FirstSemLectureNotes CourseMaterial 2016 17

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For B Sc, 1st Semester, Paper-I
Department of Physics
Course Material Prepared for Physics Students-201617
c Maharanis Science College for Women, Mysore
I Semester Physics Course Material b
First semester B Sc Physics
REFERENCES
Paper-1
SN
M ECHANICS AND
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
(14 weeks 3 Lecture hours per week)
Part A:
Author, Book
Pages
Halliday, Resnick, Jearl Walker
254255
S R Shankara Narayana
334, 341346
358360
C L Arora, P S Hemne
125137
D S Mathur, 2007
4452, 5657
5859, 148149
I, 2013
AIJClassical
MechanicsA
J C Upadhyaya,
4445
Frames of reference
Elasticity
Inertial reference frames with examples. Uniform rectilinear

motion in an inertial frame-Galilean transformation equation.
SinerThe Galilean principle of relativity. Motion in a nonA
tial reference frame-uniformly accelerated rectilinear motionconcept of fictitious force-illustration; plumb line accelerometer and a freely falling elevator. Qualitative discussion of centrifugal force, Coriolis force and earth as a non-inertial frame.
-5 Hrs
Zs
Law
Review of concepts of modulus of elasticity, HookeA
Zs
ratio. Relation between the elastic constants
and PoissonA
Y , K , and , limiting values for . Work done in stretching. Elastic potential energy. Bending moment. Theory of a
light single cantilever. I-section girders. Torsion-calculation of
couple per unit twist. The Torsional pendulum, Static torsion,
Zs
double bar experiment.
SearleA
-8 Hrs
REFERENCES
REFERENCES
Author, Book
Pages
SN
8791
D S Mathur, 2001
6786
C L Arora, P S Hemne,
I,
AIJPhysics
for degree studentsA
B. Sc 1st year, 2012
2526
J C Upadhyaya,
I, 2013
AIJClassical
MechanicsA
322325
Berkeley Physics Course,

I, 2nd Ed.(SIE)-2011
Vol-1: MechanicsA
120123,
124128
1035
Brij Lal, N Subrahmanyam
367375
SN
Author, Book
Pages
S R Shankara Narayana 381412
D S Mathur, 2007
249267, 275276
279280, 286290
298300
D S Mathur, 2001
670685, 690692
708713, 729731
C L Arora,
I
AIJRefresher
course in PhysicsA
Vol-1, 2008
306331
Part-B
Conservation of Linear momentum
Motion of a point particle
Conservation of the linear momentum for a system of two particles. Rocket motion in a uniform gravitational field (single
stage rocket equation with and without gravity). Multistage
rocket. Review of definitions-Elastic and inelastic collisions.
Elastic head-on collision and elastic oblique collision in a lab
frame, Reduced mass.
-6Hrs
Point mass. The position vector r (t ) of a moving point particle and its Cartesian components. Velocity and acceleration as
the vector derivatives. Derivation of planar vector of a constant
magnitude. Radial and transverse components of velocity and
acceleration for arbitrary planar motion, deduction of results
for uniform circular motion: centripetal force.
-3 Hrs
REFERENCES
SN
Author, Book
Pages
201202, 210217
224226
REFERENCES
SN
Author, Book
Pages
7581
172174, 187193
201206
D S Mathur, 2001
8, 3335
D S Mathur, 2007
353354
D S Mathur, 2007
2224
J C Upadhyaya,
4
I, 2013
AIJClassical
MechanicsA
103104
C L Arora,
I:
AIJRefresher
course in PhysicsA
Vol-1, 2008
182186
Rigid body dynamics

Review of definitions, Moment of inertia and radius of gyration. Review of statements of the theorems of the parallel and
perpendicular axes. Expression for kinetic energy of a rigid
body. Calculation of moment of inertia of; thin uniform rod,
rectangular lamina, circular lamina and solid cylinder. The
Theory of Compound pendulum.
-5 Hrs
mDr N Srinivas, Department Of Physics
Conservation of energy
Conservative force and non conservative forces with examples. Conservation of energy in a conservative force field.
Applications-(i) vertical oscillations of a loaded light spiral
X
fPage 1( 44 )
I Semester Physics Course Material b
List of experiments
spring and (ii) calculation of escape velocity in the gravitational field of the earth. Conditions for a geo-stationary satellite. Space programs in India.
-4 Hrs
Any eight of the following experiments must be completed:

1. Bar pendulum
REFERENCES
Author, Book
Pages
2. Spiral spring
168, 183184
201202
3. Flywheel
412413
D S Mathur, 2001
329330
360361
C L Arora,
I:
AIJRefresher
course in PhysicsA
Vol-1, 2008
SN
4. Surface tension & Interfacial tension by drop weight

method
5. Surface tension by Quinckes method
189190
6. Stokes method of determining viscosity
Conservation of angular momentum
7. Youngs modulus by stretching
Review of angular momentum and Torque. Relation between

angular momentum and torque. Law of conservation of an
gular momentum. Areal velocity- derivation of dd At = 12 r 2 n.
Central force: Physical insight into the nature of central forces.
Zs
Law of Gravitation.
Review of the statement of NewtonA
KeplerAZs laws of planetary motion-derivation using New Zs

law of gravitation.
tonA
5 Hrs
8. q by single cantilever method

9. Searles double bar experiment
10. Torsion pendulum
>
REFERENCES
SN
Author, Book
Pages
Halliday, Resnick,
Jearl Walker
284289, 290291
342344
221226, 268271
334
D S Mathur, 2001
583, 622624
648652
J C Upadhyaya
109114
D S Mathur, 2007
7578
Brij Lal, N Subrahmanyam
455458
Fluid Mechanics
Viscosity: review of concepts of viscosity. Variation of viscosity
of liquids with temperature and pressure. Theory of Rotation
Viscometer.
-2 Hrs
REFERENCES
SN
Author, Book
Pages
C L Arora and P S Hemne
361362
434443, 489490
501502
D S Mathur, 2007
406408
Surface Tension
Review of basic concepts. Pressure inside curved liquid
surface-examples. Surface tension and interfacial tension by
drop-weight method. Surface tension of mercury by Quinck Zs
methodA
STheory.
eA
-4 Hrs
REFERENCES
SN
Author, Book
Pages
C L Arora and P S Hemne
380386
434437, 444448
461463
mDr N Srinivas, Department Of Physics
fPage 2( 44 )
I Semester PhysicsCourse Material b
1 Frames of Reference
absolute. Relativistically, each reference frame has its own array of clocks.
1.1 Introduction
Event is specified by the space coordinates of the point of
its location as well as the time of its occurrence. Thus an event
is known completely if we know all its coordinates (x, y, z, t ).
Obviously the transformations that relate an event as observed
by observers in two reference frames involve time as well as
space coordinates.
In order to discuss the motion of a mechanical system, one has

to specify its position as a function of time, and it is only meaningful to give the position relative to a fixed point. For instance,
the position of a flying aircraft is specified with respect to the
coordinate system fixed on the earth. The system with respect
to which the motion of a system is discussed is called as frame
of reference. The choice of a frame of reference is always a matter of convenience only.
Acceleration of a body can be caused by its interaction with
other bodies or it can arise from some distinctive properties of
the reference frame we choose. For example, a passenger in a
train experiences a jolt on the sudden start or stop of the train.
This is an evidence that the carriage is in non-uniform motion
relative to the earth.
Absolute space is an imagined framework in which bodies move, without any relation to anything external. It is always
similar and immovable. In reality we can measure only relative motion. So absolute space has no physical significance. At
best one can locate a body only with respect to another body,
such as, the earth in relation to the sun, the sun in relation of
stars, the stars relative to a galaxy and so on. Just as there is no
absolute motion, there is no absolute space or absolute inertial
frame of reference.
1.2 Some important definitions

For a clearer understanding, certain terms such as particle, reference frame, coordinate system, clock, event, etc., is essential.
Inertial frames Two frames of reference can be said to be

inertial frames of reference with respect to one another when
they are either at rest or in uniform relative motion with respect
to one another.
For practical purposes, an inertial frame is that frame in
which a body moves with constant velocity only if there is no
net force on it. Newtons first law of motion is an affirmation of
the existence of inertial frames.
In inertial frames, (i) Newtons first law of motion always
holds good, (ii) the equation of motion is free from certain additive terms which are characteristic of frames accelerated with
respect to inertial frames. These additional terms called inertial forces which arise from the rotational or translational acceleration.
Particle is a system that can, for all practical considerations be localized at a point. It is characterized by its mass (determining its response to the applied force) and charge (determining its interaction with the electrical charges in the rest of
the world* .
Rigid body If the distance between any two particles of a
body remains constant under the conditions of rest or motion,
it is called a rigid body.
Reference Frame It is a space determined by a rigid body

regarded as a base. A point is located in space by knowing its
three coordinates with respect to the origin of the reference
system. The state of rest or motion of a body is specified with
reference to a frame: the state of rest refers to the situation
when the body occupies the same position in the reference system, whereas the state of motion implies a change in the position of the point at different instants of time. For this we include time coordinate in addition to position coordinate in the
concept of a reference frame.
Local inertial frame is a reference frame in which a body,

shielded from all external influences, has zero acceleration. In
order to achieve this criterion, the local inertial frame is assumed to be in free fall in the prevailing gravitational fields and
the gravitational field due to the material content of the frame
itself is assumed to be zero. In addition, the frame is assumed
to have zero spin relative to the fixed stars.
An orbiting satellite without spin and free of drag is an example for the local inertial frame. Inside such a satellite, a bullet fired will move with constant velocity along a straight line
relative to the cabin.
Clock is an entity that repeats itself regularly like a pendulum or an alternating electromagnetic field. in Newtonian
mechanics, time is considered absolute and flowing uniformly
for all bodies in the universe and so there is no need of any synchronization at all .
The universal nature of time in Newtonian mechanics is
not any supplementary hypothesis, since it is a direct outcome
of the assumption of instantaneous action at a distance. In
electrodynamics, where the signal velocity is finite, time is not
1.3 Galilean principle of relativity

In Newtonian mechanics, the positions of events are measured
with respect to a reference frame. The velocity of a particle
relative to a reference frame is determined from the distance
the particle moves per unit time with respect to that reference
frame. Normally it is convenient to choose a reference system
that is at rest, relative to the laboratory. According to Newtons
* Elementary particle physics presents us with a host of particles, such as electrons, protons, neutrons, pions, etc. which, in addition to these properties,
have other attributes, such as spin (intrinsic angular momentum), magnetic dipole moment, etc. During its lifetime, a particle is a system specified by constant
values of its characteristic parameters.
The definition of rigidity is basic to our idea of the reference frame in terms of which the motion of a particle is described.
However, in relativity, one has to synchronize the clocks according to a specified formula by a master clock and then distribute these throughout the space.
mLesson plan/notes of Dr N Srinivas
fFrames of Reference
Page 3( 44 )
spatial interval and time interval between two events are the
same in the two frames (i.e., invariant). That is
laws of motion we have (i) every body continues in its state of

rest or uniform motion along in a straight line unless it is compelled to change that state by an external force and (ii) The rate
of change of momentum is proportional to the impressed force
and takes place in the direction of the force and (iii) action and
reaction are equal and opposite. The first law was stated clearly
by Galileo and is known as the principle of inertia. In an inertial
frame, if the mass of a body is constant, then according to the
second law,
F
dv
d
(mv) = m
= ma
dt
dt
t 2 t 1 = t 2 t 1 and
x 2 x 1
y=y
(1)
t =t
Let us now examine how the velocity and acceleration are seen
in Galilean transformation. Let us differentiate Eqs. (1.21.4).
We that
d x d x
x =
(12)
=
+ v = x + v
dt
dt
d y
y =
(13)
= y
dt
dz
z =
= z
(14)
dt
These three equations can be generally written in the form
(15)
u =
u +
v
where u and u are the velocity vectors of P w.r.t. the frames
Fig. 1.1: Two inertial frames S and S moving with respect to
each other, and S is moving with a velocity

v w.r.t. S along OX
direction. OX is parallel to OX.
S and S . Now, to get the acceleration transformation, we shall

differentiate Eqs. (1.121.14) w.r.t. time such that
Let S and S are two inertial frames, whose origins O and

O coincide at t = t = 0, the axes OX and O X being parallel
to each other as shown in Fig. 1.1. Let the frame S be moving
with uniform velocity v with respect to S. Let an event (represented by a point P in Fig. 1.1) be specified by the coordinates
(x, y, z, t ) by the observer in S and the coordinates (x , y , z , t )
by the observer in S .
As we can see from Fig. 1.1, the Galilean coordinate transformations, which relate the measurements are
d 2x d 2x
x =
=
+ 0 = x
dt2
dt2
d2y
y =
= y
dt2
d 2z
z =
= z
dt2
These three equations can now be generally written as

a =
a
where a and a are the acceleration vectors of P w.r.t.
y = y
(3)
z = z and
(4)
t =t
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
the
frames S and S .
Thus Eq. (1.19) implies that the measured components of
acceleration of a particle are independent of the uniform relative velocity of the reference frames, i.e., the acceleration remains invariant when passing from one inertial frame to another that is in uniform relative translational motion. Now,
since mass is also assumed to be a constant and independent of the motion of the frame, the product m and acceleration should retain the same value for all inertial observers (or
frames). Thus we shall write
(20)
F =F
(5)
As already mentioned, the universal nature of time as assumed

in classical physics is expressed by Eq. (1.5) which means that
the time is independent of the frame of reference in which we
measure it (this is actually not true according to the principles
of special theory of relativity). Eqs. (1.21.5) are called Galilean
transformations equations. They relate the coordinates of an
event in two reference frames which are in relative motion with
uniform velocity. Also evident from Eqs. (1.21.5) is that the
(11)
Sinertial reference frame

1.4 Motion in a nonA
(frames which move with uniform velocity
w.r.t. each other)
(2)
(10)
We shall note that the classical mechanics and the Galilean

transformations imply that the three fundamental quantities
in mechanics, namely length, time and mass, are independent
of the relative motion of the observer.
X, X
x = x v t
(9)
z = z and
v
O
(8)
(x, y, z)
P
(x, y , z )
vt
(7)
x = x + v t
= x2 x1
where the subscripts 1 & 2 denote the two events. The inverse Galilean transformations can be written by interchanging
primed quantities by unprimed ones and v by v to get:
where F is the force acting on the body of mass m having velocity v and acceleration a. The third law implies that action
and reaction are always exerted on different bodies.
Newtons laws are formulated from experiments with big
bodies, such as billiard balls which move at speeds much less
than the speed of light c in vacuum. When speeds of the bodies
are comparable to c, modifications to Newtons laws become
essential in our concepts of space and time. The new concepts
come under the realm of special theory of relativity. The results
of the special theory will lead to the Newtonian predictions in
the limit of v c.
(6)
Page 4( 44 )
where F = m a and F = m
a are the forces experienced by P
w.r.t S and S respectively.
Thus the equations of motion of a particle preserve their
form under Galilean transformation from one frame to another moving with uniform velocity. We also say that the equations of motion written for one inertial frame are invariant under transformation to another inertial frame. However, if the
force depends on absolute positions and velocities, then the
equations of motion will no longer be invariant under Galilean
transformation. In fact, the predictions of Newtonian mechanics do not hold if sufficiently high speeds are involved. Under
high-speed environments, the Galilean transformations are replaced by the so-called Lorentz transformations, which will allow us to preserve the principle of relativity and yet account for
the deviation from Newtonian relativity. Let us now examine
Galilean transformation in accelerated frames of reference.
If the particle has a mass m (which is assumed to be invariant

under Galilean transformation), we may write Eq. (1.23) as
m r = m
r ma z
F = F ma z
(24)
Thus we see from Eq. (1.24) that the Newtons second law is not
in the same form in both S and S . Further, in the frame S ,
in addition to the impressed force F , an apparent or inertial
force ma z exists which is dependent on

a only. We call this
as a frame-dependent force (or fictitious force or pseudo force)
since it depends on
a.
Thus we find that the Newtons laws may not preserve their
form under Galilean transformation w.r.t. accelerated frames
of reference. The accelerated frames of reference in which
Newtons second II law does not preserve its form are called
non-inertial frames of reference.
1.5 Motion in an inertial reference frame (frames

which are uniformly accelerated w.r.t. each 1.6 Plumbline accelerometer
other)
This is, sometimes, also called horizontal accelerometer. A

plumb line accelerometer basically consists of a small body of
mass m suspended by means of a thread from a rigid support.
The support is in turn fixed to a moving body, such as the roof
of a car.
Let the carrying the plumb line move with a constant acceleration a along X-direction with respect to air (see Fig. 1.3).
As a result, the plumb swings by an angle with respect to the
vertical as shown in Fig. 1.3. In this situation, air is an inertial frame assumed to be at rest and the car is a non-inertial
frame with respect to air. Now, under equilibrium, the tension
T in the thread balances the resultant of the two forces, viz,
ma along X -direction and mg vertically downwards, experienced by the body of the plumb line (see Fig. 1.3). Obviously
we now have
Let S be the frame moving with an acceleration a with respect

to another frame S along Z -direction as shown in Fig. 1.2. Let
the origins O and O coincide at time t = t = 0. As S moves,
the point P may be thought to be moving along +Z -direction
w.r.t. S . After a time of t sec, let

r and r be the position vec-
tors of P w.r.t. S and S respectively. Now, from Fig. 1.2 we may

write
Z
P
S
r
O
Z
r
1 2
2 at
tan
T sin ma a
=
=
T cos mg
g
g tan
Therefore, by knowing the value of , we can measure the acceleration of the car. This is the principle of the plumb line
accelerometer.
Support
T Tension
in the thread
Fig. 1.2: Two frames S and S moving with relative acceleration
a . OZ & OZ are parallel to each other.
ma

r at z
r =
mg
T sin = ma
(22)
and the second differentiation w.r.t. t yields

r a z
r =
Bo
dy
Differentiating this equation w.r.t. t we get
of
ma
ss
m
(21)
T cos = mg

1
r =
r at 2 z
2
Plumb line
when the
car is at rest
(25)
mg
mg
Direction
of
acceleration
Fig. 1.3: Principle of working of a plumb line accelerometer.
(23)
X
Page 5( 44 )

Z
1.7 Freely falling lift/elevator
A body is said to be freely falling only when the force on it is

purely due to the downward acceleration due to gravity. Let an
elevator (or lift) be freely falling under gravity. Let its acceleration be a 0 so that
a0
g z
ma 0 + (ma 0 ) = 0
Fig. 1.4: Directions of

r and
vectors. These, in turn, give us
the idea about the directions of centrifugal and coriolis forces.
(27)
1.9 Earth as a non-inertial frame

As we know earth keeps revolving round the sun with a constant areal velocity. Let us assume an inertial frame be fixed
at sun, and the rotating frame fixed on earth. Now earth can
be considered to be a non-inertial frame since it is a rotating.
As a result of earths rotation around sun, the bodies on earth
experience both centrifugal and coriolis forces. The rigid bodies of earth remain at rest with respect to earth itself. Hence
such bodies experience only centrifugal force. But the nonrigid bodies, like the atmosphere, keep moving with respect to
earth (i.e., such bodies have velocities w.r.t. earth). Such bodies moving on earth experience both centrifugal (frame dependent) and coriolis (velocity dependent) forces. In reality, coriolis force happens to be one of the important driving forces of
atmospheric climate.
If a plumb line is freely suspended on earth, the plumb line
does not strictly align with the vertical. This is basically due
to the centrifugal force it experiences due to rotation of earth
around sun. The angle between the plumb line and the actual
vertical cam be mathematically shown to be equal to 0.6 .
1.8 Qualitative discussion of centrifugal and

