Heat Treatment Basics

MaintenanceCircleTeam Page 1 June 24th 2010
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NEWSLETTER FOR MANUFACTURING COMMUNITY
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WILL OF STEEL – No essay on what one can achieve in one’s life will be complete without touching upon
one’s WILL power. And this invisible “will” power is always compared to steel, one of widely used metals. Well,
is it not also an irony that the “will” power and steel, or any metal for that matter, can have its “weak” point to
soften it? No, we are not writing about one’s “weaknesses” which could weaken will power but about the
“heat” which definitely “softens” any metal. By using this heat, we can completely change how a metal could
behave under different circumstances. It is widely called HEAT TREATMENT. Yes, our beloved readers, this
week, let us glide on some basics of this heat treatment and what it is all about.
In the process, if it strengthens your will power, nothing like it!!
Heat treatment is the method by which metal is heated and cooled in a series of specific operations, without
melting it. The purpose of heat treatment is to make a metal more useful by changing or restoring its
mechanical properties. By heat treating, a metal can be made harder, stronger, and more resistant to impact.
Also, heat treating can make a metal softer and more ductile. Some properties are improved at the expense of
others; for example, hardening a metal may make it brittle and difficult to machine.
HEAT-TREATING THEORY
The various types of heat-treating processes are somewhat similar because they all involve the heating and
cooling; they differ in the heating temperatures and the cooling rates used and the final results. The usual
methods of heat-treating ferrous metals (metals with iron) are annealing, normalizing, hardening, and
tempering. Most nonferrous metals can be annealed, but never tempered, normalized, or case-hardened.
Successful heat treatment requires close control over all factors affecting the heating and cooling of a metal.
This control is possible only when proper equipment is available. The furnace must be of the proper size and
type and controlled, so the temperatures are kept within prescribed limits for each operation. Even the
furnace atmosphere affects the condition of the metal being heat-treated.
The furnace atmosphere consists of the gases that circulate throughout the heating chamber and surround the
metal, as it is being heated. In an electric furnace, the atmosphere is either air or a controlled mixture of
gases. In a fuel-fired furnace, atmosphere is a mixture of gases that comes from the combination of the air and
the gases released by the fuel during combustion. These gases contain various proportions of carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor and other various hydrocarbons. Fuel-
fired furnaces can provide three distinct atmospheres when you vary the proportions of air and fuel. They are
called oxidizing, reducing, and neutral.
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This document contains information for reference only. We assume no responsibility for its implication.
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STAGES OF HEAT TREATMENT
Heat treating is accomplished in three broad stages:
Stage 1 - Heating the metal slowly to ensure a uniform temperature

Stage 2 - Soaking (holding) metal at a given temperature for a given time and cooling the metal to room
temperature
Stage 3 - Cooling the metal to room temperature
HEATING STAGE
The primary objective in heating stage is to maintain uniform temperatures. If uneven heating occurs, one
section of a part can expand faster than another and result in distortion or cracking. Uniform temperatures are
attained by slow heating. The heating rate of a part depends on several factors. One important factor is the
heat conductivity of the metal. A metal with a high-heat conductivity heats at a faster rate than one with a low
conductivity. Also, the condition of the metal determines the rate at which it may be heated. The heating rate
for hardened tools and parts should be slower than unstressed or untreated metals. Finally, size and cross
section figure into the heating rate. Parts with a large cross section require slower heating rates to allow the
interior temperature to remain close to the surface temperature that prevents warping or cracking. Parts with
uneven cross sections experience uneven heating; however, such parts are less apt to be cracked or
excessively warped when the heating rate is kept slow.
SOAKING STAGE
After the metal is heated to proper temperature, it is held at that temperature until the desired internal
structural changes take place. This process is called SOAKING. The length of time held at the proper
temperature is called the SOAKING PERIOD, which depends on chemical analysis of the metal and the mass of
the part. When steel parts are uneven in cross section, the soaking period is determined by the largest section.
