PIPING VIBRATION ANALYSIS

by

J. C. Wachel
President

Scott

J. Morton

Project Engineer
and

Kenneth E. Atkins

Senior Project Engineer

Engineering Dynamics, Incorporated

San Antonio, Texas

]. C. "Buddy" Wachel is President of

Engineering Dynamics, Incorporated, an
independent consultingfirm. He has over
28 y ears of experience and has published
over 30 technical papers. He has solved
problems worldwide in piping vibrations,
lateral and torsional critical speeds, rotor
instabilities, and crankshaft failures. In
addition to the practical field experience,
he supervises the computer design audits
of m achinery and piping to ensure that
the systems will have acceptable vibrations and stresses.
Mr. Wachel has a BSME and MSME degrees from the Univer
sity of Texas. He is an ASME Fellow and a member of ASM, The
Vibration Institute, and is a Registered Professional Engineer in
the State of Texas.

Kenneth E. Atkins is a Senior Project

Engineer with Engineering Dynamics,
Incorporated, and has experience in per
forming lateral and torsional critical
speed analyses, rotor stability analyses
and the evaluation of structural vibration
problems using finite element methods.
He has been actively involved in field
troubleshooting of a wide variety of rotor
dynamics, structural, and piping vibra
tion problems.
Mr. Atkins received a B. S. degree in Engineering Science
from Trinity University in 1978. He is a member of ASME and
is a Registered Professional Engineer in the State of Texas.

ABSTRACT
Excessive piping vibrations are a major cause of machinery
downtime, leaks, fatigue failures, high noise, fires, and explo
sions in refineries and petrochemical plants. Excessive vibration
levels usually occur when a mechanical natural frequency of the
piping system is excited by some pulsation or mechanical
source. The vibration mode shapes usually involve lateral vibra
tions and/or shell wall radial vibrations.
Simplified methods are presented for analyzing lateral and
shell wall piping vibrations and judging their severity. The
methods are thought to be conservative and are intended to be
used as screening criteria to determine if more sophisticated
analyses, such as computer stress modelling or strain gage test
ing are necessary. Frequency factors for calculating the mechan
ical natural frequencies for the classical piping configurations
(uniform straight beams) and various piping bend configurations
are presented. Factors are presented to compensate the natural
frequency calculations for concentrated and distributed weight
effects.
The relationships between piping vibration displacement, ve
locity and stress are presented and criteria for judging the sever
ity of piping vibration in terms of the endurance stress limit are
shown . The mechanisms that can excite piping vibrations will be
discussed, as well as methods for controllmg their severity.

Scott]. Morton is a Project Engineer

with Engineering Dynamics, Incorpo
rated. He has experience in computer
modelling in finite elements, rotor
dynamics and acoustics. He is also in
volved in the diagnostic field testing of
rotating and reciprocating equipment
and in the evaluation of structural and
piping vibration problems.
Mr. Morton holds Bachelors and Mas
ters degrees in Maritime Systems and
Ocean Engineering from Texas A&M University and is a Regis
tered Professional Engineer in the State of Texas.

INTRODUCTION
Piping vibration failures have been one of the major causes of
downtime, fires and explosions in industrial plants over the past
30 years . For example, one piping failure at a petrochemical
119

120

PROCE E DINGS OF THE NINETEENTH TURBO MACHINERY SYMPOSIUM

plant in 1974 caused over $114 , 000, 000 in property damage [ 1],
due to an explosion. In nuclear pressurized water reactor power
plants, over 80 cases of cracks or leaks occurred in the piping
systems of charging pumps over a two-year period [2] . There
fore, it is vitally important that piping vibration amplitudes in a
system be evaluated to determine if the levels are acceptable.
If the vibrations levels are judged to be excessive, the piping
configuration, support structure, span length, or material may
have to be modified to make the system acceptable. Alternately,
if these factors cannot be changed, the excitation mechanisms
must be altered or eliminated. In order to make practical modifi
cations to the piping to solve vibration problems, it is necessary
to understand all the principles involved in the determining the
natural frequencies and the excitation sources that cause the
problems .
Methods are presented for calculating the natural frequen
cies. The relationship between vibration amplitude and dynamic
stress is shown. In addition, the excitation sources that cause exces
sive vibrations and methods for minimizing their harmful effects
are discussed.
Vibration problem areas of typical piping systems include the
excitation of the following:
Piping span natural frequencies
Piping shell wall circumferential and axial natural frequencies
Piping appurtenances (vent and drain lines, gage, and test
connections)
Valves and valve components
Reciprocating compressor cylinder and manifold bottle nat
ural frequencies
The principles involved in understanding the behavior of pip
ing vibrations of the components listed above are covered.

CALCULATION OF
PIPING NATURAL FREQUENCIES [3-8]
To ensure that piping systems are free from excessive vibra
tions, it is necessary that the individual piping spans not be
mechanically resonant to system excitation frequencies gener
ated by compressors, pumps, flow excitation mechanisms, etc.
To accomplish this, the frequencies of the excitation forces and
the mechanical natural frequencies of the piping must be calcu
lated. With experience, simplified design procedures can be
used to evaluate the piping system with a minimum of detailed
computer analyses. For complex systems, stress analysis com
puter programs should be used to evaluate piping system reliability.

Straight Piping Spans

Actual piping span natural frequencies deviate from the theo
retical beam natural frequencies, since the configurations that
exist in typical plant piping have boundary conditions that differ
from ideal values. Nevertheless, ideal beam theory gives a valu
able starting point for understanding piping vibration behavior.
The natural frequency of any piping span can be calculated if
the frequency factor, the span length, the diameter, wall thick
ness and the weight per length are known. For a straight uni
form piping span, the natural frequency can be calculated using
the following relationship:

(1)

f0 = Span natural frequency, Hz

g = Gravitation constant, 386 inlsec2
=

j.L

= Moment of inertia, in4

= Span length, in .
= Frequency factor, dimensionless

= Weight per unit length of beam (including fluid and

insulation) , lbs/in .
3
P = Density, lbs/in
A = Pipe cross-sectional area, in2
By substituting in material properties for steel, E = 30 X 106
lb/in2 , p = 0 . 283 lb/in3 , and g = 386 inlsec2 , Equation 1 can be
simplified to:

f0 = 2 23 A.

k
L2

(2)

where:
k = radius of gyration, inches
L = length of span, ft

Note that this equation does not include the weight of the
fluid and the insulation. The frequency factors ( A.) for calculating
the first two natural frequencies for ideal straight piping spans
are given in terms of the overall span length in Figure 1 .
Piping
Configuration

Frequency
Factor
lsi
2nd

FlxedFreo

3.52

22.4

366

2295

219

219

Fcl

Simply
Supported

9.87

39.5

1028

4112

219

219

FixedSupported

15.4

50.0

2128

6884

290

290

Fixed-Fixed

22.4

61.7

2935

8534

275

290

16.5

97.6

1889

13996

241

301

LBend In

59.4

75.5

7798

9575

276

266

UBend

18.7

111.6

2794

14511

314

213

UBend In

23.7

95.8

3751

8722

332

191

ZBend

23.4

34.2

3522

4133

317

254

ZBend In

22.4

96.8

3524

8933

331

194

3D Bend

20.6

27.8

3987

4752

407

359

Formula

J=f;/';!tf S=Ky&SCF S=K.VSCF

,.
A+B
-

L.

ne
A.+B-tC
ABC

<
MB+C L

--c

JAe

A+B+C l

St eel Piping (E

LBend

Reference

Out

Out

Out

Eq. 1

= 30 X 106 psi, p = 0.283lbfin3)

Deflection Stress
Factor
1st
2nd

Eq. 10

Velocity Stress* I
Factor
I
1st
2nd 1

1
I

Eq. 13

Figure 1. Frequency Factors and Stress Factors for Uniform

Steel Pipe Configurations.

where:

Modulus of elasticity, psi

Piping Bends
The natural frequencies of selected pipe configurations with
piping elbows (L-bends, U-bends, Z-bends, and three dimen-

121

TUTORIAL ON PIPING VIBRATION ANALYSIS

60

sional bends) were analyzed using a finite element program

(AN SYS) to generate frequency factors for the first two modes.
In this analysis, a curved beam (elbow) element was used so that
more accurate frequency factors for the piping configurations
could be established. In doing so, the frequency factors may be
slightly different from other published data for square corner
beams or beams without cylindrical cross sections. The fre
quency factors were generated for a range of aspect ratios to de
velop sufficient information so that the natural frequency of pip
ing spans could be approximated regardless of the configuration .
The accuracy of the analysis was verified by comparison of the
frequency factors with the theoretical values at the limits of the
aspect ratios. The frequency factors as a function of the aspect
ratios of the leg lengths are given in Figures 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.
60

q.

