THE TREND: INFORMATION AND NON MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

An increasingly significant trend in the economy is the gradual shift of productive effort from
manufacturing (industrial) to service and information based products. With this, the demand for
communication and information based product is gradually restructuring the society. Traditional
ways of doing things are being replaced by efficient methods. Computers play a major role in this
transition along with fiber optics, microwaves, lasers and other communication technologies.
Following characteristics can be considered for distinguishing Manufacturing Operations with
Service Operations:
1. Tangible/Intangible nature of output
2. Production and consumption
3. Nature of work (job)
4. Degree of customer contact
5. Customer participation in conversion
6. Measurement of performance
7. Quality of output
8. Inventory accumulated.
FACTORS AFFECTING PRODUCTIVITY
Economists site a variety of reasons for changes in productivity. However some of the principle
factors influencing productivity rate are:
1. Capital/labour ratio: It is a measure of whether enough investment is being made in plant,
machinery, and tools to make effective use of labour hours.
2. Scarcity of some resources: Resources such as energy, water and number of metals will
create productivity problems.
3. Work-force changes: Change in work-force effect productivity to a larger extent, because
of the labour turnover.
4. Innovations and technology: This is the major cause of increasing productivity.
5. Regulatory effects: These impose substantial constraints on some firms, which lead to change
in productivity.
6. Bargaining power: Bargaining power of organized labour to command wage increases excess
of output increases has had a detrimental effect on productivity.
7. Managerial factors: Managerial factors are the ways an organization benefits from the
unique planning and managerial skills of its manager.
8. Quality of work life: It is a term that describes the organizational culture, and the extent to
which it motivates and satisfies employees.
INTERNATIONAL DIMENSIONS OF PRODUCTIVITY
Industrialized nations are developing two strategies to remain competitive in the business.
1. Moving to a new and more advanced products, and
2. Employing better and more flexible system.
1. Corporate objectives: Employees and customers are given priority over shareholders. Honesty
in business is important.
2. Time horizon: Long-term viability is more important than short-term profits.
3. Production systems: Automated systems with extensive use of microprocessors and robotics.
Quality is paramount, and things happen on schedule.
4. Employment relations: Long-term employment of loyal workers. Unions cooperate to benefit
total firm. Politeness and harmony are emphasized.
5. Materials: Resources are limited. Space is used efficiently and inventories are kept to a
bare minimum.
6. Financing: More use is made of debt capital and less of equity capital.
7. Training: Employees are thoroughly trained and rotated to learn a variety of skills.
8. Worker participation: Employees are thoroughly trained and rotated to learn a variety of
productivity improvements via suggestions, quality circles and consultation with supervisors.

THE ENVIRONMENT OF OPERATIONS

One of the most encompassing influences on productivity is the environment in which organization
operates. The social impact of an organization is a reflection of the values held by top management.
It evolves from the religious and cultural norms of society, from childhood training, education, and
reflection on the purpose of life and the value of ones self and of others. The preferred values of
the society reflect purpose, integrity and a respect for the life and humanity of others.
Every facet of our economic and social environment regulated and controlled by law designed
to protect general public. The figure illustrates some of the laws impact on the productivity of the
firms.
PRODUCTION SYSTEM
The production system is that part of an organisation, which produces products of an organisation.
It is that activity whereby resources, flowing within a defined system, are combined and transformed
in a controlled manner to add value in accordance with the policies communicated by management.
A simplified production system is shown below:

The production system has the following characteristics:

1. Production is an organised activity, so every production system has an objective.
2. The system transforms the various inputs to useful outputs.
3. It does not operate in isolation from the other organisation system.
4. There exists a feedback about the activities, which is essential to control and improve system
Performance
Production systems can be classified as Job-shop, Batch, Mass and Continuous production systems.
Job-shop production are characterised by manufacturing one or few quantity of products designed
and produced as per the specification of customers within prefixed time and cost. The distinguishing
feature of this is low volume and high variety of products.
Job-shop Production is characterised by
1. High variety of products and low volume.
2. Use of general purpose machines and facilities.
3. Highly skilled operators who can take up each job as a challenge because of uniqueness.
4. Large inventory of materials, tools, parts.
5. Detailed planning is essential for sequencing the requirements of each product, capacities for
each work centre and order priorities.

defines Batch Production as a form

of manufacturing in which the job pass through the functional departments in lots or batches and
each lot may have a different routing. It is characterised by the manufacture of limited number of
products produced at regular intervals and stocked awaiting sales.
Batch Production is characterised by
1. Shorter production runs.
2. Plant and machinery are flexible.
3. Plant and machinery set up is used for the production of item in a batch and change of set up
is required for processing the next batch.
4. Manufacturing lead-time and cost are lower as compared to job order production.