During the soaking stage, the temperature of the metal is rarely brought from room temperature to the final
temperature in one operation; instead, metal is slowly heated to a temperature just below the point at which
the change takes place and then it is held at that temperature until the heat is equalized throughout the
metal. This process is called PREHEATING. Following pre-heat, metal is quickly heated to final target
temperature.
When apart has an intricate design, it may have to be preheated at more than one temperature to prevent
cracking and excessive warping. For example, assume an intricate part needs to be heated to 1500°F (815°C)
for hardening. This part could be slowly heated to 600°F (316°C), soaked at this temperature, then heated
slowly to 1200°F (649°C), and then soaked at that temperature. Following the final preheat, the part should
then be heated quickly to the hardening temperature of 1500°F (815°C).
NOTE: Nonferrous metals are seldom preheated, because they usually do not require it, and preheating can
cause an increase in their grain size.
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COOLING STAGE
After the metal has been soaked, it must be returned to room temperature to complete the heat-treating
process. To cool the metal, it can be placed in direct contact with a COOLING MEDIUM, either gas or liquid, or
solid or any combination of these. The cooling rate depends on metal and the end properties. The rate of
cooling depends on cooling medium as well; therefore, the choice of a cooling medium has an important
influence on end properties.
Quenching is the procedure used for cooling metal rapidly in oil, water, brine or other medium. Because most
metals are cooled rapidly during the hardening process, quenching is usually associated with hardening;
however, quenching does not always result in increased hardness; for example to anneal copper, it is usually
quenched in water. Other metals such as air-hardened steels are cooled at a relatively slow rate for hardening.
Some metals crack or warp easily during quenching while others suffer no effects; therefore, the quenching
medium must be chosen to fit metal. Brine or water is used for metals that require a rapid cooling rate, and oil
mixtures are more suitable for metals that need a slower rate of cooling. Generally, carbon steels are water-
hardened and alloy steels are oil-hardened. Non-ferrous metals are normally quenched in water.
HEAT COLORS FOR STEEL

The term red-hot is very familiar as applied to steel. Actually, steel takes on several colors and shades from the
time it turns dull red until it reaches white heat. These colors and the corresponding temperatures are listed in
the table on next page.
During hardening, normalizing, and annealing, steel is heated to various temperatures producing color
changes. By observing these changes steel temperature can be determined. As an example, assume that you
must harden a steel part at 1500°F (815°C). Heat the part slowly and evenly while watching it closely for any
change in color. Once the steel begins to turn red, carefully note each change in shade. Continue the even
heating until the steel is bright red; then quench the part. The success of a heat-treating operation depends
largely on judgment and the accuracy with which the color is identified with corresponding temperature. You
must be able to tell the difference between faint red and blood red and between dark cherry and medium
cherry. To add to the difficulty, your conception of medium cherry may differ from that of the person who
prepared the table. For an actual heat-treating operation, you should get a chart showing the actual colors of
steel at various temperatures.
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TYPES OF HEAT TREATMENT

Four basic types of heat treatment are used today. They are annealing, normalizing, hardening, and
tempering. The techniques used in each process and how they relate to steel are given in the following
paragraphs.
ANNEALING
In general, annealing is the opposite of hardening. Metals are annealed to relieve internal stresses, soften
them, make them more ductile, and refine their grain structures. Annealing consists of heating a metal to a
specific temperature, holding it at that temperature for a set length of time, and then cooling the metal to
room temperature. The cooling method depends on metal and properties desired. Some metals are furnace-
cooled, and others are cooled by burying them in ashes, lime or other insulating materials. Welding produces
areas that have molten metal next to other areas that are at room temperature. As the weld cools, internal
stresses occur along with hard spots and brittleness. Welding can actually weaken the metal. Annealing is just
one of the methods for correcting these problems.
