INTRODUCTION

I know that I am mortal and the creature of a day; but when I search out the
massed wheeling circles of the stars, my feet no longer touch the Earth but, side
by side with Zeus himself, I take my fill of ambrosia.
Claudius Ptolemy
Even though the astrolabe is among the worlds most ancient scientific instruments, it
has never been equaled for providing a clear, concise picture of the heavens. A glance
at a properly set astrolabe gives a complete snapshot of the sky at a particular time and
place. The astrolabe is also an inherently beautiful device. Its graceful arcs and finely
engraved components are both elegant and mysterious. It is a device of wonder to those
who do not understand its simple elegance and a source of admiration to those who do.
The unique properties of the astrolabe continue to excite interest after more than two
millennia.
The astrolabe was a widely used astronomical instrument for over 1000 years without
significant change in its basic form. Despite embellishments to improve its utility in
different cultures and epochs, a 10th century astrolabe would be instantly recognized as
an astrolabe by a modern user. This spectacular success is due to the uniquely concise,
complete and useful view of the heavens that the astrolabe provides. This advantage
of the astrolabe is retained when the ancient science of the astrolabe is combined with
modern computer graphics and new possibilities emerge that were not possible on
classical instruments. The combination of the old and new technologies is synergistic,
enhancing both.
The Electric Astrolabe is a fully functional computer representation of a classical
astrolabe. A planetarium program in this form demonstrates the durability of astrolabe
principles defined 2000 years ago. Astrolabe technology transfers to computer graphics
in a natural and useful way and provides opportunities for enhancements that medieval
astrolabists would never have imagined. In addition, recreating an ancient art on modern
equipment provides a window to the past and deep appreciation for the intelligence and
skill of the original developers.
Perhaps the greatest advantage of the astrolabe display over other planetarium
programs is that it shows the entire sky, both visible and invisible, for a given time
and place. In addition, the ability of the Electric Astrolabe to animate the sky provides
a dynamic view of the heavens that dramatically illustrates astronomical ideas. This
format provides an extremely compact and efficient method for showing the positions
of heavenly bodies. The following information can be determined at a glance from the
Electric Astrolabe graphics display once it is set to a location, date and time:

The time of day

The positions of the Sun, moon and planets in the sky
Visibility of the bright stars and significant constellations
The location of all of the Messier objects
The phase of the moon Sidereal time

Introduction to the Astrolab

The longitude of the Sun, moon and planets The

declination of the Sun
The position of the moons nodes Planetary elongations
An estimate of the equation of time
By pressing a few keys you can easily determine:

Time of Sunrise and Sunset

Time of meridian passage for any celestial object Apparent solar time
Right ascension and declination of a displayed object
Geocentric latitude and longitude of a displayed object
Synodic periods of the planets
Eclipse conditions Observability of any Messier object
Time and date of conjunctions, oppositions, quadrature and maximum elongation
of the planets
The date of Easter
You can also observe:
The effect of latitude on the seasons
Planets as they move from posigrade to retrograde motion and back
Sky conditions at the time of significant historical events (e.g. The position and
phase of
the Moon the night Columbus first made landfall in the New World.)
The Electric Astrolabe also includes some interesting functions that have nothing to
do with astrolabes. For example, you can:

Display an animated orrery of the planets in orbit around the Sun

Display the phase of the Moon, inner planets and Mars
Display and animate the galilean satellites of Jupiter
Display the rings of Saturn Shade the sky for daylight, twilight and night time

These displays are mainly for education and amusement. The orrery can be used to
demonstrate planetary phenomena such as synodic periods, elongation, conjunctions
and oppositions.
The Electric Astrolabe also incorporates several text displays giving numerical
values of planetary and lunar positions. The text displays, which are implemented as
a type of astronomical spreadsheet, are useful for determining the exact time of some
event such as the vernal equinox or eclipses.
There are many computer planetarium programs available. Most of them focus on
deep sky objects such as stars, nebulae and galaxies. The Electric Astrolabe concentrates
on planetary motion and can be used to illustrate the basics of orbital mechanics. An
unrelated purpose of the Electric Astrolabe is to sample a bit of the history of astronomy.
Using the Electric Astrolabe should be enjoyable and educational. Watching the
dynamics of the heavens is an experience that can illuminate and reinforce many
astronomical concepts. It can be used to plan observations or just stay in touch with
celestial events. Or it can be used as an extremely elegant astronomical clock.