Mass Production
Manufacture of discrete parts or assemblies using a continuous process are called Mass Production.
Mass Production is characterised by
1. Standardisation of product and process sequence.
2. Dedicated special purpose machines having higher production capacities and output rates.
3. Large volume of products.
4. Shorter cycle time of production.
5. Lower in process inventory.
6. Perfectly balanced production lines.
7. Flow of materials, components and parts is continuous and without any back tracking.
8. Production planning and control is easy.
9. Material handling can be completely automatic.
Continuous Production
Production facilities are arranged as per the sequence of production operations from the first
operations
to the finished product. The items are made to flow through the sequence of operations through
material handling devices such as conveyors, transfer devices, etc.
Continuous Production is characterised by
1. Dedicated plant and equipment with zero flexibility.
2. Material handling is fully automated.
3. Process follows a predetermined sequence of operations.
4. Component materials cannot be readily identified with final product.
5. Planning and scheduling is a routine action.

Unit2
Facility location :
General Locational Factors
Following are the general factors required for location of plant in case of all types of organisations.

CONTROLLABLE FACTORS
1. Proximity to markets
2. Supply of materials
3. Transportation facilities
4. Infrastructure availability
5. Labour and wages

FORECASTING OBJECTIVES AND USES

Forecasts are estimates of the occurrence, timing, or magnitude of uncertain future events. Forecasts
are essential for the smooth operations of business organizations. They provide information that can
assist managers in guiding future activities toward organizational goals.
Operations managers are primarily concerned with forecasts of demandwhich are often
made by (or in conjunction with) marketing. However, managers also use forecasts to estimate raw
material prices, plan for appropriate levels of personnel, help decide how much inventory to carry,
and a host of other activities. This results in better use of capacity, more responsive service to
customers, and improved profitability.
FORECASTING DECISION VARIABLES
Forecasting activities are a function of (1) the type of forecast (e.g., demand, technological), (2) the
time horizon (short, medium, or long range), (3) the database available, and (4) the methodology
employed (qualitative or quantitative). Forecasts of demand are based primarily on non-random
trends and relationships, with an allowance for random components. Forecasts for groups of products
tend to be more accurate than those for single products, and short-term forecasts are more accurate
than long-term forecasts (greater than five years). Quantification also enhances the objectivity and
precision of a forecast.

FORECASTING METHODS
There are numerous methods to forecasting depending on the need of the decision-maker. These
can be categorized in two ways:
1. Opinion and Judgmental Methods or Qualitative Methods.
2. Time Series or Quantitative Forecasting Methods.
5.4.1 Opinion and Judgmental Methods
Some opinion and judgment forecasts are largely intuitive, whereas others integrate data and perhaps
even mathematical or statistical techniques. Judgmental forecasts often consist of (1) forecasts by
individual sales people, (2) Forecasts by division or product-line managers, and (3) combined
estimates
of the two. Historical analogy relies on comparisons; Delphi relies on the best method from a
group of forecasts. All these methods can incorporate experiences and personal insights. However,
results may differ from one individual to the next and they are not all amenable to analysis. So there
may be little basis for improvement over time.
5.4.2 Time Series Methods

A time series is a set of observations of a variable at regular intervals over time. In decomposition
analysis, the components of a time series are generally classified as trend T, cyclical C, seasonal S,
and random or irregular R. (Note: Autocorrelation effects are sometimes included as an additional
factor.)
Time series are tabulated or graphed to show the nature of the time dependence. The forecast
value (Ye) is commonly expressed as a multiplicative or additive function of its components;
examples
here will be based upon the commonly used multiplicative model.
Yc = T. S. C. R multiplicative model (5.1)
Yc = T + S + C + R additive model (5.2)
where T is Trend, S is Seasonal, C is Cyclical, and R is Random components of a series.
Trend is a gradual long-term directional movement in the data (growth or decline).
Seasonal effects are similar variations occurring during corresponding periods, e.g., December
retail sales. Seasonal can be quarterly, monthly, weekly, daily, or even hourly indexes.
Cyclical factors are the long-term swings about the trend line. They are often associated with
business cycles and may extend out to several years in length.
Random component are sporadic (unpredictable) effects due to chance and unusual
occurrences. They are the residual after the trend, cyclical, and seasonal variations are removed.

