Isq (s /n) Xmd Isd
+ Zrq Irq (s /n) Xrq Ird
0 = (n s ) Xmq Isq + j Xmd Isd
+ (n s ) Xrq Irq + Zrd Ird .

(2)

The significance for the parameters in (2) is:

Xmq , Xmd are the magnetising reactances.
Zsq , Zsd , Zrq , Zrd are the total winding impedances.
s = m /1 is the ratio between mechanical frequency m and electrical frequency in the stator
1 = 2 f1 .

Rotor dynamics comes to complete the dynamic model

(1) with (3a), where the electromagnetic torque Tel is
given in (3b). Note that the torque in (3b) is true only
with the iron losses neglected. J is the inertia, Tload stands
for load torque as a function of the speed (pump torque in
this case), and Tfriction means friction torque [5] as a function of both speed and its squared value



2
J t(m ) = p Tel Tload (m ) Tfriction (m , m
) (3a)
(3b)
Tel = p n Lmq (isq ird isd irq )
In steady-state operation, the electromagnetic torque has
two components: the average torque Tavg given by (4a)
and the pulsation torque Tpuls expressed in (4b) in terms
of its amplitude:
Tavg = p n (Xmq /1 ) Real{I sq I rd I sd I rq } (4a)


Tpuls = p n (Xmq /1 ) I I I I .
(4b)
sq

rd

sd

rq

The theoretical and experimental study in the following paragraphs are based on a laboratory set-up made
from a PSCM driving a water pump. The motor nameplate data are: 115-V/60-Hz supply voltage, 10-F/270V running capacitor, 214-W shaft power, 2.1-A total
absorbed current [I s from Figure 1(a)], and two poles.
The motor parameters were found by experiment and
depicted below:
Rsq = 6.8 , Rsd = 27 , Rrq = 7.1 , Rrd =
28.4 
Lmq = 0.209 H, Lmd = 0.836H
Lsq = Lrq = 0.225H, Lsd = Lrd = 0.9H
n = 2, p = 1.
Figure 3 depicts the mechanical characteristic for the
PSCM as it results from the steady-state model (2), the
PSCM being supplied with the rated grid voltage as in
Figure 1(a). The load torque coming from the pump was
experimentally determined and added in Figure 3 with a
dashed line, together with the maximum pulsating torque
depicted with a dotted line. The rated operation point is
visible at the intersection between load and average torque
and clearly results from Figure 1, the non-zero value for
the pulsation torque at nominal load. The original running capacitor is a compromise between starting torque
and smoothness of operation.
Variable-Frequency Supply
The target goals for the compared ac drives were defined as:
drive the pump at a variable speed into a satisfactory
efficiency margin
minimize the pulsation torque
afford for a large variation of the shaft speed at a
given load
keep the slip below an admissible limit (a demand
correlated with the motor efficiency, but with implications in motor control).
The following is an overview regarding the TPIMs ability to satisfy those tasks under variable-frequency supply,
based on the steady-state model approach. Therefore, the
power-converter influence will be neglected first.

Aux

Main

Vm = Vsq

Aux

Va = Vsd

Main

Vm = Vsq

Aux

Torque [Nm]