Coriolis forces
Till now we discussed about the forces in frames of reference in
relative translational motion. A fictitious force is experienced
by the non-inertial frame of reference in relation to the stationary frame.
Let us now consider two frames of reference S and S . Let S
be at rest and S be rotating with an angular velocity w.r.t. S. A
detailed mathematical analysis of the velocity and acceleration
of a particle with respect to these frames gives the following results:
v = v + (
r)
(28)
a = a 2( v ) ( r )
F 2m( v )
m (
r )m
r
dt
F 2m( v ) m (
r)
(29)
North
Vertical
(30)
(Since is a constant in this case)
West
where
v,
a and F are the velocity, acceleration and force on
the particle w.r.t. S and v , a and F are the velocity, acceleration and force on the particle w.r.t. S , respectively.
In Eq. (1.30), the magnitude of the third term, namely,
m (
r ) is called the centrifugal force. It has a magni
tude equal to mr 2 sin where is the angle between

and
r
vectors (see Fig. 1.4). Its direction is perpendicular to the plane
containing
and
r vectors. The term 2m( v ) is called the
(

r)
East
Equator
South
Fig. 1.5: Vector addition of g and

(

r (due to
centrifugal force) gives rise to g . The angle between g and
g directions is seen to be 0.6 .
Coriolis force. Its direction is perpendicular to the plane con
taining
and v vectors. This component is non zero only if
1. Calculate the fictitious force and the observed force on a

body of mass 5 kg in a frame of reference moving a) Vertically upwards b) Vertically downwards with an acceleration of 4 m/sec2 .
v = 0(i.e., the body must be moving w.r.t. S). While centrifugal

force is the frame dependent force, coriolis force is a velocity
dependent force.
That is, the net force experienced by the lift is zero. This situation is referred to as weightlessness.
From this discussion we understand that, if we travel in an
elevator freely falling under gravity, we feel weightlessness, i.e.,
our weight with respect to the elevator will be zero.
r
dt
(26)
where z is measured vertically upwards from the surface of

earth and g is the acceleration due to gravity. As per Newtons
first law of inertia, the elevator experiences an inertial force
ma 0 (i.e., vertically downwards). This is the frame dependent
(fictitious) force. Thus the net force F experienced by the lift is
given by [see Eq. 1(24)]
F
Page 6( 44 )

Hence the apparent weight of astronaut is 60g (48g ) =
108g newton (downward). Hence his weight appears to
have increased.
Solution:
See Page No 13 of the course material.
2. What is the fictitious and total force acting on a freely
falling body of 3 kg mass with reference to a frame moving with i) a downward acceleration of 4 ms2 and ii) an
upward acceleration of 3 ms2 ? Given g = 9.8 ms2
8. A body weighs 270 kg on the surface of the earth. How

much will it weighs on the surface of a body whose mass
is 1/9th of earth and radius half of the radius of earth?
Solution:
Solution:
Let M and R be the mass and radius of earth. Let G be

the universal gravitational constant. Then the force on
the body of 270 kg (from Newtons law of gravitation) is
See Problem 1
3. Calculate the fictitious force and the observed force on
a body of mass 4 kg in a frame of reference moving a)
Vertically upwards, b) Vertically downwards, with an acceleration of 4 m/sec2
270M
R2
On the other body the force f is
Solution:
f
see Problem 1
4. What is the fictitious and total force acting on a freely
falling body of 3 kg mass with reference to a moving
frame with i) a downward acceleration of 4 ms2 and ii)
an upward acceleration of 3 ms2 ? Given g = 9.8 ms2 .
270 (M /9)
4 270M 4
=G
= F
(R/2)2
9R 2
9
Thus, on the given body, the 270 kg body would weigh

4/9th of what it weighs on the surface of earth.
9. Calculate the fictitious force and the total force on a body
of mass 5 kg in a frame of reference moving vertically
down words with an acceleration of 5 ms2 .
Solution:
see Problem 1
Solution:

downwards with an acceleration of 5 ms2
see Problem 1
2 Motion of a particle
Solution:
2.1 Introduction
see Problem 1
Scalar quantities are quantities having only magnitudes. Example: time, area, distance, etc.
Vectors are quantities having both magnitudes and directions, and obeying (i) law of parallelogram of vectors, (ii) Law
of triangle of vectors and (iii) Lamis theorem. Example: velocity, acceleration, force etc.
A vector can be represented by a directed line segment
(Fig. 1), whose direction is given by the arrow and the length
shows the magnitude of the vector. A vector can be denoted by
AB or AB or a, as shown in Fig. 1.
In Fig. 1, A is called the initial point and B is called the ter
minal point of AB . The magnitude of a vector is the length of
the corresponding segment. The magnitude of AB is denoted
by | AB |

downwards with an acceleration of 5 ms2
Solution:
see Problem 1
7. An astronaut weighing 60 kg is inside a rocket which
moves vertically upwards with an acceleration of 0.8 g.
What is his apparent weight? Will the weight increase or
decrease?
Solution:
B
Weight of astronaut outside = 60 kg. So the force of gravity on him/her=60g newton where g is the acceleration
due to gravity of earth (downwards)
Fictitious force in the upward direction on him due to

rocket motion is 60 0.8g = 48 g newton (upward,
+ve).
A
Fig. 2.1: Vector notation.
X
fMotion of a point particle

Page 7( 44 )
2.2 Position vector
2.4 Derivative of a planar vector
Let P be the position of a moving point particle at any instant of

time t . Let (x, y, z) be the cartesian coordinates of P , as shown
in Fig. 2.2. Then, the position of point P is vectorially repre
sented by a vector
r (t ). This vector is called the position vector
of P .
From the elementary principle of vector addition,

r (t )
may be thought to be a resultant of three rectangular vectors,
one along X , one along Y and one along Z directions, as shown
in Fig. 2.2. These three vectors are called the rectangular com
ponents or Cartesian components of
r (t ). Mathematically we
write this as follows:
(31)
r (t ) = x i + y j + z k
Any vector that lies in a plane is said to be a planar vector. Let
r (t ) be a planar vector representing the position and/or displacement of a point particle. This vector is now mathematically written (for convenience) as
r (t )
r (t )r(t )
(36)
where r (t ) is the length (magnitude) of

r (t ) and r(t ) is the unit
vector along the direction of r (t ). Now the derivative of this

planar vector (denoted as d r /d t ) may be defined mathematically as
d
r (t )
dt
where i, j and k are the unit vectors along X , Y and Z directions, respectively. Thus, x i, y j, and z k are the cartesian com
ponents of
r (t ). The notations x, y and z are the magnitudes
of these component vectors.
=
=
d
[r (t )r(t )]
dt
r (t + t )r(t + t ) r (t )r(t )
lim
t 0
t
(37)
The numerator may be rewritten as follows:

[
r (t)
y
Numerator
k
z
Fig. 2.2: Position vector of a point particle P .
2.3 Velocity and acceleration
dr
r (t ) +
t
dt
r (t )r(t )
][
r (t )r(t ) + r (t )
]
d r
r(t ) +
t
dt
d r(t )
d r (t )
t + r(t )
t +
dt
dt
d r(t ) dr (t )
(t )2 r (t )r(t )
d[t
dt
[
]
]
d r
d r d r
dr
r + r
+ (t )2
t
dt
dt
dt dt
where r (t ) is written as r , for convenience. As t 0, the term

containing (t )2 becomes negligible. Therefore the above numerator of Eq. (2.7) may now be written as
We know that the velocity is the time rate of change of displace
ment of a particle. Let

r (t 1 ) and
r (t 2 ) be the position vectors
of a point corresponding to a time interval t (see Fig. 2.3).
Then the displacement is given by
r =
r (t 2 )
r (t 1 )
(32)
Numerator
d r
dr
t
r + r
dt
dt
]
(38)
y-axis
Substituting this result in Eq. (2.7), we obtain
r = r(t2 ) r(t1 )
r (t2 )
r (t1 )
x-axis
z-axis
Fig. 2.3: Displacement vector r of a particle.

r d r
=
(33)
t
dt
In a similar way, if v is the displacement of velocity vector
corresponding to a time t , then acceleration is defined by the
derivative equation
=
lim
t 0
v d v
=
(34)
t
dt
dr
d d r d 2r
=
v =
=
(35)
2
dt dt
dt
dt
Eqs. (2.3) and (2.4) give the definition of velocity and acceleration in a derivative form, respectively.
Acceleration
[ (
)]
dr
1
dr
d r
t
r + r
= lim
d t t 0 t
dt
dt
dr
d r
r + r
dt
dt
(39)
This equation gives the velocity as a vector derivative of the position vector of the particle. From this equation [Eq. (2.9)] we
find that both change in the length r and change in the direction r contribute to the velocity v of a particle.
In the above equation, the first term gives the variation of
r in the direction of r. It is called radial component of

v , denoted by v r . The second term gives the variation of r (i.e., the
direction of r ). This always occurs perpendicular (or tangential) to the direction of the radius vector. So it is called tangen
tial component of
v , denoted by v or v t . Thus Eq. (2.9) may
now be written as
In the derivative form , velocity is defined by the equation

velocity
lim
t 0
v r r + v t rt
(40)
where rt is a unit vector perpendicular to the direction of r.
Derivative form of definition of velocity and acceleration are the most precise forms of defining these vectors

Page 8( 44 )
The acceleration
a of the particle is now given by
dv
a =
dt
)]
d [ (
=
r sin(t )x + cos(t ) y
[d t (
)]
=
r cos(t )x sin(t ) y
[
]
= r 2 cos(t )x + sin(t ) y
In a similar manner we shall find the derivative form of ac

celeration vector. The acceleration
a of the point particle is
given by the definition:
[
]
d r
d
v
d dr
=
r + r
from Eq. (2.9)
dt
dt dt
dt
d vr
d v t d r
dr
r +
vr =
&v t = r
dt
dt dt
dt
a r r + a t rt
d vr
d vt d r
with a r =
&a t =
=
dt
dt
dt
=
=
=
(41)
(42)
|a| = r 2
2.5 Uniform circular motion
Fig. 2.4: Point particle executing uniform circular motion with

an angular velocity .
v=
r r(t ) = r cos( t )x + r sin( t ) y
cos( t )x + sin( t ) y
=
=
=
=
=
dr
d r
r + r
dt
dt
dr
d r
= 0 r is a constant
r
dt
dt
)
d (
r
x cos( t ) + y sin( t ) from (2.14)
d
t
(
)
(
)
(52)
ma = mr 2
(53)
Numerical Problems
1. A railway engine weighing 60 103 kg is moving in an arc of radius 200 m with a speed of 36 kmph to negotiate a curve. Calculate
the centripetal force experienced by the train.
SOLUTION
3
1
m = 60 103 kg, r = 200 m, v = 3610
6060 = 10 ms
10
v = r = v/r = 200 = 0.05 radian/sec
F cp = mr 2 = 60 103 200 0.052 = 30 103 N
(44)
2. A circular lamina of mass 2.5 kg and diameter 0.16 m makes 250

revolutions per minute. Find (i) its moment of inertia about an axis
passing through its center and perpendicular to its plane and (ii) its
kinetic energy of rotation.
SOLUTION
m = 2.5 kg, r = 0.16/2 = 0.08 m, =
2
= 8 103 kg m2
I = mr2 = 2.50.08
2
3
2
106
= 2.7416 J
E = 12 I 2 = 810 50
2
(45)
2502
6060
50
6
ms1
3. A symmetrical body is rotating about its axis of symmetry. Its mo-
(46)
ment of inertia about the axis of rotation is 1 kg m2 . The angular velocity is 2 rad s1 . Calculate its kinetic energy of rotation.
The magnitude of
v is therefore equal to r . Hence we may
write
|v| = r
2r
|v|
(43)
where is the angular frequency of P ( t is the angular velocity of the particle). is positive if P rotates counterclockwise,
and is negative if P rotates clockwise. From the previous section (Eq. (2.9 & 2.10 ), the velocity of the particle is given by
or T =
If m is the mass of the particle, the centripetal force F cp experienced by the particle is given by
where r and r are the magnitude (radius) and direction of the

position vector, respectively. If t denotes the angle made by
r with x direction (see Fig. 2.4), we have

=
2 f = 2
2
r
T
Fc p
(49)
From Eq. (2.17) we can also write
Let a point particle P be moving with a constant speed along a

circle of radius r as shown in Fig. 2.4. Such a motion is referred
to as uniform circular motion. Let r (t ) denote the position vector (or radius vector) at any instant of time t . Then we have
r r(t ),
v2
r
1
(50)
T
where T is the period of revolution of the particle. Substituting
this in Eq. (2.19) we obtain
42
42 r
|a| =
(51)
r
or
T
=
T2
a
or |a| =
We know that the frequency f of revolution of the particle

and the angular frequency of the particle are connected by the
equation
r (t )
(48)
This means that the acceleration vector is working along the

radius and towards the center (negative sign) of the circle of
revolution. This quantity is therefore called the centripetal or
center-seeking) acceleration of the particle. Thus the magni
tude of
a is
where a r and a t respectively denote the magnitudes of radial

and tangential (transverse or perpendicular) components of
the acceleration vector (

a ).
r 2 r from Eq. (2.14)
SOLUTION
I = 1 kg m2 ;
(47)
= 2 rad s1 ;
I =? J E = 21 I 2 = 12 122 =
2
X

Page 9( 44 )

Y
r1
2
2
I = mr2 = 0.10.1
= 0.5 103 kg m2 .
2
E = 12 I 2 = 12 0.5 103 16 2 = 0.0395 J
m3
r4
A circular disc of mass 0.5 kg and radius 0.1 m is making 60 revolutions per minute about an axis passing through its center of gravity
and perpendicular to its plane. Calculate its kinetic energy.
m4
r5
SOLUTION
1
m = 0.5 kg; r = 0.1 m; = 2 f = 2 60
60 = 2 rad s
od
m2
r3
5.
m5
Fig. 3.1: A rigid body rotating about an axis Y Y .
mr 2
0.50.12
= 2.5 103 kg m2 .
2 =
2
= 12 I 2 = 12 2.5 103 4 2 = 0.0494 J
I=
E
m1
r2
Axis of rotation
SOLUTION
1
m = 0.1 kg; r = 0.1 m; = 2 f = 2 120
60 = 4 rad s
db
tions per minute about an axis passing through its center and perpendicular its plane. Calculate its moment of inertia and kinetic energy.
Ri
gi
4. A circular disc of mass 0.1 kg and radius 0.1 m is making 120 rota-
Consider a rigid body of mass M rotating about an axis Y Y

with an angular velocity as shown in Fig. 3.1. Let the body be
made of a large number of points of mass m 1 , m 2 , m 3 , etc. at
distances r 1 , r 2 , r 3 , etc., respectively, from the axis of rotation
(Fig. 3.1). Since the body is rigid, all the particles must move
with the same angular velocity (say, ) but with different linear velocities. Let v 1 , v 2 , v 3 , etc. be the velocities of masses m 1 ,
m 2 , m 3 , etc., respectively. Then the total kinetic energy E of the
body is given by
3 Dynamics of Rigid Bodies

3.1 Introduction
A rigid body is one which does not undergo any change in its
shape and volume when an external force acts on it. We say
that a rigid body is not deformed in the presence of external
force. This statement actually means that, in case of rigid bodies, the relative positions of various point masses which constitute the body (& hence the relative distances of these point
masses from a reference point) remain the same both in the
presence and absence of external force on the body. In reality, no body is perfectly rigid. But for practical purposes solid
bodies may be thought to be rigid.
=
=
=
1
1
1
m 1 v 12 + m 2 v 22 + m 3 v 32 + . . .
2
2
2
1
1
1
2 2
2 2
m 1 r 1 + m 1 r 1 + m 1 r 12 2 + . . .
2
2
2
)
1 2(
m 1 r 12 + m 2 r 22 + m 3 r 32 + . . .
2
) 1
1 2 (
mr 2 = 2 (I )
2
2
v = r ]
(1)
where
3.2 Rotation and translation

I
When a rigid body experiences a force, it moves. This motion
may be either angular or linear or both depending on the nature of action of the force that works on the body. The angular
motion is referred to as rotation while the linear motion is referred to as translation.
mr 2
(2)
is the moment of inertia of the whole body about the axis considered.
In Eq. (3.1), if = 1 radian, then E = (1/2)I or I = 2E . Thus
we can define moment of inertia of a body about an axis as numerically twice the kinetic energy of rotation of the body about
that axis when the body has unit angular velocity.
If the body contains n point masses, then its moment of inertia about an axis is given by
3.3 Rotation about an axis

According to Newtons first law of motion, a body must continue to be at rest or in uniform motion unless it is acted upon
by an external force. The inertness or inability of the body to
change its state of uniform motion (or rest) is called inertia.
Greater the mass of the body, greater is its inertia. Inertia exists
in two forms: (i) inertia due to translation (this is what is called
as the mass of the body) and (ii) Inertia due to rotation (this is
usually referred to as moment of inertia). Inertia is one of the
most fundamental properties of matter.
While the inertness of translating bodies depend on the
mass distribution of the body, the inertness of bodies to rotation (i.e., moment of inertia) depends on the mass distribution
and the nature of the axis of rotation of the body. The moment
of inertia plays the same role in rotational motion as that of
mass in case of translational motion.
=
=
m 1 r 12 + m 2 r 22 + m 3 r 32 + . . . + m n r n2
n
m i r i2
(3)
i =1
If m 1 = m 2 = . . . = m, i.e., if all particles of the body have the

same mass, we can write Eq. (3.3) as
I
i =1
=
=
X
mn
MK
r i2
r 12 + r 22 + r 32 + . . . r n2
n
2
(4)
fDynamics of Rigid Bodies
Page 10( 44 )
where M = mn is the total mass of the body and

K2
r 12 + r 22 + r 32 + . . . r n2
Or K
n
r 12 + r 22 + r 32 + . . . r n2
mr 2
Or I z
mx 2 +
my2
I y + Ix
(6)
(5)
Here K is called the radius of gyration and is equal to the root

mean square distance of all the point masses of the body from
the axis of rotation.
From this discussion we understand that the moment of inertia is an important parameter in the studies of rotational motion of rigid bodies.
3.4.2 r axis theorem for a 3-dimensional body

In this case the theorem states that, the moment of inertia of
a 3-dimensional body about any axis passing through a point
is equal to half the sum of the moments of inertia of that body
about three mutually perpendicular axes intersecting at that
point.
3.4 Perpendicular axis theorem of MI

3.4.1 For a plane lamina (2-dimensional body)
Explanation Let us consider a 3-dimensional body and a

set of three mutually perpendicular axes OX , OY and OZ intersecting at O as shown in Fig. 3.3. Consider a point P having coordinates (x, y, z) distant r from O (see Fig. 3.3). Let I x ,
I y and I z be the moments of inertia of the body about X -, Y and Z -axes respectively. Let A A be the axis, passing through
O (see Fig. 3.3), about which the moment of inertia of the body
is I . Now, the perpendicular axis theorem may be written as
For this case, the theorem states that the MI of a plane laminar
body about an axis r to the plane is equal to the sum of the moments of inertia of the body about two mutually r axes in the
plane of the lamina such that the three mutually r axes have a
common point of intersection.
Explanation: Consider a plane lamina having 3 mutually perpendicular axes OX , OY and OZ as shown in Fig. 3.2. Let OZ
be the axis r to the plane of the lamina with O as the common
point of intersection (Fig. 3.2). Let the lamina be composed of
particles, each of mass m. Let P be the position of a particle
distant r from O having coordinates (x, y) as in Fig. 3.2. Let I x ,
I y and I z be the moments of inertia of the body about X -, Y and Z -axes, respectively. Now the perpendicular axis theorem
may be mathematically written as
)
1(
Ix + I y + Iz
2
(7)
3.5 Parallel axes theorem

This theorem states that the MI of a body about any axis is equal
to the sum of the MI of the body about a parallel axis passing
through the center of gravity and the product of the mass of the
body & square of perpendicular distance between the two parallel axes.
Y
na
Lami
P (x, y)
X
P
r
Y
x
Y
C
h
Laminar
body
Fig. 3.2: A Laminar rigid body having 3 axes of rotation.
Y
A
Fig. 4: Considerations in the derivation of parallel axes

theorem. See text for details.
3-dimensional
body
Consider a rigid plane laminar body having its center of

mass at C . Let an axis X X of rotation pass through C such
that X X is r to the plane of the body (Fig. 3.4). Let Y Y be
another axis parallel to X X and passing through a point O as
shown in Fig. 3.4. Let IC and I O be the moment of inertia of the
body about X X and about Y Y respectively. Let x be the perpendicular distance between the two parallel axes as shown in
Fig. 3.4.
P (x, y, z)
O
z
Z
Let the body be composed of particles each of mass m. Let

us consider a point P distant r from O and distant y from C as
Fig. 3.3: A 3-dimensional rigid body under consideration to

prove perpendicular axis theorem. See text for details.

