Hahr and Molitch Clinical Diabetes and Endocrinology (2015) 1:2

DOI 10.1186/s40842-015-0001-9

REVIEW ARTICLE

Open Access

Management of diabetes mellitus in patients with

chronic kidney disease
Allison J. Hahr and Mark E. Molitch*

Abstract
Glycemic control is essential to delay or prevent the onset of diabetic kidney disease. There are a number of
glucose-lowering medications available but only a fraction of them can be used safely in chronic kidney disease
and many of them need an adjustment in dosing. The ideal target hemoglobin A1c is approximately 7 % but this
target is adjusted based on the needs of the patient. Diabetes control should be optimized for each individual
patient, with measures to reduce diabetes-related complications and minimize adverse events. Overall care of
diabetes necessitates attention to multiple aspects, including reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease, and often,
multidisciplinary care is needed.
Keywords: Diabetes, Chronic kidney disease, Diabetic kidney disease, Nephropathy, Glycemic control, Hemoglobin A1c

Introduction
Diabetes mellitus is a growing epidemic and is the most
common cause of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and
kidney failure. Diabetic nephropathy affects approximately 2040 % of individuals who have diabetes [1],
making it one of the most common complications related to diabetes. Screening for diabetic nephropathy
along with early intervention is fundamental to delaying
its progression in conjunction with providing proper
glycemic control. Given the growing population that is
now affected by diabetes and thus, nephropathy, knowledge regarding the safe use of various anti-hyperglycemic
agents in those with nephropathy is of importance. In
addition, attention to modification of cardiovascular
disease (CVD) risk factors is essential. Altogether, knowledge regarding the prevention and management of diabetic nephropathy, along with other aspects of diabetes
care, is part of the comprehensive care of any patient with
diabetes.
Review
Recommendations for nephropathy screening in diabetes

Patients with diabetes should be screened on an annual

basis for nephropathy. In individuals with type 1 diabetes,
screening for nephropathy should start 5 years after
* Correspondence: [email protected]
Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Molecular Medicine,
Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, 645 N. Michigan
Avenue, Suite 530, 60611 Chicago, Illinois, USA

diagnosis of diabetes since the onset of diabetes itself is

usually known. It typically takes about 5 years for microvascular complications to develop. In patients with type 2
diabetes, screening should begin at initial diagnosis since
the exact onset of diabetes is often unknown [1].
Diabetic nephropathy can be detected by the measurement of urine albumin or serum creatinine, and both
tests should be performed at minimum annually [1];
those with abnormal levels should have repeat tests done
sooner. The first stage of nephropathy is usually the onset of elevated urine albumin which predicts the development of CKD and a gradual decline in glomerular
filtration rate (GFR). Some individuals with CKD, however, do not develop elevated urine albumin initially. It is
therefore important that individuals have both blood
and urine screening tests performed. Using both modalities allows for identification of more cases of nephropathy than using either test alone.
The urine albumin to creatinine ratio can be measured
on a spot or timed urine collection such as 4 or 24 h.
Microalbuminuria is defined as >30 mg/g creatinine or
30 mg per 24 h. Clinical-or macro-albuminuria is defined as >300 mg/g creatinine or 300 mg per 24 h. An
abnormal value should be confirmed on at least one
additional urine specimen over a 6 month period. Recently, the terms moderately increased and severely
increased albuminuria have been introduced to replace
the terms microalbuminuria and macroalbuminuria.

2015 Hahr and Molitch; licensee BioMed Central. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
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Hahr and Molitch Clinical Diabetes and Endocrinology (2015) 1:2

Increased albumin excretion is not only a marker for

early diabetic kidney disease but also for increased risk
for macrovascular disease [1]. Other causes of elevated
urine protein should be considered and avoided such as
infection, strenuous exercise, hypertension, heart failure
and hematuria. The serum creatinine should be used to
estimate GFR and thus, the level of CKD.
One must also consider that the development of nephropathy may not be related to the diabetes itself. In
patients with type 1 diabetes, the onset of retinopathy
usually precedes the development of nephropathy. An
individual who present with nephropathy but no retinopathy should have an evaluation for other causes. Referral to a nephrologist should be utilized to establish
the cause of nephropathy when this is uncertain. Nephrologists are also vital to assist management of complications of advancing kidney disease, such as difficult
to control hypertension, hyperkalemia and rapid progression [1, 2].
Glycemic control in CKD