FORECASTING PROCEDURE FOR USING TIME SERIES

Following are the steps in time series forecasting:
1. Plot historical data to confirm relationship (e.g., linear, exponential).
2. Develop a trend equation (T) to describe the data.
3. Develop a seasonal index (SI, e.g., monthly index values).
4. Project trend into the future (e.g., monthly trend values).
5. Multiply trend values by corresponding seasonal index values.
6. Modify projected values by any knowledge of:
(C) Cyclical business conditions,
(R) Anticipated irregular effects.
Trend: Three methods for describing trend are: (1) Moving average, (2) Hand fitting, and
(3) Least squares.
EXPONENTIAL SMOOTHING
Exponential smoothening is a moving-average forecasting technique that weights past data in an
Exponential manner so that most recent data carry more weight in the moving average.
With simple Exponential smoothening, the forecast Ft is made up of the last period forecast
Ft1 plus a portion, , of the difference between the last periods actual demand At1 and last period
forecast Ft1.
Ft = Ft1 + (At1 Ft1).

FORECAST APPLICATION
Forecasts should be sufficiently accurate to plan for future activities. Low-accuracy methods may
suffice; higher accuracy usually costs more to design and implement. Long-term forecastsused
for location, capacity, and new-product decisions-require techniques with long-term horizons.
Short-term forecasts such as those for production-and-inventory control, labour levels, and cost
controlscan rely more on recent history.

Meaning of Inventory
Inventory generally refers to the materials in stock. It is also called the idle resource of an enterprise.
Reasons for Keeping Inventories
1. To stabilise production:
2. 2. To take advantage of price discounts:
3. 3. To meet the demand during the replenishment period:
4. 4. To prevent loss of orders (sales):
5. 5. To keep pace with changing market conditions:

Objectives of Inventory Control

1. To ensure adequate supply of products to customer and avoid shortages as far as possible.
2. To make sure that the financial investment in inventories is minimum (i.e., to see that the
working capital is blocked to the minimum possible extent).
3. Efficient purchasing, storing, consumption and accounting for materials is an important
objective.
4. To maintain timely record of inventories of all the items and to maintain the stock within the

desired limits
5. To ensure timely action for replenishment.
6. To provide a reserve stock for variations in lead times of delivery of materials.
7. To provide a scientific base for both short-term and long-term planning of materials.
Factors affecting inventory control

Product Type : perishable short life and long life product

Product price
Lead Time
External environment :
Availability of raw material
Internal environment :
Goals
Finance
Unskilled workforce
Inventory Model

ECONOMIC ORDER QUANTITY (EOQ)

Inventory models deal with idle resources like men, machines, money and materials. These models
are concerned with two decisions: how much to order (purchase or produce) and when to order so
as to minimize the total cost.
For the first decisionhow much to order, there are two basic costs are considered namely,
inventory carrying costs and the ordering or acquisition costs. As the quantity ordered is increased,
the inventory carrying cost increases while the ordering cost decreases. The order quantity means
the quantity produced or procured during one production cycle. Economic order quantity is calculated
by balancing the two costs. Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) is that size of order which minimizes
total costs of carrying and cost of ordering. i.e., Minimum Total Cost occurs when Inventory Carrying
Cost = Ordering Cost.
Economic order quantity can be determined by two methods:
1. Tabulation method. 2. Algebraic method.
1. Determination of EOQ by tabulation (Trial & Error) method
This method involves the following steps:
Select the number of possible lot sizes to purchase.
Determine average inventory carrying cost for the lot purchased.
(a) Determine the total ordering cost for the orders placed.
(b) Determine the total cost for each lot size chosen which is the summation of inventory
carrying cost and ordering cost.
(c) Select the ordering quantity, which minimizes the total cost.
2. Determination of EOQ by analytical method
In order to derive an economic lot size formula following assumptions are made:
(a) Demand is known and uniform.
(b) Let D denotes the total number of units purchase/produced and Q denotes the lot size in
each production run.
(c) Shortages are not permitted, i.e., as soon as the level of the inventory reaches zero, the
inventory is replenished.
(d) Production or supply of commodity is instantaneous.

(e) Lead-time is zero.