Page 11( 44 )
Therefore the moment of inertia I y of the entire body about

Y Y is given by
l /2
l /2
M 2
Iy =
d Iy =
x dx
l /2
l /2 l
[ ]l /2
M x3
Ml2
=
=
(11)
l
3 l /2
12
shown in Fig. 3.4. From the definition of MI we have
IO =
mr 2
{
}
=
m (OQ)2 + (QP )2
{
}
=
m (x + h)2 + (QP )2
{ 2
}
=
m x + h 2 + 2xh + (QP )2
{ 2
}
[
]
=
m x + y 2 + 2xh
h 2 + (QP )2 = y 2
=
mx 2 + m y 2 + 2x mh
= M x 2 + M y 2 + 2x
mh
2
= M x + IC + 2x m h
(8)
since IC = M y 2 where M = m is the total mass of the body.

In the above equation, M h is the algebraic sum of moments
of all point masses. This must be equal to zero since the body
balances itself about the center of mass C (this actually follows
from the definition of center of mass, i.e., mathematically C
is called as center of mass iff mh = 0). Thus we can write

Eq. (3.15) as
IO = IC + M x 2
Case(b) MI about X X (i.e., I x ) In a similar manner as in

the previous case, the moment of inertia I x about X X is given
by {replacing l by b in Eq. (3.26)}
I x ==
I z = I x + I y from r axis theorem

=M
3.6 Moment of inertia of plates

3.6.1 Rectangular lamina
I E F = IG H = I y + M (l /2)2
Ml2
l2 Ml2
+M =
12
4
3
I FG = I H E = I x + M (b/2)2
Case(a) MI about Y Y (i.e., I y ) Let us consider an element of length d x at a distance x from Y Y as in Fig. 3.3. We
now have the following (Fig. 3.3):
M b2
b2 M b2
+M
=
(16)
12
4
3
Similarly the moments of inertia about the axes at O and O in
Fig. 3.3 are given by
I O = I z + M (l /2)2
b/2
C
x
l/2
Y
Fig. 3.5: Thin uniform rectangular lamina under
consideration.
( 2
)
M (l 2 + b 2 ) M b 2
b
l2
+
=M
+
12
4
3
12
(18)
3.6.2 Circular lamina

Consider a thin circular plate of mass M and radius R. Let us
now calculate its moments of inertia about various axes shown
in Fig. 3.4a.
Mass of the plate = M

Area of the plate = l b
M
l b
Area of the element = b( d x )

M
Mass of the element =
b d x = (M /l )d x
l b
MI of (the element
about Y Y is
)
M
d x x2
d Iy =
(10)
l
(17)
On a similar line of thought, let us now calculate the moment

of inertia of a circular disc in a few important cases.
Mass per unit area of the plate =
)
( 2
M (l 2 + b 2 ) M l 2
b2
l
+
=M
+
12
4
3 12
I O = I z + M (b/2)2
dx
(15)
(13)
Case(d) MI about the edges of the plate and about the axes
parallel to Z Z at O & O (see Fig. 3.8) These quantities may
be calculated using parallel axes theorem as follows:
Let ABCD be a rectangular lamina of mass M , length l and

breadth b as shown in Fig. 3.3. Let X X Y Y and Z Z be the
3 mutually perpendicular axes, passing through the center of
gravity C of the plate, about which the moments of inertia are
to be expressed.
b2 + l 2
from Eqs. (3.26) & (3.27)
12
The radius of gyration for this case is given by (K 2 = I /M )

[ 2 2 ]1/2
b +l
K=
(14)
12
which proves the parallel axes theorem.
(12)
Case(c) MI about Z Z (i.e., I z ) I z can be found out using

perpendicular axis theorem as follows:
(9)
M b2
12

Y
...
.....
R
.....
.
.
.
.
....
.....
.....
O
R B

Page 12( 44 )

Case(d): MI of the disc about the axis B B parallel Y Y (see
Fig. 3.4a) is found out using parallel axes theorem:
Fig. 3.6a:Thin uniform circular lamina under consideration.

Consider an element of disc of radius x and radial thickness d x
as shown in Fig. 3.4b. We now have the following:
Mass per unit area of the disc = M /(R 2 ).
Area of the element = 2xd x
Mass of the element = {M /(R 2 )} (2xd x) = {2M /(R 2 )}x d x
IB B =
A compound pendulum is a rigid body capable of oscillating

about a horizontal axis passing through any point, such as S in
Fig. 3.13, on the body. This point is called the point of suspension. When the pendulum is displaced to a position and left,
it oscillates. At any moment of time, a force M g acts vertically
downwards through the center of gravity C where M is the mass
of the body and g is the acceleration of gravity. At any time t ,
let the line SC make an angle with the vertical as shown in
Fig. 3.13. Due to the force M g , a restoring moment of this force
about S, equal to M g sin arises. This moment produces angular acceleration in the pendulum.
dx
Fig. 3.6b: Background for deriving the expression for the

moment of inertia of a circular disc.
S
l
Case(a): MI of the disc about the axis passing through the

center and perpendicular to the disc (Y OY in Fig. 3.4a) is
given by
d Iy
=
=
2M
x d x x2
R2
2M 3
x dx
R2
(definition of MI)
(19)
MI of the entire disc about Y OY (Fig. 3.4a) is therefore

R
2M R 3
Iy =
d Iy = 2
x dx
R 0
0
[ ]R
2M x 4
=
R2 4 0
=
MR2
2
Mg
Fig. 7: Compound pendulum.
Let I be the MI of the pendulum about an axis passing
through S and r to l where l is the length of the pendulum
(distance between S & C in Fig. 3.13). Let the angular acceleration at a time t is d 2 /d t 2 . Under equilibrium conditions the
pendulum oscillates according to the equation
(20)
Case(b): MI of the entire disc about its diameter is now

found out using r axis theorem as follows:
From r axis theorem, we can write
Iy
Ix + Iz
Iy
and I z =
Iy
2
2
Substituting for I y from Eq. (3.35) we obtain
Ix
Iy =
1 MR2 MR2
=
2 2
4
M R2
5M R 2
+ M R 2 =
4
4
(24)
d 2
+Mgl = 0
dt2
(25)
From parallel axes theorem, we know that the MI of the pendulum about the axis passing through S and r to l is IC + M l 2 ,
which is equal to M K 2 + M l 2 = M (K 2 + l 2 ) where K is the radius of gyration of the pendulum. Substituting these aspects in
Eq. (3.50) we get
(21)
Case(c): MI of the disc about the axis A A parallel its diameter (see Fig. 3.4a) is found out using parallel axes theorem:
I A A =
d 2
= M g l sin
dt2
Here the negative sign implies that the two moments are opposite to each other. For oscillations of small amplitude, sin .
Then Eq. (3.49) is simplified to the form
where I x and I z are the two moments of inertia of the disc

about its diameters along X - and Z - directions which are r
to Y -axis (see Fig. 3.4a). Because of symmetry it is obvious that
I x = I z so that
Ix
(23)
3.7 Compound pendulum
M R2
3M R 2
+ M R 2 =
2
2
d 2
M (K 2 + l 2 ) 2 + M g l = 0
dt
(
)
d 2
lg
+
=0
dt2
K 2 +l2
(22)
(26)

Page 13( 44 )

Point (iii): From Eq. (3.54) it is clear that when l =0, T = . This
means that no pendulum oscillates with l = 0.
This equation is analogous to the equation of a simple harmonic oscillator:

d 2x
+ 2 x = 0
dt2
Point (iv): From Eq. (3.58) it is evident that when T becomes minimum, we have
(27)
where is the frequency of oscillation. Comparing Eqs. (3.51)

& (3.52) we get angular frequency of oscillation of the pendulum as
)
(
)1/2
(
lg
lg
2 =
or
=
(28)
K 2 +l2
K 2 +l2
gT2 gT2 gT2

+
=
82
82
42
l1 + l2
T = 2
g
l1 + l2 =
The corresponding period T of oscillation of the pendulum is

given by
v
u K2
u
2
2
2
K +l
t l +l
= 2
= 2
T=
(29)
lg
g
This equation is analogous to the equation for the period of a

simple pendulum whose length is l 1 + l 2 . Thus, in Eq. (3.59),
l 1 + l 2 is called length of equivalent simple pendulum for the
compound pendulum.
This aspect is very useful in experimentally determining
the value of g . Actually, in the experiment, the minimum T ,
and the value of l 1 + l 2 (=AC or BD in Fig. 3.14) corresponding
to it are determined from graph. Then g is calculated using
Eq. (3.59) as
3.7.1 Relation between l and T

By analyzing Eq. (3.54) the following points are observable:
Point (i) Squaring both the sides of Eq. (3.54) we get
T 2 = 42
K 2 +l2
lg
g=
42 l 2 g T 2 l + 42 K 2 = 0
(34)
42 (l 1 + l 2 )
T2
(30)
We note that both Eqs. (3.54) & (3.59) give the expression for
T . Therefore, by comparing these two equations {Eq. (3.54) &
Eq. (3.59)} we may write
This is a quadratic equation in l . So l has two possible roots,

say, l 1 and l 2 , given by
g T 2 + g 2 T 4 644 K 2
l1 =
(31)
82
g T 2 g 2 T 4 644 K 2
l2 =
(32)
82
l2 =
Thus this discussion shows that there are two different points
on the pendulum for which T is the same. So, if we plot a
graph of T verses l , we obtain a set of two curves, as shown in
Fig. 3.14.
K2
or K 2 = l 1 l 2
l1
(35)
3.8 Interchangeability of point of suspension and

point of oscillation
Let l 1 and l 2 be two lengths corresponding to the two periods
of oscillation, T1 and T2 , respectively. Now we must have
T
T12 = 42
l1
T12 = 42
l2 g
Fig. 3.4: A typical graph of T verses l to study the relation

between T and l .
Point (ii) For a particular value of l , T becomes minimum
when
g 2 T 4 644 K 2 = 0
(36)
and T22 = 42
l 1 l 2 + l 22
(37)
This means that the points of suspension and oscillation are

interchangeable. It may be noted that, in Fig. 3.14, if A (or D) is
the point of suspension, then C (or B) becomes the point of
oscillation, and vice versa. The distance between these two
points correspond to the length of equivalent simple pendulum. As is seen from Eq. (3.62) these two points correspond to
the same period of oscillation.
Under this condition, Eqs. (3.56) & (3.57) give

gT2
82
l 1 l 2 + l 12
l1 g
l2 g
l
+
l
l
+
l
2
1
1
2
T12 = 42
and T22 = 42
g
g
T1 = T2
l1 = l2 =
K 2 + l 22
l2
l1 g
and T22 = 42
But from Eq. (3.60) K 2 = l 1 l 2 so that Eq. (3.61) may be written

as
E
A
K 2 + l 12
(33)
X

Page 14( 44 )
Numerical Problems
SOLUTION
1. A circular disc of mass 0.5 kg and radius 0.1 m is making 60 revolutions per minute about an axis passing through its center and perpendicular to its plane. Calculate the kinetic energy.(May 2005, May
2006 & Dec 2008)
The body is a circular lamina

Mass of the body, m = 0.1 kg
Radius, r = 0.1 m
SOLUTION
Ang. velocity, =

=

Radius, r = 0.1 m
Ang. velocity, =
=
=
=
No. of rev 2
60 sec
No. of rev 2
60 sec
120 2
= 4 rad s1
60
Data: Axis isr to the plane
MI of the lamina, I =
60 2
= 2 rad s1
60
mr 2
2
0.1 0.12
= 5 104 kg m2
2
Kin. energy of the body, E k =
mr 2
2
0.5 0.12
= 2.5 103 kg m2
2
=
=
1
Kin. energy of the body, E k = I 2
2
1
3
2
2.5 10 (2)
2
0.0493 J
1 2
I
2
1
5 104 (4)2
2
0.079 J
4. Calculate the fictitious force and the observed force on a body of

mass 4 kg in a frame of reference moving (i) vertically upwards, (ii) vertically downwards and (iii) with acceleration of 4 m/s2 .(Dec 2008)
SOLUTION
2. Calculate the fictitious force and the observed force on a body of

mass 5 kg in a frame of reference moving (i) vertically upwards, (ii) vertically downwards and (iii) with acceleration of 4 m/s2 .(Dec 2005)
SOLUTION
Mass of the body = 4 kg

Weight of the body, F = mg = 4 9.8

=
negative sign Downwards
49 N
Data: Acceleration = 4 ms2
When the body is accelerated downwards
Data: Acceleration = 4 ms2
Fictitious force = ma = 4 4
When the body is accelerated downwards
=
=
Force experienced by the body = (39.2 + 20)

=
Force experienced by the body = (49 + 20)
59.2 N
And in the frame moving upwards we have:
69 N
Force experienced by the body = 39.2 + 20
Force experienced by the body = 49 + 20

=
16 N
In the frame moving downwards we have:
20 N

=
16 N
When the body is accelerated upwards
20 N
When the body is accelerated upwards
39.2 N
19.2 N
29 N
3. A circular disc of mass 0.1 kg and radius 0.1 m is making 120 rev-
5. What is the fictitious and total force acting on a freely falling body
of mass 3 kg with reference to a frame moving with (i) downward
acceleration of 4 ms2 and (ii) an upward acceleration of 3 ms2 ?
(Given: g = 9.8 ms2 )(Dec 2006)
olutions per minute about an axis passing through its center and perpendicular to its plane. Calculate the moment of inertia and kinetic
energy.(Nov 2007)

Page 15( 44 )
SOLUTION
sence of external force on it. A rigid body does not change its
shape, size and volume under the action of external force.
However, in practice, we never find a perfect rigid body. Every material body gets deformed, to a an extent, depending on
the nature of forces acting on it. Moreover, every body has a
tendency to recover its original shape and size on removal of
the external forces acting on it, within a limit, called elastic
limit. This property of a body is referred to as elasticity.
Elasticity is the property by virtue of which a material body
regains its original shape and size after the external deforming forces acting on it are removed. In the presence of external
forces, the body experiences a change in length, shape and volume. We say that the body is deformed of strained. Such bodies are called elastic bodies (example: steel, glass, ivory, quartz,
rubber etc.). Bodies which do not regain their original shape
and size after the removal of external forces are referred to as
plastic bodies. For example, steel & glass are more elastic than
rubber. Liquids and gases are highly elastic. In this chapter, our
discussion will be confined to those bodies which are homogeneous (of uniform composition) and isotropic (properties are
the same in all directions).
Metals, in the form of wires or rods behave as isotropic for
elastic properties, whereas, most of the crystalline solids are
anisotropic for elastic properties.
We shall assume that the body is fixed

to the moving frame of reference
Freely falling a = g = 9.8 ms2
=
29.4 N
Data: Downward Acceleration = 4 ms2
Data: Upward Acceleration = 3 ms2
When the body (frame) is accelerated downwards
12 N
When the body (frame) is accelerated upwards
9N

Total force experienced by the body = (29.4 + 12)
=
41.4 N
Force experienced by the body = 29.4 + 9
4.2 Stress and strain
20.4 N
Under the action of an external force, a body suffers a relative

displacement of its various parts. As a result, there will be a
change in the length, breadth and volume of the body. The
displaced particles tend to restore their original position to attain their original length, volume or shape of the body. In other
words, the body exerts a restoring force. The restoring force
per unit area which comes into play inside the body is called
the stress.
Within the so called elastic limit, the reaction set up in the
body is equal and opposite to the applied force. For example,
if a force F is applied normal to the area of cross-section a of a
wire, then
6. A circular lamina of mass 2.5 kg and diameter 0.16 m makes 250

revolutions per minute. Find (i) its MI about an axis passing through
its center and perpendicular to its plane and (ii) kinetic energy of
rotation.(June 2008)
SOLUTION
Radius, r = 0.16 m
No. of rev 2
Ang. velocity, =
60 sec
250 2 25
=
rad s1
60
3
=
=
=
Stress
F
a
(1)
The force F causes a relative displacement of the point particles in the body. As a result, there will be a change in length,
breadth and volume of the body. Under this condition, the
body is said to be under strain. Strain is defined as the ratio
of the change in length, volume or shape to the original length,
volume or shape.
mr 2
2
2.5 0.162
= 0.064 kg m2
2
1
Kin. energy of the body, E k = I 2
2
(
)2
1
25
0.064
2
3
43.865 J
4.3 Hookes law

Robert Hooke (1976) discovered that, when the deformation
is small (i.e., within elastic limit) the stress is proportional to
strain. This relation is known as Hookes Law.
Thus, within elastic limit of a material we have
4 Elasticity
Stress
4.1 Introduction
Strain
or
Stress
= Constant
Strain
(1)
Here the constant of proportionality is called the modulus of

elasticity of the material. SI unit of modulus of elasticity is
newton-meter2 (or pascal).
We know that a rigid body is one in which the distance between

any two particles remains unaltered both in the presence or abmLesson plan/notes of Dr N Srinivas
fElasticity
Page 16( 44 )
4.4 Elastic constants
Consider a solid cube ABCDefgh as shown in Fig. 4.1. Let the

bottom face CDgh of the cube is fixed and a tangential force F
is applied over the face ABef. As a result, the face ABef is displaced to a position A B e f as shown in Fig. 4.1. Here the displacement produced is AA =l . If L is the length of the cube, we
have from definition
Depending on the nature of strain the body suffers, and within

elastic limit, there are three moduli of elasticity of an isotropic
material. These are (i) Youngs modulus (Y ), (ii) Bulk modulus
(K ) and (iii) Modulus of rigidity ().
Shearing
strain
4.4.1 Youngs modulus

It is defined as the ratio of stress to longitudinal strain within
elastic limit. Let a force F is applied on a wire, of length L and
cross sectional area a, along its length. As a result, its length
of the wire increases. Let l be the increase in length. Then we
have
Stress
and Y
F
l
and Strain =
a
L
Stress F /a F L P L
=
=
=
Strain
l /L
al
l
(2)
=
=
4.4.2 Bulk modulus
. Under elastic limit, it is defined as the ratio of stress to volumetric strain. Let F be the force acting normal to the surfaces
of a body having a volume V . Let v be the change in the volume of the body due to stress. Let a be the c.s. area of the body
normal to the applied force. Now we have
F
a
Stress
F /a F V
PV
=
=
=
Vol. Strain v/V
av
v
and Volumetric strain =
(3)
Lateral strain
Longitudinal strain
d /D
=
l /L
= d /D & = l /L
F
B B
Fixed
bottom face
Stress
l
A A
B
A: Elastic limit
B: Yield point
C: Neck point
D: Breaking point
Strain
Fig. 4.2: General relation between stress and strain.
Fig. 4.1: A solid cube under a shearing tangential force F .

(8)
If a detailed study of the relation between stress and strain experienced by materials, we obtain a graph typically as shown
in Fig. 4.2. From this graph, the following terms can be defined
as follows:
. The coefficient or modulus of rigidity is defined as the ratio of

the tangential stress to shearing strain.
(7)
4.5 Other important terms related to elasticity
4.4.3 Modulus of rigidity
where and are respectively the longitudinal and lateral

strains suffered by the wire/rod.
Here the negative sign implies that an increase in applied pressure causes a decrease in volume.
(6)
Let L and D be the original diameter and length of the rod/wire.