Glycemic control is essential to delay the onset of complications from diabetes, and it can be challenging for
even the most experienced physician. Blood sugar control in those with CKD adds another level of complexity.
It requires detailed knowledge of which medications can
be safely used and how kidney disease affects metabolism of these medications. In addition, the glycemic target needs to be individualized for each patient,
acknowledging that our ability to interpret the data can
be altered in the setting of kidney disease.
Glycemic goal to attain A1c ~7.0 %

Glycemic control is essential to delay or possibly prevent

nephropathy. In general, the recommended target A1c
for diabetes control by the ADA has been less than or
around 7 % [3]. The ADA advises both higher (<8 %) or
stricter (<6.5 %) A1c goals for certain populations [3].
AACE suggests a goal A1c of 6.5 % in healthy patients
who are at low risk for hypoglycemia but also acknowledges the goals need to be individualized [4]. The 2007
Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative (KDOQI)
guidelines for Diabetes and CKD endorse a target A1c of
<7.0 % [2] but their updated 2012 guidelines instead recommend an A1c of ~7.0 % [5].
In type 1 diabetes, a number of studies show the development of microalbuminuria is associated with
poorer glycemic control. In the DCCT, intensive therapy
in patients with type 1 diabetes (mean A1c 9.1 % vs.
7.2 %) reduced the occurrence of microalbuminuria by
34 % in the primary prevention group and 43 % in the
secondary intervention group (who had known early
complications at baseline); risk reduction in progression
to clinical albuminuria was also seen [6, 7]. To assess

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whether risk reduction of diabetic nephropathy persists

long-term, the EDIC Study demonstrated there were
fewer cases of new microalbuminuria and progression to
albuminuria in the original intensive group. In this longterm follow-up study of the original DCCT treatment
groups, it was shown that intensive treatment did result
in a significant decrease in the development of estimated
GFR levels of <60 ml/min/1.73 m2 [8]. In patients with
type 2 diabetes, the Kumamoto study, UKPDS and Veterans Affairs Cooperative studies showed reduction of
new onset nephropathy and progression of nephropathy
with intensive glycemic control [911]. A systematic review and meta-analysis of 7 trials evaluating intensive
glucose control on kidney-related end points in patients
with type 2 diabetes showed lower risk of developing
microalbuminuria and macroalbuminuria. The intensive
control groups had a median A1c ranging from 6.4
7.4 %. The A1c difference in the intensive groups compared to the control groups ranged from 0.62.3 %, with
4 of the studies demonstrating an A1c difference of
more than 1 %. The analysis also found there was no
benefit in regards to doubling of serum creatinine, development of ESRD or death related to kidney disease [12].
The ACCORD study showed higher risk of
hypoglycemia and mortality in patients with type 2 diabetes treated with intensive glucose control (mean A1c
6.4 % vs. 7.5 %), without any risk reduction on CVD.
The increased mortality could not be attributed to
hypoglycemia [13]. In the ADVANCE trial, more intensive glycemic control (A1c 6.5 % vs. 7.3 %) showed no
reduction in CVD. However, the intensive group had a
21 % reduction in nephropathy [14]. The VADT study
(intensive group with A1c 6.9 % vs. 8.4 %) also showed
no benefit on CVD risk with stricter glucose control
[15].
The data clearly show that lowering A1c leads to benefit in regards to nephropathy. Benefits in A1c reduction
are also seen on rates of retinopathy and neuropathy.
However, the effect of lowering A1c is much less in
regards to macrovascular disease. Thus, it is reasonable
that a target A1c ~7.0 % offers an optimal risk to benefit
ratio rather than a target that is considerably lower.
Glycemic goal in CKD

Lower A1c levels are associated with higher risk of

hypoglycemia which necessitates tailored A1c targets
for different individuals. Consequences of hypoglycemia,
which in turn can cause injury, myocardial infarction,
seizure, stroke or death, are greatest in those who are
frail and elderly, with erratic eating habits, on insulin
and sulfonylureas, and with CKD. Higher A1c targets
should be considered for those with shortened life expectancies, a known history of severe hypoglycemia or
hypoglycemia unawareness, CKD, as well as in children.

