Introduction to the Five Branches of Philosophy

Philosophy can be divided into five branches which address the following questions:

Metaphysics

Study of Existence

Epistemology
Ethics

Study of Knowledge
Study of Action

Politics
permissible?
Esthetics

What's out there?

Study of Force
Study of Art

How do I know about it?

What should I do?
What actions are

What can life be like?

There is a hierarchical relationship between these branches as can be seen in the

Concept Chart. At the root is Metaphysics, the study of existence and the nature of
existence. Closely related is Epistemology, the study of knowledge and how we
know about reality and existence. Dependent on Epistemology is Ethics, the study
of how man should act. Ethics is dependent on Epistemology because it is
impossible to make choices without knowledge. A subset of Ethics is Politics: the
study of how men should interact in a proper society and what constitutes proper.
Esthetics, the study of art and sense of life is slightly separate, but depends on
Metaphysics, Epistemology, and Ethics.
Metaphysics

What is Metaphysics?

Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy responsible for the study of existence. It is

the foundation of a worldview. It answers the question "What is?" It encompasses
everything that exists, as well as the nature of existence itself. It says whether the
world is real, or merely an illusion. It is a fundamental view of the world around us.

Why is Metaphysics important?

Metaphysics is the foundation of philosophy. Without an explanation or an

interpretation of the world around us, we would be helpless to deal with reality. We
could not feed ourselves, or act to preserve our lives. The degree to which our
metaphysical worldview is correct is the degree to which we are able to comprehend

the world, and act accordingly. Without this firm foundation, all knowledge becomes
suspect. Any flaw in our view of reality will make it more difficult to live.

What are the key elements of a rational metaphysics?

Reality is absolute. It has a specific nature independent of our thoughts or feelings.

The world around us is real. It has a specific nature and it must be consistent to that
nature. A proper metaphysical worldview must aim to understand reality correctly.

The physical world exists, and every entity has a specific nature. It acts according to
that nature. When different entities interact, they do so according to the nature of
both. Every action has a cause and an effect. Causality is the means by which
change occurs, but the change occurs via a specific nature.
Reality Is Absolute:
The Primacy of Existence

Nature, to be commanded, must be obeyed.

Francis Bacon, Novum Organum
Francis Bacon knew that in order to command nature, one must act according to its
rules and identity. The statement Reality is Absolute is the explicit recognition of the
primacy of existence. This means that reality is not subject to wishes, whims,
prayers, or miracles. If you want to change the world, you must act according to
reality. Nothing else will affect reality. If you evade this fact, your actions will most
likely not have their desired effects. Your failure will be metaphysical justice.

The primacy of existence states the irrefutable truth that existence is primary and
consciousness is secondary. Consciousness is the faculty which perceives and
identifies existents (things that exists). For two reasons we say that existence is
primary, that consciousness requires existence, and that there is no consciousness
without existence.

Because consciousness identifies existents, there can be no consciousness without

something existing to perceive. Nothing can have an identity (to be identified)
without existing. The fact that something is identified necessarily implies its
existence which necessarily implies existence in general. Thus there is no
consciousness without existence.

Because consciousness identifies existents, consciousness itself must exist in order

to do the identifying. Along the lines of Descartes cogito, to be conscious (to
identify), a consciousness must exist. A faculty can not operate and not exist at the
same time. A verb without a noun makes no sense, and the noun must exist in order
for the verb to take place.

Consciousness is not responsible for creating reality or creating an individual reality.

It is completely dependent upon reality. Existence is primary because it is
independent of, makes possible, and is a prerequisite of consciousness.

All forms of mysticism derive from the false premise of the primacy of
consciousness, which is demonstratively false. Also, the assertion that existence
somehow requires consciousness, sometimes called the Interdependence Theory, is
arbitrary at best without objective basis.
Causality

Causality is the Law of Identity applied over time. It is the identity of actions. An
action requires an entity. It presupposes an entity. Without an entity, action is
meaningless. There are no "floating" actions that aren't actions of an entity.

Action is a change in the identity of an entity. Every action has a particular nature.
The action is determined by the entities involved. The change of the entities occurs
based on the identities. A marble, when dropped, falls towards the ground. Its
position (part of its identity) changes. This change, though, is dependent on the
nature of the objects involved. It is dependent on the Earth and the Earth's gravity.
It is dependent on the friction of the air.

A log that burns is also acting. Its identity is changing. In this case, its position stays
the same, but its chemical structure is changing. It is changing into ash. It is
releasing smoke into the air. The oxygen in the air is being combined with the
carbon in the fire. Heat is being released. All of these changes are determined by
the identity of the entities involved. As the entities change, so do their natures. With
the altered identities, the actions change to match. This continual process of change
is all determined by the initial identities.

Causality is the term used to describe this dependence of an action on the identities
of the entities involved. The changes in the identities of the objects are a result of
their identities interacting. This interaction, which is an action, is based on the
previous natures of the objects involved. In short, for something to change (which is

an effect), it needs to be acted on (caused) by a previous action. This previous

action, or change, is an effect as well.