Let l and d be the increase in length and decrease in diameter,
respectively, when the force is applied. Now, we have
(4)
Tangential stress
Shearing strain
where a c.s.area of
F /a
the cube face
T where T = (F /a) tangential

pressure
When a wire is stretched, (or a rod is elongated), its length increases (longitudinal strain) and the diameter decreases (lateral strain). In such cases, within elastic limit, the Poissons ratio is defined by
If the pressure is very small, say, d P , the corresponding change

in volume is also very small, small, d v ( sign means decrease
in volume). Then K is represented by the fundamental equation
K
(5)
4.4.4 Poissons ratio
v
V
dP
d v/V
Displacement of the plane

Dist. from fixed end
A A
l
= = tan
AD
L
where is the angle through which the face ABef is displaced

relative to the face DChg. In practice, this angle is very small
so that tan . This angle is referred to as shearing strain.
Now, the rigidity modulus is defined by the equation
where P is the pressure experienced by the body.
Stress
fElasticity
Page 17( 44 )
to the force, then the contraction produced perpendicular to

the edges AB, Be and BC will be T x , T y and T z respectively.
Thus, under the action of forces, the edges of the cube are given
by
4.5.1 Elastic limit

In the study of stress-strain relationship, up to a limit, the stress
is observed to be linearly proportional to the strain. In Fig. 4.2,
point A shows this limit. This is referred to as elastic limit. In
other words, the limit of stress up to which Hookes law holds
is called elastic limit.
4.5.2 Yielding point
1 + Tx T y Tz
1 + T y Tz Tx
1 + Tz Tx T y
=
=
=
AB
Be
BC
(1)
and the volume V of this cube is now given by
After reaching elastic limit, the stress remains no longer proportional to strain. At a point B in Fig. 4.2, the stress-strain relationship completely breaks down. This point is referred to
as yielding point. After reaching yielding point, if the stress
(or load) is removed, the material may not regain its original
shape/size.
AB B e BC
(1 + T x T y T z ) (1 + T y T z T x )
(1 + T z T x T y )
(2)
Since and are very small quantities, the terms containing

2 and 2 , 3 and 3 can all be neglected. Then the above
equation may be simplified as
4.5.3 neck point and breaking point
After reaching the yielding point, if the stress is further increased, the strain becomes maximum at a point, such as C in
Fig. 4.2. This point is referred to as neck point. After neck point,
if the stress is further increased, the elastic property breaks
down. This limit, shown by point D in Fig. 4.2, is referred to
as breaking point.
1 + ( 2)(T x + T y + T z )
(3)
Further if T x = T y = T z = T (this is assumed for simplicity),

then the above equation further simplifies to
V
1 + 3T ( 2)
(4)
The change in volume is now given by

4.5.4 Elastic fatigue
When a material is continuously subjected to stress and strain

for a long time, it tends to show proper relation between stress
and strain. Under this condition, the material is said to have
elastic fatigue.
V V = 1 + 3T ( 2) 1
3T ( 2)
V
strain =
= 3T ( 2)
1
Volumetric
(5)
Hence bulk modulus K is now given by the definition
4.6 Relation among elastic constants

f
Tz
e
Ty
Tx
Tx
g
Ty
D
i .e., Y
Stress
T
=
Vol. strain 3T ( 2)
1
3( 2)
1/
1/
=
3( 2)/ 3(1 2/)
Y
1
Y = &=
3(1 2)
3K (1 2)
(6)
Eq. (6) gives the relation among Y , K and
C
Tz
4.6.2 Relation among Y , and
Fig. 4.3: Unit cube of a homogeneous and isotropic material

under the action of forces T x , T y and T z normal to cube
surfaces.
F
4.6.1 Relation among Y , K and
A
A
Consider a unit cube (l = b = h = 1 unit V = 1 unit) ABCDefgh made of a homogeneous and isotropic material as shown in
Fig. 4.3. Let forces T x , T y and T z act normal to the faces BehC
and AfgD, efgh and ABCD, ABef and CDgh as in Fig. 4.3.
Let be the increase in length per unit length per unit
tension along the direction of the force. Then the elongation
produced in the edges AB, Be and BC will be T x , T y and
T z respectively. Similarly, if is the contraction produced
per unit length per unit tension in a direction perpendicular
90
Fixed
bottom face
45
D
C
Fig. 4.4: Deformation of a cube under the action of a
tangential force F .
X
fElasticity
Page 18( 44 )

4.6.4 Relation among K , and
Consider a cube ABCDefgh of length L and let its bottom face

be fixed while the top face is acted upon by a a tangential force
F as shown in Fig. 4.4. In this case, the upper face ABef is displaced to the position A B e f as shown in Fig. 4.4. As a result,
the the diagonal DB increases in length to DB , whereas, the diagonal CA decreases to CA as shown in Fig. 4.4. If T denotes
the tensile stress on the cube, we have
Shearing stress
From Eqs. (10) and (6) we can write
l
B B cos(45 ) = p
2
1
2( + )
T
=
1
2( + )
1
2(1 + /)
Y
2(1 + )
(8)
BB = l
3K (1 2)
(1 + )
>
i .e., )
>
>
0 and (1 2) > 0
1
1 and <
2
0.5
(13)
(9)
Let a wire of length L and cross sectional ared a be stretched

by a force F . As a result, let the wire be stretched by a length l .
If dW is the elementary work done in stretching the wire by an
elementary length d l , then from definition we have
L
T
=
l
l /L
l
T
= & =
L
1
=&Y =
2(1 + ) or 2 + 2 =
3K (1 2) or 1 2 =
dW
4.9 Bending of beams-bending moment

A beam is a structure of uniform cross-section, whose length is
large as compared to its breadth and thickness. For a beam, the
shearing stress for any given cross-section is negligible. Beams
are used in the construction of bridges and housing structures
where heavy loads are to be supported. In the case of beams,
the following terms are important:
(11)
Eq. (11) gives the relation among Y , K and .

FL
Y al
Y al
dl Y =
F =
L
al
L
[ 2 ]l
2
Ya l
Y al
=
=
L 2 0
2L
1
1 Y al
l = Fl
=
(1)
2 L
2
Eq. (4.10) gives the expression for the work done in stretching
a wire. This work is stored in the wire in the form of potential
energy in the wire. Thus the quantity (1/2)F l is called elastic
potential energy of the stretched wire/string/rod.
=
(10)
from (6)
Y
Y
+ 3K
+
=Y
3K
3K
1 3
+
K
Force distance = F d l
from (10)
Y
3K
Hence the total work done in stretching the wire from 0 to l is

given by
l
W =
Fdl
Adding the above two equations
(12)
4.8 Work done in stretching a wire: Elastic potential energy
9
Y
3K 2
3K 2
3K 2
=
6K + 2 2(3K + )
Thus, mathematically, lies between 1 and +0.5. That is, 1

and 0.5 are the limiting values of in the mathematical sense.
However, in practice, being a real positive number (since
= /), it lies between 0 and 0.5.
We have
Here K and are both positive quantities. Hence, in the above

equation, for to be positive, we must have
4.6.3 Relation among Y , K and
(2 + 6K )
2(1 + )
Thus, Eq. (10) gives the relation among Y , and .
3K 6K
From Eqs. (10) and (6) we can write
2LT ( + )
4.7 Limiting values of
From Eqs(8) and (9) we have

l
p
2
2 + 2
Eq. (12) gives the relation among , K and .
Since the extensions are practically very small, we can consider

BMB to be a right angled triangle as shown in Fig. 4.4. Now
from geometry we have
MB
3K (1 2)
(7)
DB.T + DB.T = DB T ( + )
p
L 2 + L 2 T ( + ) = 2LT ( + )
F
=T
AreaAB e f
Let and be the longitudinal and lateral strains per unit

stress, respectively. Then, the extension per unit length is T
so that the extension of the diagonal DB is DBT . Similarly
the compression of the diagonal AC is AC T = DB T (
AC = DB ). Thus, the total extension of the diagonal, which is
equal to MB , is now given by
(
) (
)
Extn. of
Extn. of DB due to
MB =
DB due to T + compression of AC
=
2(1 + )
fElasticity
Page 19( 44 )
stress below the neutral axis are compressive. In other words,

the forces of stress above and below neutral axis are opposite
to each other, and hence constitute a couple. As a result of the
moment of this couple, the beam is rotated to form an arc of radius R. This rotational effect which results in bending is called
bending moment (BM).
Let us now find an expression for BM. Let a be the c.s. area
of the filament which is at a distance x from the neutral axis.
We have
4.9.1 Neutral surface, plane of bending and neutral axis
Elongated layers
Force on a
Neutral
Layer
BEAM
Compressed layers
Loaded end
If the beam is divided in to n layers/filaments, at distances

x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x n from the neutral axis, then we must have
2
x a = (x 12 + x 22 + . . . x n2 )a
Total BM
R and X Y = (R + x)
Total BM
stress =
a
ak
n
where k 2 =
Y ak 2
R
Com
pres
sive
stre
ss
be
am
wh
ich For
b e ms
nd
s/r a cou
ota
p
tes le
th e
(6)
(8)
Bending couple(or bending moment)
ak 2 = b d
d 2 bd 3
=
12
12
(9)
Substituting this result in Eq. (8) we find

B M = restoring couple
Y bd 3
12R
(10)
On the other hand, if the beam is of circular cross section

(cylindrical beam) of radius r , its moment of inertia about the
neutral axis is M k 2 = M r 2 /4 so that k 2 = r 2 /4. Then the geometrical moment of inertia of the beam is
Fig. 4.6: Beam bent in to an arc of radius R. In reality, R will be

very large.
We shall note the fact that while the stress experienced by layers above neutral axis are tensile (stretching/elongating), the
(7)
YI
R
x 12 + x 22 + . . . x n2
In Eq. (8), Y I = Y ak 2 is called flexural rigidity of the beam.

Now, if the beam has a rectangular cross section, then its
area a = b d where b and d are breadth and thickness of
the beam, respectively. The moment of inertia of the beam
about the neutral axis will be Md 2 /12 where M = mass of the
beam. Comparing this to the general equation I = M k 2 , we get
k 2 = d 2 /12, and thus
Ten
sile
stre
ss
Restoring couple
X Y X Y = (R + x) R = x
(2)
l
x
x
=
=
(3)
XY
R R
where Y Youngs
Yx
Y strain =
modulus
(4)
R
strain =
x 12 + x 22 + . . . x n2
Due to this bending moment, the beam is bent. From Newtons third law, a restoring reaction couple is set up in the beam
which opposes the external bending. At equilibrium, we have
(1)
Therefore the increase in length l of the layer is

=
na
By definition, the quantity ak 2 is called geometrical moment of

inertia of the beam (which is nothing but the moment of inertia of the beam if it has a unit mass per unit area), denoted by
I . Hence Eq. (7) may now be written as
Consider a beam bent in to an arc of radius R as shown in

Fig. 4.6. Consider a filament distant x above the neutral axis
which is elongated to X Y as shown in Fig. 4.6. Now we have
where k is the radius of gyration of the beam about its neutral

axis. Substituting this result in Eq. (5) we obtain
4.9.2 Bending moment
stress a =
B M on the entire beam =
Fig. 4.5: Bending: diagram of a beam supported at one end

and carrying a load at the other end.
XY
Yx
a
R
Y x2
Force x =
a
R
Y 2
(5)
x a
R
B M on the filament =
Plane of bending
always r to neutral axis
Rigid support
A beam is mathematically conceived to have made of an assembly of microscopic layers (or filaments) like the pages of
a book. When a beam fixed at one end and loaded at the
other end bends, deformation is produced in it. As a result,
all the layers above a particular layer, called neutral layer get
elongated while all the layers below the neutral layer get compressed as shown in Fig. 4.5. The neutral layer (or neutral surface) is the only layer of the beam that is neither elongated nor
compressed in the process of bending. A line that represents
the neutral layer is referred to as neutral axis.
The plane in which bending takes place is known as plane
of bending. When a beam is placed horizontally, the plane of
bending is a vertical plane perpendicular to the beam. Neutral
axis will always be perpendicular to the plane of bending.
The change in length of any filament (either elongation or compression) is proportional to the distance of the
layer/filament from the neutral axis.
I
X
ak 2 = r 2 k 2 =
r 2 .r 2 r 4
=
4
4
(11)
fElasticity
Page 20( 44 )
Hence the total depression at the loaded end, equal to F F is

now given by
x=l
x=l
W (l x)2
W x=l
y =
dy =
dx =
(l x)2 d x
YI
Y I x=0
x=0
x=0
W x=l 2
(l + x 2 2l x)d x
=
Y I x=0
[
]l
W 2
x3
=
l x+
2l x
YI
3
0
[
]
W 3 l3
l + l3
=
YI
3
Substituting this result in Eq. (8) we find
B M = restoring couple
Y r 4
4R
(12)
4.10 Theory of a single cantilever

Cantilever is a beam fixed horizontally at one end and loaded
at the other end. Due to bending, the loaded end is depressed.
dx
W l3
YI
=
F
Q
lx
This equation give a general expression for the depression at

the free end of a single cantilever.
C
D
F
4.10.1 case-1
For a rectangular single cantilever, we know that I = bd 3 /12
where b and d are the breadth and thickness of the cantilever
beam. Substituting this result in Eq. (4) we obtain
Let a cantilever E F be fixed at E and carry a load W at F as

shown in Fig. 4.7. Due to the applied load, the end F is depressed to a position F (Fig. 4.7).
1
R
For a cylindrical single cantilever, we know that I = r 4 /4

where r is radius of the circular cross section of the beam. Substituting this result in Eq. (4) we obtain
y
d x = Rd
i .e., d
W (l x)
dx
YI
Girders undergo bending when loaded. Due to bending, the filaments of the girder above the neutral surface are compressed
and those below the neutral surface are extended. The extent
of compression or extension of a filament is proportional to
its distance from the neutral surface. Consequently, the compression or extension increases as the distance of the filament
from the neutral surface increases. Its value is zero at the neutral surface and maximum at the lower or upper faces. This
means that, the outer layers/filaments undergo much greater
strain than the inner layers. Hence, to make the outer layers
stronger than inner layers the girders are manufactured in Ishape. This not only saves the material considerably, but also
reduces weight and cost without in any compromise on the
strength of the girder.
d =
dx
R
From Eq. (1)
(2)
4.12 Torsion
When a wire/rod is fixed at one end and rotated at the other
end about the wire as axis, it is said to be twisted or undergoing torsion. Consider a short cylinder of length l and radius a
d (l x) =
(6)
4.11 I-Section girders
Let us draw tangents at P and Q meeting the vertical line at C

and D respectively as shown in Fig. (4.7). The angle between
these two tangents is d (elementary angle). Then the depression d y = C D of the point Q below P is given by
dy
W l3
4W l 3
=
Y (r 4 /4) Y r 4
(1)
where Y Youngs modulus of the material of the beam, I

geometrical moment of inertia of the beam and R radius of
curvature to which the section d x is bent. R is observed to be
practically a constant for a given load. From Fig. 4.7 we have
This gives the expression for the depression at the free end of a
cylindrical single cantilever.
YI
R
W (l x)
YI
PQ
(5)
4.10.2 case-2
Consider a section PQ of the beam having an elementary

length d x at a distance x from E . Then the moment of couple
due to W (by definition) is (see Fig. 4.7) W (l x). But from the
theory of bending of beams [bending moment, Eq. (8) under
4.9], this is equal to Y I /R. Hence we must have
W l3
4W l 3
=
3
Y (bd /12) Y bd 3
This is the expression for the depression at the free end of a

rectangular single cantilever.
Fig. 4.7: Diagram of a single cantilever carrying a load W .
W (l x)
(4)
W (l x)
dx
YI
From Eq. (2)
(3)
X
fElasticity
Page 21( 44 )
The rigidity modulus is now given by
clamped at the upper end AB . Let a twisting couple be applied

to the other end A B (as shown in Fig. 4.8) in a direction perpendicular to the length of the cylinder. As a result, the radius
O P is twisted through an angle to the position O P . Here
is referred to as the angle of twist. Twisting leads to shearing of
the material. hence, is also called shearing angle
a
Shearing stress T
Tl
= =
Shearing strain x
x
=
l
from Eq. (7)

(8)
Now, the surface area of the cylindrical shell (Fig. 4.9) is obviously 2xd x, and hence the shearing stress on this area is
Fixed End
2xd x
x 2 2
=
x dx
l
l
Moment of this force about OO axis (from the definition of

moment) is
2 2
2 3
x dx x =
x dx
l
l
P
P
Twisting end
Fig. 4.8: A wire undergoing torsion.
4.13 Couple per unit twist

Twist neither produces a change in length nor a change in the
radius of the wire. When a wire is twisted by means of an external couple, a restoring couple is set up inside the cylinder (due
to elasticity). Under equilibrium, this restoring couple is equal
(and opposite) to the external couple.
In order to calculate the twisting couple, consider a cylindrical wire. This wire may be imagined to be made of a large
number of co-axial cylindrical shells. Consider one such cylindrical shell of radius x and thickness d x as shown in Fig. 4.9.
Hence the couple per unit twist (Twisting couple/), denoted

by c, is given by
c
Twisting couple a 4
=
2l
(11)
Here, c is called modulus of torsion or torsional rigidity. From

the above expression it is evident that c a 4 . Hence the torsional rigidity of a cylinder is extremely sensitive to its radius.
1. A wire of length 0.4 m and diameter 0.2 mm is fixed at
one end and twisted at the other through an angle 90 .
Calculate the couple acting on the wire. What would be
the couple if the length of the wire is doubled? (Rigidity
modulus of the material of the wire = 40 l 09 Pa)
Cylindrical shell
(9)
Hence, the total twisting couple applied to the whole cylinder

is obtained by integrating the above expression between the
limits x = 0 to x = 0. i.e.,
2 a 3
Twisting couple =
x dx
l
0
[ 4 ]a
2 x
a 4
=
=
(10)
l
4 0
2l
dx
Solution:
Here the wire is twisted by 90 = 90 (/180) = /2 radian. The couple per unit twist c for the wire is given by
Fig. 4.9: Cross section of the twisted end of the wire

undergoing torsion.
x
x
l
=
=
40 l 09 (0.2 103 )4
2 0.4
2.51 104 Nm-rad1
Therefore the total couple C produced in the wire is

C
= 3.94 104 Nm-rad1

2
2. A single Cantilever of length 0.8 m, breadth 4.0 cm and

thickness 1 mm is loaded with 0.2 kg. Calculate the depression at the loaded end (Youngs modulus of the material of the cantilever = 2 1011 Pa).
QQ = l from Fig. 4.8
r 4
2l
where the symbols carry their usual meaning. Substituting = 40 l 09 Pa, r = 0.2 103 m, l = 0.4 m we get
In the process of twisting of the wire by an angle , the radius is

turned through the same angle but the displacement is maximum at the rim, and as we move towards the centre O , the
displacement decreases to zero. This is clearly seen in Fig. 4.9.
From Fig. 4.8 & 4.9 it is clear that the shearing strain is not
constant throughout the cylinder. It is maximum on the rim
and minimum for the innermost layer. mathematically, is
maximum at x = a and minimum (=0) at x = 0 (center).
Now, from Fig. 4.9 we have
QQ
(7)
X
fElasticity
Page 22( 44 )
Solution:
5. A uniform metal disc of diameter 0.1 m and mass 1.2 kg is

fixed symmetrically to the lower end of a torsion wire of
length 1 m and diameter 1.44103 and the upper end is
fixed. The time period of torsional oscillations is 1.98 s.
Calculate the modulus of rigidity of the material of the
wire.
The depression y at the free end of a rectangular single

cantilever is given by the equation
y
4W l 3
Y bd 3
From data wa have W = 0.2 g N, l = 0.8 m, b = 4

102 m, d = 1103 m, Y = 21011 Pa, y =?. Substituting
these values we obtain
y
=
=
Solution:
Radius of the disc is 0.1/2 = 0.05 m, mass of the disc
M = 1.2 kg. Moment of inertia I of the circular disc in
this case is
4 0.2 9.8 0.83

2 1011 4 102 (1 103 )3
0.502 m
3. A uniform rod of length 1 m is clamped horizontally at

one end. A weight of 0.1 kg is attached to the free end.
Calculate the depression at the free end of the rod. The
diameter of the rod is 0.02 m. Youngs modulus of the
material of the rod is 1 1010 Nm2 .
The period of oscillation of a torsion pendulum is given

by
We note here that the rod is cylindrical. The depression

y at the free end of the rod is given by the equation (Note:
4W l 3
Y r 4
From data wa have W = 0.1 g N, l = 1 m, r = 0.02/2 =

0.01 m, Y = 1 1010 Pa, y =?. Substituting these values
we obtain
y
4 0.1 9.8 13
= 0.0125 m
1 1010 (0.01)4
The torque (or couple for the angular twist) for a twist
is given by
a 4
2l
=
=
3.58 109 Nm2
stress
strain
force/c.s.area
elongation/original length
(2 9.8)/([(103 )/2]2 )
= 207.96 109 Nm2
(3 104 )/(2.5)
8. A steel wire of length 2 m and 0.001 m in diameter elongates by 3 104 m when stretched by a force of 2 kgwt. Calculate the Youngs modulus of the material of the
wire.
5 1010 (1 103 )4
18
2 2.5
180
9.87 103 N-m
7. In a Searles double bar experiment, the periods of flexural and torsional oscillations are 1.5 s and 2.5 s respectively. Calculate the rigidity modulus of the material of
the wire. Given: Youngs of the material of the wire is
2 1011 Nm2 .
From data we have = 5 1010 N/m2 , a = 2 103 /2 =

1 103 m, l = 2.5 m, = 18 (/180) radian. So we have
Youngs modulus of the material is given by
Solution:
couple per unit twist
2 0.1 0.0015
1.982 (0.72 103 )4
Solution:
6. An iron wire of length 2.5 m and diameter 103 m elongates by 3 104 m when stretched by a force of 2 kg wt.
Calculate the Youngs modulus of iron.
4. Calculate the torque which must be applied to a wire of

cast iron of length 2.5 m and diameter 2 mm in order to
twist its one end through 18 , the other end being fixed.
Given: modulus of rigidity of cast iron is 5 1010 N/m2 .
u
I
2l I
u I
2
= 2t
= 2
4
a
c
a 4
2l
)
(
2l I
42
T 2 a 4
where c is the couple per unit twist (torque required to

twist the wire by 1 radian). From data we have l = 0.1 m,
a = 1.44 103 /2 = 0.72 103 m, T = 1.98 sec, =?. So
we have
Please correct Eq. (6) in Page 20 of course material by deleting

3 in the denominator of Eq. (6))
Solution:
M R 2 1.2 0.052
=
= 0.0015 kg-m2
2
2
fElasticity
Page 23( 44 )
Solution:
Solution:
See Problem 21
See Problem 20.
9. Calculate the Poissons ratio and bulk modulus of the

material using the following data: = 9 109 Pa, q =
21 109 Pa
15. Poissons ratio for a material is 0.379 and rigidity modulus is 2.87 109 Nm2 . Find Youngs modulus of the material.
Solution:
Solution:
Y , and are related by the relation
Y , and are related by the relation
2(1 + )
Y
1
2
21 109
1 = 0.167
2 9 109
2 2.87 109 (1 + 0.379) = 7.92 109 Nm2
16. One end of the steel wire of length 0.25 m and radius
2 103 m is fixed. If the rigidity modulus of steel is
8 1010 Pa, find the couple per unit twist when the free
end of the wire is twisted by 45 .
10. A steel wire of length 0.3 m and radius 2 mm is twisted by

60 . If the rigidity modulus of steel is 80 GPa, calculate
the couple per unit angular twist produced in the wire.
Solution:
Solution:
l = 0.3 m, a = 2 103 m, = 60 (/180) = /3 radian,

= 80 109 Nm2 , = c =?. See Problem 19 for details.
l = 0.25 m, a = 2 103 m, = 8 1010 Pa, = 45

(/180) = /4 radian, c =?. We have
11. A thin uniform bar of length 1.2 m is made to oscillate

about an axis through its end. Find the period of oscillation.
=
=
Solution:
a 4
2l
8 1010 (2 103 )4
= 8.043 Nm
2 0.25
17. Calculate the work done in twisting a steel wire of length

0.25 m and diameter 2 mm through an angle of 45 .
Given: rigidity modules of the material of the wire =
8 1010 Nm2 .
In this case the system is a simple pendulum of length

l = 1.2 m. Its period of oscillation is given by
l
1.2
T = 2
= 2
= 2.199 sec
g
0.8
Solution:
12. A wire of length 0.5 m and radius 0.1 mm is fixed at one

end and twisted through 30 at the other end. Calculate the couple acting on the wire (rigidity modulus of
the material of the wire is 40 GPa).
The work W done in twisting a wire by an angle is given

by
W
Solution:
1 2
c
2
where c is the couple needed to twist the wire by unit.