Main

Vm = Va = Vsq

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Figure 4 shows three different supply methods. The formance, but helps in making a comparison between all
voltages across motor windings V sq and V sd were depict- three methods from the same standpoint.
Figure 5 proves that supplying a PSCM motor with
ed separately from the main supply voltage V m and auxiliary supply voltage V a , making the analysis easier and variable frequency while keeping the classical structure
more general. The main and auxiliary supply voltages are unaltered [Figure 4(a)] is not an inspired choice, because
given by the one/two-phase voltage supply device (an ideal the increased capacitor reactance at low frequency tends to
sinusoidal waveform in Figure 4, the inverter in real case), drastically reduce the influence of the auxiliary winding,
whereas the phase voltages result from considering or not transforming the TPIM into a true single-phase machine.
considering the running capacitor in the auxiliary winding Therefore, the pulsation torque increases once the frequencircuit. In all three cases, the voltage across the main cy drops, leading to vibrations and higher audible noise.
winding V sq always equals the main supply voltage V m , The efficiency is the poorest one for the whole frequency
whereas the voltage across auxiliary winding Vsd is the dif- range, in danger of overheating the motor at low speed.
ference between the auxiliary supply voltage V a and the The starting torque is also small and tends to zero at low
capacitor voltage V C , the last two being identical only frequencies, as it is for the single-phase motor case.
By eliminating the asymmetry with an auxiliary supply
when the running capacitor is removed from the circuit.
The simplest possible solution, in which the PSCM voltage n-times higher than the main supply voltage, the
supply philosophy is preserved, comes from Figure 4(a). CLM [Figure 4(b)] can achieve the highest performance,
There, both the main winding and the auxiliary circuitry illustrated in Figure 5 with dashed line, comparable with
are supplied from the same source, and the running capac- a three-phase motor in performance. The efficiency is
itor is kept in series with the auxiliary winding. It is simi- improved and, consequently, power loss inside the motor
lar with the grid supply in Figure 1(a), but now the is diminished. Pulsating torque due to asymmetry is
amplitude and the frequency of the supply
voltage are modified accordingly. A more
advanced technique is depicted in Figure
0.8
4(b), where the running capacitor is
removed, and the supply voltages are dis0.7
Average
placed at 90 between them, with the
Pulsation
amplitude for the auxiliary supply voltage
Rated Load
0.6
Load
chosen n-times higher than the amplitude of
the main supply voltage. The method in
0.5
Figure 4(c) is almost similar with the one
described in Figure 4(a): the supply voltages
0.4
are in phase but the amplitude for the auxil0.3
iary voltage is kept at the rated amplitude,
compensating the increased reactance of the
0.2
running capacitor at low frequencies.
A comparison between these three meth0.1
ods is shown in Figure 5, based on several
simulations using (2). In all three cases, the
0
ratio between the main supply voltage and
0
400 800 1,200 1,600 2,000 2,400 2,800 3,200 3,600
frequency was kept constant for the whole
Speed [r/min]
range and equal with the rated value (115
3
V/60 Hz). The auxiliary supply voltage was
Average,
maximum
pulsating
and
the
load
torque
for
the
mechanical
setkept identical with the main voltage for the
first method [Figure 4(a)], displaced with up built in the laboratory.
90 in front of the
main voltage and the
amplitude multiplied
n-times for the second
Isd
method [Figure 4(b)],
Isd
Isq
Isq
It
Isd
Isq
and in phase with the
Vc
Vc
main voltage but with
V
a
fixed (rated) amplitude
Vsd
Vsd
for the third method
[Figure 4(c)]. The load
It
It
profile is the one
depicted in Figure 3
(a)
(b)
(c)
with a dashed line. The
4
constant volts-perThree
basic
supply
methods
for
TPIM:
(a)
true
PSCM
supply;
(b)
CLM
supply;
(c)
PSCM
with
comhertz strategy does not
lead to optimum per- pensation for the capacitive reactance.

27

almost nonexistent, and the starting torque is drastically

enhanced. All these come at a price of a higher voltage
across the auxiliary winding.
Keeping the amplitude of the auxiliary voltage maximum in Figure 4(c) improves the slip and the total current
consumption, but the other characteristics are similar with
what can be seen in classical arrangement from Figure
4(a), as shown in Figure 5 with continuous line.
In conclusion, the best solution in supplying a TPIM is
to eliminate the running capacitor, but keep in mind that
no limitations related to practical electronic topologies
have been considered so far.

Efficiency [%]

80
60
40
20
0

Start.Crt. [A]

8
6

Power-Electronic Topologies
In order to supply the motor within one of the constraints imposed by the methods represented in Figure 4,
a suitable power-electronic topology must be identified.
A practical topology [14] has to conform with: low
implementation cost, easy control, reduced complexity,
and high lifetime.
Among the others, the scheme from Figure 6 is the
most popular [5], because it features low cost, robustness,
and easy control. But the dc capacitor suffers from a supplementary stress in this case, justified by the presence of
the low-frequency components in the ac current passing
the filter capacitor. In addition, all the drawbacks revealed
above for the supply method in Figure 4(a) are now passed
forward for this drive topology. However, since the technique from Figure 4(a) does not presume a higher auxiliary supply voltage, this simple topology keeps its
attraction, at least for some particular applications with
light loads.
The topologies represented in Figure 7 are a reflection
of the supply method described in Figure 4(b), dealing
with the CLM. The scheme from Figure 7(a) has been a
preoccupation in the past for many researchers (see [5],
[8][10]). Despite of some advantages, there are several
factors that reduce its industrial applicability: higher cost,
due to the presence of two capacitors in the dc-link filter;
higher voltage ripple compared with a classical dc-link filter with the same value for capacitance; and the low-frequency currents from the motor are sent back to the
supply network, making electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC) compliance impossible at low cost (passive filters
should be inserted).