Every effect must have a cause. That cause, however, is an effect of a previous
cause. Causality is the law that states that each cause has a specific effect, and that
this effect is dependent on the identities of the agents involved.
Nothing

Nothing, or non-existence, is that which doesn't exist. It is not a metaphysical entity.

It doesn't exist. It has no identity. It is not an object.

Non-existence is a concept that is meaningless by itself. It isn't something. It is a

relational concept, gaining meaning only in comparison to another concept. Nonexistence gains meaning only in comparison to existence. It is the denial of
existence. The concept "nothing" is a denial of the existence of a particular entity.
Both "non-existence" and "nothing" are denials of concepts, which must be
accepted and understood in order to give meaning to "non-existence" or "nothing".

The important point is that "nothing" is just that: nothing. It doesn't exist. It has no
identity. It's not a vacuum. It's not dark. It's not cold. It has no characteristics. As a
tool of cognition, it can be useful, but doesn't exist.
Metaphysical vs. the Man-Made

An important difference exists between the rules that govern existence (the
metaphysical), and the rules that men create to govern themselves (the manmade). This should be obvious, but confusion of the two has led to all kinds of
problems. The problems stem from not clearly differentiating between those things
men need to do, and those things man chooses to do.

The first common problem is the belief that the man-made is metaphysical. The
important distinction here is that rules that men choose are not necessary. That
they are chosen. For instance, any particular law is chosen. This is not to say it's
chosen without reason. Many laws are. But the fact that a choice is made is
important to remember. Often people believe that things are the way they are, and
nothing can change it. If it is man-made, though, this is wrong. It still may be
difficult to change, but it is possible. This error is usually an excuse not to act. It
assumes a difficult task is an impossible task, which allows the person to remain
free of guilt, since morality requires a choice between alternatives.

The second common problem is the belief that the metaphysical is man-made. This
error is usually made in the field of ethics when the assumption is made that a man
can act any way that is physically allowed to him. For instance, a man can be
completely selfless, but this is ultimately destructive. The metaphysical fact being
ignored is that death would follow shortly. That man, in order to live, must act in his
own interest to further his life. One cannot defy reality without consequence.
Epistemology

What is Epistemology?

Epistemology is the study of our method of acquiring knowledge. It answers the

question, "How do we know?" It encompasses the nature of concepts, the
constructing of concepts, the validity of the senses, logical reasoning, as well as
thoughts, ideas, memories, emotions, and all things mental. It is concerned with
how our minds are related to reality, and whether these relationships are valid or
invalid.
Why is Epistemology important?

Epistemology is the explanation of how we think. It is required in order to be able to

determine the true from the false, by determining a proper method of evaluation. It
is needed in order to use and obtain knowledge of the world around us. Without
epistemology, we could not think. More specifically, we would have no reason to
believe our thinking was productive or correct, as opposed to random images
flashing before our mind. With an incorrect epistemology, we would not be able to
distinguish truth from error. The consequences are obvious. The degree to which our
epistemology is correct is the degree to which we could understand reality, and the
degree to which we could use that knowledge to promote our lives and goals. Flaws
in epistemology will make it harder to accomplish anything.
What are the key elements of a proper Epistemology?

Our senses are valid, and the only way to gain information about the world. Reason
is our method of gaining knowledge, and acquiring understanding. Logic is our
method of maintaining consistency within our set of knowledge. Objectivity is our
means of associating knowledge with reality to determine its validity. Concepts are
abstracts of specific details of reality, or of other abstractions. A proper
epistemology is a rational epistemology.
thics

What is Ethics?

Ethics is the branch of study dealing with what is the proper course of action for
man. It answers the question, "What do I do?" It is the study of right and wrong in
human endeavors. At a more fundamental level, it is the method by which we
categorize our values and pursue them. Do we pursue our own happiness, or do we
sacrifice ourselves to a greater cause? Is that foundation of ethics based on the
Bible, or on the very nature of man himself, or neither?

Why is Ethics important?

Ethics is a requirement for human life. It is our means of deciding a course of action.
Without it, our actions would be random and aimless. There would be no way to
work towards a goal because there would be no way to pick between a limitless
number of goals. Even with an ethical standard, we may be unable to pursue our
goals with the possibility of success. To the degree which a rational ethical standard
is taken, we are able to correctly organize our goals and actions to accomplish our
most important values. Any flaw in our ethics will reduce our ability to be successful
in our endeavors.

What are the key elements of a proper Ethics?

A proper foundation of ethics requires a standard of value to which all goals and
actions can be compared to. This standard is our own lives, and the happiness
which makes them livable. This is our ultimate standard of value, the goal in which
an ethical man must always aim. It is arrived at by an examination of man's nature,
and recognizing his peculiar needs. A system of ethics must further consist of not
only emergency situations, but the day to day choices we make constantly. It must
include our relations to others, and recognize their importance not only to our
physical survival, but to our well-being and happiness. It must recognize that our
lives are an end in themselves, and that sacrifice is not only not necessary, but
destructive.
Politics

What is Politics?

Politics is ethics applied to a group of people.

Why is this Important?

Politics tells you how a society must be set up and how one should act within a
society. Except for hermits, this comes up a lot.