50

c.J
...

I
I

I
I

i
I

><
c.J

::>
0'

""

,/...-1'

30

I
I
I

i
I

40

I
I

_l

....,

"'

Arty<>"

rrn

A+B+C=L

40

1/
r

t--L-

20

I/

\
\\

\\

.
. ......

::

0.2

30

fl,
T--

....,

c.J
...

><
0
z

rg

20

""

A+B+C=L

' '
\

,..._

------

--

0'

_.

---e---

---e---

06
.

I I

I+

I
I

-::'
: .s :'-

20

.l..

I
I

I I
I I
I I

J.

1.0

0.75

.,__ .. _4 CIA

0.5

a--e--t

C/A

10
..,

x--x-x CIA

B/A LEG LENGTH RATIO

..

5678910

--

..

,.._ -.1-

"

;:.

5 6

0.2; 5

....;>

/
/

..

...... )( -

- ... _

/ .. _
/

,.... -

'

....
....

-..]', ':'
1 . '-J
...

...,

<>-+-<>CIA =

I I
I I
I

567891

!'

0.75

0.25

..

<>-+-<>CIA=

:<t.

I .0

C/A =

. .
.

........

..

'f
0.5

56789 1

I I
y...- - <-K:<i....
i
I I
I
// ..-f-'1--,....x:. tl
v/
:{'
I
I
.::s; ---:.... //
I

'<:

\,
.. ...

30

1.0

I
I
I I

I
i
I

C/A =

0.8

I
I
I I
I I
I

10

0"
10

Figure 4. Frequency Factorsfor Uniform U-Bend Piping Config

urations for First In-Plane Mode.

I I ll

\.

B/A LEG LENGTI RATIO

!_

B/A LEG LENGTH RATIO

o--e--a

Figure 2. Frequency Factors for Uniform L-Bend Piping Config

urations.
40

..

;' \.

cr---e----e C/A

0.4

--- --

010

1 sl Mode In-PI ana

...

..

.
..

X'-X-X CIA =

G--&n-1 lsl Mode Oul-of-Piane-

'G.--

x-,. ....

,/ \ t
/t
/

-.,.-

.s,..._..,.._.,

rrn

"

......

10
0.0

"

....

Jr/
'I

....

20

I
Jr/

.....

010

x-.,.-x CIA

"'=L

...,_ ..

,___..,

_.,CIA

56789 1

CIA

1.0 -

0.75 ,

0.5

= 0.25

I I I

3 4

5678910

B/A LEG LENGTll RATIO

Figure 5. Frequency Factors for Uniform Z-Bend Piping Config

urations for First Out-of-Plane Mode.
Effect of Concentrated Masses
Applying energy methods [3], it can be shO\vn that the first
natural frequency of a beam with a concentrated load can be cal
culated by:

(3)

78 910

Figure 3. Frequency Factorsfor Uniform U-BendPiping Config

urations for First Out-of-Plane Mode.

where:

Pipe span natural frequency with concentrated weight,

Hz

122

PROCE E D INGS OF THE NINETEENTH TURBO MACHINERY SYM POSIUM

f0 = Pipe span natural frequency without concentrated

weight, Hz

60

P = Concentrated weight, lbs

W= Weight of beam span, lbs
B = \Veight correction factor, dimensionless
Weight correction factors to be used in calculating the natural
frequencies of ideal piping spans for weights at the maximum de
flection locations are given in Figure 9. If two weights are lo
cated in one span, the following equations can be used to calcu60.--------r.-rn

' '=L I
...,

I I )

-t-1-il'-t-l
, t+[f-':-\
\
\

-t--+--t--++-11-t-H

010

::.

--

\1,

__
_ __

,/"

/.::>-

' ,:,.

,, :

.
':t.

I
o----e----<>C/A=1.0
x--x--x C/A =

<

...,. ___

,_..,.._..,

3 56789!

..._

0.75

CIA =

0.5

C/A =
I

0.25
56 78910

Figure 8. Frequency Factors for Uniform 3D-Bend Piping Con

figurations for Second Mode.
late the effect of the second weight. The frequency for one
weight P 1 is:

o----e----<> C/A

X-X-X ClA

0.75

C/A

0.25

,_..,__,

...

A+B+C=L

010

'\
',

\
\
\
\

B/A LEG LENGTH RATIO

----

<

20 I-

)!

',

\
r--r++r-\-r--+--r-+--+-H

/
0--r--
/

--

40

j I II
\\.\v\{I

1.0

(4)

5678910

56789 1
B/A LEG LENGTH RATIO

Figure 6. Frequency Factors for Uniform Z-Bend Piping Config

urations for First In-Plane Mode.

If the second weight in the span is considered by itself, the

equation is:

(5)
40
A

30
"'

o:f

0
E-<

(..)

r:;

(..)
>-

20

z
Pol
:::>
C1

I
I

A+B+C=L

f 21+2 =

),

10

'

,.,

__

f:l

The frequency for the span with both weights can be obtained
from the following equation:

_,j_. --:::
.

r--..

1
1
1
1
-+- - f
f
fi

(6)

/
<>--&-<> C/A =

1. 0

x--x--x CIA =

,_..,__..,

C/A =

0.75

0.25-

l 910
- ------3--567-891
---- -3s-6
78
B/A LEG LENGTH RATIO

Figure 7 Frequecy Factorslor-Uniform 3D-Bend Pip{ng Con

figurations for First Mode.

Correlation of Calculated and

Measured Natural Frequencies
Theoretical beam natural frequency calculations can be cor
rected to make them agree more closely with measured field
data [7] . The correction factors, given in Table 1 , are based on
the non-ideal end conditions typically encountered in actual pip
ing installations.
The procedures for calculating the natural frequency of piping
spans can be used to select clamp spacings which ensure that the
piping spans will be resonant above some selected frequency.
The use of these correction factors will normally give answers
that are within 15 percent of measured values. For the majority
of piping vibration problems, this accuracy should be sufficient.

123

TUTORIAL ON PIPING VIBRATION ANALYSIS

Weight
Location

Weight Correction
Factor
B

Cantilever

1
31/4

3.9
1.7

Simply
Supported

1/2
1/4

2.0
1.1

FixedSupported

1/2
31/4

2.3
1.6

Fixed End

1/2
1/4

2.7
0.9

Piping
Configuration

supported cylinder showing the combination of the lateral beam

vibration modes and circumferential modes . A number of
theories are used to calculate the natural frequencies and the
stresses due to shell wall vibration. According to Blevins [6] , the
Flugge and Sanders shell theories are generally felt to be the
most accurate .

(\

First Mode
B/A
B/A
0.5
1.0
A+B

1-Bend

,_,

A/2
A
B/2

A+B+C
ABC

3D-Bend

A+B+C
ABC

Ao+B+C oo L
ABC

__ ....
-

- -

i"l

First Mode
B/A
1.0

_...
_ ...
---...

---

--

AXIAL NODAL PAITERN

0.29
1.77
2.09
Firat Mode
B/A
1.0

A/2
A
B/2

0.29
1.77
2.09

Figure 10. Axial and Circumferential Nodal Patterns for Simply

Supported Cylinder W ithout Axial Constraint.

Table 1. Natural Frequency Correction Factors For Piping End

Conditions.
Natural Frequency
Calculated on Basis
Of Fixed-Ends

End Correction
Factor

Straigl)t

Welded-Welded

Fixed-Fixed

0.9-1.0

Straight

Welded-Supported

Fixed-Fixed

0.8

Straigl)t

Supported-Supported

Fixed-Fixed

0.7

Straigl)t

Welded-F:ree

Fixed-Free

0.5-1.0

Straight

Supported-Free

Fixed-F:ree

0.3-0.7

Bends

Welded-Welded

Fixed-End

1.0

The curvature of the shell couples the flexural and extensional

vibrations and considerably complicates the analysis of shell vi
brations . The shell theories describe the motion of the shell in
terms of an eighth-order differential equation . Because of the
complexity of the shell equations and their solutions, few closed
form solutions are available for the natural frequencies and
mode shapes of shells.
Blevins [6] gives the following relationship for calculating the
natural frequencies for cylindrical shells of infinite length:

(7)
i(i2 - l)
......,.... -,"'"1""2/ .-; i = 2 , 3 , 4 . . .
( 1 + i2)

Bends

Welded-Supported

Fixed-End

0.8

Bends

Supported-Supported

Fixed-End

0.7

fi

Shell wall natural frequency, Hz

Welded-Change of Plane

Fixed-End

0.8

Ai

Supported-Change of Plane

Fixed-End

0.7

Frequency factor, dimensionless

Mean radius of pipe wall, inches

Bends
Bends

Straigl)t Pipe
with Valve

....-.