This is given by the equation
See Problems 19 and 25.

13. Calculate the couple in twisting a steel wire of diameter 0.001 m and length 0.25 m through an angle of 45 .
Given: n = 80 109 GPa.
a 4
2l
From data we have l = 0.25 m, a = 2103 /2 = 1103 m,

= 45 (/180) = /4 radian, = 8 1010 Nm2 , W =?.
So we have
(
)
1 a 4 ( )2
W =
2
2l
4
(
)
1 8 1010 (1 103 )4 ( )2
=
= 15.5 102 J
2
2 0.25
4
Solution:
See Problems 19, 25 & 27.
14. A disc of mass 1 kg and radius 0.1 m is suspended horizontally by a vertical wire of length 0.6 m and radius
5 104 m. If the period of oscillation is 3.9 seconds, calculate the rigidity modulus of the wire material.
2(1 + )
From data we have = 0.379, = 2.87102 Nm2 , Y =?.

So we have
From data we have Y = q = 21 109 Pa, = 9 109 Pa,

=?. So
fConservation of Linear momentum

Page 24( 44 )
4 Conservation of linear momentum
From Newtons second law of motion** we have
d
p
F
dt
d (m
v)
i .e.,
F
dt
d
p
if F = 0,
then
= 0 m
v = constant
dt
4.1 Introduction
In the study of dynamics of a point particle, we consider forces
acting on a single particle to find equations for its velocity, acceleration, energy etc. However, in this chapter, we shall discuss the effect of different forces acting upon a system of particles . separated from one another.
To describe the motion a system of particles, equations of
motion of every individual particle are taken together, and the
system of equations are to be solved to obtain solutions which
describe the motion of the system of particles. However, this
is a very tedious process and is often almost impossible as the
number of particles in a body is practically infinite. The distance between the particles and mass of the system may or may
not remain constant when a system of particles is in motion.
The motion of such a system of particles can be studied using
a simple method by considering the concept called Centre of
mass. Study of the motion of the centre of mass of a particle
system is known to describe the motion of the system of particles satisfactorily. To do such studies we need to understand
the principles of conservation of linear and angular momenta.
This shows that Newtons first law of motion is only a special

case of second law.
in 2-particle systems
4.3.1 Conservation p
Consider a system of two particles. Let their be no external
forces acting on the system. Let F 12 be the force exerted by the
first particle on the second, (known as action) and F 21 the force

exerted by the second on the first, (known as reaction. Now,
from Newtons 3rd law of motion , we have
F 12 = F 21
i .e., F 12 + F 21 = 0
d
p2
d (
p1 +
p2 )
d
p1
=
or
=0
dt
dt
dt
p1 +
p2 = Constant
Here
p1 +
p2 is the total linear momentum of the two-particle
system. Thus, if Newtons 2nd and 3rd laws of motion hold, the
total linear momentum of the system of two particles remains
constant.
The above law can be extended to a system of three or more
interacting particle system as follows:
The total linear momentum of a system of particles free from
the action of external forces and subjected only to their mutual
interaction remains constant, no matter how complicated the
forces may be.
4.2 Linear momentum

Linear momentum of a body is defined as the product of its
mass and linear velocity. It is a vector quantity and is a measure of kinetic energy stored in the body. If m is the mass of the
body and v its velocity, then its linear momentum is p = mv. It
is a vector quantity having the unit of kg ms1 .
4.2.1 Principle of conservation of linear momentum

It states the total linear momentum of a system of particles free
from the action of external forces and subjected only to their mutual interaction remains constant, no matter how complicated
the forces are.
4.4 Rocket
Rocket is a device which is used to carry a satellite to a desired
altitude, and to place it in an orbit.
4.4.1 Principle
Explanation From Newtons 2nd law of motion F =

d P /d t where F is the applied force acting on the system. For
an isolated system the external force is absent, i.e., F = 0. This
implies that d p/d t = 0 or p is a constant. This is the principle
of conservation of linear momentum.
A Rocket works on the principle of conservation of momentum. A rocket carries both, the fuel (liquid hydrogen/liquid
paraffin) and a suitable oxidiser (O 2 , HO 2 , NO) which burns in
a combustion chamber of the rocket. The heat of combustion
raises the pressure inside the chamber. This leads to rushing
of the burnt gases (CO H2 O, etc.) through the trail end of the
rocket. In consequence, the rocket is propelled forward as per
Newtons third law of motion (the momentum lost by the jet of
fuel gases is equal to the momentum gained by the rocket).
4.3 Law of conservation of linear momentum

We know that, if m and v are the mass and constant velocity
of a particle, then the linear momentum p of the particle is
p = mv. Now from From Newtons first law of motion|| , we have
dp
dt
4.4.2 Single stage and multistage rockets

A rocket must attain a velocity of 11.2 km/sec to escape from
earths gravity and get launched. It needs to have a minimum
orbiting velocity of 8 km/sec to be maintained in the orbit
0 when F = 0
(1)
Group of particles that constitute a body is referred to as a system of particles.

|| A body remains at rest or continues to move with a uniform velocity if no external force is acting on it
** It states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the force on the body
Under equilibrium, Action and reaction are equal and opposite to each other

Page 25( 44 )
around the earth. To achieve this, the mass ratio M 0 /M must

be 270 or more (Here M 0 is initial mass of rocket and M that
after time t ). In the flight, the rocket has to encounter and
overcome the resistance of air. This means that a little more
than 270 kg. of the fuel will be consumed for every I kg loss of
mass of the rocket in terms of burnt fuel. At present, no single
stage rocket is capable of such a performance. Therefore multistage rockets are employed to fulfil the requirement of launching into space.
In multistage rockets, when the first stage is ignited, the
fuel cartridge gets discarded, and the second stage takes over
the task of producing further acceleration. This process continuous sequentially till the fuel in the last stage is burnt off.
When each stage is detached, the mass of the rocket system is
decreased. For conserving the linear momentum, the velocity
of the rocket is increased. Thus, the velocity of rocket goes on
increasing at each stage. Finally, when the rocket has reached
the desired altitude, a horizontal thrust puts the satellite in the
orbit around the earth.
4.4.4 Thrust on the rocket in the presence and absence of

gravity
In the absence and presence of gravity we have F e = 0 and
F e = M
g so that Eq. (4.7) assume the form
M dV
dt
M dV
dt
Upward thrust
Upward thrust
V + Ve
t
dp
dt
M dV
dt
M dV
dt
(2)
=
=
=
MV
(M M )(V + V ) + M ( V + Ve )
M V + M V V M + V M + Ve M
p
p = M V + V M
2
V
M
M
+ Ve
t
t
(
)
p
dV
dM
+ Ve
=M
t lim t 0
dt
dt
i .e., |F e |
dV
M
dt
=
=
=
+ Ve d M
dt
+ Ve d M
dt
dM
F e + Ve
dt
(3)
dV
dV
dV
VV0
V0 d V
=
=
=
=
Ve ddMt (no gravity)

Ve ddMt M g (with gravity)
Ve dMM
Ve dMM
(no gravity)
gdt
(with gravity)
(10)
=
=
dM
M
Ve M0 dMM
Ve
0
M
M
(no gravity)
t
0 g d t (with gravity)
(4)
(5)
[
]V
V
V0
[
]V
V
V V0
V V0
V0
Ve [ln |M |]M
(no gravity)
M0
Ve [ln |M |]M
M 0 g t (with gravity)
(6)
dV
M
dt
dV
M
dt

M
Ve ln M
(no gravity)
0
M
Ve ln M0 g t (with gravity)
(11)
We know that the velocity of the

exhaust
gas is downwards, i.e.,

M
0
Ve is negative. In addition, ln M0 = ln M
M . Hence, by taking
the magnitudes we can write
(7)
This equation gives the net force on the rocket in the presence
of gravity. Here F e = d p/d t is the force on the rocket due to
gravity.
(9)
Let M 0 be the initial mass of the rocket and fuel, V0 be the initial
velocity of the rocket, M and V be the instantaneous values of
mass and velocity of the rocket after a time t , respectively, then
we have
We shall note here that d M /d t (rate of change of mass of the

rocket) is negative. Taking magnitudes, we have
dp
dt

Ve ddMt M g (with gravity)
=
=
From Eq. (4.8) we have
After a mass M is burnt off, the mass of rocket decreases to

(M M ), and the velocity increases to (V + V ) where V is
a small increase in velocity. With respect to earth, the The momenta
p1 and
p2 of rocket, before and after M of fuel is burnt
out, respectively, are now given by
p1
(8)
4.4.5 Equation of motion(expression for instantaneous velocity) for the rocket in the presence and absence of
gravity
Let M be the mass of a rocket with fuel, moving with a velocity V with respect to earth(inertial frame) at any time t . After
a time t , let the mass of fuel ejected be M with an exhaust
velocity Ve with respect to the rocket. Let us note that Ve is a

constant and has a downward direction (negative). The velocity V0 of the ejected gases with respect to the earth is therefore
=

Ve ddMt + M
g (with gravity)
Here the term Ve ddMt is a quantity arising due to Newtons third

law. Hence this term is called reaction force. Both Ve (downwards) and d M /d t being negative, the product Ve (d M /d t )
is positive (upward). M
g is a negative quantity since
g acts
downwards. Hence the magnitude of upward thrust on the
rocket with and without gravity are given by
4.4.3 Theory of a single stage rocket
V0
=
=
0
V0 Ve ln M
(no gravity)
M
M0
V0 Ve ln M g t (with gravity)
(12)
Eqs (4.12) give the expressions for the instantaneous velocity of

the rocket without and with gravity after a time t .
X

Page 26( 44 )
4.4.6 Burnt out velocity or maximum velocity
4.5.3 Lab frame and center of mass frames of reference
When entire fuel is burnt out, the rocket would have reacher
its maximum velocity, say, V f and the mass of the rocket would
have become minimum, say, M f . Let T be the time taken
for complete burnout of fuel. Under this condition the rocket
would be far away from earth so that the effect of gravity would
become negligible. In this situation Eq, (4.12) becomes

M0
V f = V0 Ve ln M
(if g is negligible)
f
(13)

M0
V f = V0 Ve ln M g T (if g is not negligible)
Usually, collision is studied with respect to two types of frames

of reference, namely Lab frame and center of mass frame of reference.
If the origin of the frame of reference is assumed to be fixed
to the laboratory, it is referred to as laboratory frame. The labframe is inertial so long as earth is taken to be an inertial frame.
If the origin of the reference frame is assumed to be fixed at
the centre of mass of system of colliding particles on which
no external force is acting, the frame is referred to as center of
mass frame of reference (COM frame).
In the study of collision, the COM frame moves with a constant velocity with respect to the laboratory frame. Hence the
centre of mass frame is also an inertial frame. Various physical quantities measured in the two systems are related to each
other by Galilean transformations provided the velocity of centre of mass is small as compared to the velocity of light.
A system of 2 particles requires six co-ordinates
[(x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) & (x 2 , y 2 , z 2 )] to describe the motion in the labframe. Only three co-ordinates [(x, y, z)] are required to describe the same in COM frame. The description of collision
process is therefore simpler in COM system as compared to
lab-frame. Thus, using COM frame is advantageous as compared to lab-frame in the study of collision process.
If the rocket starts from rest, then V0 = 0 and the above equation becomes
M0
V f = Ve ln M
(if g is negligible)
f
(14)
M0
V f = Ve ln M g T (if g is not negligible)
f
4.5 Collision
When two bodies approach each other, interaction takes place
between them for a finite time. Consequently, observable
change in the velocities, momenta and energy of the particles
takes place in accordance with the respective laws of conservation. In this situation, the bodies are said to have undergone
collision .
Collision is termed scattering if the nature of particles does
not change after collision. Example: (i) deflection of -particle
approaching a heavy nucleus like gold, (ii) Change in the path
of a comet coming close to solar system, and so on.
4.6 Study of elastic head on collision with respect

to lab frame
Let two particles of mass m 1 and m 2 with initial velocities

u
1
and u 2 undergo an elastic head-on collision. Let v 1 and v 2 be

their respective velocities after collision. In the case of head on
collision, the motion of particles will always be along the line
joining their centers, as shown in Fig. 4.1. Now, from the principle of conservation of linear momentum we have
4.5.1 Elastic and inelastic collisions

A collision (or scattering) is said to be an elastic collision if
(i) the final particles after collision are the same as the initial
particles before collision and (ii) the sum of the kinetic energies of the particles after collision is the same as the sum of the
kinetic energies of the particle before collision.
A collision is said to be an inelastic collision if (i) the final
particles after collision are the same as the initial particles before collision and (ii) The sum of the kinetic energies of the particles after collision is not equal to the sum of the kinetic energies of the particles before collision.
A collision is said to be perfectly inelastic if the particles
stick permanently together on impact and the loss of kinetic
energy is maximum, in accordance with the law of conservation of momentum.
m1 m2
m1
u1
Before collision
v1
m2
v1
u2
Before collision
After
collision
Fig. 4.1: Consideration in the study of elastic head on collision
of two particles. See text for details.
4.5.2 Importance of the study of collision
+m
m1
u
1
2 u2
m1
v1 + m 2
v2
m 1 (u 1 v 1 )
m 2 (v 2 u 2 )
(15)
and from the law of conservation of kinetic energy we have
The study of collision is useful in understanding (i) basic nature and characteristics of the interactions and forces involved
in the process of collision, (ii) the nature of gravitational forces
in the cases of heavenly bodies, (iii) nature of inter-atomic
and intermolecular forces in the case of colliding atoms and
molecules. In addition, study of collisions involving atomic
nuclei (such as Rutherford scattering, Compton scattering, nuclear reactions, radioactivity, etc.), the nature of nuclear forces,
properties of the nucleus and atomic structure can be understood.
or
1
1
1
1
m 1 u 12 + m 2 u 22 = m 1 v 12 + m 2 v 22
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
m 1 (u 1 v 1 ) = m 2 (v 2 u 2 )
or
m 1 (u 1 + v 1 )(u 1 v 1 ) = m 2 (v 2 + u 2 )(v 2 u 2 )
(16)
Dividing Eq. (4.16) by (4.15), we get

(u 1 + v 1 )
(v 2 + u 2 )
i .e., u 1 u 2
(v 1 v 2 )
(17)
It is to be noted that collision between bodies does not necessarily mean physical contact between them. However, interaction between them is essential.
The terms center of mass and center of gravity are used synonymously in a uniform gravity field to represent the unique point in an object or system
which can be used to describe the systems response to external forces and torques.

Page 27( 44 )
4.7 Oblique elastic collision( or elastic collision in

two dimension) in the lab frame
This means that, in an elastic head on collision (one dimensional collision), the relative velocity with which the two particles approach each other before collision is equal to the relative velocity with which they recede away from each other after
collision.
Let a particle of mass m 1 moving with a velocity u 1 (called incident particle) along x-direction undergo oblique collision elastically with a heavy particle having a mass m 1 at rest (called target) as shown in Fig. 4.2. After collision, let v 1 be the velocity
of the first particle (called scattering particle) moving at an angle 1 w.r.t. xdirection (called scattering angle), and let v 2 be
the velocity of the target (now called recoil particle) at an angle of 2 w.r.t. the x-direction (called recoil angle) as shown in
Fig. 4.2.
4.6.1 Velocities after collision

From Eq. (4.17) we have v 2 = v 1 + u 1 u 2 . Substituting this in
Eq. (4.15) we get
m 1 (u 1 v 1 )
m 2 (v 1 + u 1 u 2 u 2 )
m1 u1 m1 v 1
m2 v 1 + m2 u1 m2 u2 m2 u2
(m 1 m 2 )v 1
(m 2 m 1 )u 1 2m 2 u 2
2m 2
m1 m2
u1 +
u2
m1 + m2
m1 + m2
v1
(18)
In a similar way, substituting v 2 = v 1 + u 1 u 2 (from Eq. (4.17)

in Eq. (4.15) and simplifying we obtain
v2
2m 1
m2 m1
u2 +
u1
m1 + m2
m1 + m2
m1
m1 m2
u1
m1 + m2
& v2 =
2m 1
u1
m1 + m2
v1
v2
Recoil
particle
v2
m2
Fig. 4.2: Consideration in the study of elastic oblique collision

between a particle and a heavy target particle at rest. See text
for details.
Applying the law of conservation of momentum along x- and
ydirections we have
(20)
case-2: If both the particles of equal mass In this case, let

m 1 = m 2 = m so that Eq. (4.18) and (4.19) become
2m
0+
u2 = u2
2m
2m
0+
u1 = u1
2m
m2
u2 = 0
Target
at rest
1 Scattering angle
2 Recoil angle
case-1: If one of the particles to be at rest If the second

particle is assumed to be at rest before collision, then, u 2 = 0 so
that Eq. (4.18) and (4.19) become
=
u1
Incident
particle
(19)
Thus, Eq. (4.18) & (4.19) are the general expressions for the velocities of the two particles after collision. Here, we have several special cases, as follows:
v1
After collision
v1 m1
scattered
particle
1
Before collision
m1 u1
m 1 v 1 cos 1 + m 2 v 2 cos 2
m 1 v 1 sin 1 m 2 v 2 sin 2
along x
along y
(26)
(27)
From the law of conservation of energy we have

