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LITERATURE REVIEW
Language is unique, especially spoken language that sets apart human race from other species. Therefore,
Language is the tool of communication in all human endeavors. That is while, one cannot deny the fact,
that human communication is key to linguists, for the reasons, linguists have not stopped carrying out
series of researches on how to improve various languages for proper and effective communication among
humanities. To this end, language is the most essential instrument of communication in various

fields of human endeavors.

For this reason, this research will be examining how the speaker of the selected messages
uses language to communicate with his audience, with the Searles concepts of speech act theory,
[locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary acts.] Furthermore, Language is a purely human and
non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced
symbols. (Edward Sapir) In the same vein, Language determines one's entire way of life, including
one's thinking and all other forms of mental activity. To use language is to limit oneself to the modes of
perception already inherent in that language. The fact that language is only form and yet molds everything
goes to the core of what ideology is. (Benjamin Whorf) Hence, A language [is] a set (finite or infinite)
of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. (Noam Chomsky]
Furthermore, Lewis (1975: 30) who writes that; Language is, like building or hive making, the
universal and biologically specific activity of human beings. We engage in it communally, compulsively
and automatically. We cannot be human separated from it; without it our minds would die, as surely as
bees lost from the hive.
As emotional and captivating as the above expression may sound, it
distinguishes man from all other creatures. Hence, language is the one significant factor of man's social
existence. It also defines and interprets his life in every situation. It gives meaning to his different
engagements and involvement. Without language, man will not be different from other animals.
Ohigbodi Babayide [2000: 182] explains that
That man expresses his emotions, his feelings and his thoughts in language is the one hard difference
between man and those other lower animals.
So the most reliable, acceptable form of communication by human beings is the use of language.

Furthermore, according to Sapir [Ibid 22], there is no more striking general fact about language than the
universality. For this reason, there are no people, race or community that does not have its language used
to communicate meaning. There is no concept, abstracts or concrete, by such people for which there is no
language or expression. Even many primitive languages have a formal richness, a latent luxuriance of
expression that eclipses anything known to the languages of modemcivilization.
In the same vein, words, words, words... that is, the means by which humans express their
thoughts, feelings, emotions, desires, etc. even if it has been established that non-verbal acts account for
larger percentage of human expressions, language is the only indisputable, unarguable form of
communication. However, it is still dispose to debate that a man is what he says, what he does and what
he put on.
Ultimately, Speech acts are, in a sense, what make language work; without speech acts language
describes truth and falsity and such but with speech acts language allow us to regulate and modify our
reality based on the power of words. Hence, Speech act theory allows one to examine language not only
as a device for communication but also as an instrument of action. Austin also emphasized the
importance of describing the total speech act in the total speech situation in which the language users
employ the language, the speaker utters a sentence and performs a speech act to the hearer.
2.1 Characteristics of Language
Language is an instrument of communication and its serves as an essential need of all
academic studies; it is only natural that its qualities and features be examined critically.
2.1.1 Duality
Human language is organized at two levels simultaneously. This property
is called duality. In speech production, we have a physical level at which we can produce individual
sounds. This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language
because, with a limited set of discrete sounds, we are capable of producing a very large number of
sound combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning. Hence, it is one of the most
economical features of human language, since with a limited set of distinct sounds we can produce a
very large number of sound combinations.
2.1.2 Arbitrariness
Another characteristic of language is arbitrariness. According to Oxford Advanced Learner's
Dictionary, the word arbitrary is defined thus: of an action, a decision, a rule, etc not seeming to
be based on a reason, system or plan and sometimes seeming unfair. In consonance with this
Dictionary definition, the arbitrary feature of language implies the exclusivity of language use as
the basic conventional rule that does not have any systematic plan. Hence, there is no one-to-one
correspondence between a linguistic form and its meaning. Meaning is always arbitrary and
maintained by convention.
2.1.3 Displacement
Furthermore, in more recent writings, incorporating ideas from biology and psychology,
Chomsky (year?) seems to be willing to recognize two distinct versions of the faculty of language,
one that is very narrow and uniquely human (what he is interested in) and another that is broad
and perhaps not uniquely human. Humans can refer to past and future time. This property of
human language is called displacement. Thus, it allows language users to discuss things and events
not present in the immediate environment. Indeed, displacement allows one to admire the beauty of
things and places through expression, for example, angels, fays, heaven, hell, whose existence we
cannot even be sure of. Thus, animals do not have this property of language in their