(f) Set-up cost per production run or procurement cost is C3.
(g) Inventory carrying cost is C1 = CI, where C is the unit cost and I is called inventory carrying
cost expressed as a percentage of the value of the average inventory.
Concept And Meaning Of Re-order Level
Re-order level is a level of material at which the storekeeper should initiate the purchase requisition
for fresh supplies. When the stock-in-hand comes down to the re-ordering level, it is an indication that
an action should be taken for replenishment or purchase.
The re-order level is calculated as follows:
Re-order Level= Minimum Level(Safety stock) + (Average lead time x Average consumption)

The ABC classification process is an analysis of a range of objects, such as

finished products ,items lying in inventory or customers into three categories. It's a
system of categorization, with similarities to Pareto analysis, and the method usually
categorizes inventory into three classes with each class having a different
management control associated :

Steps in ABC analysis:

The steps involved in ABC analysis are as follows:

() Calculate the annual usage value of each item by multiplying the number used
with the price of the item.
(b) Arrange the items in descending order according to the usage
value.

(c) Compute percentage of total usage value for each item.

d) Find out the average inventory of each item by dividing the usage value with 2 and
number of orders.

Advantages of ABC Analysis:

1. It ensures better control over the costly items in which a large amount of
capital is invested.
2. It helps in developing scientific method of controlling inventories. Clerical
costs are considerably reduced and stock is maintained at optimum level.
3. It helps in maintaining stock turnover rate at comparatively higher level
through scientific control of inventories.
4. It ensures considerable reduction in the storage expenses. It results in stock
carrying stock.
5. It helps in maintaining enough safety stock for C category of items.

Purchasing Management
Meaning and Definition:

Purchasing is the first phase of Materials Management. Purchasing means

procurement of goods and services from some external agencies. The object of
purchase department is to arrange the supply of materials, spare parts and
services or semi-finished goods, required by the organisation to produce the
desired product, from some agency or source outside the organisation.

Purchasing
Management
Objectives of Purchasing:
1. To pay reasonably low prices for the best values obtainable, negotiating and executing all company
commitments.
2. To keep inventories as low as is consistent with maintaining production.
3. To develop satisfactory sources of supply and maintain good relations with
them.
4. To secure good vendor performance including prompt deliveries and
acceptable quality.
5. To locate new materials or products as required.
6. To develop good procedures, together with adequate controls and purchasing
policy.
7. To implement such programmes as value analysis, cost analysis, and make-orbuy to reduce cost of purchases.
8. To secure high caliber personnel and allow each to develop to his maximum
ability.
9. To maintain as economical a department as is possible, commensurate with
good performance.
FUNCTIONS :
2. A one percent saving in materials cost is equivalent to a 10 percent increase in turnover. Efficient
buying can achieve this.
3. Purchasing manager is the custodian of his firms is purse as he spends more
than 50 per cent of his companys earnings on purchases.

4. Increasing proportion of ones requirements are now bought instead of being

made as was the practice in the earlier days. Buying, therefore, assumes
significance.
1. Purchasing function provides materials to the factory without which wheels of machines cannot
move.

Methods of Purchasing Materials (8 Methods)

Methods of Purchasing Materials (8 Methods)
1. Purchasing by Requirement:
2. Market Purchasing:
3. Speculative Purchasing:
4. Purchasing for Specific Future Period:
5. Contract Purchasing:
6. Scheduled Purchasing:
7. Group Purchasing of Small Items:
8. Co-operative Purchasing:
Value analysis is defined as an organized
creative approach which has its objective, the efficient identification of unnecessary cost-cost which
provides neither quality nor use nor life nor appearance nor customer features. Value analysis
focuses engineering, manufacturing and purchasing attention to one objective-equivalent performance
at a lower cost.
Value analysis is concerned with the costs added due to inefficient or unnecessary specifications
and features. It makes its contribution in the last stage of product cycle, namely, the maturity stage.
At this stage, research and development no longer make positive contributions in terms of improving
the efficiency of the functions of the product or adding new functions to it.
Value is not inherent in a product, it is a relative term, and value can change with time and place.
It can be measured only by comparison with other products which perform the same function. Value
is the relationship between what someone wants and what he is willing to pay for it. In fact, the
heart of value analysis technique is the functional approach. It relates to cost of function whereas
others relate cost to product. It is denoted by the ratio between function and cost.
Value =Function /Cost
Steps in Value Analysis
In order to answer the above questions, three basic steps are necessary:
1. Identifying the function: Any useful product has some primary function which must be
identifieda bulb to give light, a refrigerator to preserve food, etc. In addition it may have secondary
functions such as withstanding shock, etc. These two must be identified.

2. Evaluation of the function by comparison: Value being a relative term, the comparison
approach must be used to evaluate functions. The basic question is, Does the function accomplish
reliability at the best cost and can be answered only comparison.
3. Develop alternatives: Realistic situations must be faced, objections should overcome and
effective engineering manufacturing and other alternatives must be developed. In order to develop
effective alternatives and identify unnecessary cost the following thirteen value analysis principles
must be used:
Avoid generalities.
Get all available costs.