Hahr and Molitch Clinical Diabetes and Endocrinology (2015) 1:2

The Controversies Conference on Diabetic Kidney

Disease (DKD) held by KDIGO addressed a number of
issues surrounding DKD, including appropriate glycemic
control targets [16]. There are insufficient data and trials
regarding the ideal glucose target in patients with CKD
stage 3 or worse. One study showed that A1c levels
>9 % and < 6.5 % were associated with increased mortality in the presence of non-dialysis dependent CKD stage
3 or worse [17]. ESRD patients with diabetes benefit
from maintaining their A1c between 78 %, as A1c
levels above 8 % or below 7 % carry increased risks of
all-cause and cardiovascular death [18, 19]. A recent observational study found patients who started dialysis at a
younger age (<60 years old) had poorer survival with
A1c >8.5 % (HR 1.5 compared to those with A1c 6.5
7.4 %); there was no difference in older patients [20].
Accuracy of A1c

The hemoglobin A1c can be inaccurate in some patients

with kidney disease. Contributing factors include anemia
from reduced lifespan of the red blood cell, hemolysis
and iron deficiency; falsely increased levels can occur
from carbamylation of hemoglobin and the presence of
acidosis. Fructosamine and glycated albumin are alternative measures available to estimate glycemic control.
Fructosamine reflects the glycation of multiple serum
proteins whereas glycated albumin reflects glycation of
only albumin; both provide an estimate of control over
the past 2 weeks. It is unclear if they offer superior measures of glucose control compared to A1c in patients
with CKD. Some studies suggest glycated albumin is superior to A1c in dialysis patients since A1c tends to
underestimate glycemic control in those with ESRD, but
others argue that A1c remains the gold standard in these
patients [2123].
Medical therapy in diabetic nephropathy

Medical therapy for diabetes is continually changing as

new therapies become available for use and new updates
are available that add to our knowledge of the safety
profile of available medications. Please refer to Table 1
for adjustments in dosing for diabetes medications used
in CKD.
Insulin

Patients with progression of kidney disease are at increased risk of hypoglycemia due to decreased clearance
of insulin and some medications used to treat diabetes
as well as impairment of renal gluconeogenesis from
lower kidney mass. The kidney is responsible for about
30 to 80 % of insulin removal; reduced kidney function
is associated with a prolonged insulin half-life and a decrease in insulin requirements as GFR declines [24].

Page 3 of 9

All available insulin preparations can be used in patients with CKD, and there is no specified advised reduction in dosing for patients on insulin. The insulin type,
dose and administration must be tailored to each patient
to achieve goal glycemic levels but limit hypoglycemia.
An inpatient study randomizing weight-based basal and
bolus insulin in patients with a GFR <45 mL/min/
1.73 m2 to 0.5 units/kg body weight vs. 0.25 units/kg
showed similar glycemic control but significantly less
hypoglycemia in the group with the lower weight-based
dose [25].
The rapid-acting insulin analogs aspart, lispro and
glulisine are the quickest absorbed and are ideal for
rapid correction of elevated blood sugars or for prandial
insulin needs; they most resemble physiologic insulin secretion. They have an onset of action at 515 min, peak
action at 3090 min and an average duration of 5 h.
Some studies have shown glulisine has a slightly longer
duration of action than the other two rapid-acting insulins. These insulins can be given up to 15 min prior to
eating. They are used in basal-bolus therapy, also
known as multiple daily injections (MDI), as well as in
continuous subcutaneous insulin infusions, also known
as insulin pumps. The approximate retail cost per vial is
$150-165 [26].
Patients with Stage 45 CKD and those on dialysis
often have some delayed gastric emptying; giving rapidacting insulin after the meal may be helpful for matching the insulin peak with the time of the postprandial
blood glucose peak. In patients with nausea who may
not know how much they will eat, postprandial rapidacting insulin dosing may be worth trying. Similarly,
patients on peritoneal dialysis obtain large amounts of
calories from their dialysis fluid and often eat less than
they might expect so that postprandial dosing may be
helpful for them also.
The short-acting insulin available is regular crystalline insulin, which has an onset of action at 3060 min,
peak action at 23 h and duration up to 58 h. Regular
insulin should ideally be given 30 min prior to a meal.
The main advantage of regular insulin is its substantially
lower cost compared to the rapid-acting analogs. Regular
insulin costs about $90 per vial [26].
The available intermediate-acting insulin is isophane,
or NPH. It has an onset of action at 24 h, peak concentration at 410 h and duration up to 1018 h. In order
to achieve adequate basal coverage, it is dosed twice
daily. Its use can be limited by its highly variable absorption. Its cost is similar to that of Regular insulin.
The long-acting insulin analogs are glargine and
detemir. Glargine has an onset of action at 24 h, with
minimal peak and duration of 2024 h; it is usually
dosed once daily. A unique property of glargine is that it
does not have a clear peak. Detemir has an onset of