What is a rational Politics?

The requirement for a political system is that the individuals within that system are
allowed to fully function according to their nature. If that's not the case, they will
either rebel, as in Czarist Russia, or the system will eventually collapse, as in
Communist Russia.

Reason is man's prime means of survival. A human being can not survive in an
environment where reason is ineffective, and will thrive or starve to a degree in
proportion to the effectiveness of reason. This means that the prime goal of a
political system must be the preservation and enabling of the faculty of reason.

Reason does not function under coercion. A man can be forced to act at the point of
a gun, but he can not be forced to think. Likewise, in an environment where might
makes right, reason can not function because the fruits of rationality can not be
enjoyed. Why plant crops and domesticate animals if any raider can come by and
take them from you?

A moral political system must ban coercion. Or put another way, a moral political
system must ban the initiation of force, since retaliatory force is both just and
necessary. This means there must be some way to keep one person from killing,
threatening, or robbing another. This is accomplished by bestowing on government
a monopoly on retaliatory force and objectifying laws.
Esthetics

What is Esthetics?

Esthetics is the study of art. It includes what art consists of, as well as the purpose
behind it. Does art consist of music, literature, and painting? Or does it include a

good engineering solution, or a beautiful sunset? These are the questions that
aimed at in esthetics. It also studies methods of evaluating art, and allows
judgments of the art. Is art in the eye of the beholder? Does anything that appeals
to you fit under the umbrella of art? Or does it have a specific nature? Does it
accomplish a goal?

Why is Esthetics important?

Art has existed through all of recorded human history. It is unique to humans
because of our unique form of thinking. Its importance is based on this nature,
specifically, man's ability to abstract. Art is a little understood tool of man to bring
meaning to abstract concept. Esthetics is important because it delves into the
reason why art has always existed, the burning need of mankind through the ages
to see the world in a different, clear way. It further evaluates art by the standard of
human life, and whether it accomplishes the job of satisfying man's intellectual
needs, or whether it tends to hurt or make worse those needs.

What are the key elements of a proper Esthetics?

Art is a selective recreation of reality. Its purpose is to concretize an abstraction to

bring an idea or emotion within the grasp of the observer. It is a selective
recreation, with the selection process depending on the value judgments of the
creator. These value judgments can be observed and evaluated via the field of
ethics.
xistentialism
Philosophy, philosophers, readings, articles

Wait a minute, there's a snag somewhere; something disagreeable. Why, now,

should it be disagreeable?...Ah,I see; it's life without a break. (Jean Paul Sartre - huis
clos)

Existentialism is a philosophical movement which emphasizes on individual

existence, freedom, and choice.
There are several philosophical positions all related to existential philosophy but the
main identifiable common proposition, is that existence precedes essence. By this,
existentialism states that man exists and in that existence man defines himself and
the world in his own subjectivity, and wanders between choice, freedom, and
existential angst.

The first philosopher to use the term was Soren Kierkegaard (1813 - 1855), who
reacted against systematic rational philosophy, specially Hegel, and grasped the
notion of a truth inside of the evolving self.

Deriving from this stress on existence there are other main subjects and images
that have been developed by the existentialists.

Becoming a Being (existential ontology):

We are what we can become. Ours is a process, and our becoming is our ontic
possibility of becoming. Human existence is a project, in which past and present are
subordinate to future, is the main residence of our existence, because it is the north
of our projection of ourselves. Human existence cannot have a relationship with
being unless it remains in the midst of nothingness. (M. Heidegger - was ist
metaphysik?).
Nothingness
Nothingness appears in existentialism, as the placeholder of the possibility. The
awareness of anything in the world that is not my own existence (which by the
way,cannot be held in consciousness without being nihilized) is an awareness of
nothingness, that is, what I, this existence am not and in some cases I could
become.
Absurd
We arrive from nothingness to absurd at the moment that we ask for a meaning
after we have become aware of the other (trough the prior explained negation).
Absurd is a leit motiv in existentialism, specially in Sartre and Camus. It is
sometimes possible to overcome absurd, with absurd itself, as Camus says in The
Myth of Sisyphus: "The struggle itself toward the heights is enough to fill a man's
heart. One must imagine Sisyphus happy."
Ethics / Subjectivity / Good faith
Our view of the world is enough to become Truth, because it is based on our facts.
What we do with this truth, depends on our good or bad faith, that is, the ability to
act as if in our act the entire mankind would be represented. That is enough to
prove an act as an ethical one.
Choice
We always have a choice. Existentialism does not stand for any kind of determinism
except the one that determines our individual facts (existence)
We choose, and in choosing (in good or bad faith) we define ourselves. Choice is a
definition of an existence in the world, towards an object outside of itself.

Choice is all that we have, without confirmation of our act; we never know what was
right to choose. The doubt of our acts, together with the contingence of existence,
leads to
Angst
The main characteristic of existence itself, when we face our contingence, and the
absurdity of our acts and choices:
For Heidegger, it is that trough which fear becomes possible. For Kierkegaard is a
desire for what one fears. For Sartre, it is the immediate consequence of facing the
possibility of nothingness.
http://www.thecry.com/existentialism/