NODAL ARRANGEMENT
FORi= l.i'"4

Figure 9. Weight Correction Factors for Uniform Piping Config

urations.

Piping Configuration
Type of End Conditions

- - ,a

CIRCUMFERENTIAL NODAL PATIERN

0.26
2.24
2.31

A/2
A
B/2

I.

I
'\

0.53
3.25
0.63

1.24
2.69
0.39

A/2
A
B/2
Z.Bend

i=Z

First Mode
B/A
1.0

U-Bend

---

Fixed-Fixed
With L = Span Length
Valve Length

1.0

(8)

where:

R
v

"{

= Poisson's ratio
Mass density of pipe material, lb-sec2/in4
Pipe wall thickness, inches
Mode number, 1 , 2 , . . .

Shell Wall Vibrations

High frequency piping shell wall vibrations can be caused by

excitation of circumferential radial mode natural frequencies
[6] . The nodal patterns are illustrated in Figure 10 for a simply

Arnold and Warburton [9] investigated the effects of the end

conditions on the natural fiequencies of shells and compared
measured test results with their calculations . Fung, Sechler and

124

PROCEE DINGS OF THE NINETEENTH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM

Kaplan [ 10] included the effects of internal pressure on the nat

ural frequencies of shells.
For a steel pipe with Poisson's ratio of 0 . 3 , the equation can
be simplified to:

[33749]

(9)

The frequency factor is a function of the thickness divided by

the mean radius; therefore , the natural frequency varies linearly
with the shell wall thickness and is inversely proportional to the
square of the radius.

VIBRATION-INDUCED STRESS LEVELS

In order to determine if piping vibration amplitudes are ac
ceptable, the resultant dynamic stresses caused by the vibra
tions must be compared to the allowable endurance stress limit.
To accomplish this , the maximum stress in a piping span vibrat
ing at resonance must be expressed as a function of the dynamic
deflection or velocity measured at the maximum vibration point
within the span .
There have been attempts to develop criteria for acceptable
piping vibration levels as a function of frequency. Probably, the
most widely used are the vibration amplitude vs frequency
charts [ 4, 7] that were developed, based on experience in the
petrochemical industry. These amplitude versus frequency
charts are used as a screening criteria in the evaluation of piping
systems experiencing high vibration levels .
The material presented in this section gives the relationship
between vibration and stress in typical piping configurations
and presents definitive methods for evaluating piping system re
liability using the actual vibration-induced stresses.

Vibration Displacement Amplitude Vs Frequency Criteria

The vibration versus frequency criteria chart given in Figure
11 can be used as a first evaluation of the severity of a piping vi
bration problem . These curves are based on experience and
have been used in the petrochemical industry for over 25 years
with good success [4, 7] . These criteria are very conservative for
long flexible piping spans, such as those used in centrifugal
'

7
,,

3 ....

'

,,

., . .......

.....

..

.......

.
. ...

l>tq
,

''

o'

o
C ,.""ct,. ,
o

I I r ''

I I
I I

p
, I
"'-1:'-...cIJtiOf]

..., ..,.!':

/)Sf91!

"I'-

g,.

....

,,,
.....

'

t,

'l ril, ' ,

.,_

I , 'rrth

9
8

'
I

I
''k I

. .
.
.

6L:::::,

"

'

... .

... .
. ..
.

1',

........

,,
I
1-..... i
I'

I '-!..
.. .
I
. .,
. .

I I

s 1 s e1e

. ..

..

4 s a 7 s

2
ae

VIBRATION FREQUENCY, HZ

Figure 11. Allowable Piping Vibration Levels Vs Frequency.

equipment plant piping. They are not applicable to shell wall

vibrations.
The authors' experiences have shown that, whenever piping
vibration amplitudes at the measured frequencies are greater
than the danger line, piping failures are a typical occurrence.
\Vhen vibration levels were below the design line , very few fail
ures have occurred. Therefore, these vibration versus frequency
criteria can serve as a good starting point in evaluating piping
"ibrations to screen those systems that need further analyses .

Stress as a Function of the

Vibration Displacement (Deflection) Amplitude
A better method to evaluate the severity of piping vibration
deflection amplitudes is to compare the maximum resonant
vibration-induced dynamic stresses to an allowable endurance
limit stress . There is general agreement that the low cycle
fatigue curves for carbon steel given in the ASME U SAS B31 . 71969 can be used to obtain an acceptable endurance limit stress
[ 11 ] . ANSIIASME Code O M3-1987 [ 12] uses this stress versus
cycles-to-failure curve as a basis for specifying criteria for
evaluating the vibration-induced stresses in nuclear power plant
piping for preoperational and startup testing. API Standard 618
[ 13] uses the same data to specify the allowable dynamic stress
level for steel pipes as a design requirement.
OM3 is the first code that has attempted to establish a method
for evaluating piping vibration-induced stresses based on mea
sured resonant vibration amplitudes or velocities . The
methodology used in the code involves a three-step process in
determining the acceptability of piping vibrations . The first step
is categorized as Vibration Monitoring Group 3 (VMG3) and in
volves a visual or perception walkdovm of the piping to deter
mine if the vibrations are acceptable , based on the experience
of the analyst with the type of piping system being examined.
If, in the judgement of the analyst, the vibrations are not obvi
ously safe, the piping is judged to be in the Vibration Monitoring
Group 2 (VMG2) . In VMG2 , the acceptability of the piping vi
brations are judged by conservatively estimating the vibration
induced stresses by measuring the vibrations and calculating the
vibration-induced stresses by simplified methods . These
methods are based on modelling the vibration portion of the pip
ing via a simple beam analogy and determining the vibration
limits in terms of the displacement or velocity. (Note that this
paper gives the information required to make these calcula
tions. ) The third category is Vibration Monitoring Group 1
(VMG 1) and involves a rigorous qualification method requiring
that the vibrational stresses be determined with a high degree
of accuracy. VM G 1 qualification may involve a detailed correlation
between analysis and experimental results or instrumentation of
the piping with a sufficient number of strain gages to determine
the magnitude of the highest stresses . In VMG 1, computer mod
els of the system are developed, in conjunction with the meas
ured vibration amplitudes, to predict the maximum vibration
induced stresses .
The same methodology is used in evaluating piping vibrations
throughout the petrochemical industry; however, the methodol
ogy is not specifically detailed in an applicable code. Olson [2]
has compared the acceptable vibrations determined by using
the ANSIIA S ME Code O M 3 [ 12] , which is based on stress, to
the amplitude versus frequency curves presented in Figure 11.
The vibration-induced stress in a piping span vibrating at reso
nance has been shoVIlll to be related to the maximum vibration
amplitude (deflection) in the span [ 4 , 5, 6, 7] . The relationship
is given in the equation below:
D
S = Kdy 2 (SCF)
L

(10)

125

TUTORIAL ON PIPING VIBRATION ANALYSIS

5000

where,
s

Kd

Maximum vibration amplitude (deflection) mea

sured between nodes (normally at supports) , mils

SCF

r::

Span length, ft

+B=L

..r

8000

fTT7

r::

C)

,...

,.

6000

"'
"'

r.l
0::

,...

en

4000

r.l

..,
...
r.l
Q

2000

'l'r

""::g::;

,..or

,-"' "

"

..

......

.,..,..,.

..,_ .. _..

I sl

_./"'/

1/

.l
I

0. 2

0.4

.t_

A+B+C=L

.}

,...
en

z
0

E=i

0
r.l

2000

-\- ":"" '

..,
...
r.l
Q

.v

..1 "
,I
I 1--!\
\
IF/
1. /
(I I
...
I I
\\
I/
\
/

"-

._,

o-..-. .. ..,

.........