Ferrous Metal
To produce the maximum softness in steel, metal must be heated to its proper temperature, soaked and then
let it cool very slowly. The cooling is done by burying the hot part in an insulating material or by shutting off
the furnace and allowing the furnace and the part to cool together. The soaking period depends on both the
mass of the part and the type of metal. The approximate soaking periods for annealing steel are given in table
on next page. Steel with extremely low-carbon content requires the highest annealing temperature. As the
carbon content increases, the annealing temperatures decrease.
Nonferrous Metal
Copper becomes hard and brittle when mechanically worked; however, it can be made soft again by
annealing. The annealing temperature for copper is between 700°F (372°C) and 900°F (483°C). Copper maybe
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cooled rapidly or slowly since the cooling rate has no effect on the heat treatment. One drawback experienced
in annealing copper is the phenomenon called “hot shortness.” At about 900°F (483°C), copper loses its tensile
strength, and if not properly supported, it could fracture. Aluminum reacts similar to copper when heat
treating. It also has the characteristic of “hot shortness.” A number of aluminum alloys exist and each requires
special heat treatment to produce their best properties.
NORMALIZING
Normalizing is a type of heat treatment applicable to ferrous metals only. It differs from annealing in that the
metal is heated to a higher temperature and then removed from the furnace for air cooling. The purpose of
normalizing is to remove the internal stresses induced by heat treating, welding, casting, forging, forming, or
machining. Stress, if not controlled, leads to metal failure; therefore, before hardening steel, it should be
normalized first to ensure the maximum desired results. Usually, low-carbon steels do not require normalizing;
however, if these steels are normalized, no harmful effects result. Castings are usually annealed, rather than
normalized; however, some castings require the normalizing treatment. Following table shows the
approximate soaking periods for normalizing steel. Note that the soaking time varies with the thickness of the
metal. Normalized steels are harder and stronger than annealed steels. In the normalized condition, steel is
much tougher than in any other structural condition. Parts subjected to impact and those that require
maximum toughness with resistance to external stress are usually normalized. In normalizing, the mass of
metal has an influence on the cooling rate and on the resulting structure. Thin pieces cool faster and are
harder after normalizing than thick ones. In annealing (furnace cooling), the hardness of the two are about the
same.
HARDENING
The hardening treatment for most steels consists of heating the steel to a set temperature and then cooling it
rapidly by plunging it into oil, water, or brine. Most steels require rapid cooling (quenching) for hardening but
a few can be air-cooled with the same results. Hardening increases the hardness and strength of the steel, but
makes it less ductile. Generally, harder the steel, more brittle it becomes. To remove some of the brittleness,
steel should be tempered after hardening. Many nonferrous metals can be hardened and their strength
increased by controlled heating and rapid cooling. In this case, the process is called heat treatment, rather
than hardening. To harden steel, you cool the metal rapidly after thoroughly soaking it at a temperature
slightly above its upper critical point. The approximate soaking periods for hardening steel are listed in table.
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The addition of alloys to steel decreases cooling rate required to produce hardness. A decrease in the cooling
rate is an advantage, since it lessens the danger of cracking and warping. Pure iron, wrought iron, and
extremely low-carbon steels have very little hardening properties and are difficult to harden by heat
treatment. Cast iron has limited capabilities for hardening. When you cool cast iron rapidly, it forms white
iron, which is hard and brittle. And when you cool it slowly, it forms gray iron, which is soft but brittle under
impact.
In plain carbon steel, the maximum hardness obtained by heat treatment depends almost entirely on the
carbon content of the steel. As the carbon content increases, the hardening ability of the steel increases;
however, this capability of hardening with an increase in carbon content continues only to a certain point. In
practice, 0.80 % carbon is required for maximum hardness. When you increase the carbon content beyond
0.80 %, there is no increase in hardness, but there is an increase in wear resistance. This increase in wear
resistance is due to the formation of a substance called Cementite.
When steel is alloyed to increase its hardness, alloys make the carbon more effective in increasing hardness
and strength. Because of this, the carbon content required to produce maximum hardness is lower than it is
for plain carbon steels. Usually, alloy steels are superior to carbon steels. Carbon steels are usually quenched
in brine or water, and alloy steels are generally quenched in oil. When hardening carbon steel, remember that
steel must be cooled below 1000°F (538°C) in less than 1 second. When alloys are added to steel, the time
limit for the temperature to drop below 1000°F (538°C) increases above the 1 second limit, and a slower
quenching medium can produce the desired hardness.