(21)
1
m 1 u 12
2
1
1
m 1 v 12 + m 2 v 22
2
2
(28)
case-3: If mass of the particle at rest is very large compared to the other Here, let m 2 m 1 with u 2 = 0. Then we
can approximately write m 1 0, m 1 m 2 m 2 , m 1 +m 2 m 2
v 1 = u 1 and v 2 = u 2 = 0 Eq. (4.18) and (4.19) become
m 2
v1 =
u 1 = u 1
(22)
m2
0
v2 =
u1 = 0
(23)
m
This means that, when a very light particle collides against a
very massive particle at rest, the heavy particle continues to be
at rest and the velocity of the light particle is reversed.
In order to derive expressions for the angles of scatter and recoil, and the velocities after collision, let us assume (for simplicity) m 1 = m 2 so that the above equations become
case-4: If the particle (m 2 ) at rest is very light For this

case, we can approximate m 2 = 0, u 2 = 0, m 1 m 2 = m 1 ,
m 1 + m 2 m 1 so that v 2 = u 2 = 0 Eq. (4.18) and (4.19) become
m1
u1 + 0 = u1
v1 =
(24)
m1
2m 1
v2 = 0 +
u 1 = 2u 1
(25)
m1
Squaring and adding Eqs. (4.29) & (4.30) we get
u1
v 1 cos 1 + v 2 cos 2
or u 1 v 1 cos 1
v 2 cos 2
v 1 sin 1 v 2 sin 2
or v 1 sin 1
v 2 sin 2
v 12 + m 2 v 22
v 22
u 12
u 12 v 12
along x
along x
(29)
along y
along y
(30)
(31)
(u 1 v 1 cos 1 )2 + v 12 sin2 1 = v 22 cos2 2
v 22 sin2 2
u 12 2u 1 v 1 cos 1 + v 12 cos2 1 + v 12 sin2 1
v 22
u 12 2u 1 v 1 cos 1 + v 12
v 22
(32)
Substituting for v 22 from Eq. (4.30) we get
This means that, in this case, the velocity of the heavy particle
remains almost the same after collision and the light particle
acquires nearly twice the velocity of the heavy particle.
u 12 2u 1 v 1 cos 1 + v 12
u 12 v 12
u 1 cos 1
v1
(33)

Page 28( 44 )
This is the expression for the velocity of the scattered particle

in terms its initial velocity and the angle of scattering 1 .
In a similar way, by substituting v 1 = u 1 cos 1 in Eq. (4.31)
we get
v 22
v2
u 12 u 12 cos2 1
u 12 (1 cos2 1 ) = u 12 sin2 1
u 1 sin 1
1. A rocket, weighing 100 kg, contains 900 kg of fuel. Calculate the final velocity that can be achieved with an exhaust velocity of 1.5 kms1 .
Solution:
We have the equation for the velocity of a single stage
rocket:
M0
V = V0 Ve ln
Mf
(34)
This is the expression for the velocity of the recoil particle in

terms of u 1 and 2 .
Dividing Eq. (4.29) by Eq. (4.30) we get
v 1 sin 1
u 1 v 1 cos 1
where V is the velocity( or speed) of the rocket at any

time, V0 is the initial velocity of the rocket, Ve is the exhaust velocity of the burnt fuel, M 0 is the initial mass of
the rocket and fuel, M f is the mass of the rocket without
fuel.
v 2 sin 2
= tan 2
v 2 cos 2
Substituting v 1 = u 1 cos 1 in this equation we get

u 1 cos 1 sin 1
u 1 u 1 cos2 1
cos 1 sin 1
si n 2 1
i .e., cot 1
(
)
tan
1
2
tan 2
tan 2
tan 2
tan 2
Now, from data we have M 0 = 100 + 900 = 1000 kg, Ve =

(1.5103 ) ms1 (i.e., in the downward direction), V0 = 0,
V =?. When the fuel is completely exhausted, the mass of
the rocket M f , equal to 100 kg. We therefore have
1000
3
V = 0 (1.5 10 ) ln
100
1
(35)
2
This equations give the expression for the angle of recoil in
terms of the angle of scattering. We shall also note here that
1 + 2 = /2. Thus, Eq. (4.35) also means that if the incident
particle collides elastically with a target particle of equal mass,
then, after collision, both the particles move in directions perpendicular to each other.
2
2. A body of mass 2 kg makes elastic collision with a target

at rest and continues to move in the original direction
with 1/4th of its original speed. What is the mass of the
target?
Solution:
4.8 Center of mass and reduced mass
m 1 = 2 kg, m 2 =?, u 1 = u, u 2 = 0 (rest), v 1 = u 1 /4, v 2 =?.

For two particles undergoing head-on collision(in one
direction), and if one of the particles is at rest before collision, then after collision, we have the following relations:
m1 m2
v1 =
u1
m1 + m2
4.8.1 Center of mass

In the study of the motion of a two-particle system, the system
may be assumed to have an equivalent mass called reduced
mass fixed at a position called center of mass.
For two particles of mass m 1 and m 2 lying at vector distances
r l and r2 from the origin of a frame of reference, the
position R of centre of mass is given
ml
r l + m2
r2
R =
(36)
ml + m2
From data, v 1 = u 1 /4. Hence we have

u1
4
4(m 1 m 2 )
The centre of mass of two particles lies on the line joining the
two particles. When the centre of mass lies at the origin, then
R = 0 and therefore m l
r l + m2
r 2 = 0. Thus the centre of mass
is a point which divides the line joining the two particles in the
inverse ratio of masses.
3m 1
3
3
m 2 = m1 = 2 = 3 kg
2
2
m1 m2
u1
m1 + m2
m1 + m2
2m 2
3. A rocket weighing 100 kg contains 900 kg of fuel. What

is the final velocity that can be achieved with an exhaust
velocity of 2 kms1 ?
4.8.2 Reduced mass

When there is no external force acting on a system of two particles and the only forces are those of mutual interaction, then
the system behaves as a single particle of mass given by
ml m2
(37)
=
ml + m2
Solution:
see Problem 33
In such a case is called reduced mass of the system. The reduced mass always acts at the center of mass of the system and
divides the line joining the two particles in the inverse ratio of
masses.
1.5 103 2.303 log(10) = 3.455 103 ms1
4. A rocket set for vertical firing weighs 50 kg and contains

450 kg of fuel. It can have a maximum exhaust velocity of
2 kms1 . What will be the maximum speed of the rocket
when the rate of consumption of fuel is 10 kgs1 ?
X

Page 29( 44 )
Solution:
From Eq. (4.1) & (4.2) we have
V0 = 0, M f = 50 kg, M 0 = 20 + 450 = 470 kg, Ve =

2 103 ms1 (downward direction), fuel consumption
rate=10 kgs1 , V =?.
rate consumption of fuel = 10 kgs time required to
consume all the fuel=450/10 = 45 sec.
Time taken for complete consumption of fuel = 450/10 =
45 sec. So, after 45 sec, the final mass of the rocket would
become equal to the mass of empty rocket.
The equation for the velocity of a single stage rocket is

=
=
(3)
where V is a scalar function (potential energy). Thus a force

acting on a particle is conservative if it is given by the gradient
of a scalar function V . This scalar function is called the potential energy of the particle.
3) If F displaces the particle from a position A to position B ,

then the work W done by the force is
M0
V0 Ve ln
Mf
A
B
470
= 3585.14 ms1
0 (1.6 103 ) ln
50
F dr = V dr
dV = V A VB
(4)
This shows that W depends only on the initial and final positions A and B , and W is independent of the path through the
integral is performed.
Thus, a force is said to be conservative if the work done by
it on the particle depends only on the initial and final positions
but is independent of the actual path.
Examples:(i) Gravitational force between two masses,
(ii) Coulombian force between two stationary charges,
(iii) Central force.
This is the maximum speed attained by the rocket after

45 seconds.
5. A rocket weighing 100 kg contains 900 kg of fuel. What
is the final velocity that can be achieved with an exhaust
velocity Of 2 kms1 ?
Solution:
4.3 Non-conservative forces
see Problem 33 & 35.
A force F acting on a particle is non-conservative if the following conditions hold:

1)

F = 0
(5)
6. A 5000 kg rocket is set for a vertical firing. If the maximum exhaust speed is 500 ms1 , what will be the speed
of the rocket when the rate of consumption of fuel is
196 kgs1 ?
2)
Solution:
(6)
where V is a scalar function and
3) The work done by F in moving a particle from one point to

another depends upon the actual path of displacement
Examples: (i) Exchange forces which operate at nuclear
level, (ii) Forces between moving charges.
See Problems 33,35,36 & 37.
4 Law of conservation of energy

4.1 Introduction
The principle of conservation of energy is one of the greatest
principles that man has discovered till to date. It states that energy may be transformed from kind to another, but it cannot be
created or destroyed; the total energy (i.e., potential + kinetic +
heat + all other forms of energy) is constant .
4.4 Conservation of energy in a conservative

force field
Let us consider the motion of a particle in a conservative force
field, namely, central force field, F (r ). The radial equation of
motion for a particle in this case is given by
4.2 Conservative forces
A force F acting on a particle is said to be a conservative force

if the following three conditions hold:

1)
F =0
(1)
F (r )
ma + mr 2
(7)
where m, r, a and denote mass, radius vector, acceleration

and angular velocity of the particle, respectively. Since F (r ) is
assumed to be conservative, we must have [see Eq. (4.3)]
2) If V is a scalar function of co-ordinates of the particle then
(
)
(2)
V
= 0
F (r )
dU
dr
Pot. energy
where U of the particle
(8)
In the history of Physics scientists have often come across situations where this principle seemed to fail. This stimulated scientists for further studies to
understand this issue clearly. This did not only establish the conservation principle of energy, but also paved the way for new discoveries and phenomena.
fConservation of energy
Page 30( 44 )
From Eqs. (4.8) and (4.9) we have
dU
dr
=
=
=
ma v
=
=
Fig. 4.1: (a) Two bodies of masses M 1 and M 2 connected by a

massless spring whose unstressed length is L. (b) A single
body of mass (the reduced mass) connected by the same
spring to a rigid support.
dU
ma + mr 2 ma =
mr 2
dr
[
]
mr 2 2
d mr 2 2
d
U+
(
) = mr 2
dr
2
dr
2
(
)
[
]
I = mr 2 is the MI
d
I 2
U+
of the particle
dr
2
[
]
d
I 2
U+
v
dr
2
[
]
d
I 2
dr
(9)
U+
v =
dt
2
dt
Since a = d v/d t and v = d r /d t , we have

[
( )2 ]
d 2r d r
d 1
dr
mav = m
=
m
dt dt dt 2
dt
[
]
)
d 1(
=
mv 2
dt 2
Before oscillations begin, let the two ends of the spring be

at x 1 and x 2 as shown in Fig. 4.1(a) so that the length l of the
spring at any instant of time t is x 1 x 2 . Now if the spring starts
oscillating, its length varies. If x denotes the change in length
of the spring at any instant of time, we can write
x
mv 2
2
U+
(10)
(12)
where k is the spring constant.

Applying Newtons 2nd law (F=ma) to M 1 and M 2 we get
d 2 x1
dt2
d 2 x2
dt2
I 2
= Constant
2
(x 1 x 2 ) l
Here if x = 0 spring has its normal length, x > 0 the

spring is stretched and x < 0 the spring is compressed. Let
us assume that the spring is stretched (i.e., x > 0). Then the
and
force exerted by the spring on M 1 and M 2 is respectively F
. These two forces are obviously kx and +kx, respectively,
F
From Eqs. (4.9) and (4.10) we can now write

[
]
[
]
)
d 1(
d
I 2
2
mv
=
U+
dt 2
dt
2
[
]
2
)
d 1(
I
mv 2
+ U+
=0
dt 2
2
k x
(13)
+k x
(14)
Multiplying the first equation by M 2 and the second by M 1 and

subtracting, we obtain
(11)
Here mv 2 /2 and I 2 /2 are respectively the kinetic energy of

the particle due to translation and rotation. Hence the left
hand side of Eq. (4.11) represents the total energy of the particle. Hence Eq. (4.11) indicates that the total energy of a system
under central force field is conserved.
d 2 x2
d 2 x1
M1 M2
2
dt
dt2
2
M1 M2 d
(x 1 x 2 )
M1 + M2 d t 2
M1 M2
or
d2
(x 1 x 2 )
dt2
M 1 kx M 2 kx
kx
kx
(15)
4.5 Applications of the Law of conservation of energy

where = M 1 M 2 /(M 1 + M 2 ) which has the same dimension of
mass. Therefore is termed as reduced mass of the system.
Now, since l is a constant we can write
4.5.1 Oscillation of a light spiral spring (Two-body oscillations)
d
d
(x 1 x 2 ) =
(x 1 x 2 l )
dt
dt
d2
2 (x 1 x 2 )
dt
Let two masses M 1 and M 2 be connected by means of a massless spring of length l as shown in Fig. 4.1(a). In terms of reduced mass , the oscillations of the spring may exactly be described as shown in Fig. 4.1(b).
=
=
dx
dt
d 2x
dt2
Substituting this result in Eq. (4.15) we may write

x1
Fixed Support
d2x k
+ x =0
dt2
M1
This is identical in form to Eq. (4.12) or (4.13). Here x is the

relative displacement of one mass from its equilibrium position, whereas, is the reduced mass of M 1 and M 2 . Eq. (4.16)
is an equation for a spring executing simple harmonic oscillation with a constant frequency. From this discussion, we find
that an oscillating spring system with both the ends movable
[Fig. 4.1(a)] is equivalent to a spring system with one of its ends
firmly fixed and the other end carrying a load as shown in
Fig. 4.1(b).
The potential energy E p of such a spring system at any position is
x2
M2
(a)
(16)
Ep
(b)
1
2 x 2
2
Page 31( 44 )
where is the angular frequency of oscillations. The kinetic

energy E k of the spring system is given by
Ek
Escape velocity of satellites: We know that the gravitational energy of a satellite due to earth is equal to G M e m/R e
where M e and R e are the mass and radius of earth, respectively.
The amount of work required to move a satellite from the surface of earth to infinity is therefore G M e m/R e (this comes out
to be about 6107 joules/kg). If we could give a satellite more
than this energy at the surface of earth, then, neglecting the
resistance of the atmosphere, it would escape from the earth
never to return. As it proceeds outward its kinetic energy decreases and its potential energy increases, but its speed is never
reduced to zero. The critical initial speed v 0 such that the satellite does not return is given by
G
M
m
1
2G M e
e
mv 02 =
or v 0 =
(23)
2
Re
Re
1
2 (a 2 x 2 )
2
where a is amplitude of oscillation. So the total energy E of the

spring system is given by
E
=
=
1
1
E p + E k = 2 x 2 + 2 (a 2 x 2 )
2
2
1
2 2
a
2
(17)
Since , a and are constants, E remains constant and hence

the law of conservation of energy.
This initial velocity required for the satellite to just escape

from the gravitational attraction of earth is called escape velocity of the satellite. Substituting G = 6.671011 Nm2 kg2 ,
R e = 6.37106 m and M e = 5.9831024 kg we get v 0 to be
11.2 km s1 . This is the actually required escape velocity for
a satellite to escape from earths attraction. If the initial velocity of the satellite is less than this value, the satellite is bound
to return back to earth*** .
4.5.2 Conservation of energy of satellites

From Newtons law of gravitation, the potential energy E p of a
satellite is given by the equation:
Ep
GMm
r
-ve sign attraction
(18)
where G is the universal gravitational constant, M and m are

the masses of the planet (or any astronomical body) and its
satellite, respectively, and r is the radius of the circular orbit
of the satellite. The kinetic energy E k of the satellite is given by
Ek
1
1
mv 2 = mr 2 2
2
2
4.5.3 Stationary satellites

Some satellites seem to be over the same point of the earths
surface. This is the case if the angular velocity of the
satellite is exactly equal to that of earth, which is equal to
7.28105 rad s1 . Such satellites are very useful as communication satellites, and are called geostationary satellites. Let
us now compute the height from the surface of earth at which
the satellite is to be located to make it a geo-stationary satellite.
Let m and M e be the masses of the satellite and earth, respectively and let is the angular velocity of earth. Then, for a to
remain in an orbit of radius r , we must have
(19)
where v is the instantaneous linear velocity and is the angular velocity of the satellite. Now the total energy E of the satellite is
E
GMm 1
+ mr 2 2
r
2
(20)
But for a satellite to remain in an orbit of radius r , the centripetal force on it must be equal to the centrifugal force. That
is, we must have
GMm
r +r
But
GM
mr 2
r r
centripetal force
due to Newtons
law of gravitation
G Me m
i .e.,
r2
GM
= r 2
r +r
r +r r
or
r 2
=
=
1
1
mr 2 + mr 2 = mr 2
2
2
Constant m, r and are constants
mr 2
G Me
r3
For a satellite to be geostationary, we must have = e where

e is the angular velocity of earth around its own axis. Thus,
we have
)1/3
(
e = GrM3 e or r = GM2 e
(24)
(21)
Using this result in Eq. (4.20) we get

E
centrifugal force
due to rotation of
the satellite
This is the condition to be satisfied by a satellite to be geostationary satellite. Substituting the standard values for M e =
5.97361024 kg, G = 6.67431011 nt m2 kg2 and e = 7.2921
105 rad s1 , we obtain
(22)
Hence the total energy of a satellite remains conserved. In

Eq. (4.21), the negative sign indicates that the total energy of
the satellite is gravitational only and it becomes zero only when
r . This would further mean that if a satellite escapes from
the gravitational field of one planet or astronomical body (like
earth), it would be captured by another astronomical body.
=
=
6.6743 1011 5.9736 1024

(7.2921 105 )2
42167000 m = 42167 km
)1/3
*** In this discussion of the "two-body" gravitational interactions between earth and its satellite, we have neglected the possible gravitational effects arising
from the moon, the other planets, sun, etc. If we include these effects as well, the problem will no longer be a simple "two-body" type, but is addressed as
"many-body" type of gravitational interaction.
Page 32( 44 )
If h is the altitude of the satellite from the surface of earth R e is

the radius of earth, then we must have r = R e + h or h = r R e .
Substituting this in the above equation we see that
(R e + h)
42167
42167 107 R e
42167 6378 = 35789; km
2. Calculate the orbital velocity and period of revolution

of an artificial satellite of earth moving at an altitude of
200 km. Radius of the earth = 6400 km. Mass of the earth
= 6 l 024 kg, G = 6.7 1011 Nm2 kg2 .
Solution:
Thus if the satellite is located at an altitude of 35789 km from

the surface of earth, then it works as a geostationary satellite. The orbit of a geostationary satellite is often referred to
as geosynchronous orbit.
The period T of revolution and the orbital velocity v of

an artificial satellite are given by the equations(this topic
is at present not in the syllabus)
4.5.4 Space Programs of India

The Indian space Programme began in 1962. In 1969 the Indian space Research Organization (ISRO) was set up with headquarters in Banglore for the purpose of rapid development in
space technology and its application. In 1972, Space Commission was established. In 1975, India launched its first satellite,
Aryabhata, and thus entered the space age.
Over the past decades, the Indian space programme has
made impressive progress through well integrated, self-reliant
programs. Its main objectives are: (i) Mass Communication
and education via Satellite, (ii) Survey and management of
natural resources through remote sensing technology, (iii) Environmental monitoring and meteorological forecasting and
(iv) Development of indigenous satellites and satellite launch
vehicles. Some of the important space programs of India are as
follows:
Program Name
Purpose
Rohini, Aryabhatta,
Bhaskara, and Apple.
Production and launch of sounding

rockets for atmospheric and meteorological research
INSAT and IRS
Program for development of operational satellites in India
PSLV-C6
A Significant program of ISRO

(2005-2006) for developing satellite
launching vehicles to put satellites
to SSO (Sun Synchronous Orbit).
INSAT-4A
Program for providing Direct-ToHome (DTH) television broadcasting services
VRC Program
Chandrayan
Mangalayan
and
2(R + h
and
v
(
)
1/2
g R2
R +h
where R is the radius of earth, h is the height of the

satellite from the surface of earth and g is the acceleration due to gravity. From data we have g = 9.8 ms2 ,
h = 200 103 m, R = 6400 103 m. So we have
(
v
=
=
=
=
9.8 (6400 103 )2

(6400 + 200) 103
)1/2
7798.68 ms1 and

2 (6400 + 200) 103
7798.68
5317.44 sec
3. Calculate the escape velocity of a body for the surface of

moon. Given: Radius of moon = 1.7 106 m, mass of
moon = 7.3 1022 kg and G = 6.67 10l 1 Nm2 kg2 .
Solution:
The escape velocity of an object is given by the equation
Program to integrate the capabilities

of communications and earth observation satellites to provide a variety of information to address changing and critical needs of rural communities
Programs of exploring Moon and
Mars
v0
2G M
R
where G is the gravitational constant, M and R are the

mass and radius of the moon, respectively. From data
we have G = 6.67 10l 1 Nm2 kg2 , M = 7.3 1022 kg and
R = 1.7 106 m. So we have
1. Calculate the radius and height of a geostationary satellite of earth. Given: mass of earth =5.98 1025 kg, radius
of earth =6400 km, G = 6.67 1011 SI unit.
v0
2 6.67 10l 1 7.3 1022

= 2393.40 ms1
1.7 106
Solution:
4. Calculate the altitude of a geostationary satellite. Given:
mass of earth= 5.98 1024 kg, radius of the earth =
6400 km, G = 6.67 1011 Nm2 kg1
See Page 27 of course material under 4.5.3 (Stationary

satellites)
Page 33( 44 )
Solution:
The altitude h of a geostationary satellite from the surface of earth is given by

(
=
g R 2T
42
p(x, y)
2 )1/3
(
h
=
=
9.8 (6400 103 )2 (24 60 60)2

42
35940039.35 m 35940 km
)1/3
6400 10
Fig. 5.1: Geometrical representation of angular momentum

vector.
From Fig. 5.1, r sin = ON so that |L| = |P | ON . This is noth about O. Thus we may think that
ing but the the moment of P
the angular momentum is the moment of the linear momen = m
tum about the axis at O (Fig. 5.1). Since P
v , we may now
write
d
r
d
L =
r P =
r m
v =
r m
= m
r
(r r)
dt
dt
5. An artificial satellite is revolving round the earth at a

height of 30 km above the surface of the earth. Find
the orbital velocity and time period of revolution. Given:
g = 9.8 ms2 , Radius of earth = 6370 km.
Solution:
where r is a unit vector along the direction of

r . Proceeding
further we have
(
)
d r d r
d r
dr
L = m
r r
+
r = m
r r
+ m
r r
dt dt
dt
dt
d r
= m
r r
since
r r = 0
dt
See Problem 44.