Hahr and Molitch Clinical Diabetes and Endocrinology (2015) 1:2

Table 1 Dose adjustment for insulin compounds and

medications for diabetes in CKD
Medication class

Page 4 of 9

Table 1 Dose adjustment for insulin compounds and

medications for diabetes in CKD (Continued)

CKD stages 3 and 4 and predialysis stage 5

eGFR 3049: 50 mg daily

Insulin

eGFR < 30: 25 mg daily

Glargine

No advised dose adjustment*

Detemir

No advised dose adjustment*

NPH

Saxagliptin

eGFR > 50: 2.5 or 5 mg daily

No advised dose adjustment*

Linagliptin

No dose adjustment

Regular

No advised dose adjustment*

Alogliptin

Aspart

No advised dose adjustment*

Lispro

No advised dose adjustment*

Glulisine

No advised dose adjustment*

First-generation
sulfonylureas
Avoid use

Chlorpropamide

eGFR 5080: reduce dose by 50 %

eGFR <50: avoid use

Tolazamide

Avoid use

Tolbutamide

Avoid use

Second-generation
sulfonylureas
Glipizide

eGFR <30: use with caution

Glimepiride

eGFR <60: use with caution

Glyburide

Avoid use

Gliclazide**

No dose adjustment

eGFR <30: avoid use

Glinides

Nateglinide

No dose adjustment but may wish to use

caution with eGFR <30
eGFR <60: avoid use (but may consider
use if patient is on hemodialysis)

Biguanides
Metformin***

Consider
eGFR 45-59: use caution with dose and follow
renal function closely (every 36 months)
eGFR 30-44: max dose 1000 mg/day or use
50 % dose reduction. Follow renal function
every 3 months. Do not start as new therapy.
eGFR <30: avoid use
Thiazolidinediones
Pioglitazone

No dose adjustment

Rosiglitazone

No dose adjustment

Alpha-glucosidase
inhibitors
Acarbose

serum Cr >2 mg/dl: avoid use

Miglitol

eGFR <25 or serum Cr >2 mg/dl: avoid use

DPP-4 inhibitor
Sitagliptin

eGFR <30: 6.25 mg daily

SGLT2 inhibitors

eGFR 50: 100 mg daily

eGFR 45 to < 60: max dose 100 mg once daily

eGFR <45, avoid use

Dapagliflozin

eGFR < 60, avoid use

Empagliflozin

eGFR < 45, avoid use

Dopamine receptor
agonist
bromocriptine
mesylate

No dose adjustment known but not studied:

use with caution

Bile acid
sequestrant
Colesevelam

No dose adjustment known but limited data

GLP-1 Agonists
Exenatide

eGFR 3050: use caution

eGFR <30: avoid use

Liraglutide

No dose adjustment but use caution when

starting or titrating the dose

Albiglutide

No dose adjustment needed

Dulaglutide

No dose adjustment needed

Amylin analog
Pramlintide

Per FDA, do not use if serum Cr 1.5 mg/dL

in men 1.4 mg/dL in women.

eGFR >60: 25 mg daily

eGFR 3059: 12.5 mg daily

Canagliflozin

Acetohexamide**

Repaglinide

GFR 50: 2.5 mg daily

No dose adjustment known but not studied

in ESRD

*Adjust dose based on patient response

**Not available in the U.S.
***Recommendations are controversial

action at 13 h, with a small peak at 68 h and duration

of action of 1822 h. Detemir is dosed twice daily to give
adequate basal coverage in type 1 diabetes; in type 2 diabetes, once daily dosing sometimes is sufficient. The approximate retail price is $160-190 per vial for determir
and glargine insulins [26].
There are various premixed preparation of insulin
that have a fixed percentage of an intermediate-acting
and a rapid-or short-acting insulin. Because they contain
a combination of 2 insulins, they have two separate
peaks. One example is 70/30 which is 70 % NPH and
30 % regular insulin. These preparations offer convenience for the patient with twice daily dosing but offer less
flexibility and more restrictions in titration of the insulin. It must be taken at fixed times and the patient must

Hahr and Molitch Clinical Diabetes and Endocrinology (2015) 1:2

have consistent meals. 70/30 insulin is sometimes helpful in patients getting 12-hours cycled tube feeds.
All insulin is U-100, which is defined as 100 units of
insulin/ml. The exception is insulin U-500 which is 500
units of insulin/ml and is only available as regular insulin. The high concentration of U-500 insulin alters the
properties of regular insulin so its pharmacokinetics are
different. It has a similar onset of action, near 30 min,
but the peak is at 48 h and duration is 1415 h. It can
be given up to 30 min prior to meals and is typically
given two to three times daily, without the use of a basal
insulin [27]. It is generally used in patients who are severely insulin resistant and can be used as a subcutaneous injection or in a pump.
Oral medications
Metformin