Quenching produces extremely high internal stresses in steel, and to relieve them steel must be tempered just
before it becomes cold. The part is removed from quenching bath at a temperature of about 200°F (93°C) and
allowed to air-cool. In the following paragraphs, let us explore different methods of hardening that are
commercially used.
Case Hardening
Case hardening produces a hard, wear-resistant surface or case over a strong, tough core. The principal forms
of casehardening are carburizing, cyaniding, and nitriding. Only ferrous metals are case-hardened. Case
hardening is ideal for parts that require a wear-resistant surface and must be tough enough internally to
withstand heavy loading. The steels best suited for case hardening are the low-carbon and low-alloy series.
When high-carbon steels are case-hardened, the hardness penetrates the core and causes brittleness. In case
hardening, surface of the metal is changed chemically by introducing a high carbide or nitride content. The
core remains chemically unaffected. When heat-treated, the high-carbon surface responds to hardening, and
the core toughens.
CARBURIZING
Carburizing is a case-hardening process by which carbon is added to the surface of low-carbon steel. This
results in carburized steel that has a high-carbon surface and a low-carbon interior. When the carburized steel
is heat-treated, the case becomes hardened and the core remains soft and tough. Two methods are used for
carburizing steel. One consists of heating the steel in a furnace containing a carbon monoxide atmosphere.
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The other has steel placed in a container packed with charcoal or some other carbon-rich material and then
heated in a furnace. To cool the parts, leave the container in the furnace to cool or remove it and let it air cool.
In both cases, the parts become annealed during the slow cooling. The depth of the carbon penetration
depends on the length of the soaking period. With today’s methods, carburizing is almost exclusively done in
gas atmospheres.
CYANIDING
This process is a type of case hardening that is fast and efficient. Preheated steel is dipped into a heated
cyanide bath and allowed to soak. Upon removal, it is quenched and then rinsed to remove any residual
cyanide. This process produces a thin, hard shell that is harder than the one produced by carburizing and can
be completed in 20 to 30 minutes instead of several hours. The major drawback is that cyanide salts are
poisonous.
NITRIDING
This case-hardening method produces the hardest surface of any of the hardening processes. It differs from
the other methods in that the individual parts have been heat-treated and tempered before nitriding. The
parts are then heated in a furnace that has an ammonia gas atmosphere. No quenching is required so there is
no worry about warping or other types of distortion. This process is used to case harden items, such as gears,
cylinder sleeves, camshafts and other engine parts, that need to be wear resistant and operate in high-heat
areas.
Flame Hardening
Flame hardening is another procedure that is used to harden the surface of metal parts. When oxyacetylene
flame is used, a thin layer at the surface of the part is rapidly heated to its critical temperature and then
immediately quenched by a combination of a water spray and cold base metal. This process produces a thin,
hardened surface, and at the same time, the internal parts retain their original properties. Whether the
process is manual or mechanical, a close watch must be maintained, since the torches heat the metal rapidly
and the temperatures are usually determined visually. Flame hardening may be either manual or automatic.
Automatic equipment produces uniform results and is more desirable. Most automatic machines have variable
travel speeds and can be adapted to parts of various sizes and shapes. The size and shape of the torch
depends on the part. The torch consists of a mixing head, straight extension tube, 90-degree extension head,
an adjustable yoke, and water-cooled tip.
Tips are produced that can be used for hardening flats, rounds, gears, cams, cylinders, and other regular or
irregular shapes. In hardening localized areas metal must be heated with a standard hand-held welding torch.
Adjust the torch flame to neutral for normal heating; however, in corners and grooves, use a slightly oxidizing
flame to keep the torch from sputtering. Particularly guard against overheating in comers and grooves. If dark
streaks appear on the metal surface, it indicates overheating, and you need to increase the distance between
flame and metal.