4
2
0

Start.Torque [Nm]

0.28
0.21
0.14
0.07
0

28

Slip [Hz]

3
2
1
0

Current [A]

2.1
1.9
1.7
1.5
1.3
0.36
Puls.Torque [Nm]

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0.27
Main

Isq

0.18
It
0.09
0
10

20

30

40

50

Vsq

60

Frequency [Hz]

Aux

Isd

Vdc

Vc

Vsd

Comparison between supply methods represented in Figure

4, with constant volts-per-hertz relationship. Dotted line:

PSCM from Figure 4(a). Dashed line: CLM from Figure 4(b).
Continuous line: PSCM from Figure 4(c).

Single-phase inverter [see Figure 4(a)].

A more convenient way to supply the TPIM with an

orthogonal voltage system implies a six-transistor bridge,
as shown in Figure 7(b), originally proposed in [7] and
[11]. Unfortunately, 90 between supply voltages cannot
be maintained for amplitudes higher than 70% of the dcvoltage value. Moreover, the need for auxiliary voltage
higher than the main voltage limits the method even more
because some means for boosting the voltage are unavoidable and not attractive. This aspect was ignored in the
majority of the published studies so far, an exception
being made by [7], which gives an elegant description of
the limitations specific to a six-transistor inverter when it
supplies a two-phase voltage system displaced at 90 .
The topology from Figure 8 is aiming precisely to
remove the last constraint, and it is based on the supply
method from Figure 4(c). By reconsidering the presence
of a running capacitor in the auxiliary winding, at the
price of sacrificing motor performance, the need for a
voltage booster drops. The high reactance of the running
capacitor is partially compensated by keeping the auxiliary voltage supply at the rated (maximum) value for all
frequencies and in phase with the main voltage supply.
Thus, only the voltage across the main winding will be
adjusted in relation to the frequency. The 70% limitation will indeed disappear if the supply voltages are in
phase, any amplitude between zero and dc voltage value
being possible for both output voltages under the sixtransistor bridge hardware.

Vm = Vsq
Vdc

Isq

Main
It

Isd

Aux

Vdc
Va = Vsd

(a)

Isq

Main

Isd

Aux

Vdc
Va = Vsd

Vm = Vsq
It

(b)

(a) Two-phase inverter with split capacitor in dc link. (b)

Two-phase inverter with six-transistor bridge, supplying a
capacitorless TPIM.

Va
Isq

Main

Aux

Vm = Vsq

Vsd

Isd

Vdc
Vc

It

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Experiments
The experimental comparison was done in the same way
as the model-based study presented in Figure 5. In more
detail, the facility consists of a 214-W, originally permanent, split-capacitor motor driving a water pump. The
water is recirculated through a water pipe, and the valves
in the pipe were kept in a constant position, such as to
assure a maximum load for the TPIM and to maintain
the same comparison basis.
The motor was controlled using a converted drive for
three-phase induction motors. This drive features a passive
single-phase input, a diode rectifier, dc-link circuitry, and
a three-phase inverter, being mounted on top of the
TPIM, as shown in Figure 9(a). In this approach, it was
possible to implement three control topologies, namely
the single-phase inverter supplying a PSCM in Figure 6,
the two-phase inverter supplying a CLM in Figure 7(b),
and the two-phase inverter supplying a PSCM in Figure 8.
For the single-phase supply in Figure 6, one leg in the
three-phase inverter was removed.
A simple open loop control with a constant volts-perhertz profile was implemented, taking advantages from
the flexibility of a Xilinx flexible programmable gate array
(FPGA) based control card. Both single-phase [Figure
4(a)] and two-phase [Figure 4(b) and (c)] voltage modulations were realized. Therefore, by properly adjusting the
initial three-phase motor drive, all the topologies of interest were investigated.
Figure 9(a) shows the motor-inverter group after the
motor was removed from the pump. It can be seen how
the motor terminals are connected directly at the threephase output terminals of the drive, but the running

capacitor can easily be added when needed. Additionally,

the test facility running the pump in closed circuit can be
seen in Figure 9(b).
Figure 10 shows the time variation for the main supply
voltage together with the currents through the main and

Two-phase inverter with six-transistor bridge, supplying a

permanent split-capacitor induction motor [see Figure 4(c)].