.,._..,__,.

,__..,

CIA

0.75

0.5

56789 1

0 . 25

CIA=
4

"""

1 .0

CIA=

x--x--x CIA

1 000

0 10

- - '

...

5 678 9 1 0

B/A LEG LENGTH RATIO

Figure 13. Deflection Stress Factors for Uniform Steel U-Bend

Configurations for First Out-of-Plane Mode.

()

(SCF) (SF)
where:
Sa

SCF
SF

Kd

Allowable stress, psi

(11)

Stress concentration factor

Safety factor
Deflection stress factor

1 2500 r---.,---,..-.,.-.,.-.,.-,-,-r-r---.--------,
li
.,. .. .,.. .. ..,ciA= 1 .0 _

An

x-x-x CIA= 0.75

C

j;

..,_..,__,.

--t-f-J--+.'-f-'t-1----t-

CIA

= 0.5

/-!-t+---+ ,._,._..,CIA
t---t--1--+-+-+ii
A+B+C=L

II

0.25

t---t--1-+--tt-+-l+t+
1
-l\:\ \1 --f/-+l:l ;r +-+-++-t-1+1
,,
,
' \
/
'v
I ,
I\
I \/ \ I
\ \ .,
,-7
I
A
5000 -1---+---,-!r- +-+-+-1-!-+if---, "-\- H,.._.-+-+-1-+-H-1

7500

/ '\.

t,
\'

'\ \

\\
I.

'
' ++-+-1-+-H----+---'-,. """"'!d:--H-1
2500 -1---JFo--.,!r''""'

' '

..

-..

s....

Mode In-PI ane

e.-.

--e--

06
.

56789 1

5 678 910

B/A LEG LENGTH RATIO

G----e----e 1 st Mode Oul-of-Pione

0
0.0

f:J

1 0000

3000

en
en

The deflection stress factor is a function of the boundary con

ditions and the vibration mode shape at resonance . Blevins [6]
gives the normalized vibratory mode shapes at resonance for the
classical beams . This data can be used to generate the deflection
stress factors for these modes using the methods presented by
Wachel [4]. The deflection stress factors for the first two modes
of the ideal classical beams and the piping configurations with
elbows are also given in Figure 1 . These factors are used to calcu
late the stress at the piping span natural frequency and the stress
has to be corrected if the pipe is vibrating at a different fre
quency. Mode correction factors are given in a later section.
For the piping configurations v\'ith elbows, the stress deflec
tion factors were calculated with the finite element program
ANSYS . The accuracy of the calculations was verified by com
parison -with the factors obtained for the classical beams . The
plots of the deflection stress factors are given in Figures 12, 13,
14, 15, , 16, 17, and 18 for the various piping configurations vvith
bends for the out-of-plane and the in-plane modes . The stress
used in the calculations was the maximum resultant stress since
vibrations in piping configurations with bends cause multidirec
tional stresses .
The allowable vibration amplitude can be calculated based on
the endurance limit. OM3 specifies 10000 psi zero to peak as the
allowable endurance limit for carbon steel and specifies that the
minimum safety factor is 1 . 3 which equates to 7690 psi zero to
peak. API 618 states that the stresses shall be less than 26000 psi
peak to peak, or 13000 psi zero to peak, and is normally used
-with a safety factor of 2 . The allowable vibration Ya in mils is
given by:

1-

,...

Stress concentration factor

-1

..r

4000

Outside pipe diameter, inches

1 0000

-n

Deflection stress factor

Dynamic stress , psi

08
.

1 .0

B/A LEG LENGTH RATIO

Figure 12. Deflection Stress Factors for Uniform Steel L-Bend

Configurations.

Figure 14. Deflection Stress Factors for Uniform Steel U-Bend

Configurations for First In-Plane Mode.
If the API 618 allowable of 26000 psi peak to peak is used as
the endurance limit combined with a stress concentration factor
of 4 . 33 , a safety factor of 2, and a stress deflection factor of 3000

126

PROC E E DINGS OF THE NINETEENTH TURBOMAC H INERY SYM POSIUM

10000...----.-...,-.,...,...,-,----,--,
<>--<>----<>CIA = 1.0
A
--x CIA=

4000
c

;:-"1
I

\:\\
/
\)_

I /
I I
. ..;f--+--+-+-+-H
3 000--+--r-
_.

'I

\\
\\

-<>CIA= 1.0-1--+-!-+-H
1-----J--f---+-+-H--H+ <>----&
x---x CIA=

1-----J--f----+--+-H--H+ .,__,.__,. CIA=

1-----J--f----+--+-H--H

010

.,__.,_..,

4 567891

. 5-1--+-!-+-H
07

8000

A-_,.__.., CIA

A+B+C=L

.,_..,__,

g
g

.: V

'
\

1'-- -\ r::_.....
_

CIA = 0.25

I +41 44
1

\\

/ I" -\ .
I

/I ' \
/ Jr'\' I\ \

/
//

',\

'\ ':. -

2000t---r""').. F---- +- +H14---+-+---f,=i=:i=$oH

r- ...., r--f--

CIA= 0.25-1--+-!-!-
I

010

4 5 6 78910

4 567891

4 5678910

B/A LEG LENGTH RATIO

B/A LEG LENGTH RATIO

Figure 15. Deflection Stress Factors for Uniform Steel Z-Bend

Configurations for First Out-of-Plane Mode.

Figure 17. Deflection Stress Factors for Uniform Steel 3D-Bend

Configurations for First Mode.

<>----&---<>CIA= 1.0

---x CIA=

-H-+'-+1+-f---+
1---+--l---+--+-H-1+1---+

<>--&---<> CIA=
x--.oc CIA=

1---+--r--+--h'+-t-1+---f- .,__,.__,. CIA=

,_...,_

\';/
/

..
. ... \

e.
s

4000-- -l--f----+--+-H-H/- /
- -
\ -+-+-+-+444

0.5-1--+-!-+-H

6000t---r--r-+-+-+4-HH----+--+-+-T

tt:l

!;'"""

.p...,+-1?-t-t----+--+--f,
2000--+-"'.....;,,"!
T-i-H

1000--+--r-+-1-+-t-t-

<i

0.
75

...

CIA=

. 0

0.75
0. 5
0.25

<i

!)

"'

"'
z

\\

\\

15000

A+B+C=L

.__,.__,. CIA = 0.5

,__...,_..,

CIA = 0.25

10000t---+--t-+-+--t+J-HH----+--+-+-+-++-K-1
kr

\
\

:::., 1.---;" I
-"' --: -'-< U"5000t---==>.;:;,-:-+-1-+-J.+.,,...

.l>; -+"""+--+--+-+1+1
..
" \ \ ..
,..., .:

',

F---.,; -

4 56 78 910
B/A LEG LENGTH RATIO

0.75

010

4 567891

4 5 6 76 91

B/A LEG LENGTH RATIO

Figure 16. Deflection Stress Factors for Uniform Steel Z-Bend

Configurations for First In-Plane Mode.

Figure 18. Deflection Stress Factors for Uniform Steel 3D-Bend

Configurations for Second Mode.

(applicable for a fixed-fixed pipe) , the allowable vibration in

peak to peak mils can be calculated. Equation ( 11) becomes:

are normally at the supports . This criteria is overly conservative

for cantilever beams .

Ya =

Stress as a Function of the Vibration Velocity

"Rule of Thumb"

(12)

This can be used (conservatively) as a screening criteria for

straight runs of piping or for piping with bends, based on the
deflection stress factors given in Figures 1 and 12-18 . The span
length is the length between measured vibration nodes which

In a piping span vibrating at resonance, it is also possible to

relate the maximum stress to the measured velocity [4] . In order
to develop a closed-form solution of the dynamic stress as a func
tion of the velocity, the radius of gyration has to be expressed as
a function of the outside diameter of the pipe . A comparison of
the radius of gyration for different sizes of pipe versus the
simplified equation of 0 . 34 D0 where D0 is the outside pipe
diameter shows that, for a significant range of pipe sizes, this

127

TUTORIAL ON PIPING VIBRATION ANALYSIS

400

simplified equation is within a few percent for pipe schedules

from 10 to 16 0 [ 4]. By making the substitution of 0. 34 D0 for the
radius of gyration, the relationship of the maximum pipe veloc
ity in the span to stress can be developed. The results show that
the stress in an ideal beam is equal to a constant, Kv multipled
by the maximum velocity measured in the piping span.
The velocity stress factors for the first two modes are given in
Figure 1 for the classical types of straight spans as defined by
the end conditions.
For the piping configurations with piping elbows, the velocity
stress factors were also calculated in the analysis which de
veloped the frequency factors and the deflection stress factors.
The velocity stress factors are given in Figures 19-25 for the first
two modes for the various aspect ratios of the leg lengths.