For the best heating results, hold the torch with the tip of the inner cone about an eighth of an inch from the
surface and direct the flame at right angles to the metal. Sometimes it is necessary to change this angle to
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obtain better results; however, you rarely find a deviation of more than 30 degrees. Regulate the speed of
torch travel according to the type of metal, the mass and shape of the part, and the depth of hardness
desired.
In addition, you must select the steel according to the properties desired. Select carbon steel when surface
hardness is the primary factor and alloy steel when the physical properties of the core are also selection
factors. Plain carbon steels should contain more than 0.35% carbon for good results inflame hardening. For
water quenching, the effective carbon range is from 0.40% to 0.70%. Parts with carbon content of more than
0.70% are likely to surface crack unless the heating and quenching rate are carefully controlled.
The surface hardness of a flame-hardened section is equal to a section that was hardened by furnace heating
and quenching. Decrease in hardness between the case and the core is gradual. Since the core is not affected
by flame hardening, there is little danger of spalling or flaking while the part is in use. Thus flame hardening
produces a hard case that is highly resistant to wear and a core that retains its original properties. Flame
hardening can be divided into five general methods: stationary, circular band progressive, straight-line
progressive, spiral band progressive, and circular band spinning.
STATIONARY METHOD — In this method the torch and the metal part are both held stationary.
CIRCULAR BAND PROGRESSIVE METHOD — This method is used for hardening outside surfaces of round
sections. Usually, the object is rotated in front of a stationary torch at a surface speed of from 3 to 12 inches
(76.2 to 304.8 millimeter) per minute. The heating and quenching are done progressively, as the part rotates;
therefore, when the part has completed one rotation, a hardened band encircles the part. The width of the
hardened band depends upon the width of the torch tip. To harden the full length of a long section, torch can
be moved and repeat the process over and over until the part is completely hardened. Each pass or path of
the torch should overlap the previous one to prevent soft spots.
STRAIGHT-LINE PROGRESSIVE METHOD — With the straight-line progressive method, the torch travels along
the surface, treating a strip that is about the same width as the torch tip. To harden wider areas, move the
torch across and repeat the process.
SPIRAL BAND PROGRESSIVE METHOD — For this technique a cylindrical part is mounted between lathe
centers, and a torch with an adjustable holder is mounted on the lathe carriage. As the part rotates, the torch
moves parallel to the surface of the part. This travel is synchronized with the parts rotary motion to produce a
continuous band of hardness. Heating and quenching occur at the same time. The number of torches required
depends on the diameter of the part, but never are more than two torches used.
CIRCULAR BAND SPINNING METHOD — The circular band spinning method provides the best results for
hardening cylindrical parts of small or medium diameters. The part is mounted between lathe centers and
turned at a high rate of speed pasta stationary torch. Enough torches are placed side by side to heat the entire
part. The part can be quenched by water flowing from the torch tips or in a separate operation.
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When performing heating and quenching as separate operations, the tips are water-cooled internally, but no
water sprays onto the surface of the part. In flame hardening, follow the same safety precautions that apply to
welding. In particular, guard against holding the flame too close to the surface and overheating the metal. In
judging the temperature of the metal, remember that the flame makes the metal appear colder than it
actually is.
TEMPERING point. By selecting a definite tempering

After the hardening treatment is applied, steel is temperature, we can predetermine resulting
often harder than needed and is too brittle for hardness and strength. The minimum temperature
most practical uses. Also, severe internal stresses time for tempering should be 1 hour. If the part is
are set up during the rapid cooling from the more than 1 inch thick, increase the time by 1 hour
hardening temperature. To relieve the internal for each additional inch of thickness.
stresses and reduce brittleness, the steel must be
tempered after it is hardened. Tempering consists Normally, the rate of cooling from the tempering
of heating the steel to a specific temperature temperature has no effect on the steel. Steel parts
(below its hardening temperature), holding it at are usually cooled in still air after being removed
that temperature for the required length of time, from the tempering furnace; however, there are a
and then cooling it, usually in still air. The resultant few types of steel that must be quenched from the
strength, hardness, and ductility depend on the tempering temperature to prevent brittleness.