communication. Thus, it is the capacity to produce messages that can refer to past and future time,
and to other locations.
2.1.4 Dynamism
Dynamism is yet another characteristic of language. (Language, as used by humans is not
static but rather keeps changing with time.) Many of the words we are familiar with and use today
were not used in the primitive era. This is so because the level of knowledge then was relatively low
and many things have been invented that were not in existence then. For instance, car is a new
word car was carved out of the word chariot, and chariot is an old word, that is, a two-wheeled
horse-drawn battle vehicle; used in war and races in ancient Egypt and Greece and Rome. The
constant increase in knowledge often brings about formation of new words and so the language
continues to acquire more and more words. Hence, these new words are formed about the same way
that words have always been formed. Hence, a new word is at times formed from the initial letters
of words in a descriptive phrase. Aside from the coming in of words into the language, a switch can
take place whenever old words are used in new ways, thereby adopting new meanings.
2.1.5 Productivity
Creativity and productivity constitute yet another characteristic of language. Despite the
fact that there are laid down rules that govern the use of any language, the users, yes the skilful
users, often possess the potential to manipulate language to suit some personal purpose and create a
desired effect or impact on the listeners or the readers.
In other words, humans are continually creating new expressions and novel utterances by
maneuvering their linguistic resources to define new objects and situations.
This property is described as productivity (or creativity) and it is connected to the fact that the
reasonable utterances in any human language is infinite. Hence, it is the ability to be creative and
to produce utterances not heard before. For example, Soyinka uses the expression ilekun titi in
one of his plays, that is the door is closed.
2.1.6 Cultural transmission
Furthermore, while one may inherit physical features such as shape, height, habits, dark
hair, etc from ones parents; one does not inherit their language. One acquires a language in a
culture with other speakers and not from parental genes. An infant born to Japanese parents in
Japan, but adopted and brought up from birth by English speakers in Canada, will have physical
characteristics inherited from his or her natural parents, but will inevitably speak English. This
process whereby a language is passed on from one generation to the next is described as cultural
transmission.
Thus, it is clear that humans are born with some kind of predisposition to acquire language in a
general sense. However, one is not born with the ability to produce utterances in a specific language
such as English, French, and so on. One acquires ones first language as a child in a culture.
In another words, according to Asiwaju [2005] culture is what gives order and meaning to the
linguistic, social, political, economic, aesthetic, religious and philosophical modes and organizations
of a people, nation or ethnic group. The culture of a people is often reflected and noticed in their
language and the acquisition of a language often facilitates understanding and appreciation of its
culture. Hence, language is inborn in the sense that the ability to communicate using words,
uttering some sounds, is innate to everybody.
2.1.7 Reciprocity

Finally, language is reciprocal in nature. The reciprocal feature of language requires that at
least two people are often involved in a typical language use situation. It is mostly interactive
rather than one way delivery. Where there are speakers, there must also be listeners. Hence,
language has fulfilled its role as an instrument of communication when the listeners understand the
message. Note however, reciprocal rule of language has a limit when it comes to special
communication; for example, whenever a sermonizer says something that the listeners do not
understand, there is no opportunity to ask question directly and immediately, while listening to the
sermon. Hence, it is not immediate and direct in nature. Thus, it is immediate and direct whenever,
it involves two or more people in an interactive session.
2.2 Communication
Communication can be defined as the activities conveying information, knowledge, ideas,
feelings, thoughts, emotions, views, opinions etc, via various channels, such as: speaking, writing,
behavior and so on. In the same vein, communication can be regarded as the sharing or
transmitting of one's ideas, some information, feelings, thoughts, and so on to others.
Communication, however, goes beyond just the transmission of ideas or information. To
communicate in the real sense of the term requires that message contained therein is taken in and
well understood by those to whom it is directed. And this assertion is obviously in accordance with
Taylor's definition of communication as giving, receiving or exchanging information, opinions or
ideas by writing, speech or visual means, so that message communicated is completely understood
by the recipients (year?). In summary, the effectiveness of communication, in any form, rests
entirely its impact on the audience and how far it has succeeded in eliciting so expected response
from the recipients.
Ultimately, Communication is a process of interchanging information, ideas,
knowledge, thoughts, feelings, emotions, etc, through speech, writing, signals, behavior etc.
Thus, in communication process, a sender or encoder encodes a message and then using a
medium or channel sends, it to the receiver or decoder who decodes the message and after
processing information, sends back appropriate feedback using a medium or channel.
2.2.1 Types of communication