Metformin increases insulin sensitivity and decreases

hepatic gluconeogenesis; it does not cause hypoglycemia
and may lead to weight loss in some patients. It reduces
A1c by 1.02.0 % [28]. The most common side effects
are diarrhea, bloating and cramping. Vitamin B12 deficiency has been reported with extended use [29]. The
estimated cost for metformin is about $50 for one
month of the 500 mg dose [26].
The FDA recommends that metformin should not be
used with serum creatinine 1.5 mg/dl in men and
1.4 mg/dl in women or with decreased creatinine clearance in people over age 80. Because metformin is renally
cleared, this recommendation is in place to reduce the
risk of lactic acidosis in individuals with even modest
renal impairment [30]. The overall incidence of lactic
acidosis with metformin use, however, appears to be
rare. A Cochrane database review of 347 prospective
trials and observational cohort studies showed no cases
of fatal or non fatal lactic acidosis in 70,490 patientyears of metformin users or in 55,451 patient-years of
users of other anti-hyperglycemic agents [31]. In a study
evaluating metformin-associated lactic acidosis in 14
patients, other causes of lactic acidosis (including clinical
shock or tissue hypoxia) were noted and seemed to be
the driving cause and not specifically metformin; 10 of
these patients did have metformin accumulation related
to elevated serum creatinine (range 3.05-11.8 mg/dl)
whereas 4 patients, all with lower creatinine levels
though still reduced GFR, had no evidence of metformin
accumulation [32].
Given the differences in translation of creatinine into
creatinine clearance based on age, weight and race, it is
reasonable to consider use of a GFR-based guideline
such as outlined here rather than one based on creatinine alone. Metformin can be used without dose reduction with an eGFR >60 ml/min/1.73 m2. If the eGFR is
4559 ml/min/1.73 m2, it is prudent to continue use of

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metformin but take caution with dosing and follow the

renal function more closely, such as every 3 to 6 months.
If the eGFR is 3044 ml/min/1.73 m2, again use caution with dosing, such as limiting its dose to a maximum
of 1000 mg daily or using a 50 % reduction, follow renal
function every 3 months and avoid newly initiating metformin in patients with this level of CKD. Metformin
should be avoided with eGFR <30 ml/min/1.73 m2. It is
recommended that metformin be stopped in the presence of situations that are associated with hypoxia or an
acute decline in kidney function such as sepsis/shock,
hypotension, acute myocardial infarction, and use of
radiographic contrast or other nephrotoxic agents [33,
34]. This approach has been accepted by various societies including KDIGO and confirmed in additional
studies [35] [36]. The KDIGO Controversies Conference
proposed a change to the FDA guidelines [16].
Sulfonylureas

Sulfonylureas bind to the sulfonylurea receptor on the

pancreatic beta-cells and lead to increased insulin secretion. They typically lower A1c by 1.52 % and can cause
hypoglycemia. The first-generation sulfonylureas are
rarely prescribed. The second-generation sulfonylureas,
which include glipizide, glimepiride, glyburide, and gliclazide (the latter is not available in the U.S.), are commonly used. The sulfonylureas will decrease A1c by 1
2 % [28]. The estimated cost for one month of glipizide
and glyburide (5 mg) and glimepiride (2 mg) ranges
from $10 to $30 [26].
Sulfonylureas and their metabolites are renally cleared,
leading to an increased risk of hypoglycemia as GFR declines. Hypoglycemia is greatly increased with glimepiride and glyburide with GFR <60 ml/min/1.73 m2 due to
the presence of two active metabolites cleared in part by
the kidney [37]. Glyburide should be avoided with eGFR
<60 ml/min/1.73 m2 [38]. Glimepiride should be used
with caution if the eGFR is <60 ml/min/1.73 m2 and not
be used with eGFR <30 ml/min/1.73 m2 [37]. Less than
10 % of glipizide is cleared renally but it should still be
used with caution with an eGFR <30 ml/min/1.73 m2
due to the risk of hypoglycemia [39, 40].
Glinides

Nateglinide and repaglinide, like sulfonylureas, increase

insulin secretion by closing a sulfonylurea receptor/
ATP-dependent potassium channel on the beta-cells of
the pancreas. They have a shorter half-life compared to
the sulfonylureas. They result in a rapid and short duration of insulin release and should be taken prior to
meals. They also can cause hypoglycemia [41]. The glinides reduce A1c on average by 0.51.5 % [28] and have
an estimated cost of $90 per month (for repaglinide
1 mg, and $60 per month for nateglinide 120 mg) [26].