temperature to which the steel is heated during These blue brittle steels can become brittle if
the tempering process. heated in certain temperature ranges and allowed
to cool slowly. Some of the nickel chromium steels
The purpose of tempering is to reduce the are subject to this temper brittleness.
brittleness imparted by hardening and to produce
definite physical properties within the steel. Steel may be tempered after being normalized,
Tempering always follows, never precedes, the providing there is any hardness to temper.
hardening operation. Besides reducing brittleness, Annealed steel is impossible to temper. Tempering
tempering softens the steel. That is unavoidable, relieves quenching stresses and reduces hardness
and the amount of hardness that is lost depends on and brittleness. Actually, the tensile strength of
the temperature that the steel is heated to during hardened steel may increase as the steel is
the tempering process. That is true of all steels tempered up to a temperature of about 50°F (10°C)
except high-speed steel. Tempering increases the . Above this temperature it starts to decrease.
hardness of high-speed steel. Tempering the steel increases softness, ductility,
malleability, and impact resistance. Again, high-
Tempering is always conducted at temperatures speed steel is an exception to the rule. High-speed
below the low-critical point of the steel. In this steel increases in hardness on tempering, provided
respect, tempering differs from annealing, it is tempered at a high temperature, about 1550°F
normalizing, and hardening in which the (844°C). Remember, all steel should be removed
temperatures are above the upper critical point. from the quenching bath and tempered before it is
When hardened steel is reheated, tempering completely cold. Failure to temper correctly results
begins at 212°F (100°C) and continues as the in a quick failure of the hardened part.
temperature increases toward the low-critical
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Permanent steel magnets are made of special the surface. This method air-cools the head while
alloys and are heat-treated by hardening and rapidly quenching the cutting edge. The result is a
tempering. Hardness and stability are the most tough head, fully hardened cutting edge, and a
important properties in permanent magnets. properly blended structure.
Magnets are tempered at the minimum tempering
temperature of 212°F (100°C) by placing them in When the cutting end has cooled, remove the
boiling water for 2 to 4 hours. Because of this low chisel from the bath and quickly polish the cutting
tempering temperature, magnets are very hard. end with a buff stick (emery). Watch the polished
Case-hardened parts should not be tempered at surface, as the heat from the opposite end feeds
too high a temperature or they may loose some of back into the quenched end. As the temperature of
their hardness. Usually, a temperature range from the hardened end increases, oxide colors appear.
212°F (100°C) to 400°F (205°C) is high enough to These oxide colors progress from pale yellow, to a
relieve quenching stresses. Some metals require no straw color, and end in blue colors. As soon as the
tempering. The design of the part helps determine correct shade of blue appears, quench the entire
the tempering temperature. chisel to prevent further softening of the cutting
edge. The metal is tempered as soon as the proper
Color tempering is based on the oxide colors that oxide color appears and quenching merely
appear on the surface of steel, as it is heated. prevents further tempering by freezing the
When a piece of polished hardened steel is slowly process. This final quench has no effect on the
heated, the surface turns various colors as the body and the head of the chisel, because their
temperature changes. These colors indicate temperature will have dropped below the critical
structural changes are taking place within the point by the time the proper oxide color appears
metal. Once proper color appears, the part is on the cutting edge. When you have completed the
rapidly quenched to prevent further structural above described process, the chisel will be
change. In color tempering, the surface of the steel hardened and tempered and only needs grinding.