Aggregate Planning:
Attempts to match the supply of and demand for a product or service by determining the
appropriate quantities and timing of inputs, transformation, and outputs. Decisions made on
production, staffing, inventory and backorder levels.

Objectives of Aggregate Planning

Objective of aggregate planning frequently is to minimize total

cost over the planning horizon.
Other objectives should be considered:

maximize customer service

minimize inventory investment
minimize changes in workforce levels
minimize changes in production rates
maximize utilization of plant and equipment

aggregate Planning Strategies

Active strategy:
Attempts to handle fluctuations in demand by focusing on demand management
Use pricing strategies and/or advertising and promotion
Develop counter-cyclical products
Request customers to backorder or advance-order
Do not meet demand

Passive strategy (reactive strategy):

Attempts to handle fluctuations in demand by focusing on supply and capacity
management
Vary size work force size by hiring or layoffs
Vary utilization of labour and equipment through overtime or idle time
Build or draw from inventory
Subcontract production
Negotiate cooperative arrangements with other firms
Allow backlogs, back orders, and/or stockouts

Mixed strategy:
Combines elements of both an active strategy and a passive (reactive) strategy
Firms will usually use some combination of the two

Passive (reactive) Strategies in Aggregate Planning: Basic Approaches

Chase approach
capacities (workforce levels, production schedules, output rates, etc.) are adjusted to match
demand requirements over the planning horizon.
Advantages:
anticipation inventory is not required, and investment in inventory is low
labour utilization is kept high
Disadvantages:
expense of adjusting output rates and/or workforce levels
alienation of workforce
Level Approach
Capacities (workforce levels, production schedules, output rates, etc.) are kept constant over
the planning horizon.
Advantages:
stable output rates and workforce levels
Disadvantages:
greater inventory investment is required
increased overtime and idle time
resource utilizations vary over time

Aggregate Planning Methods: Intuitive Methods

Intuitive methods use management intuition, experience, and rules-of-thumb, frequently
accompanied by graphical and/or spreadsheet analysis.
Advantage:
easy to use and explain
Disadvantage:
many solutions are possible, most of which are not optimal
CHASE STRATEGY
Produce exactly what is required every period.

 Hire and fire to adjust monthly production to monthly requirements.

The first and last period production levels are adjusted to account for opening
inventory and closing inventory requirements.
Intuitive (Mixed) Strategy
- Trial and Error to find a good solution
- Use Excel to model the problem and test the impact of different solutions
- Build the model using proper structure with key variables at the top and a summary of key
results immediately below.

What is Master Production Schedule (MPS)?

A Master Production Schedule is a Schedule of the completions of the end items
and these completions are very much planned in nature. Master production
schedule acts as a very distinct and important linkage between the planning
processes. With the help of this schedule, one can know the requirements for the
individual end items by date and quantity.

In MPS, inputs are used to draw a master production schedule and the inputs
used are orders from customers, production plan from aggregate planning,
forecast, resources that are available, inventory levels and the capacity
constraints. While drawing a MPS, quantities of individual items must be equal to
the aggregate quantities from the production plan and also the total
requirements for a product must be allocated overtime in a very good manner.
MPS outputs include the amounts that are to be produced, due dates, quantity
that is available to promise with the projected available balance. MPS is a
schedule that expresses the operations plan of production for a specific period of
time only and is stated in terms of the end items, which may be either shippable
products or the highest level assemblies used to make them.
The main steps in master production schedule can be summarized as
1. Forming a preliminary MPS.
2. Performing rough cut capacity planning.
3. Resolving differences.
Rough cut capacity planning plays a very critical role in checking whether the
resources available are capable of supporting PMS or not.(Resolving Differences)
MPS starts with the preliminary calculation of projected inventory. As additional
orders are booked, they would be entered into the schedule and ATP would be
updated which would reflect the new orders booked.
Objectives of Master Production Schedule (MPS)
1. Keeping the inventories at the desired level by making perfect use of the
resources that are available with the company.
2. Setting up due dates for the availability of the end items and also providing
the required information regarding resources and also the materials which act
as the supporting pillars of the aggregate planning.
3. Maintaining properly, the desired level of customer service.
4. Setting particular schedules for the production of the parts and the
components that are used as the inputs to materials requirements planning, in
the end items.
MPS which is effective in nature helps in keeping the customer delivery promises,