Hahr and Molitch Clinical Diabetes and Endocrinology (2015) 1:2

The active metabolite of nateglinide accumulates in

CKD; nateglinide should not be used with an eGFR
<60 ml/min/1.73 m2. The active metabolite is cleared,
however, by hemodialysis so nateglinide can be used in
those undergoing dialysis [42]. Conversely, repaglinide
appears safe to use in individuals with CKD [43]. However, it is reasonable to exercise caution in those with
more severe renal dysfunction, such as an eGFR <30 ml/
min/1.73 m2, and start at the lowest dose (0.5 mg) with
slow upwards titration.
Thiazolidinediones

Thiazolidinediones (pioglitazone, rosiglitazone) increase

insulin sensitivity by acting as PPAR agonists. They do
not cause hypoglycaemia and they lead to an A1c decrease of 0.51.4 % [28]. They are metabolized by the
liver and can be used in CKD. However, fluid retention
is a major limiting side effect and they should not be
used in advanced heart failure. This also makes their use
in CKD, particularly patients on dialysis, limiting. They
have been linked with increased fracture rates and bone
loss, thus use in patients with underlying bone disease
(such as renal osteodystrophy) needs to be considered.
No dose adjustment is indicated with either in CKD.
One month of 15 mg of pioglitazone costs about $260
and 2 mg of rosiglitazone costs about $100 [26]. In
September 2010, the FDA restricted use of rosiglitazone
based on studies linking it to increased cardiovascular
events. Upon further review, these restrictions were
lifted in 2014.
An association between pioglitazone and bladder cancer has been raised but further analysis and investigation
into the data shows that this association is not clearly
supported [44]. A recent pooled multi-population analysis also showed no association between the thiazolidinediones and bladder cancer [45].
Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors

Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors (acarbose, miglitol) decrease the breakdown of oligo-and disaccharides in the
small intestine, slowing ingestion of carbohydrates and
delaying absorption of glucose after a meal. The major
side effects are bloating, flatulence, and abdominal
cramping. They typically lower A1c by 0.50.8 % and
usually do not lead to weight gain or loss [28]. The approximate cost for one month of 25 mg of either dose is
about $30 (acarbose) to $250 (miglitol) [26].
Acarbose is minimally absorbed with <2 % of the drug
and active metabolites present in the urine. With reduced renal function, serum levels of acarbose and metabolites are significantly higher. Miglitol has greater
systemic absorption with >95 % renal excretion. It is
recommended that use of miglitol be avoided if the
GFR is <25 ml/min/1.73 m2 [46]. Additionally, neither

Page 6 of 9

medication has been studied long-term in patients with

a creatinine >2 mg/dl, so their use should be avoided in
these patients.
Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors

Dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP 4) inhibitors decrease the

breakdown of incretin hormones such as GLP-1 and include sitagliptin, saxagliptin, linagliptin, and alogliptin.
This class of medication is weight-neutral and decreases
A1c by 0.50.8 % [28]. One month of 50 mg sitaglipitin
or 5 mg saxagliptin is about $280 [26].
Approximately 80 % of sitagliptin is cleared by the
kidney; with an eGFR of 30 to <50 ml/min/1.73 m2,
50 mg once daily should be used and with an eGFR
<30 ml/min/1.73 m2, a dose of 25 mg once daily isadvised [47]. Saxagliptin also needs a dose reduction
with eGFR 50 ml/min/1.73 m2 to 2.5 mg daily;
otherwise, the standard dose with eGFR >50 ml/min/
1.73 m2 is 2.5 or 5 mg daily. Only a small amount of
linagliptin is cleared renally; thus, no dose adjustment is indicated with a reduced GFR [48]. Alogliptin also needs a dose reduction from the baseline
dose of 25 mg daily to 12.5 mg daily with an eGFR
< 60 ml/min/1.73 m2 and then to 6.25 mg daily with
an eGFR < 30 ml/min/1.73 m2.
Sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors

SGLT2 inhibitors reduce glucose absorption from the

kidney, leading to an increase in glucose excretion and
a reduction in A1c of about 0.91.0 % [49]. The increase in urine glucose can result in a weight loss of up
to 5 kg in one year. Because of an increase in adverse
events related to intravascular volume contraction, no
more than 100 mg once daily of canagliflozin should
be used in patients with an eGFR of 45 to < 60 ml/min/
1.73 m2. Its use should be avoided if the eGFR is
<45 ml/min/1.73 m2 because of an increase in adverse
events as well as reduced efficacy. Dapagliflozin is not
approved for use if the eGFR is < 60 ml/min/1.73 m2
but empagliflozin can be used down to an eGFR of
45 ml/min/1.73 m2 ml/min/1.73 m2. Costs for 30 days
of the lowest doses of these drugs are in the $350400
range.
Other oral medications

Bromocriptine (dopamine receptor agonist) has not been

adequately studied in CKD.
Colesevelam (bile acid sequestrant) shows no difference in efficacy or safety in those with an eGFR <50 ml/
min/1.73 m2 but data are limited as it has not been adequately studied in more advanced CKD. A one month
supply of the 625 mg tablets (6 tablets per day must be
taken) is about $420.

Hahr and Molitch Clinical Diabetes and Endocrinology (2015) 1:2

Other subcutaneous medications

Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) Receptor Agonists

Exenatide (regular and extended-release) and liraglutide

are injectable medications that mimic gut hormones
known as incretins, leading to insulin release, delayed
glucagon secretion and delayed gastric emptying. They
are FDA approved for use with metformin and/or sulfonylureas although in practice, they are also used with insulin. They contribute to central satiety leading to a
reduction in appetite and often weight loss. The average
expected A1c decrease is 0.51.0 % [28]. The costs of
exenatide regular-release is about $385 for a 10 mcg pen
and $596 for 3 pens of the liraglutide [26]. Both agents
have been associated with pancreatitis, and nausea is a
common side effect that can limit its use. In addition,
liraglutide has been associated with the development of
thyroid C-cell tumors in animal studies and thus should
not be given to patients with or at risk for medullary
thyroid cancer. Exenatide is given twice daily and liraglutide is given once daily; exenatide extended-release is
dosed once weekly. Albiglutide and dulaglutide are other
GLP-1 receptor agonists that can also be dosed once
weekly.
Clearance of exenatide decreases with declines in GFR
[50]. Additionally, in a case report of a patient with renal
impairment and CKD, use of exenatide led to a rise in
serum creatinine that resolved when the medication was
stopped [51]. The FDA reported cases of acute renal failure associated with exenatide use and recommends it be
used with caution in those with a GFR of 3050 ml/
min/1.73 m2 and not be used if the GFR is <30 ml/min/
1.73 m2 [52]. Liraglutide is not metabolized primarily by
the kidney; no dose adjustment is indicated in those with
renal impairment, including ESRD, although data in this
population are limited [53]. No dosage restrictions are
needed for albiglutide or dulaglutide with decreasing
GFR [54, 55]. The manufacturer has reported cases of
renal failure and worsening of chronic renal impairment
with its use and advises caution with initiating or increasing the dose in those with nephropathy.
Amylin analog

Pramlintide is also an injectable medication that is used

with meals as an adjunct to insulin therapy in both type 1
and type 2 diabetes. Amylin is secreted along with insulin
by pancreatic beta-cells and levels are low in patients with
diabetes. It typically reduces A1c by 0.51.0 % [28] with a
cost of about $400 for two of the 1.5 mL pens (1000 mcg/
mL) [26]. No dose adjustment appears necessary for CKD;
it has not been studied in ESRD.
Strategy for glycemic control and other risk factors