29

30

Main Voltage [V]

current in the stator windings ( Is in Figure 1)

pulsation torque.
In order to estimate the starting torque and the amplitude of the pulsating torque, the measured current and
speed were sent back to the steady-state model (2). This
method is being considered reliable enough for this comparison. As starting current was considered the maximum value for the current during start of the motor
[root-mean-square (rms) value].
From Figure 11, it can be seen that a PSCM motor supplied from a single-voltage source (Figure 6) has the poorest performance, even with the optimum volts-per-hertz
profile (dotted line in Figure 11). By attempting to maximize efficiency, the other variables will suffer even more,
as in the case of starting torque. The impossibility of really
controlling the magnetic field shape in the air-gap forms
the explanation for this behavior, and the only advantage
coming from this topology appears to be the low implementation cost. In practical cases, the dc capacitor may be
the subject of a special design for
allowing the high ripple current
without overheating.
On the other hand, the CLM
supplied with six-transistor bridge
[Figure 7(b)] represents the best
solution only at low speeds (dashed
line in Figure 11). Above 40 Hz,
performance suffers considerably,
because the 90 displacement cannot be preserved anymore, and the
voltage-amplitude ratio is also
apart from the windings turns ratio
n. Note that the maximum voltage
(a)
(b)
available for each winding cannot
be higher than the grid voltage
9
before rectification (a voltage
(a) TPIM supplied with a three-phase inverter in the laboratory; the running capacitor
booster is considered incompatible
can be added easily afterwards. (b) The pump set-up. The set-up uses a Bell & Goswith the low-cost demand). Thereset motor-pump group, while the closed circuit for water re-circullation was made at
fore, the voltage in the dc-link
comes from the uncontrolled
Danfoss DrivesLow Power laboratory.
(diode) rectifier, and, even from 25
Hz, the ratio between main and
auxiliary voltage is far from optimum. However, the excellent behavior at low and even very low speed should stimulate future research into the area. One simple answer
100
could be to include a voltage booster, which means extra
0
cost. Another solution would be to use a diode rectifier
with voltage doubling, as in [8][9], but coupled with a
100
six-transistor bridge and a particular TPIM.
3
The most interesting aspect coming from Figure 11
Main
2
suggests
the PSCM supplied with a six-transistor inverter
Auxiliary
1
(Figure 8) as the ideal compromise, since its performance
0
stays somewhere in between (continuous line in Figure
1
11). The everlasting problem for a PSCM will still be the
2
starting torque, although better than in classical supply
3
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
with a single voltage source (this should not be a big probTime [ms]
lem for retrofit applications). With the exception being
10
made by the starting torque, all the other variables have an
Main supply voltage and the currents through stator windimproved value (slip, pulsation torque, total current) when
ings, for the 214-W PSCM supplied from a two-phase
compared with the single-phase supply from Figure 6.
Another reason for the good behavior of a PSCM motor
inverter at 60 Hz.
Currents [A]

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auxiliary winding within the case depicted in Figure 8.

The supply voltages are identical in amplitude in the 60Hz case, while the currents are displaced at almost 90
because the pump loads the motor close to rated conditions at this frequency.
Before performing the tests, the volts-per-hertz profile was optimized using the steady-state model (2) for
optimum motor efficiency (it will not be constant anymore). The resulted volts-per-hertz characteristics were
practically adjusted in the laboratory afterwards in
order to compensate for the nonlinear behavior in the
inverter and control.
Several tests were performed in the laboratory, and the
results are depicted in Figure 11 in the same style as Figure 5, to make comparison easier. The signals depicted are:
motor efficiency
starting current
starting torque
motor slip

Conclusion
Today, there is a partial understanding about drives for
TPIMs. Some literature in the area is mentioned in the
references, many of which exploit field-oriented control,
but practical issues are very rarely treated. Moreover, the
complexity and the cost of such drives will prevent them
from going into series production in the most cases.
This article focused on drives for TPIMs. Since the
power base for such applications does not usually go above
2.5 kW, and, due to the nature of the low power applications, scalar control is a requirement for reaching the targeted cost level.
Therefore, a number of scalar control techniques and
their different power electronic topologies were investigated by means of a model-based approach in the beginning
and verifying the results in the laboratory afterwards using
an industrial drive originally designed for three-phase
induction motors.

Efficiency [%]

60
40
20
0

Star. Crt. [A]

6.5
5
3.5
2
0.5

Start. Torque [Nm]

0.28
0.21
0.14
0.07
0
12
Slip [Hz]

9.5
7
4.5
2

Current [A]

3
2.4
1.8
1.2
0.6
0.24
0.18
0.12
0.06
0
10

20

30
40
Frequency [Hz]

50

60

11

Experimental comparison between three ac drives topologies. Dotted line: single-phase inverter from Figure 6.