I
I

400

t:tf

300

[[

\'1

),L.,

,..

..

"'i{
.... --

c.;>

"'
"'

"

,(

200

t;l

>

100

g,
...,

0
0.0

0.2

I
I

,..
"'

c.;>
0

I
I
I
I

......

...

_ ... _

'.::L

... _

"<l

_,_,

.,. ..,. ..,

C/A = 1.0

-- C/A = 0. 75
A--,...-

A+B+C=L

:\

.,._1

55789 1

C/A = 0.5
C/A = 9.25
4

78 910

I
I

I
0.5

0.8

t:tf

400

,..

1.0

_)---;
:.:::- .:.

"'
"'

,..
"'

1/

\./
/I
,)(

/.;

..-"

c.;>

1/

............

\I
\

0-

10

fl,
A+B+C=L

\ I
\I

\\\I

.,. ..,. .. ..,

<

200

(13)

i /

'\\
i
i

\\

\ \

1 \

I\
. '

I:

\1

-r, ""

C/A=I.0

--- C/A = 0. 75
.,._.__.

6 7 8 9I

t-1-ofl

C/A = 0.5
C/A = 0.25
3

7 8910

B/A LEG LENGTH RATIO

where:

'.\\

\ .

a-----E> lsl Mode Oul-of-Piana

The actual maximum span stress is equal to the velocity stress

factor times the maximum measured velocity times the stress
concentration factor. This equation for the stress is:

SCF

_, ..
\

...

Figure 20. Velocity Stress Factors for Uniform Steel U-Bend

Configurations for First Out-of-Plane Mode.

Figure 19. Velocity Stress Factorsfor Uniform Steel L-Bend Con

figurations.

Kv

...

...

B/A LEG LENGTH RATIO

B/A LEG LENGTH RATIO

.....

..

c'n'

10

J..-A,

...

'

f0

'

1st Mode In-P l ane

0.4

100

I
.............
-

i\

200

.. 1/
(?

'

-o. ...

--.-

'

300

I
I
I

I
I

,f 1\
11.\
\

Figure 21. Velocity Stress Factorsfor Uniform Steel U-Bend Con

figurations for First In-Plane Mode.

Dynamic stress, psi

Velocity stress factor
Stress concentration factor

where:

Maximum velocity in pipe span, in/sec

The allowable velocity is also a function of the endurance limit

and is given in the Equation (14). To account for system un
knowns, it is necessary to include a safety factor, usually 2 for
fatigue analysis.

(14)

Va
Sa

Kv

SCF
SF

Allowable vibration velocity in pipe span, in/sec

Allowable endurance limit stress, psi
Velocity stress factor
Stress concentration factor
Safety factor

In calculating allowable vibration, it is customary to use the

zero to peak stress allowable, since velocity is always expressed
as zero to peak. Based on an allowable endurance limit of 13000
psi zero to peak, a maximum velocity stress constant of 318, a

128

PROC E E DINGS OF THE NINETEENTH TURBO MACHINERY SYMPOSIUM

the first natural frequency when calculating the actual dynamic

stresses of a piping span.
For evaluating the maximum vibration-induced
stresses, the
.
equation becomes:
(17)

1--v

\-
\

200 f--..,.. +-----4-+-+-H-+++---+--+ k'-1--hl-!- !-l

I 00 .._----+---+--1--1-+-!-+++-----+""

. . ..,_ ..

where:
Sm

Maximum dynamic stress, psi

Dynamic stress calculated at the natural frequency,
psi

B00 r-------,-,-;,,;n---
<>- + -t> CIA = I . 0
A

.., ClA = I . 0

I---+---+-+++-4H-H-----+ x--x--x CIA = 0.75

1---+---+-+-+--1-1-H----+ _.__4 CIA = 0. 5

A+B+C=L

...

.,_..,.......,

CIA = 0.25
4

56789 1

5678910

B/A LEG LENGTH RATIO

:J
of

0
E-<
C)

r::
"'
"'
r:l
E-<
"'

400

><

>

I
I

I\
/

v-;

./
I

-;.---

.,_..,......,

\ /r

\/'\\

..

...,_

I
= 1.0

.
..

..__,.__ CIA = 0.5

CIA = 0.25

,__...,

<;ll \"1

' -+-+++4
+

.
. .
.

__
_ __

:'..._
-:;.,... v;;/.
I '\ ..
/;/

[\
...J-1...1
l +, ++++--+---l-t-:E:.--t="'+

200 t---+-'-'+f

...\\\
\
"

"

"

"

010

..

-v

'

\\
l.:\
\\

\
\

4 56789 1

Figure 24. Velocity Stress Factors for Uniform Steel 3D-Bend

Configurations for First Mode.

\\

4 5 678 910

B/A LEG LENGTH RATIO

800

-..

4 56 78 9\0

B/A LEG LENGTH RATIO

stress concentration factor of 5, and a safety factor of 2 , the al

lowable velocity is equal to:

Va =4

.
x--x--x CIA = 075

CIA = 0.25

Figure 23. Velocity Stress Factors for Uniform Steel Z-Bend

Configurations for First ln"Plane Mode.

(318

\,_J,I

;::: -'t:

\.

56789!

va =

..,_..,__,.CIA = 0.5

\,/

200

0\0

x--x--x CIA = 0.75

/
/

--

.,_ ..,_ .. .., CIA

...

--

':.::::

C)
0

f;.l

. .
...,

600

'

..
400t----+--+-++-H
.

Figure 22. Velocity Stress Factors for Uniform Steel Z-Bend

Configurations for First Out-of-Plane Mode.
800

600

li

13000
X 2 X 5)

in/sec zero to peak

:J

A+B+C=L

0
E-<
C)

r::
"'
"'
l:l
E-<
"'

400

C)
0

I
L

..,_ ... _

I
I

i/

!..
r-:::::::- ::.}-'
---

....

200

I
I
I

I
I
I
I
I

1/
/

ll \
I \

..

..

Other Considerations for Vibration-Induced Stresses

It is necessary to consider other factors, such as concentrated
or distributed weights, and responses at frequencies other than

0
\0-

_.etA =

.,_..,_..,

I
I
I
I

e.s

CIA = 02
. 5

I
\

'- 4 -
. --...

r-._

(15)
(16)

..,CIA = \.0

. 5
x--x--x CIA = 07

><

r.:l
>

600

,. ..,.

- --

I
\
I

I
I

-- ......

\"<

\..

\L- -::F'

56789 1

..

5678910

B/A LEG LENGTH RATIO

Figure 25. Velocity Stress Factors for Uniform Steel 3D-Bend

Configurations for Second Mode.

129

TUTORIAL ON PIPING VIBRATION ANALYSIS

K1

K2
K3

Stress correction factor for concentrated weights

=

Stress correction fuctor for mode/frequency considerations

Stress correction factor for pipe contents and insulation

deflection stress method. These data show that the stresses cal
culated using the vibration deflection for the piping span vibrat
ing at its first mode \\ill be \'1-ithin a few percent of the correct
stress for most piping configurations .

Stress Weight Correction Factors (K1 )

When a concentrated weight is located in a pipe span vibrat
ing at its first natural frequency, the stresses calculated using the
uniform beam equations can be in error; therefore, correction
factors must be applied to the stress calculations . The stress
weight correction factors given in Figure 26 can be used to com
pensate the dynamic stress calculations for the effect of concen
trated weights on piping spans with the classical boundary con
ditions . Two curves are presented, one which gives the factors
for correcting the calculated stresses based on measured vibration
deflection and the other for correcting the calculated stresses based
on measured vibration velocity. To obtain these factors, concen
trated weights were placed at the vibration antinode locations for
the cantilever, simply-supported, fixed-supported, fixed-fixed, L
Bend, U-Bend, Z-Bends and 3D-Bends piping configurations.
The curves are composite curves which should be conservative for
piping spans vibrating at their first natural frequency. This factor
increases the stress; therefore, the allowable vibration is reduced
whenever a concentrated weight is present.