Individuals communicate with one another in various ways that depend upon the message
and its context in which it is being sent or transmitted. Choice of communication channel
and your style of communicating also affects communication. So, there are a variety of
types of communication.
Types of communication based on the communication channels used are:
(a) Verbal Communication
(b) Nonverbal Communication

Verbal Communication

Verbal communication refers to the form of communication in which message is

transmitted verbally, communication is done by word of mouth and a piece of
writing. Objective of every communication is to have people understand what one is
trying to convey. In verbal communication this popular acronym KISS (keep it short
and simple) applies.
When one talks to others, one assumes that others understand what one is saying
because one knows what one is saying. But this is not the case. Normally one brings
ones own idea, attitude, perception, emotions and thoughts about the topic and
hence creates barrier in delivering the right meaning.
So in order to deliver the right message, one must devote oneself to carrying out
thorough research and think from ones receivers point of view: Would he
understand the message? how would it sound on the listeners hears?
Verbal Communication is further divided into:
Oral Communication
Written Communication

Oral Communication
In oral communication, Spoken words are used. It includes face-to-face
conversations, speech, telephonic conversation, radio, voice over internet.
Hence, in oral communication, communication is influenced by pitch, volume,
speed and clarity of speaking. Hence, this research will not discuss much about
non verbal communication because the research will be dealing with audio
messages only.
However, in written communication, written signs or symbols are used to
communicate. Obviously, message is influenced by the vocabulary &
grammar used, writing style, precision and clarity of the language used in written
communication. Hence, a written message may be printed or hand written.
Hence, written Communication is the most common form of communication
being used in business.
In other words, the research will be dealing with oral type of communication.
2.2.2 Types of Communication Based on Purpose and Style
Based on style and purpose, there are two major types of communication and they both
bear their own characteristics. Communication types based on style and purpose are:
1

Formal Communication

Informal Communication
Formal communication
In formal communication, certain rules, conventions and principles are followed
while communicating a message. Formal communication occurs in formal and
official style. Usually professional settings, corporate meetings, conferences, Sermons
undergoes formal pattern.
In formal communication, use of slang and foul language is avoided and
correct pronunciation is required. Hence, this study deals with formal
communication only, because, the study is a research project.
However, informal communication is done using channels that are in contrast
with formal communication channels. It may be just a casual talk. It is
established for societal affiliations of members in an organization, face-toface discussions between friends and family, and so on. Hence, in informal
communication use of slang words, foul language is not restricted.
Ultimately, nonverbal communication is the sending or receiving of wordless
messages. One can say that communication other than oral and written, such as
gesture, body language, posture, tone of voice or facial expressions, is called
nonverbal communication. Hence, nonverbal communication is all about the
body language of a speaker. Hence, the research will not use non-verbal
communication because, the study deals with audio messages in its data analysis.

2.3 Relationship between Language and Communication

Language and communication are intimately related and this close relation is so obvious that
one can safely say that the two concepts are indivisible. Language serves as the vehicle of
communication. Among the various definition of language given by Oxford Advanced Learner's
Dictionary, the first definition is, The System of communication in speech and writing that is used
by people of a particular country or area. According to Encarta Dictionary, [2009] language the
human use of spoken or written words as a communication system, or the speech of a country, region, or
group; a full account of how we use language to communicate.

Similarly, Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners defines it as The method of
human communication using spoken or written words. These definitions readily reveal the link
between languages and communication. That the word communication is key to, and consistent
with the three definitions, apparently it establishes the assertion of interrelationship between
language and communication. Hence, as a means through which information, ideas or opinions,
feelings, thoughts, etc., are transmitted or exchanged, communication inevitably involves the use of
language. As a matter of fact, language plays extremely crucial roles in the art of communication.
Hence, communication cannot be successfully carried out without the use of language.
Furthermore, language is used for the purpose of persuasion. In this case, the communicator
attempts to convince the listeners that a particular idea, goal, or course of action is the best among
various options, using, often, emotionally appealing language capable of swaying people's thinking.
Preachers are especially renowned for persuasive function of language. They often thrive on loaded
language and persuasive techniques to convey their messages to the congregants. It also requires