Introduction to the Astrolab

Note that The Electric Astrolabe deals with astronomical ideas and measurements
that range from very basic definitions to extremely sophisticated ideas. A glossary
has been included to provide a quick definition of most of the astronomical terms
used in this guide. Some of the more advanced topics are covered in the text in the
appropriate section. You may need to refer to a good astronomy textbook for complete
understanding of some ideas.

WHAT IS AN ASTROLABE?
The astrolabe is an astronomical instrument that shows the user the positions of the
Sun and stars for a specific time and place. It can be used to solve a great many
astronomy problems that would require mathematical calculations if you didnt have
such a marvelous device. The name comes from the Greek aster, meaning star,
and lambanein (aor. labein ) meaning take, seize, catch, grasp and, derivatively,
apprehend, determine, estimate. Combined as the word astrolabe, the name means
that an astrolabe can be used as either a star finder or a star taker. As a star finder
the astrolabe can be used to find stars and other objects in the sky. As a star taker,
the astrolabe can be used to find the time by taking a reading of the Sun or a known
stars position. The astrolabe is both a map of the heavens and a portable computer
for solving astronomical problems. The astrolabe can be considered the worlds first
personal computer.
The purpose of the astrolabe is to show the user how the sky looks at a specific place
at a given local time. This is done by drawing the sky on the face of the astrolabe and
marking it so positions in the sky are easy to find. To use an astrolabe, you adjust the
moveable components to a specific time and date. Once set, the entire sky, both visible
and invisible, is represented on the face of the instrument. This allows a great many
astronomical problems related to time and the position of the Sun and stars to be solved
in a very graphical way.
The astrolabe is intended to be used for both observation and computation. For
observation, it is fitted with a ring so the instrument can be hung vertically from the
thumb while the position of the Sun or a star is measured.

The Parts of an Astrolabe

mater
tympans
limb

An astrolabe instruments has six major components:

The main body of the instrument is usually called the mater (Latin for mother).
The mater is a disk, usually made of brass and six to eight inches in diameter, that
is hollowed out to hold a set of thin brass plates (also called tympans or climates in
astrolabe literature). The outer margin of the mater (the limb) is engraved with degrees
and, on European instruments, the hours.
Astrolabes show the sky as seen from a specific place. That is, it shows the location
of celestial objects by their angle above the horizon (altitude) and angle from north
(azimuth). Each of the plates is engraved with arcs representing altitudes above the
local horizon for a specific latitude. The plates also show the equator and tropics and
may include other arcs for telling time.

Introduction to the Astrolab

Astrolabe by Jean Fusoris, ca. 1400 (courtesy Adler Planetarium and Astronomy Museum)

rete

back

alidade

Fitted above the plate is a pierced sheet that carries pointers indicating the positions
of a number of bright stars and the path of the Sun through the year (the ecliptic).
The rete is free to rotate over the plate to simulate the daily rotation of the sky. Old
astrolabes usually showed the positions of 15 20 stars.
European astrolabes usually included a rotating hand (called the ruler) that is used
to locate the Sun on the ecliptic and show the time on the margin of the mater.
The back of the astrolabe is engraved with scales to find the Suns position in the
ecliptic (i.e. the Suns longitude) for a specific date and with a variety of other scales
that varied greatly depending on where and when a specific astrolabe was made.
Astrolabes are also observational instruments. The back was equipped with a rotating
hand (the alidade) with sights for measuring the altitude of the Sun or a star. The
entire instrument could be suspended above eye level by a ring for taking altitude
measurements.
In use, a plate was selected for a specific latitude and the moveable components are
set to a specific date and time. Many problems can be solved depending on how the
moveable components are set.
Astrolabes were made in many sizes from very small hand held instruments to
permanently mounted devices of very large diameter. Most European astrolabes were
rather small (six inches or less). Islamic instruments tended to be slightly larger.
The Electric Astrolabe completely reproduces the front of a classical astrolabe but
with the addition of the positions of the Moon, planets and deep sky objects. The
Electric Astrolabe does not reproduce the back of the astrolabe as the functions on the
back were primarily devoted to making observations.
Note that an astrolabe instrument cannot reproduce the motion of the Moon and
planets. This is a singular advantage of the Electric Astrolabe over astrolabe instruments.
Note also that The Electric Astrolabe can create a plate for any location on Earth. The
Electric Astrolabe can be thought of as an astrolabe with an unlimited number of plates.