must be smooth and free of oil. The part may be
heated by a torch, in a furnace, over a hot plate, or During the tempering, the oxide color at which you
by radiation. Cold chisels and similar tools must quench the steel varies with the properties desired
have hard cutting edges and softer bodies and in the part. Following table lists the different colors
heads. The head must be tough enough to prevent and their corresponding temperatures. To see the
shattering when struck with hammer. The cutting colors clearly, you must turn the part from side to
edge must be more than twice as hard as the head, side and have good lighting. While hand tempering
and the zone separating the two must be carefully produces the same result as furnace tempering,
blended to prevent a line of demarcation. A there is a greater possibility for error. The slower
method of color tempering frequently used for the operation is performed, the more accurate are
chisels and similar tools is one in which the cutting the results obtained.
end is heated by the residual heat of the opposite
end of the same tool. To harden and tempera cold
chisel by this method, you heat the tool to the
proper hardening temperature and then quench
the cutting end only. Bob the chisel up and down in
the bath, always keeping the cutting edge below
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QUENCHING MEDIA
The cooling rate of an object depends on many things. The size, composition, and initial temperature of the
part and final properties are the deciding factors in selecting the quenching medium. A quenching medium
must cool the metal at a rate rapid enough to produce the desired results.
Mass affects quenching in that as the mass increases, the time required for complete cooling also increases.
Even though parts are the same size, those containing holes or recesses cool more rapidly than solid objects.
The composition of the metal determines the maximum cooling rate possible without the danger of cracking
or warping. This critical cooling rate, in turn, influences the choice of the quenching medium.
The cooling rate of any quenching medium varies with its temperature; therefore, to get uniform results, you
must keep the temperature within prescribed limits. The absorption of heat by the quenching medium also
depends, to a large extent, on the circulation of the quenching medium or the movement of the part.
Agitation of the liquid or the part breaks up the gas that forms an insulating blanket between the part and the
liquid.
Normally, hardening takes place when you quench a metal. The composition of the metal usually determines
the type of quench to use to produce the desired hardness. For example, shallow-hardened low-alloy and
carbon steels require severer quenching than deep-hardened alloy steels that contain large quantities of
nickel, manganese, or other elements. Therefore, shallow-hardening steels are usually quenched in water or
brine, and the deep-hardening steels are quenched in oil. Sometimes it is necessary to use a combination
quench, starting with brine or water and finishing with oil. In addition to producing the desired hardness, the
quench must keep cracking, warping, and soft spots to a minimum.
The volume of quenching liquid should be large enough to absorb all the heat during a normal quenching
operation without the use of additional cooling. As more metals are quenched, the liquid absorbs the heat and
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this temperature rise causes a decrease in the cooling rate. Since quenching liquids must be maintained within
definite temperature ranges, mechanical means are used to keep the temperature at prescribed levels during
continuous operations.
LIQUID QUENCHING
The two methods used for liquid quenching are called still-bath and flush quenching. In still-bath quenching,
you cool the metal in a tank of liquid. The only movement of the liquid is that caused by the movement of the
hot metal, as it is being quenched. For flush quenching, the liquid is sprayed onto the surface and into every
cavity of the part at the same time to ensure uniform cooling. Flush quenching is used for parts having
recesses or cavities that would not be properly quenched by ordinary methods. That assures a thorough and
uniform quench and reduces the possibilities of distortion.
Quenching liquids must be maintained at uniform temperatures for satisfactory results. That is particularly
true for oil. To keep the liquids at their proper temperature, they are usually circulated through water-cooled
coils. Self-contained coolers are integral parts of large quench tanks.
A typical portable quench tank is shown in figure 2-3. This type can be moved as needed to various parts of
the heat-treating shop. Some tanks may have one or more compartments. If one compartment contains oil
and the other water, the partition must be liquid-tight to prevent mixing. Each compartment has a drain plug,
a screen in the bottom to catch scale and other foreign matter, and a mesh basket to hold the parts. A
portable electric pump can be attached to the rim of the tank to circulate the liquid. This mechanical agitation
aids in uniform cooling.
Water
Water can be used to quench some forms of steel, but does not produce good results with tool or other alloy
steels. Water absorbs large quantities of atmospheric gases, and when a hot piece of metal is quenched, these
gases have a tendency to form bubbles on the surface of the metal. These bubbles tend to collect in holes or
recesses and can cause soft spots that later lead to cracking or warping.