the use of words that reveal the speaker's opinions about something with a view to influencing the
listener to adopt the same theories, ideologies, policies, etc. As a tool designed to control people's
thinking, loaded language essentially appeals to emotions rather than intellect and preachers
employ it in place of facts to win the congregants and the listeners interest and attention, mostly, to
get new converts and to maintain cordial relationship with their congregants.
Language is also used for the purpose of identification of members of a group or
association. Through the use of language, we can differentiate the learned person from an
unlearned. We can also differentiate somebody from one profession from a person in another
profession. Hence, we can also differentiate a member of a particular religious institution from
another member of other religious institutions through their use of language.
In the same vein, in any religious institution, language is used to keep records of all activities.
These would include the various activities between a given denomination and another, or between
one person and another. It could as well be an interaction among members within a religious
organization. It is appropriate that every official deed is adequately documented for reference
purposes and such documentation involves the use of language. Hence, record keeping is not
restricted to religious, business, market situation, etc. Hence, every activity of societal significance
requires record keeping and this is done with language.
On the one hand, language can establish and even enhance relationship between the
communicator and his or her audience. Hence, it established a solid relationship between the
speaker and the listener in order to facilitate a better appreciation of the message in transmission.
On the other hand, failure to achieve a good relationship in the exchange process can lead to a loss
of communication and this could occur as a result of the use of unsuitable and inaccurate language.
Hence, language, above other functions, serves as the tool with which communication is carried out.
Furthermore, transmission of Information: it is an obvious fact that the basic function of
communication is transmission of information. In religious organizations where communication is
especially crucial, information is constantly passed across both internally (within the clergy/imam,
and the followers) and externally (between the religious institution and the general public.) Thus,
we live in an information age with a considerable increase in the amount of information to be
attended to in a religious setting. Thus, a good communication skill will enable the followers of any
preacher not only to make fast, effective decisions based on the information received, but also help
them to be able to find, assess, process and communicate information efficiently and effectively with
their God. Thus, the religious institution can cope effectively with the challenges of this information
age. The availability of these materials: Bible, Quran, Sunday school booklets, fliers, Christian
journals, Islamic journals, church bulletins, recorded sermons, circulars, and so on, are examples
of informative function of communication in religious institutions.
In addition, communication often plays a crucial role in conflict resolution. To this end, an
effective communication can create an enabling environment for a peaceful coexistence among the
members in a given religious organization; it also fosters amicable relationship between a religious
institution and its members and by extension, any existing union in connection with the religious
institution. Hence, preachers make conflict lesser in the society by communicating peaceful
sermons to their listeners through the use of language.
Communication serves as an instrument of persuasion. This persuasive function of
communication is often found in advertisements, propaganda bulletins, sermons, and
political speeches. In using communication as a tool for persuasion, the speaker or writer

seeks to convince the listener/reader to agree with an idea or opinion and, in most cases,
take certain action in line with the communicator's opinions.
Communication also has a regulatory function. And by this is meant the documentation of a
people's values, cultural heritage, constitutional and criminal codes, professional ethics, religious
doctrine, etc, as a guide to ensuring an orderly society. The records in which all these regulations
are contained involve communication.
Furthermore, interaction and Integration. It has already been established that
communication enhances peaceful coexistence and amicable relationship. Interactive and
integrative function of communication seeks to strengthen such sense of brotherhood. And this in
turn promotes a peaceful coexistence and amicable relationship among a people. Hence, this kind of
communication can be seen, in societies, religious institutions, professional bodies, and so on.
Moreover, communication can also help in dealing with emotional situation. When people
express their feelings, frustration, disillusionment, world view, fear, anger, nostalgia,
disappointment, shock etc through some artistic medium, they engage in what is known as
cathartical function of communication. Cathasis, as a function of communication, creates an
avenue for pouring out of one's emotions to bring about the desired relief and sense of satisfaction
in religious institutions, social groups, professional bodies, and so on. Hence, it is a veritable
platform to settle dispute.
2.4 Definition of Speech Acts Theory
The Speech Act theory, first proposed by Austin, is an attempt to bridge the gap between the
philosophical and the sociological approaches to semantics. Its main tenet is a consideration of the
social and linguistic contexts of language use. The final version of Austins theory was published in
1962. However, John Searle brought new development to the Theory of Speech Acts by
transforming the five categories/classes under illocutionary act. Hence, the research will deal

with the three concepts of speech act theory from Searles perspective. These concepts are:
Locutionary, Illocutionary, and Perlocutionary acts.
Speech acts are, in a sense, what make language work; without speech acts language
describes truth and falsity and such but with speech acts language allows us to regulate and modify
our reality based on the power of words. (Austin, 1962). However, this research will only deal with
the highlighted utterances of the selected messages of the speaker, with Searles concepts of Speech
acts Theory.
On the one hand, Speech act theory allows one to look at language not only as a device
for communication but also as an instrument of action.