6. Calculate acceleration due to gravity on the surface of
moon and hence calculate the escape velocity of a body
for the gravitational field of moon. Given: Gravitational
constant = 6.67 1011 Nm2 kg2 , Radius of the moon
= 1.7 106 m, mass of the moon = 7.3 1022 kg.
But we know that d r/d t = rp d /d t so that
L = m
r r
Solution:
GM
R2
Differentiating Eq. (5.13) w.r.t. time we have
d
L
d
d
r
dP
) =
+
=
(
r P
P
r
dt
dt
dt
dt
For finding the escape velocity see Problem 45.
(3)
= m
But P
v . Therefore we can write
d
r
=
P
v m
v = 0 since
v
v =0
dt
dP
d
v
=
r
=
rm
=
r m
a =
r F
dt
dt
5 Angular momentum
Let a particle p of mass m having a position (x, y) with a radius
be the linear momentum asvector
r as shown in Fig. 5.1. Let P
sociated with p. Then the vector angular momentum
L of the
particle w.r.t. the origin O is defined by
L =
r P
(1)
(4)
(5)
where
is called torque. That is, the torque acting on a particle is nothing but the rate of change of angular momentum
of the particle(this result is analogous to the statement that "
force is nothing but the rate of change of linear momentum" in
case of bodies under translation). Using Eqs. (5.16) & (5.17) in
Eq. (5.15) we get
Obviously, the magnitude of

L is given by
(2)
d
L
=
=
r F
dt
as shown in Fig. 5.1. The

where is the angle between
r and P
.
direction of L is normal to the plane formed by
r and P
dt
L = I
6.67 1011 7.3 1022

= 1.685 ms2
(1.7 106 )2
L = r P sin
L = mr 2
But mr 2 = I where I is the moment of inertia of the particle

=
about O and (d /d t )
where the symbols carry their usual meaning. From data

we have G = 6.67 1011 Nm2 kg2 , R = 1.7 106 m and
M = 7.3 1022 kg. So
g moon
d
d
d
rp = mr r r
rp = mr 2
r rp
dt
dt
dt
where
is the unit vector in the direction of the
But r rp =
angular momentum vector.
The acceleration due to gravity of moon at its surface

(g moon ) is given by the relation
g moon
where the symbols carry their usual meaning. For a

geostationary satellite, the period of revolution must be
equal to that of earth. So from data we have g = 9.8 ms2 ,
R = 6400 103 m, T = 24 60 60 sec. Thus we have
(6)
Page 34( 44 )
5.1 Conservation of angular momentum

We know that the time rate of change of the total angular momentum of a system of particles about a point fixed in an inertial reference frame (or about the center of mass) is equal to
the sum of the external torques acting on the system, that is,
d
L
dt
Fig. 5.2: Areal velocity of a particle moving in a central force

field.
5.3 Law of equal areas
(8)
Let a two particle system of reduced mass m be moving in a

central force field as shown in Fig. 5.2. Let the instantaneous
position vector for the particle be
r at a position A with respect to the origin O of the co-ordinate system. If
r changes
to
r + dr at a point B in a time d t (as shown in Fig. 5.2), then
AB=
r + dr r = dr , and the area, OAB = d A, swept by the radius vector
r in time d t is given by d A = (1/2)r d r (Area of a
sector=(1/2) base height). Hence we have
When the resultant external torque on the system is zero, we

have
L = constant =
L0
(9)
where
L 0 is the constant total angular momentum vector. The
angular momenta of the individual particles may change, but
their vector sum
L 0 remains constant in the absence of a net
external torque.
Angular momentum is a vector quantity so that Eq. (5.21)
is equivalent to three scalar equations, one for each coordinate
direction through the reference point. The conservation of angular momentum therefore supplies us with three conditions
on the motion of a system to which it applies.
For a system consisting of a rigid body rotating about an
axis (the z-axis, say) that is fixed in an inertial reference frame,
we have
L z = I
Areal velocity
d
A
dt
i .e.,
=
=
=
(10)
d A (1/2)
r dr
=
dt
dt
d
r
1
r m
2m
dt
1
r P
2m
1
L
L =
r P
2m
L is a constant in a
Constant central force field (11)
where
L is the angular momentum vector which is constant in
a central force field. Thus the areal velocity of the radius vector for a particle under a central force is constant or the radius
vector sweeps area at a constant rate.
where
L z is the angular momentum along the rotation axis and
I is the moment of inertia about that axis. When
L z is a constant, it means that I . That is, if increases, I decreases
and viceversa so that the product of the two remains a constant.
5.4 Newtons law of gravitation

The force F between any two particles having masses m 1 and
m 2 separated by a distance r is an attraction acting along the
line joining the particles and has the magnitude
5.2 Central force

Any field in which the force experienced by a body is a function
of only the distance r between two points/particles is called
may be written in the
central force. Therefore a central force F
form
F =G
m1 m2
r2
(12)
where G is a universal constant having the same value for all

pairs of particles.
This is Newtons law of universal gravitation. It is important to stress at once many features of this law in order that we
understand it clearly.
First, the gravitational forces between two particles are an
action-reaction pair. The first particle exerts a force on the second particle that is directed toward the first particle along the
line joining the two. Likewise, the second particle exerts a force
on the first particle that is directed toward the second particle
along the line joining the two. These forces are equal in magnitude but oppositely directed.
(r ) = F (r )r
F
The torque for such a force is given by
(r ) = r r F (r )r = F (r )r [r r] = 0
=
r F
Hence, = 0. But we know that = (d
L/d t ). This means that
(d
L/d t ) = 0; or
L is a constant. for central forces, not only does
|
L| remains constant, but its direction is also constant. Therefore central force is that force under the action of which both the
magnitude and direction the angular momentum vector remain
constant.
d
+
r
O
~
Area OAB= 12 ~r dr
(7)
Let us suppose that

= 0. Then (d
L/d t ) = 0 so that
L =
const ant . This means that when the resultant external torque
acting on a system is zero, the total vector angular momentum
of the system remains constant. This is the principle of the conservation of angular momentum. For a system of n particles,
the total angular momentum
L about some point is
L =
l 1 +
l 2 +
l 3 + . . . +
ln .
dr
A
Page 35( 44 )
where r21 is the unit vector in the direction of

r 21 . From these
equations we find that
The universal constant G has the dimensions L 3 /M T 2 and

is a scalar quantity. Newtons law of universal gravitation is not
a defining equation for any of the physical quantities (force,
mass, or length) contained in it. The essence of this law is
the assumption that the force on a particle can be related in
a simple way to measurable properties of the particle and of its
environment, that is, the existence of simple force laws is assumed. The law of universal gravitation is such a simple law.
If G is known for a given pair of bodies, we can use that value
in the law of gravitation to determine the gravitational forces
between any other pair of bodies.
If we want to determine the force between extended bodies,
as for example the earth and the moon, we must regard each
body as decomposed into particles. Then the interaction between all particles must be computed. Integral calculus makes
such a calculation possible. Newtons motive in developing the
calculus arose in part from a desire to solve such problems. In
general, it is incorrect to assume that all the mass of a body
can be concentrated at its center of mass for gravitational purposes. This assumption is correct for uniform spheres.
Implicit in the law of universal gravitation is the idea that
the gravitational force between two particles is independent of
the presence of other bodies or the properties of the intervening space. The correctness of this idea depends on the correctness of the deductions using it and has so far been borne out.
m2
m1
r21
= (r12)
r12
m1
m1
12 = F
21
F
(15)
to mean that the gravitational forces acting on the two particles

form an action-reaction pair.
5.6 Keplers Laws of Planetary Motion

Keplers laws are mainly concerned with the basic characteristics of planetary motion. These are:
1. Every planet moves in an elliptic orbit with the sun at one
of the foci.
2. For a given planet the line joining the planet to the sun
describes equal areas in equal intervals of time. In other
words, the areal velocity is constant for a planet.
3. The square of the period of revolution of a planet round
the sun is directly proportional to the cube of the major
axis of its orbit.
Keplers laws may actually be derived from the Newtons law of
gravitation.
m2
F12
F21 = F12
r
A
Area A
m1
Sun
21 , is directed
Fig. 5.3: The force exerted on m 2 (by m 1 ), F
opposite to the displacement,
r 12 , of m 2 from m 1 . The force
12 , is directed opposite to the
exerted on m 1 (by m 2 ), F
21 = F
12 , the forces being
displacement,
r 21 , of m 1 from m 2 . F
the action-reaction pair.
Orbit
Fig. 5.4: The planets revolve round the sun in elliptical orbits
with the sun at one of the two foci of the orbit. The revolution
takes place in such a way that the areal velocity remains
constant.
5.5 Vectorial representation of Newtons law of

gravitation
Let M and m be the masses of the sun and planet respectively.
Let us choose a coordinate system with the origin at the sun.
Let A be the position of the planet at some instant of time and
let the corresponding position vector at that time be
r as shown
in Fig. 5.4. From Newton law the gravitational force exerted by
the sun on the planet is
We can express the law of universal gravitation in vector form.

Let the displacement vector
r 12 point from the particle of mass
m 1 to the particle of mass m 2 , as shown in Fig. 5.3(a). The grav21 , exerted on m 2 by m 1 , is given in direction
itational force F
and magnitude by the vector relation
21 = G
F
m1 m2
2
r 12
r12
F M m = G
(13)
m2 m1
2
r 21
r21
(16)
where r is the unit vector pointing towards the planet from

Sun. But from Newtons second law of motion, F M m =
m d 2 r /d t 2 so that Eq. (5.16) becomes
where r12 is the unit vector in the direction of

r 12 . The minus
21 points in a direction opposite
sign in Eq. (5.13) shows that F
to
r 12 . This means that the gravitational force is attractive. The
mass m 2 feels a force directed toward m 1 (see Fig. 5.3). The
Eq. (5.13) is indeed a form of inverse square law. Similarly the
force exerted by m 1 on m 2 is given by
12 = G
F
Mm
r
r2
d 2r
dt2
d dr
dr dt2
d
v
dt
m
or
(14)
=
=
=
Mm
r
r2
M
G 2 r
r
M
G 2 r
r
G
(17)
Page 36( 44 )
Vectorially multiplying both sides of this equation by

r , we get
d 2r
dt2
d
r
dt
r r
r2
r andr have same direction.
Constant or
r
v =
h
. But we can write

where is the angle between
r and X
r (
v
h) = (
r
v )
h = h 2 so that Eq. (5.24) becomes
d
v
dt
d
v
h
dt
G M r + X
G M r r +
r X
G M r + r X cos
a
rmax
Orbit
Fig. 5.5: The elliptical orbit of planets as derived from Keplers

law. l is the latus-rectum; a and b are respectively called
semi-major and semi-minor axes.
From the theory of mathematics, for an ellipse we have
(20)
b2
a
and Area = a b
(26)
If T is the period of revolution of a planet, then the areal velocity of the planet is given by
Areal velocity
or T 2
ab h
=
T
2
2ab
h
42 a 2 b 2
h2
from Eq. (5.19)
(27)
But we have
(21)
b2
a
or h 2
(22)
h2
b2
and l =
(G M )
a
h2
(G M )
b2
= GM
a
from Eq. 5.25) & (5.26)
(28)
Using this result in Eq. (5.27) we get
(23)
is a constant vector of integration. Multiplying both

where X
the sides of the above equation by
r we get
r
v
h
rmin
d
v
h
dt
(25)
But d r/d t = rp d /d t (r and rp are perpendicular vectors) so

that r d r/d t = 0 and r r = r. Now Eq. (5.21) may be written as
v
h
M
r
r2
M
h
G 2 r
r
d r
= GM
r
dt
d
d r
d
h
(
v
h) = G M
r
=0
dt
dt
dt
Integrating this equation we obtain
where l = h 2 /(G M ) and = X /(G M ) is a constant. This is an

equation of an ellipse with one of its foci at the origin of the
coordinate axes (see Fig. 5.5) and whose semi-latus rectum is
l and eccentricity is equal to . Therefore this equation shows
that the planets move in elliptic orbits which is the statement
of Keplers first law of planetary motion.
Substituting for
h from Eq. (5.20) we have
(
)
d
v
M
dr
h = G 2 r r 2 r
dt
r
dt
(
)
d r
= G M r r
dt
)
}
{(
dr
d r
r (r r)
= G M r
dt
dt
lim
=
h = 2H
r
v = r r
(r r)
) dt
(
d r dr
r
= r r r
+
dt dt
dr
dr
r r
= r 2 r
+r
dt
dt
dr
= r 2 r
r r = 0
dt
From Eq. (5.17) we have
or r
G m r + r X cos
h2
G M + X cos
h 2 /(G M )
1 + {X /(G M )} cos
l
1 + cos
(1/2)
r r
t 0
t
1
d
r
=
r
2
dt
1
=
H
h = Constant from Eq. (5.18)
(19)
2
which is nothing but the Keplers second law of planetary motion which states that the areal velocity of a planet is a constant.
Rewtiting Eq. (5.19) we have
=
(18)
Where
h is a constant vector. Let us now think that the planet
moves from A to a position B after a time t as shown in
Fig. 5.4. The area swept out by the radius vector in this time
(Fig. 5.4) is equal to the area of the sector which may be approximated to the area of the triangle OAB, equal to (1/2)
r r
(Std. formula). Hence the instantaneous areal velocity H of the

planet is now is given by
h2
T2
42 a 2 b 2
42 3
=
a
2
(b /a)G M G M
T2
a3
(29)
Eq. (5.29) is nothing but Keplers third law of planetary motion

which states that the square of the period of revolution of a
planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of the
elliptical path that the planet moves along.
(24)
Page 37( 44 )
1. A particle executing SHM has an acceleration of 2

102 m/s2 when its displacement is 0.08 m. Find the
time it takes to make ten oscillations.
The surface tension of a liquid surface is a manifestation of

forces exerted by the surface molecules on each other. Therefore it characterizes the nature of molecules in the liquid surface. Thus, surface tension is immediately remarkably affected
by the contamination or presence of impurity in the liquid surface. As mentioned earlier, the change in surface tension depends on the degree of contamination and the nature of impurity molecules in the liquid surface.
Presence of dissolved substances usually increases the surface energy, and hence the surface tension, of the liquid. Since
the liquid has a tendency of minimizing the potential energy
(or surface area), the solute is pulled into the interior of the
liquid so that the surface tension is minimum. This results in
an increase of concentration of the solute inside the liquid as
compared to that at the surface of the liquid.
The surface tension of unassociated liquids (i.e., liquids
made of only one type of molecules, such as, C6 H6 , CCl4 , etc.)
is known to decrease with increase in temperature. The surface
tension of associated liquids (where the molecules of different
types are present) vary with temperature according to the relation T = A(1/c ) where T is the surface tension, is the temperature and c is the so-called critical temperature at which T
is zero.
Solution:
The particle executing SHM may be represented by the
equation
d2y
dt2
2 y
where y is the displacement at any instant of time t and

is the angular frequency of the oscillator. So we have
(by magnitude)
d 2 y/d t 2
y
Acceleration
displacement
2 102
= 0.25 radian/sec
0.08
From definition we know that
2
T
6.3
2 2
T =
=
= 25.13 sec
0.25
Consider a small liquid surface ABCD at rest (Fig. Fig. 6.1). As

we know, the surface remains at rest only when the inward
pressure on it due to surface tension is equal end opposite to
the outward excess of pressure P on it. Let us now think of a
solution where the surface ABCD is blown up to form a surface
A B C D as shown in Fig. Fig. 6.1.
Here T is the period of oscillation. Hence the time required for the oscillator to complete 10 oscillations is
t
Pressure inside a liquid drop (or curved surface)
10 25.13 = 251.3 sec
6 Surface tension
y + dy
6.1 Introduction
....
....
....
.
D
y
Surface Tension When the molecules of a fluid (liquid or gas)

are brought close together enough, they attract each other.
Such intermolecular force of attraction is divided into two
types, namely, (i) adhesive force and (ii) cohesive force. Adhesion refers to intermolecular attraction between dissimilar molecules while cohesion refers to that between similar
molecules. Surface tension is a cohesive force acting normal
to a unit imaginary line in the surface of a liquid.
As a result of surface tension, the surface of a liquid remains
in the state of tension (like a stretched rubber sheet). Thus the
molecules in the surface of a liquid possess potential energy.
As the potential energy of a system tends to have a minimum
value, the liquid surface tries to have minimum surface area in
order to minimize its surface energy. The potential energy per
unit area of the liquid is usually referred to as surface energy of
the liquid.
... C
....
.. ...
. C
..
.
r2. .
.
x + dx
.. .
6
.
dz = dr
B
?
..
.. ......
x
. ...... B
.. ........
... r1
........
.... ..... r2
....
r1
O1
O2
Fig.6.1: Surface under consideration for calculating the excess

of pressure.
Let the side AB (or CD) has a radius of curvature r 1 and that
for BC (or AD) is r 2 . Similarly, after ABCD is blown up, let A B
(& C D ) and B C (& A D ) assume radiuses of curvature r 1 +d r
and r 2 + d r respectively as shown in Fig. Fig. 6.1. Now, for the
surface A B C D to be in equilibrium we must have:
6.2 Factors affecting surface tension
work done in displacing ABC Dto A B C D =
Basically 3 factors affect surface tension of a liquid. They are

(a) contamination (or impurity) of liquid surface, (b) presence
of dissolved substances in the liquid and (c) temperature of the
liquid.
increase in surface energy of the surface
(1)
But
LHS of Eq. (6.1)
X
P x y dz
(2)
Page 38( 44 )
since work done = force displacement = P area d z =

P x y d z. Here d z = d r is the distance by which ABCD is moved.
We also have
Holder
Funnel
Pinch
cock
RHS of Eq. (6.1) = surface tension increase in area