//

- - -- --

__ _ _

.. _ ;::.;-

1 -

I
f--'-t-t-t-+-+-+-+-+-+-++++-+ - ---

.... - --

, , .,..,,
S 1 p i -Supp01' ld

--- F l td-f J xd

1 0 r-------,---.--r--

0 . 0 4-----
2.0
0.0
0.5
1 .0
1 .5

FREQUENCY RATIO

Figure 27. Off-Resonant Mode Stress Correction Factorsfor De

flection-Stress Calculations (K2) .

. ..

/,./

.
. ..
/ . ..
V i brat i on Def l c: l i on

.../

.
-- -- - ------

0 --------0
10
15
20

RATIO OF C ONCENTRATED WEIGHT TO SPAN WEIGHT

Figure 26. Stress Weight Correction Factors (k1 ) .

For these curves, if the concentrated weight i s not exactly at
the antinode, the weight correction factor can be approximated
by linear interpolation.

Mode Correction Factor ()

If the piping span is not vibrating at its first lateral bending
mode, mode correction factors which depend upon whether the
span is vibrating above or below the first natural frequency must
be applied.
If the piping span is vibrating below its lowest lateral beam
vibration mode, the inode shape \\ill be similar in shape to the
static deflection mode shape and \'1-ill gradually change to the
vibration first mode shape as the frequency approaches the first
natural frequency. Data analyses performed to determine the
mode correction factors are summarized in Figure 27 [4] for the

If the piping span is vibrating at frequencies higher than the

first natural frequency, the calculated stresses based on the de
flection mode shape at the first natural frequency can be in error.
The mode correction factor needs to be developed for a particu
lar configuration if this method is to be used for frequencies that
are greater than approximately 50 percent above the first natural
frequency.
If the stresses are calculated using the velocity stress method,
the mode correction factor from Figure 28, given as a function
of the frequency ratio for the classical beams, can be used [ 4] .
It can be seen that the mode correction factor is inversely pro
portional to the frequency; the lower the frequency, the higher
the mode correction factor. This means that the velocity stress
calculations should not be used for frequencies below the first
natural frequency unless the exact mode correction factor is de
veloped. This is recognized in O M3 which specifies that the
stresses should be multiplied by the ratio of the natural fre
quency to the exciting frequency.
When the excitation frequency is higher than the first natural
frequency, Figure 28 shows that the stresses calculated at the
first natural frequency would be conservative .
If the piping span is vibrating at its second natural frequency,
the deflection and/or velocity stress factor given for the second
mode should be used to calculate the stresses . The natural fre
quency for the span length used should match the measured fre
quency or the resulting calculations could be in error. In com
plex piping systems, this can be a problem, since adjacent spans
can cause severe off-resonance vibrations .

Stress Correction Factor for Weight

of Pipe Contents and Insulation (K3)
The primary effect of the increased weight of piping contents
and insulation is to lower the mechanical natural frequency,
since the insulation and contents do not add appreciable stiff-

PROCE E D INGS OF THE NINETEENTH TURBO MACHINERY SYMPOSIUM

130
2.0

111111'
! 1:,:-<1
, ril
\ ----;--;-,--.--.--,.---r--,-.,----;--;--r-"1

\I \

The stresses in the shell wall are given by the following iso
tropic stress strain relationships:

...

\
\ .,, .

. t--t---t--t--t--t-+,+-+-+-+-+-H-+-+-+-+-l---1
\'\ \

I 5

1 .0

"
t-t-rH--t-t---+-+-+d-++++-+-+-+--f---1
-

E
2 (e" + ve a)
1-v

( 19)

E
Sa = --2- (e6 + ve")
1 -v

(20)

s"

where:
S" = Lateral bending stress, psi

t-t-H---t-+-++++-+-+-H-t,--L_c:.:.:L..LJ...-1
1-I--I--1--HHHHW .... .....

-.

0. 5

---

SI,ppor l d

f h c.Ofru
Si.pl

..:-..:-.l.l-.l-.l-.1-.I-.I-.!-.!-J..:
:
..:.
f;,:
hc:.
d;_:
f l ::
d:..__
.

0 0, 7
.
0.0
0.5
1 .0
1 5
2.0

FREQUENCY RATIO

Sa = Circumferential stress, psi

v

= Poisson's ratio = 0 . 3 for steel

e" = S train in axial direction

E a = Strain in circumferential direction

Mi asinovic [ 15] presented an expression relating vibration

velocity measured on the cylindrical shell wall to dynamic
strain:

Figure 28. Off-Resonant Mode Stress Correction Factors for

Velocity-Stress Calculations (K3.
(21)
ness . In the original derivation of the natural frequency, the
linear density was in the denominator of the square root func
tion. Therefore, the natural frequency is reduced by the ratio of
the square root of the original linear weight per unit length to
the new overall weight per unit length.
For the stress calculations using the deflection stress factors,
the correction factor is 1. For the stress calculations using the
velocity stress factors , the correction factor will be equal to:

(18)
where:
we = We ight per unit length of contents
wi = Weight per unit length of insulation
Wp

= Weight per unit length of pipe

A screening velocity value can be obtained by assuming val

ues of the correction factors that are maximum . O M3 arrived at
a screening criteria of 0 . 5 in/sec; however, this number has
proven to be very conservative in many piping systems ( 14] .
OM3 uses a factor of K3 of 1 . 5 and a K1 of 8 . The concentrated
weight correction factor K1 of 8 that is used was based on a con
centrated weight to span weight of 20 to 1 . In practice, the ratio
is more likely to be less than 3 to 1 . For a maximum concentrated
weight to span weight of 3 , K1 would be approximately 2. 7, and
the screening criteria would be 1 . 5 in/sec . If vibration measure
ments indicate that the screening criteria is exceeded, the actual
stress factors and the correction factors should be applied for the
span and the acceptability of the vibrations based on these numbers.

Shell Wall Vibration-Induced Stresses

When the high frequency piping shell wall vibrations (axial
and circumferential mode shapes) are excited, the equations re
lating vibration displacement, velocity and acceleration to the
piping stress based on the lateral beam vibration between sup
ports do not apply. Therefore, the equations relating vibration
amplitudes to stress for these modes must be determined in
order to assess the reliability of the vibrations .

where:
V = Vibration velocity, in/sec, zero to peak
C = Ve locity of sound in metal

y[Eglp) -202, 284 in/sec for steel]

e = Dynamic strain, in/in

The assumptions made in the derivation above are that the

vibration measurements are peak measurements and several re
onant m? des are involved, such that the peak vibration velocity
IS app oximately the same around the circumference and along

the axial length of the piping between the constraints . It is not

known how practical this assumption is , since the vibration con
diti ns in a given pip length are a function of the piping config
uration, the wall thickness, and the internal driving forces .
Mikasinovic tested different pipe sizes, wall thicknesses and end
conditions with satisfactory results.
Using this formula, it would be possible to relate the vibration
velocity to the fatigue endurance limit . In A N S IIAS ME O M3 ,
th allowable endurance limit stress is 10000 psi, and the
_
mmimum
safety factor is 1 . 3 , which makes the allowable stress
equal to 7690 psi zero to peak . For the shell wall vibrations the
maximum stress concentration factor in the heat-affected one
of a weld would be 5 . This means that the allowable stress could
be as low as 1538 psi zero to peak . If we divide the stress by the
.
elastic modulus of 30, 000 , 000 psi, the allowable strain is ob
tained at 51 . 3 microstrain (in/in x 10 -6) . This value is consistent
with the experience of the authors [ 16] .
Using this value for the acceptable strain, the allowable veloc
ity is equal to:

\'

6)
2_
28_4.:._
) -'(5_
1 ._
l0_-_.:_
3_X_
_(2_0_
27T

Va= l . 7 inches per second zero-to peak

(22)
(23)

TUTORIAL ON PIPING VIBRATION ANALYSIS

If the stress concentration factor is less than the maximum,

the allowable vibration velocity would be higher by the ratio of
the actual stress concentration factor to 5. For a butt weld, the
stress concentration factor is approximately 2; therefore, the al
lowable velocity would be 4 . 1 ips .
The vibrational velocitv of the shell wall is also related to the
sound pressure level (C ,;eighting); however, no closed-form so
lution exists . Field experience \vith strain gages installed on pip
ing with high frequency, broad band vibrations has shown that
the sound pressure level (SPL) measured approximately 1 inch
away from the pipe wall is proportional to the dynamic strain.
Although the relationship between dynamic strain and SPL
amplitude is not exact, the overall levels as presented below
have been used to estimate the severitv of shell wall vibrations
and as a screening method to help dete;mine where strain gages
should be installed on a piping system to determine the safety
factor.