On the other hand, it has come to be

seen that many specially perplexing words embedded in apparently descriptive statements do
not serve to indicate some specially odd additional feature in the reality reported, but to indicate
(not to report) the circumstances in which the statement is made or reservations to which it is
subject or the way in which it is to be taken and the like.
The locutionary act is regarded as the act that is performed in the process of
communication.

It is thus the act of producing meaningful utterances.

In other words,

locutionary act is the performance of an utterance: the actual utterance and its ostensible
meaning, comprising phonetic, phatic and rhetic acts corresponding to the verbal, syntactic and
semantic aspects of any meaningful utterance. (Bar yr:page].

The illocutionary act is referred to as the act performed by communicating intent to

perform it. In other words, Illocutionary act is the performance of an act in saying
something, the general act of saying something. Thus, the illocutionary force is the
speaker's intent. In addition, the production of the sentence token under certain
conditions is the illocutionary act, and the illocutionary act is the minimal unit of
linguistic communication. [Searle, 1969 pg?].
However, Osoba (yr? pg), opines that the perlocutionary act is regarded as a by-product of
the communicative act because it serves more distant ends than the interlocutor can
imagine, even as an understandable speaker of his language of conversation. The
communicative act being chiefly the illocutionary act. Therefore, this research examines
the responses of the interviews that are conducted with five long time members of the
speakers ministry, based on the experiences they have encountered in listening to the
speakers messages as long time members of the speakers ministry.
In addition, the
research also briefly deals with the responses of the congregants to the speakers
instruction in the selected messages with regard to the perlocutionary acts.
Nonetheless, there are numerous opinions regarding how to define 'illocutionary acts.
There are some kinds of acts which are widely accepted as illocutionary, as for example
promising, ordering someone, and bequeathing something.
Following the usage of, for example, John R. Searle, "speech act" is often meant to refer
just to the same thing as the term illocutionary act, which John L. Austin had originally
introduced in How to Do Things with Words (published posthumously in 1962). Hence,
Searle's work on speech acts is also commonly understood to refine Austin's conception.
For instance, Searle (1975) has come up with various classifications of illocutionary speech
acts. For this reason, this research project will deal with the ones critically explained
below.
Declarations
Declarations are those kinds of speech acts that change the world via their utterance. The speaker
has to have a special institutional role, in a specific context, in order to perform a declaration
appropriately. For example, Priest: I now pronounce you husband and wife.
Jury foreman: We find the defendant guilty.

Hence, In using a declaration, the speaker changes the world via words.
Representatives/Assertives
Representatives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker believes to be the
case or not. Statements of facts, assertions, conclusions, and descriptions, include examples
of the speaker representing the world as he or she believes it is. For example,
It is a cool raining day.
The earth is flat.
It is a warm sunny day
Hence, in using a representative, the speaker makes words fit the world (or belief.)
Hence, clergy are good in making assertive statement.
Expressives
Expressive are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker feels. They express
psychological states and can be statements of pleasure, pain , likes , dislikes, joy, or sorrow.
They can be used by something the speaker does or the hearer does, but they are about the
speakers experience. For instance,
I am really sorry.
I congratulate you on your academic success.
Hence, in using an expressive, the speaker makes words fit the world (of feeling).
Directives
Directives are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to get someone else to do
something. They express what the speaker wants. They are commands, orders, requests
,suggestions and they can be positive or negative. For instance,
Could you lend me a car, please?
Do not eat that fish.
Would you stand up.
Hence, In using a directive, the speaker attempts to make the world fit the words(via the
hearer.)
Commissives
Commissives are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to commit themselves to some
future action. They express what the speaker intends. They are promises, threats, refusals,
pledges, and they can be performed by the speaker alone or by the speaker as a member of
a group. For example,
I will build house for you next month.
We will not do that.
Hence, in using commissive, the speaker undertakes to make the world fit the words(via the
speaker.)
Finally, these five classifications of Searles perspectives of illocutionary acts are
unique in interrogating and examining the use of language in religious settings. Hence,

Searle emphasized a psychological interpretation of any illocutionary act(based on beliefs,

intentions, etc.)
2.5 Utterance/Speech:
Speech is the act of delivering a formal spoken communication to an audience. It can also
be defined as the mental faculty or power of vocal communication. It is the characteristic
style or manner of expressing oneself orally. Hence, speech making is the core feature of
Speech acts theory either, by writing or speaking. In the same vein, Utterance is the use of
uttered sounds for auditory communication. It can also be defined as the expression of
something, especially in speech or vocal sound. Thus, it is the act of saying something.
Utterance and speech are related to Searles Classifications of illocutionary concepts.