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Industrial Application
In order to further investigate the potential of single-phase
motors around the same power size, a compressor application was used, mainly because of the challenges a variablespeed compressor assumes (rough starting torque, pulse
shape for steady-state load torque, possible stability problems for different frequency areas, etc.). The compressor
was originally a fixed-speed type (see Figure 12), driven by
a two-phase permanent split capacitor motor. Again, an ac
drive for three-phase induction motors will suffer modification in the control software, such as the same power circuit will supply a different motor.
It proved to be more difficult to accommodate variable
speed for compressors using two-phase motors, compared
with the previous pump example. The starting torque
really becomes an issue in this case, but the problem was
solved in the end. Some other problems came from the
power side, such as dc current ripple combined with pulsating torque. Surprisingly, the efficiency drop seems more
than acceptable, due to the fact that the speed ratio is at
maximum 1:21:3 for compressors.

80

Puls. torque [Nm]

under the scheme from Figure 8 is that a pump does not

ask for a high torque at low speeds, otherwise the PSCM
supplied with an increased auxiliary supply voltage is
expected to face the same problems as the one from Figure
6 at low frequencies.
Finally, the ripple current through the dc capacitor is
also reduced in three-phase inverter topology, which is not
shown in Figure 11, but is an important advantage in
practice. Measurements show that a three-phase inverter
driving a capacitorless motor contributes with almost no
low harmonics current in the dc capacitor (like in the
three-phase motor case), if the optimal relationship
between output voltages is respected.
On the other hand, the six-transistor inverter will
induce low harmonic components in the dc capacitor
when supplying the PSCM, with respect with Figure 8,
but the ac ripple current is two to three times lower than
the one contributed by the single-phase inverter from Figure 6. Once again, the drive performances of such a drive
stay somewhere in between.

Dashed line: six-transistors inverter from Figure 7(b). Continuous line: six-transistors inverter from Figure 8.

31

modification in mechanics is the addition of a drive on top

of the motor, single-/two-phase motors will not disappear
from the market at least for 1020 years to come. It is difficult to accept that the industry will invest in new production lines for changing single-phase motors below
100200 W for high-efficiency motors. The amount of
energy savings do not justify it in a short term, and the
energy regulations are tough for this to be considered. On
the contrary, by introducing variable-speed into industrial
applications, long-term energy consumption significantly
reduces, as shown in many studies, and the motor type
will not influence considerably at this power level.
12
The compressor set-up. The single-phase motor driven compressor, made by Danfoss Compressor Group, is
supplied at variable frequency by a three-phase ac drive

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made by Danfoss DrivesLow Power.

32

Three topologies were attended: a permanent splitcapacitor motor supplied with a single-phase inverter,
seen in Figure 6, a capacitorless motor supplied with a
two-phase inverter from Figure 7(b), and a permanent
split capacitor motor supplied as well with a two-phase
inverter from Figure 8. Only the two-phase inverter
derived from a three-phase bridge was considered here,
because the scheme from Figure 7(a) already proved to
show practical weaknesses.
Even if the CLM drive is usually presented as the best
solution in the field, the difficulty of supplying the motor
with 90 displaced voltages having different amplitudes at
low cost makes the solution less attractive.
The surprise came from the topology shown in Figure
8, which demonstrated improved performances over the
classical single-phase supply: higher starting torque and
efficiency, coupled with lower pulsating torque and
motor loss. Although the features for such a drive are
obvious below the ones specific to a CLM drive, they
appear to be satisfactory for low-power applications like
pumps and fans.
Another important issue is the ripple current through
the dc capacitor, not explicitly depicted in the article but
surveyed in the laboratory. Once more, a PSCM drive with
a two-phase inverter showed improved behavior, having
the potential to reduce the ripple current even more by
implementing suitable pulsewidth modulation (PWM) for
the inverter output voltages.
Market evolution studies confirm an increased interest
in high-efficiency motors, and the competition among
adjustable-speed-drive manufacturers contributes today in
promotion drives for permanent-magnet motors and highefficiency, three-phase induction motors. But the singlephase induction motor has an advantage that is hard to
compete with: retrofit applications. While a variablespeed option will improve the overall efficiency of the system, offering a satisfactory starting torque, and the only

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Frede Blaabjerg ([email protected]) is with Aalborg University in

Denmark. Florin Lungeanu is with Danfoss Low Power Drives
A/S in Denmark. Kenneth Skaug is with Vestas A/S in Denmark. Michael Tonnes is with Siemens Flow Instruments A/S in
Denmark. This article first appeared in its original form at the
2002 IEEE/IAS Annual Meeting.