Piping SPL and Strain Criteria

\Vhen the SPL is measured with the sound pressure meter
using C weighting approximately 1 . 0 in from the vibrating pipe
wall, the following criteria have been f(mnd to be applicable:
1:30 dB is equivalent to approximately 100 microstrain
1.36 dB is equivalent to approximately 200 microstrain
In addition to the criteria outlined above, it has been shown
by field experience that allowable strain levels can be specified
[ 16] . These allowable strain levels (E) are given below:
E < 100 microstrain

100 microstrain < E < 200 microstrain

E>200 microstrain

(24)

Safe
Marginal

Excessive

(2.5)
(26)

These strain limits are based on measurements that are lo

cated away from the high intensified stress locations, such as the
heat-affected zone. Typically, the strain gages are installed about
one-half inch away from the weld. This strain limit criteria is
equivalent to an allowable stress of 3000 psi peak to peak .

VIBRATION EXCITATION SOURCES

Piping vibrations are most often excited by pulsation forces in
side the piping or, secondarily, by mechanical excitation from
machinery unbalanced forces and moments at one and two times
the running speed. Potential excitation sources are included in
the following list and are also summarized in Table 2 .
IVIechanical energy from machinery unbalanced forces and
moments

131

Pulsations generated by waterhammer and surge

Pulsation Generating Mechanisms

Reciprocating Compressors and Pumps
The intermittent flow of a fluid through compressor or pump
cylinder valves generates fluid pulsations which are related to a
number of parameters, including operating pressures and tem
peratures, horsepower, capacity, pressure ratio, clearance vol
mnes, phasing between cylinders, fluid thermodynamic proper
ties, and cylinder and valve design . Pulsations are generated at
discrete frequency components corresponding to the multiples
of operating speed.
The pulsation amplitudes depend on the magnitude of the
pulsation generated and the reflected amplitudes of the fre
quency components as they interact with the acoustical reso
nances in the svstem.
Pulsation m plitudes can be predicted by modelling the
acoustic characteristics of the piping, the pulsations generated
by the compressor or pump and the interaction of the two. Digi
tal [5] and analog simulation techniques [7] have been de
veloped to model the piping and the pulsation generating
characteristics of compressor and pump systems. The analog
technique , which was developed in the 19.50s, solves the differ
ential equations by building electrical models of the piping and
the compressors and pumps. In the digital technique, the differ
ential equations of the acoustic phenomena are solved directly
with complex matrix algorithms using modern high speed
computers .

Centrifugal Compressors and Pumps

Pulsation amplitudes generated by centrih1gal machines gen
erally occur at one times running speed and blade passing fre
quency and their multiples. They are a function of the radial vi
brations, the radial impeller clearance, seal and wear rings
clearances, the symmetry of the impeller, diffuser and case, and
the volute characteristics . As operating conditions deviate from
the design or best efficiency point, a variety of secondary flow
patterns [ 17] may produce additional pressure fluctuations .
Significant low frequency pulsations can also be produced as
a result of dynamic interaction of the acoustical response of the
piping, the head-flow curve of the unit, the dynamic flow damp
ing, and the location of the unit in the piping geometry [ 7 , 18] .

Flow Through or Across Objects

Flow through a restriction or past an obstruction or restriction
in the piping may produce turbulence or flow-induced pulsa
tions [ 19 , 20] . These flow generated pulsations (commonly
called Strouhal excitation) produce noise and vibration at fre
quencies which are related to the flow velocity and geometry of
the obstruction.
The acoustical modes of a piping system and the location of
the turbulent excitation have a strong influence on the fre
quency and amplitude of the vortex shedding. The frequencies
generated by the turbulent energy are centered around a fre
quency which can be determined by the following equation:

Pulsations generated by reciprocating compressors and

pumps

Pulsations generated by centrifugal compressors and

pumps

(27)

Pulsations generated by flow through or across objects

where:

f, = Strouhal vortex frequency, Hz

Sn = S trouhal number, dimensionless (0 . 2 to 0 . .5)

Pulsations generated by pressure drop at restrictions

Pulsations generated by cavitation and flashing

Flow velocity in the pipe, ftlsec

Characteristic dimension of the obstruction , ft

132

PROCE E DINGS OF THE NINETEENTH TURBO MACHINERY SYM POSIUM

Table 2. Piping Vibration Excitation Sources.

Description of
Excitation Forces

Generation Mechanism
L MECHANICAL INDUCED
A . Machinery Unbalanced
Forces & Moments

B . Structure - Bourne

2 . PULSATION INDUCED
A . Reciprocating
Compressors

B . Reciprocating Pumps

H i g h Level , Low Frequency

Compressors & Pwnpa

ft

Low Level

High Pressure P uJsations,

Low Frequency

High Pressure Pulsations,

Low Pressure Pulsations,

High Frequency

f
f
f

=:

I =

I =

3. GASEOUS FLOW EXCITED

A . Flow Through Pre88ure
Letdown Valves or Re
strictions/Obstructiona

B. Flow Past S tubs

\f

&:

&:

npi
nv'J.i
60

Moderate Acoustic Energy

4 . LIQU I D (OR MIXED PHASE) FLOW E X CITED

A . Flow Turbulence Due t o
Random V ibrations, L ow
Frequency
Quasi S teady Flow

Venh & Drains

= 1 ,2 , 3 ,

..

( modes)

Speed, rpm

J5

= S

= 0 - 30 l i z

Mechanical and/or Acoustic

P i p i n g System Fatigue Failures,

Resonance of Piping S ys t e m

Excessive Loads t o Rotating

Equipment , D amaged Supports/
Restraints

P = Number or
Pu mp P lungers

Mechanical and/or Acoustic

Cav i t a t i on on S u c t i on

Resonance of Piping Systems

Piping Fatigue Failu res

Complex Vibration Modes

High Acoustic Energies (Noise)

Piping System Fai lures, Excessive
Loads to Rotating Equipment ,
Small Branch Connection Fail u res

B = Number of Blades
11

= Number of Vol u tes

or Ditruser Vanes

Complex Vibration Mo4es in

Fati gu e Fai l u res of Large Diameter

B o t h Longi tudinal and

P ip in g Downstream of High Capac i t y

C i rcumferential D i rections

P ressure L e t d o w n Val ves, Small

Branch Connection Failures, F l i:Lnge

D = Restriction
Diameter, ft .
S = 0.2 - 0 . 5

D = Stub Diameter, ft.

(Typicall y )

(e.g. Fluid Solids Lines)

B . Cav i tation and
Flashing

:::

0 . 2 - 0.5
V = Flow Velocity
ft/sec

Frequencies

Foundation Resonances

Instrumentation Lines

S = S t rouhal N u mber

Mid to High Broad B and

Ty pical Problems

R esonance of Piping System

f6

High Acoustic Energy,

M i d to l l i g h Frequencies

Pipi n g Res p o n se

Mechanical and/or P i p i n g

;:;;;

h =

Low Frequency
C . Centrifugal

Excitation Fr eq u e n cies

Leakage

A coustic Resonance of Short

Fatigue Failure of S t u b Connection

S tubs

t o Main Run, Val ve Chatter

L o w Frequency Line Movements

a.t M echanical N a t u ral

Ex.cessive L o a d s on P i p i n g S u ppo1t.s
and Restraints

Frequencies
H ig h Acoustic Energy,

B road B and

M i d to l l igh Frequencies

Complex Vibration Modes in

Fat igue Fai h 1 re s , Small Branch

Both Lon g i t u d i n al and

Connection Fail ures

Circumferential Directions

5 . PnESSUnE SURGE/
UYDRAULIC HAMMER

Transient Shock Loading

Discrete Events

For flow over tubes, D is the tube diameter, and for excitation
by flow past a branch pipe, D is the diameter of the branch pipe.