The primary goal of optimizing glycemic control to reduce

the development of microvascular and macrovascular

Page 7 of 9

complications is universal. The medication regimen is

based on the comfort of the patient and physician and
should be individualized, especially as renal function
changes.
For those who need insulin, MDI with an average of 4
daily injections is common. The closest approximation
of physiologic insulin secretion can be achieved with an
insulin pump delivering a continuous subcutaneous infusion. A single type of insulin is used in the pump such
as a rapid-acting analog that serves as the basal, bolus
and correction insulin. Insulin pumps require vigilance
on the part of the patient and their use should be
overseen by endocrinologists and experienced diabetes
educators.
Continuous Glucose Monitoring Systems (CGMS) are
available that can continually measure glucose levels. A
small plastic catheter is inserted subcutaneously and
measures glucose every 5 min. Patients can view this in
real-time and detect upward and downward trends in
glucose. The added benefit is that alarms for high and
low readings can be set.
In addition to glucose control, a comprehensive approach to care is encouraged. Behavioral modification
and lifestyle changes are important to control weight,
improve nutrition, modify dietary intake and monitor
glucose levels. Appropriate medication should be used
for treatment of nephropathy, in conjunction with a
nephrologist as appropriate. Close attention should also
be paid to blood pressure control. Diabetes in itself is a
major cause of cardiovascular disease and individuals
with CKD often die of CVD; it is the major cause of
death in this population. The presence of microalbuminuria, albuminuria and declining GFR are all known
predictors of CVD. The combination of diabetes and
CKD is particularly powerful in regards to CVD risk,
necessitating aggressive control of risk factors [56]. In
addition to hypertension, dyslipidemia and weight control should be addressed. Nutrition plays an important
role in individuals with diabetic kidney disease as a balance of multiple dietary factors including sodium, potassium, phosphorus, and protein intake must be
followed as well as intake of carbohydrates and unhealthy fats. Reduction in weight in patients who are
overweight or obese and increases in exercise are generally recommended, keeping in mind the need for cardiac
stress testing. It is helpful to use an experienced dietician and certified diabetes educator to safely attain
dietary, exercise and weight loss goals. The KDIGO
Controversies Conference addresses some of the issues
surrounding diabetic kidney disease management including management of dyslipidemia and blood pressure control [16]. The American Diabetes Association
also has recommendations on management of blood
pressure and dyslipidemia [57].

Hahr and Molitch Clinical Diabetes and Endocrinology (2015) 1:2

Medical therapy in dialysis and post-transplant patients

There are a few oral agents that can be used safely in

patients on dialysis, particularly if the diabetes is fairly
mild. Most others, however, will need insulin for glycemic control.
Patients receiving hemodialysis (HD) can have different clearance rates of insulin that may be affected by the
timing of dialysis. We have done continuous glucose
monitoring on patients undergoing HD and found that
patients glycemic responses during HD are quite idiosyncratic and their insulin regimens need to be individualized to avoid both hyper-and hypoglycemia during and
after HD. Patients who are on peritoneal dialysis (PD)
have exposure to large amounts of glucose in the dialysate that can lead to uncontrolled hyperglycemia. In patients receiving PD continuously, a standard basal/bolus
insulin regimen is best. However, with overnight PD
using a cycler, coverage of the increased glucose load
may best be accomplished using a fixed mixture insulin
combination, such as 70/30 or 75/25 insulins, given at
the onset of PD. The nephrologist prescribing the PD
will often change the glucose concentration of the
dialysate because of the need for more or less fluid
removal and such changes need to be discussed with the
endocrinologist so that the insulin doses may be appropriately changed.
In the immediate post-transplant period, glycemic
control can acutely decline. This is due to the
initiation of anti-rejection therapies including glucocorticoids, calcineurin inhibitors and sirolimus, and
an increase in insulin resistance. In addition, patients
may experience other fluctuations in their daily
routines including adjustments in diet, activity and
medications. Because many variables are present, glycemic control can fluctuate quite a bit, and close
monitoring of blood glucose levels and adjustments
of medications are needed.

Conclusions
The management of patients with diabetes and nephropathy necessitates attention to several aspects of care.
Importantly, glycemic control should be optimized for
the patient, attaining the necessary control to reduce
complications but done in a safe, monitored manner.
Screening for development of nephropathy should be
performed on a regular basis to identify microalbuminuria or reductions in GFR and if identified, the diabetes
regimen should be tailored accordingly. Prevention and
treatment of diabetic nephropathy and other complications necessitates a multifactorial approach through the
use of a diabetologist, nephrologist, dietician, diabetes
educator and additional specialists experienced in the
complications of diabetes to provide a multifaceted care
program to reduce progression of disease.

Page 8 of 9

Abbreviations
CKD: Chronic kidney disease; CVD: Cardiovascular disease; GFR: Glomerular
filtration rate; DKD: Diabetic kidney disease; MDI: Multiple daily injections;
CSII: Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion; DPP4: Dipeptidyl peptidase-4
inhibitors; SGLT2: Sodium-glucose co-transporter 2; GLP1: Glucagon-like
peptide 1; HD: Hemodialysis; PD: Peritoneal dialysis.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors contributions
AH and MM participated in the organization of the manuscript and drafted
the manuscript. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Received: 6 November 2014 Accepted: 3 February 2015

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