{
}
= T (x + d x)(y + d y) x y T (x d y + y d x)
(3)
since d x d y is very small and is negligible.
Eqs. (6.1), (6.2) and (6.3) we have
Stand
Thus, from
P x y d z = T (x d y + y d x)
or
(
P =T
1 dy 1 dx
+
y dz x dz
Beaker
Drop
)
(4)
Fig. 6.2: Formation of liquid drops in the drop weight method

of determining surface tension.
Since we have considered ABCD to be of small area, we can

treat O1 AB (& O1 A B ) and O2 BC (& O2 B C ) in Fig. Fig. 6.1 as
similar triangles. Then for these triangles we can write the following:
6.4 Surface tension by drop weight method
x + d x r 1 + dr
y + d y r 2 + dr
=
and
=
x
r1
y
r2
dx
dr
dy
dr
1+
= 1+
and 1 +
= 1+
x
r1
y
r2
Consider a vertical tube through which drops of liquid are

forming uniformly as shown in Fig. Fig. 6.2. When a drop gets
detached from the tube, it assumes a cylindrical shape due to
vertical force of gravity on it. The total downward force on the
drop is due to (a) the weight mg of the drop (where m is the
mass of the drop and g is the acceleration due to gravity) and
(b) downward pull of the drop due to surface tension, equal
to the product of excess of pressure (T /r ) and the area of cross
section of the drop r 2 (where r is the radius of the drop). Thus
the total downward force F d on the drop is given by
Since d r = d z we can write these equations as

dx dr dz d y dr dz
=
=
;
=
=
x
r1
r1
y
r2
r2
sothat
dx
1
dy
1
=
and
=
x d z r1
y d z r2
Substituting this result in Eq. (3.4) we get
)
(
1
1
P =T
+
r1 r2
(5)
Fd = r 2
T
+ mg = r T + mg
r
At the time of detachment from the tube, the cylindrical drop

remains in equilibrium . This is due to the force F T of surface
tension which acts on the drop along a direction perpendicular
to the circumference of the drop (or tube). This force is equal
to 2 r T . Thus, at the moment of detachment of drop we must
have
(6)
where, as we know, T is the surface tension of the liquid. For a

spherical surface, r 1 = r 2 = r so that Eq. (3.6) becomes
)
(
2T
1 1
=
P =T
+
(7)
r r
r
r T + mg = 2 r T Or T =
For a bubble, there are two surfaces so that the pressure is twice
that in case of a drop {Eq. (3.7)}. Thus, for a spherical bubble
we have
(
)
4T
1 1
=
P = 2T
+
(8)
r r
r
mg
r
(12)
Thus from a knowledge of m, g and r , one can determine T of

the liquid. A more sophisticated approach gives Eq. (3.12) in
the form
For a cylindrical surface r 1 = r , say, and r 2 = so that Eq. (3.6)

becomes
)
(
T
1
+0 =
P =T
(9)
r
r
T=
mg
3.8 r
(13)
6.5 Surface tension by Quinckes method
Likewise, for a cylindrical bubble we have

2T
T
P = 2 =
r
r
When a drop of a liquid is kept on a flat solid surface, the liquid

stands on the solid surface in a characteristic way, as shown in
Fig. Fig. 6.3. The angle between the tangent drawn to the liquid surface at the point of contact and the solid surface, the
angle being measured inside the liquid, is called the angle of
contact. A liquid is said to wet a solid surface if its angle of contact with the solid is < 90 . Quinckes method is applicable to
liquids which do not wet the solid surface (i.e., angle of contact
is > 90 ).
(10)
For a centroid surface (for which two radiuses of curvature are

equal, but one is convex and the other is concave) we have
r 1 = r 2 . In this case P is given by
)
(
1 1
+
=0
(11)
P =T
r
r
Page 39( 44 )
: Angle of contact
Mercury drop
Glass surface
Solid surface
Liquid drop
b
M
(T )
Fig. 6.3: Liquid drop at equilibrium on a solid surface with

< 90 and > 90 .
F H = FT
1
1
g h 2 b = T b or T = g h 2
2
2
T b + T b cos
T b(1 + cos )
1
g h2b
2
g h2
2(1 + cos )
1. Calculate the excess pressure inside a soap bubble of radius 3 103 m. Given: surface tension of soap solution
is 20 10 3 N/m. Also calculate the surface energy.
Solution:
A soap bubble is spherical in nature. Excess of pressure
P inside it is given by
P
4T
r
where T is the surface tension of the liquid of which

the bubble is made and r is the radius of curvature of
the bubble. From data we have T = 20 10 3 N/m,
r = 3 103 m, P =?. So we have
P
4 20 10 3
= 26.7 Pa
3 103
2. Calculate the amount of energy needed to break a drop

of water of diameter 2103 m into 109 droplets of equal
size. Surface tension of water is 7.2 102 N/m.
Solution:
Radius of the big single drop = 2 103 /2 = 103 m. Surface energy of the big droplet is given by
GA = EN = b
(15)
ST Surface Area of the drop
7.2 102 4 (103 )2 = 9.05 107 J
Volume of the tiny droplet is

V
=
=
(16)
Volume of the big drop

109
1
4
(103 )3 = 3.84 1011 m3
109 3
If r is the radius of the tiny droplet, we must have
Thus by knowing the values of , g , h and , we can determine

T . On the other hand, if , g , h and T are known, we can determine . Then from , the angle of contact may be deter T
(see Fig.3.4).
mined from the simple relation = 180A
h
2
As mentioned earlier, the force due to hydrostatic pressure (or

fluid thrust) at the plane DMKL is g h (h/2)b = (1/2)g h 2 .
At equilibrium, these two forces must be equal and opposite,
i.e.,
T b(1 + cos )
Area=
Fig. 6.4: Mercury drop and its sectional view under

equilibrium on a glass surface.
Let E be the point of contact of the liquid with the solid as in

Fig. Fig. 6.4. The surface tension at E works in the direction ES
(Fig. Fig. 6.4). The net horizontal force on the drop which holds
the drop intact against the fluid thrust is given by
= 180
6.6 Surface tension involving angle of contact
T (G A + T cos E N )
(T )
(14)
(T )
Thus from a knowledge of , g and h, T can be determined.
Horizontal force
T b cos
When a large drop of a liquid stands in equilibrium on the surface of a solid with angle of contact > 90 , two forces come to
play on the drop to keep it in equilibrium. These are (i) force
of surface tension that keeps the drop intact and (ii) force due
to hydrostatic pressure which works in a direction opposite to
the direction of the force of surface tension. Under equilibrium
condition, these two forces are equal and opposite.
Let us consider the sectional view of a large liquid drop (Hg)
standing on a solid surface (glass) as in Fig. Fig. 6.4. Inside this
drop, let us consider a horizontal slice LKMD which has the
maximum area. Now we have
(a) Hydrostatic pressure over GLKA = g (h/2) (since LKMD
is in the middle) where is the density of the liquid and h
is the height of the drop (Fig. Fig. 6.4). Therefore, if LK=b
(see Fig. Fig. 6.4), the force F H due to hydrostatic pressure
is g (h/2) ar ea GLK A which is equal to g (h/2) b h =
(1/2) g h 2 b.
(b) Force F T due to surface tension which is obviously equal to
T (G A + 2h) = T (b + 2h) T b (since b 2h so that b + 2h b).
At equilibrium, these two forces are equal so that we can write
4
(r )3
3
3.84 1011
(
3
3.84 1011
4
)1/3
= 2.09 104 m
Page 40( 44 )
Solution:
Surface energy e on every tiny drop is now given by

e
ST 4(r )2
7.2 102 4 (2.09 104 )2
2.09 104 J
Surface energy of each droplet is
The total energy E stored in 109 tiny droplets is

E
109 2.09 104 = 4.3 106 J
The energy E required to convert the given big drop in

to 109 droplets of equal size is therefore equal to the difference between E and E . So we have
E
E E = 4.3 106 9.05 107
33.95 107 J
ST Surface area of droplet
72 103 4 (0.2 103 )2
3.619 108 J
Total energy E stored on 1000 droplets is therefore

E
1000 3.619 108 = 36.19 106 J
Volume V of the unified single drop is

3. Calculate the amount of energy needed to break a spherical drop of water of diameter 2103 m into 109 droplets
of equal size. Surface tension tension of water is 72
103 Nml .
=
=
=
Solution:
Same as the previous problem, but 109 in the previous
problem should be replaced by 109 .
Volume of tiny droplet 1000

4
(0.2 103 )3 1000
3
1.01 107 m3
If r is the radius of the unified single drop, we must have
4. Calcul1te the work done in spraying a drop of water of

radius 0.001 m to a million drops of equal size. Given:
Surface tension of water is = 7.2 102 Nm1 .
4 3
r 7
3
r
1.01 107
(
Solution:
3 1.01 107
4
)1/3
= 2.89 103 m
The surface energy E stored on the unified single drop is

therefore
See Problem 51 & 52

5. Excess of pressure inside a soap bubble of diameter
7 mm is 26.66 Nm2 . Calculate the surface tension of
soap solution.
72 103 4 (2.89 103 )2
7.56 106 J
Solution:
The energy released when 1000 droplets are unified in to
a single drops is given by the difference between E and
E , that is,
Excess of pressure P inside a soap bubble of radius r is

given by
P
4T
r
T =
Pr
4
where T is the surface tension of the soap solution of

which the bubble is made. From data we have r = 7
103 /2 = 3.5 103 m, P = 26.66 Nm2 , T =?. We therefore have
T
26.66 3.5 10
4
36.19 106 7.56 106 = 29.33 106 J
7 Viscosity
= 0.0233 Nm1
7.1 Introduction
6. Calculate the amount of energy evolved when 1000

droplets of water each of radius 0.2 mm combine to form
a single drop. Surface tension of water = 72103 Nm1 .
Liquids and gases are together called fluids. Viscosity is a basic

property by virtue of which a fluid offers resistance to flow (or
shear). .
A liquid/fluid may be conceived to be made of a set of layers. Sliding of these layers one over the other is generally referred to as flow. Viscosity is a property
related to friction between adjacent layers of a fluid (or liquid) which are in relative motion (or flow)
Page 41( 44 )
7.2 Dependence of viscosity on pressure and temperature
7.1.1 Newtonian and non-Newtonian liquids

If viscosity of a liquid is independent of the external force, such
a liquid is called ideally viscous liquid or Newtonian liquid. A
graph of viscosity versus shear rate is often referred to as viscosity function.
In 1889 Arrhenius expressed an equation for temperature dependent chemical reaction rates. Since then, many temperature dependent chemical and physical processes have been
found to behave similar to Arrhenius equations. For the viscosity of many liquids, the viscosity decreases as the temperature
increases in accordance with the following equation:
For simplicity, let us imagine a newtonian liquid under

streamline flow over a surface. If A is the area of contact between successive layers of the liquid and d v/d x is the relative
velocity gradient between the adjacent layers (in a direction r
to direction of flow), then the force of viscosity F is given by
{
=
=
F
F
A(d v/d x) for streamline linear flow

Ar (d /d r ) for streamline circular flow
Ae E /(RT )
(4)
Where A is a constant known as the Arrhenius constant, E

is the activation energy for flow, R is the universal gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature of the liquid. Since
E and RT have the same unit so that E /kT is a dimensionless number. Consequently,A has the unit same as that for .
Rewriting Eq. (7.4) we have
}
(1)
where d v/d x and r d /d r are respectively the linear and angular velocity gradients and is called the coefficient of dynamic viscosity (or viscosity) of the fluid. Larger the value of ,
more will be the energy required to make the liquid flow. Liquids have another type of viscosity called kinematic viscosity,
denoted by . This term is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to the density of the liquid, i.e., = /.
A e E /R e 1/T
This is a linear equation of the form y = mx where y = ,

m = Ae E /R (slope of the line) and x = e 1/T . Here, as T increases, e 1/T decreases and hence also decreases. Thus it is
clear that viscosity of a liquid decreases as T increases.
Viscosity of liquids is normally independent of pressure.
However, under extremely high pressures liquids show an increase in the viscosity. Since liquids are normally incompressible, an increase in pressure does not really bring the
molecules significantly closer together. However, under extreme pressures the intr-molecular distance becomes closer,
and the inter-molecular attraction increases. This results in an
increase of viscosity of liquids.
Non-Newtonian
liquids
shear thickening type
Newtonian
liquids
7.3 Rotational viscometer

7.3.1 Introduction
shear thinning type
A viscometer (also called viscosimeter) is an instrument used

to measure the viscosity and flow parameters of a fluid. Photograph of a modern rotational viscometer is shown in Fig. 7.2.
Shear rate F/[A(dv/dx)]

Fig. 7.1: Viscosity function for Newtonian and non-Newtonian
fluids.
Therefore, in the case of Newtonian liquids, the force of viscosity (viscous force) is linearly related to the velocity gradient (or
fluid shear). This is not the case with Non-Newtonian fluids.
A description of the difference between Newtonian and nonNewtonian liquids is shown in Fig. 7.1. Rewriting Eq. (7.1) we
have
F
A
dv
dv
or =
dx
dx
d v/d x
F
A
(2)
(3)
where F /A is nothing but the shearing stress on the layers of

the fluid. From Eq. (7.3) we find that the coefficient of viscosity is the ratio of shearing stress to the velocity gradient, in the
case of a Newtonian fluid.
Fig. 7.2: Photograph of a modern rotational viscometer.

Rotational viscometers use the idea that the force required to
turn an object in a fluid can indicate the viscosity of that fluid.
Activation energy of a liquid (E ) is defined as the minimum energy required to make the liquid flow. E is constant for a given liquid
Page 42( 44 )
of twist , the moment of the force (or torque) on A becomes

equal to the restoring couple C produced in the suspension
where C is the restoring couple per unit twist of suspension.
Under this condition the rotating system remains in equilibrium. Now we shall show that, by measuring and l , (read
from the speed of the motor) and from a knowledge of C , a and
b (supplied as standard data), we can determine for a liquid
in question.
The viscometer determines the required force for rotating the

object (disk, bob, or a cylinder) in a fluid at a known speed.
Rotational viscometers fall into two main types: 1. Synchronous motor viscometers and 2. Servo Motor viscometer.
In the first type, a stepper motor drives the main shaft. A
spring & pivot assembly rotate on the shaft. The spindle or rotor hangs from this assembly. As the spindle rotates, the spring
is deflected by the viscosity of the sample under test.
In the second type, a precision servo motor drives the shaft.
The Spindle or rotor is attached directly to the shaft. High
speed microprocessors measure the speed from a digital encoder and calculate the current required to drive the rotor at
the test speed. The current required is proportional to the viscosity of the sample under test.
in
ta
on
B
er
Liquid
7.3.2 Construction
Cy
Diagram of a rotational viscometer is shown in Fig. 7.3. It consists of a cylinder A of radius a suspended from a spiral spring
and immersed partially in the liquid of viscosity (see Fig. 7.3).
The length of immersion of A is assumed to be l (see Fig. 7.3).
The liquid is contained by a rotating cylindrical container B of
radius b. B is rotated at a constant angular velocity about the
suspension as axis by means of a motor-shaft arrangement as
shown in Fig. 7.2(motor not shown in Fig).
The viscosity of the liquid generates a moment of rotation
at the cylinder A. This can be measured by reading the angle of
torsion of the spiral spring on a scale with the help of a tiny mirror using a lamp and scale arrangement (not shown in Fig 7.3).
lin
rA
de
r
dr
a
Cy
ll
rica
l i nd
r
aye
Fig. 7.4: Assumptions in the discussion of the theory of

rotational viscometer.
Consider a cylindrical layer of radius r and thickness d r as

shown in Fig. 7.4. Let be the angular velocity of the layer. We
shall note here that the layers are in circular motion. Hence,
the force of viscosity F on the side face of cylinder A (inside the
liquid) due to rotation of liquid layer is (see Eq. 7.1)
Spiral
spring
suspension
system
a
b
Liquid for which

is to be determined
Cylinder
A
Container B
Cylinder immersed
in the liquid of
viscosity
Mirror to measure
side face area of A inside liquid r
2r l r
d
d
= 2r 2 l
dr
dr
d
dr
(5)
Let the moment of this force (called torque) on the side-surface

of the cylinder A (inside liquid) be 1 . This is defined by the
product of the force F and the distance of the layer from the
axis (= r ). That is,
Shaft driven by a
motor at a constant
speed
1
1
dr
r3
F r = 2r 2 l
2l d
d
d
r = 2r 3 l
dr
dr
(6)
Fig. 7.2: Diagram of a rotational viscometer.

The torque due to all the layers of liquid between A and B is
obtained by integrating the left hand side of the above equation between the limits b and a. As a result, the inner cylinder
A is rotated by certain angle. The moment of F would be maximum (= , read from motor speed) at r = b (since the outermost layer is stuck to the surface of B and hence its angular
speed is equal to that of B ) and zero at r = a (since the layer
adjacent to A is stuck to the surface of A and hence it does not
7.3.3 Theory
The liquid in the container B may be thought to be made of
a number of cylindrical layers. When the container is rotated,
these layers rub against each other in a circular motion. Due
to viscosity the inner cylinder A is made to rotate. Consequently, the suspension is twisted and an opposing reaction is
produced in the suspension (spiral spring). At a certain angle
Page 43( 44 )
rotate with respect to A). This means the following:

b

dr
1 3 =
2l d
r
a
0
[ 2 ]b
r
1
= 2l []
0
2 a
[ 2 ]a
r
1
= 2l []
0
2 b
[
]
1
1
1 2 2
= 4l
a
b
[ 2
]
b a2
1
= 4l
a2b2
sion will be equal and opposite to the torque produced due to

rotation of B . Here is the angle by which the suspension is
twisted under equilibrium. So, under equilibrium we can write
C
2 2
1 + 2
C 1
C 2
C (2 1 )
4l
1 + 2
(9)
We shall note here that 2 does not change with respect to r .

That is, 2 remains constant with respect to r . Hence it can be
eliminated experimentally as follows:
Let l 1 and l 2 be two lengths of immersion of A for which
the corresponding angles of twist in the suspension be 1 and
2 respectively. Then we can write
b a
(7)
b2 a2
We shall note that, when B is rotated, there will be a torque
2 on the bottom surface of the cylinder A also (top surface
not immersed in liquid, see Fig. 7.2). Thus the total torque on
cylinder A due to rotation of B may be written as
(8)
b2 a2
l 1 + 2
b2 a2
b2 a2
l 2 + 2
l 2 = 4 2
b a2
b2 a2
4 2
(l 2 l 1 )
b a2
C b 2 a 2 2 1
4a 2 b 2 l 2 l 1
l 1 = 4
(10)
Thus, by knowing C , , a, b and by measuring 1 , l 1 , 2 & l 2 ,

one can determine .
As a result of rotation of A, the suspension is twisted. Under

equilibrium, the twisting couple (C ) produced in the suspen-
Page 44( 44 )

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a

For B Sc, 1st Semester, Paper-I

Course Material Prepared for Physics Students-201617 

c Maharanis Science College for Women, Mysore

I Semester Physics Course Material b

First semester B Sc Physics

(14 weeks 3 Lecture hours per week)

Halliday, Resnick, Jearl Walker

Inertial reference frames with examples. Uniform rectilinear

Berkeley Physics Course,

Halliday, Resnick, Jearl Walker

Brij Lal, N Subrahmanyam

S R Shankara Narayana 381412

Motion of a point particle

Halliday, Resnick, Jearl Walker

Rigid body dynamics

c Maharanis Science College for Women, Mysore

I Semester Physics Course Material b

Any eight of the following experiments must be completed:

Halliday, Resnick, Jearl Walker

4. Surface tension & Interfacial tension by drop weight

6. Stokes method of determining viscosity

Conservation of angular momentum

7. Youngs modulus by stretching

Review of angular momentum and Torque. Relation between

KeplerAZs laws of planetary motion-derivation using New Zs

8. q by single cantilever method

Brij Lal, N Subrahmanyam

C L Arora and P S Hemne

C L Arora and P S Hemne

mDr N Srinivas, Department Of Physics

c Maharanis Science College for Women, Mysore

I Semester PhysicsCourse Material b

In order to discuss the motion of a mechanical system, one has

1.2 Some important definitions

Inertial frames Two frames of reference can be said to be

Reference Frame It is a space determined by a rigid body

Local inertial frame is a reference frame in which a body,

1.3 Galilean principle of relativity

mLesson plan/notes of Dr N Srinivas

c Maharanis Science College for Women, Mysore

I Semester PhysicsCourse Material b

laws of motion we have (i) every body continues in its state of

where u and u are the velocity vectors of P w.r.t. the frames

Fig. 1.1: Two inertial frames S and S moving with respect to

each other, and S is moving with a velocity

S and S . Now, to get the acceleration transformation, we shall

Let S and S are two inertial frames, whose origins O and

where a and a are the acceleration vectors of P w.r.t.

As already mentioned, the universal nature of time as assumed

Sinertial reference frame

We shall note that the classical mechanics and the Galilean

c Maharanis Science College for Women, Mysore

I Semester PhysicsCourse Material b

If the particle has a mass m (which is assumed to be invariant

force ma z exists which is dependent on

1.5 Motion in an inertial reference frame (frames

This is, sometimes, also called horizontal accelerometer. A

Let S be the frame moving with an acceleration a with respect

Course Material Prepared for Physics Students-201617