Pressure Drop Through Restrictions

Pressure regulators , flow control valves, relief valves, and
pressure letdown valves produce pulsations (noise) associated
with turbulence and flow separation, and the relatively broad
band frequency spectrum is characteristically centered around
a frequency corresponding to a Strouhal number of approxi
mately 0 . 2 .

l l igh Jmpa.ct Loads t o P i p i n g

an d Hcttraints

Excessive P i p i n g / S t ructure Loa.d:i

D ue to Quick Valve Closures or

R apid Pump S t arts/S tops

surges in piping systems. Increasing the closure time of valves

can reduce the severity of the surge pressure. Methods are avail
able to evaluate the severity ofwaterhammer in a particular pip
ing configuration for various closure rates [21 ] .
Centrifugal compressors and pumps can sometimes surge
when they are operating at a low flow, high-head condition. The
flow-versus-head curve can actually cause backflow to occur and
significant pulsations can be generated which are a function of
the piping acoustical natural frequencies and the overall impe
dance characteristics [ 18] .

Cavitation and Flashing

Flashing and cavitation can occur in the low pressure region
of liquid system pressure control valves when the pressure drops
below the vapor pressure. When cavitation occurs, a gas bubble
is formed and moves with the flow. As the pressure increases,
the pressure rises above the vapor pressure, the gas bubble col
lapses, and a high amplitude shock pulse results in the fluid.
To avoid flashing after a restriction, sufficient back pressure
should be provided by taking pressure drop at several locations .
Alternately, the restriction could be located near an open end so
that the flashing energy can dissipate into a larger volume.

Hydraulic Waterhammer and Surge

Starting and stopping pumps with the attendant fast opening
and closing of valves is a major cause of severe transient pressure

Coupling Mechanisms
For vibrations to occur, there must be an energy generating
source plus a coupling mechanism to convert the pressure forces
into shaking forces . Therefore, in evaluating the piping vibration
characteristics of an installation, it is essential to understand the
coupling mechanisms which cause shaking forces to occur in the
piping system.
Pressure pulsations couple to produce shaking forces at piping
bends, closed ends of vessels and headers, discontinuities or
changes in the piping diameters and at restrictions, such as
orifices, valves, and reducers. In a continuous straight pipe of
constant diameter, pulsations will not produce a significant vib
ration excitation force.

TUTORIAL ON PIPING VIBRATION ANALYSIS

EVALUATION OF THE
SEVERITY OF PIPING VIBRATION
When a vibration problem occurs, it is necessary to evaluate
its severity and determine the most effective way to alleviate the
problem. The first step is to make an initial survey or walkdown
of the piping system to determine piping spans with high vibra
tion levels. During the walkdown of the piping, it is necessary
to look for common symptoms of piping vibrations problems .
These include fatigue cracks in the piping, leaks at flanges, bro
ken or loose pipe clamps or hangers, cracked concrete piers,
rubbed weight supports (bright metal) , damaged pressure
gages, noise related to the pipe hitting its restraint, or high shell
wall vibrations.
The second step is to make vibration measurements to
evaluate specific piping spans that are thought to have excessive
vibration amplitudes. The acceptability is judged by performing
the calculations necessary to obtain the dynamic stresses using
the simplified techniques presented in this paper. Since the re
lationships between vibration and stress were developed for re
sonant piping spans, the frequency factors presented can be
used to verify that the span is at resonance.
If the system vibration characteristics are complex and it is de
sired to ensure the safety of the piping, it may be necessary to
develop a computer model of the piping. This model could be
forced to have the measured vibrations and the resultant stres
ses calculated. The acceptability of the vibrations could be
judged by comparison of the calculated stresses to the material
endurance limit. Strain gages can be installed at the suspected
high stress locations to measure the dynamic strains which can
be compared to the criteria presented herein .

SOLUTIONS TO PIPING VIBRATION PROBLEMS

Solutions to most piping vibration problems involve reducing
the excitation forces, eliminating the coupling mechanisms, or
eliminating the mechanical or pulsation resonances . The most
effective solutions are those that eliminate the resonances since
the amplification factors for mechanical resonances are typically
10 - 30. Amplification factors for pulsation resonances can be
as high as 50 , although the range of 10 - 30 is more typical .

Modifications to Solve Mechanical Resonances

Since the span natural frequency is an inverse function of the
square of the span length, the most effective way to solve a
mechanical resonance is to add pipe restraints , such as piers,
supports or clamps to shorten the vibrating span . Many times,
temporary bracing with hydraulic jacks, wooden beams and
wedges can be used to confirm that a support at a particular loca
tion will reduce the vibrations .
Some of the general guidelines which can be used in selecting
modifications to detune the mechanical resonances are outlined
below:
Pipe supports and clamps should be installed on one side of
each bend, at all heavy weights, and at all piping discontinuities.

The support and clamp stiffness should be adequate to re

strain the shaking forces in the piping to the desired amplitudes
and should be greater than twice the basic span stiffness in order
to effectively enforce a node at the support location .

Vents, drains, bypass, and instrument piping should be

braced to the main pipe to eliminate relative vibrations between
the small-bore piping and the main pipe.
Restraints, supports, or gussets should not be directly
welded to the pressure vessels or the piping unless they are sub

133

jected to the appropriate heat treatment. It is more desirable to

add a saddle-type clamp around the pipe and weld the braces to
the clamp .
Pipe guides with clearance are used as thermal expansion
control devices and are generally ineffective in controlling pip
ing vibrations .

To resist vibration, the piping clamps should have contact

with the pipe over 180 degrees of the circumference . Rubber or
gasket-type material can be used between the clamp and the
pipe to improve the contact.

The piping span natural frequency should not be coincident

with the excitation frequencies .

In piping that has high shell wall vibrations, reduction of the

vibrations and the noise can be accomplished by adding
constrained-layer damping, if proper design procedures are
used.

In systems with pressure reducing valves, the wall thick

ness of the piping should be one-half inch or greater if there is
a possibility of sonic flow downstream of the valve [20] . Full sad
dle reinforcement tees or welding tees should be used
downstream of sonically choked valves or where there is a possi
bility of sonic flow occurring at the branch pipe intersection .

Solutions to Pulsation Resonances

When a pulsation resonance is found, acoustic changes to the
piping system can be the most effective way to detune or reduce
the amplitudes of the pulsations. Probably the most effective
element that can be conveniently used in existing systems is an
orifice plate, which is an acoustical resistance element, and is
most effective when located at a pressure pulsation node. Gener
ally, without additional information, an orifice plate with a
diameter ratio of approximately 0 . 5 will give sufficient pressure
drop (acoustical resistance) to evaluate whether such an acousti
cal modification will be an effective solution.
If orifice plates are ineffective or impractical due to the pres
sure drop, it may be necessary to install pulsation filters to re
duce the amplitudes of the pulsations . These could be volume
bottles, Helmholtz-type filters, gas/bladder type accumulators,
etc. It may be necessary to acoustically model the piping system
using digital or analog techniques to determine the level of
changes that will be required to detune the system and solve the
problem. A combination of mechanical and pulsation changes
may be needed to reduce the severity of the problem to the
point where the vibrations are acceptable.

CONCLUSIONS
Some of the basic principles necessary for understanding the
behavior of piping vibrations and determining the acceptable
vibration levels in piping spans have been presented. The infor
mation presented can be used by engineers to perform the
following:
Calculation of the first and second mechanical natural fre
quencies of uniform piping spans, including piping bends with
various aspect ratios .

Calculation of the maximum vibration-induced stresses

based on the maximum measured vibration deflection within a
uniform piping span .

Calculation of the maximum vibration-induced stresses based

on the maximum measured vibration velocity within a uniform
piping span.

PROCE E D INGS OF T H E NINE T E E NTH TURBO MAC HINERY SYMPOSIUM

134

Calculation of the maximum acceptable vibration deflection

within a uniform piping span, based on the endurance stress
limit.

Calculation of the maximum acceptable vibration velocity

within a uniform piping span, based on the endurance stress
limit.

Calculation of the effects of concentrated and distributed

(contents and insulation) weights on the natural frequencies and
the vibration-induced stresses.

Calculation of the effects of off-resonant stresses.

Determination of the acceptable screening criteria for a pip

ing span to eliminate those spans with adequate safety factors so
that detailed vibration and stress analyses will not have to be per
formed on all piping spans.

Determination of the possible excitation sources that could

be causing the piping vibrations.

Determination of the possible mechanisms that could be

coupling the pulsation or mechanical energy into shaking forces.

Determination of the possible mechanical solutions to solve

the vibration problem.

Determination of the possible acoustical solutions to solve

the pulsation problem which may be causing the vibrations.

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