The water in the quench tank should be changed daily or more often if required. The quench tank should be
large enough to hold the part being treated and should have adequate circulation and temperature control.
The temperature of the water should not exceed 65°F (18°C).
When aluminum alloys and other nonferrous metals require a liquid quench, they should be quenched in clean
water. The volume of water in the quench tank should be large enough to prevent a temperature rise of more
than 20°F (-7°C) during a single quenching operation. For heavy-sectioned parts, the temperature rise may
exceed 20°F (-7°C), but should be kept as low as possible. For wrought products, the temperature of the water
should be about 65°F (18°C) and should never exceed 100°F (38°C) before the piece enters the liquid.
Brine
Brine is the result of dissolving common rock salt in water. This mixture reduces the absorption of atmospheric
gases that, in turn, reduces the amount of bubbles. As a result, brine wets the metal surface and cools it more
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rapidly than water. In addition to rapid and uniform cooling, the brine removes a large percentage of any scale
that may be present.
The brine solution should contain from 7% to 10% salt by weight or three-fourths pound of salt for each gallon
of water. The correct temperature range for a brine solution is 65°F (18°C) to 100°F (38°C).
Low-alloy and carbon steels can be quenched in brine solutions; however, the rapid cooling rate of brine can
cause cracking or stress in high-carbon or low-alloy steels that are uneven in cross section. Because of the
corrosive action of salt on nonferrous metals, these metals are not quenched in brine.
Oil
Oil is used to quench high-speed and oil-hardened steels and is preferred for all other steels provided that the
required hardness can be obtained. Practically any type of quenching oil is obtainable, including the various
animal oils, fish oils, vegetable oils, and mineral oils. Oil is classed as an intermediate quench. It has a slower
cooling rate than brine or water and a faster rate than air. The quenching oil temperature should be kept
within a range of 80°F (26°C) to 150°F (65°C). The properties and average cooling powers of various quenching
oils are given in table above.
Water usually collects in the bottom of oil tanks but is not harmful in small amounts. In large quantities it can
interfere with the quenching operations; for example, the end of a long piece may extend into the water at
the bottom of the tank and crack as a result of the more rapid cooling. Nonferrous metals are not routinely
quenched in oil unless specifications call for oil quenching.
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Caustic Soda
A solution of water and caustic soda, containing 10% caustic soda by weight, has a higher cooling rate than
water. Caustic soda is used only for those types of steel that require extremely rapid cooling and is NEVER
used as a quench for nonferrous metals.
DRY QUENCHING
This type of quenching uses materials other than liquids. In most cases, this method is used only to slow the
rate of cooling to prevent warping or cracking.
Air
Air quenching is used for cooling some highly alloyed steels. When still air is used, each tool or part should be
placed on a suitable rack so the air can reach all sections of the piece. Parts cooled with circulated air are
placed in the same manner and arranged for uniform cooling. Compressed air is used to concentrate the
cooling on specific areas of a part. The airlines must be free of moisture to prevent cracking of the metal.
Although nonferrous metals are usually quenched in water, pieces that are too large to fit into the quench
tank can be cooled with forced-air drafts; however, an air quench should be used for nonferrous metal only
when the part will not be subjected to severe corrosion conditions and the required strength and other
physical properties can be developed by a mild quench.
Solids
The solids used for cooling steel parts include cast iron chips, lime, sand, and ashes. Solids are generally used
to slow the rate of cooling; for example, a cast-iron part can be placed in a lime box after welding to prevent
cracking and warping. All solids must be free of moisture to prevent uneven cooling.

Heat Treatment Basics

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MaintenanceCircleTeam Page 1 June 24th 2010

In the process, if it strengthens your will power, nothing like it!!

Stage 1 - Heating the metal slowly to ensure a uniform temperature

HEAT COLORS FOR STEEL

TYPES OF HEAT TREATMENT

TEMPERING point. By selecting a definite tempering

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