Introduction to the Astrolab

Why the Astrolabe Works
The following sections of this chapter discuss astrolabe theory, more details on astrolabe
instruments and a brief history of astrolabes. These sections can be skipped without
loss of continuity and returned to later if you would like to go directly to the next
chapter.
The purpose of the astrolabe is to represent the sky on the face of the instrument
as it appears at a specific location at a given local time. That is, astrolabes are used to
position stars and the Sun by determining their altitude above the horizon and position
relative to south. This is done by projecting the sky onto a plane and marking the
projected image so celestial positions are easy to find. The principle of the astrolabe is
easier to understand if you know a little about the projection technique used.
Much astronomical thought is based on the idea that celestial objects are so far away
that they can be considered to be on the surface of a very large sphere known as the
celestial sphere, with the Earth at the center. Technically, the astrolabe is a projection of
the celestial sphere onto a plane with moveable components to locate celestial objects
for any time and date. The celestial sphere is projected onto the plane of the equator on
the most common type of astrolabe. This type is known as a planispheric astrolabe and
is the type represented by the Electric Astrolabe. Other forms of astrolabe have been
constructed but none ever obtained the wide usage of the planispheric type.

Figure 1. Principle of the Stereographic Projection

The projection used in the astrolabe is the stereographic projection (Figure 1). The
sphere in the figure is the celestial sphere of arbitrary but very large diameter with the
Earth at the center. The equator and tropics are shown on the celestial sphere as they

Introduction to the Astrolab

would be seen from the Earth. In the stereographic projection, which is among the
oldest and simplest of all projection techniques, the eye is assumed to be at one of the
poles of the sphere being projected (the south pole for astrolabes designed to be used
in the northern hemisphere). A ray is projected from the pole to the point on the sphere
to be projected. The projected point is where the ray crosses the projection plane. The
projection plane for a planispheric astrolabe is the plane of the equator.
Modern terrestrial maps and stars charts use the stereographic projection with a
projection plane tangent to the sphere and centered at the place of interest, usually the
zenith for a particular latitude. The projection principles are identical.
The stereographic projection has two properties that make it ideal for an instrument
intended to solve astronomical problems:
In the stereographic projection, circles on the celestial sphere are projected as circles
on the projection plane (the equator for the planispheric astrolabe). This means that
the circles such as the equator and ecliptic are projected as circles and that altitude
and azimuth arcs are preserved. This property is particularly easy to demonstrate
for the tropics which, since they share a common center with the axis of the Earth,
are clearly projected as circles.
Angles between arcs on the sphere are preserved in the projection thus allowing
direct measurements to made on the projected plane.
These properties are ideal for astronomical purposes since most celestial positions
are measured as angles along circles. Note, however, that this form of projection
introduces significant distortions in relative size for objects that are very close to the
axis or very far away from it. In theory it is possible to project the entire celestial sphere
but astrolabes constructed for use in the northern hemisphere show the celestial sphere
only as far south as the Tropic of Capricorn. This range includes almost all of the sky
visible from northern temperate latitudes and avoids the severe distortion of scale that
would result from including extreme southern declinations.
Using the stereographic projection, it would be possible to project the positions of
the stars and planets at any time onto a piece of paper and then take measurements
of relative positions. It would, however, be impractical to attempt to project the sky at
every instant for every location onto paper. The real genius of the astrolabe is how it
makes use of the projection to allow the instrument to be used at any time and to be
flexible enough to be used at many locations.
Classical astrolabes were made of brass and were commonly about six or eight
inches (15 to 20 cm) in diameter, although much larger and smaller ones were made.
No doubt many astrolabes were made of cardboard and paper but few have survived. A
typical astrolabe would consist of a brass disk about 0.25 inch (6 mm) thick and about
six inches (15 cm) in diameter that is hollowed out in the center to hold sets of thin
brass plates. The margin of the disk (the limb) was graduated by degrees and, on many
European astrolabes, into 24 hours with noon at the top and midnight at the bottom
for telling time. Inserted into the hollow section of the disk (the mater) is a plate for
the local latitude engraved with lines of altitude and azimuth and circles representing
the stereographic projection of the equator and Tropic of Cancer (the outer edge of the
plate is the projection of the Tropic of Capricorn). Additional lines for finding the time
in seasonal hours or indicating astrological information might be included depending
on where and when a specific astrolabe was made. A dashed altitude line below the

Introduction to the Astrolab

horizon at -18 was often included to show the end of twilight.
Over the plate is fitted a pierced disk, also made of brass, with pointers representing
a number of fixed stars and containing the projection of the ecliptic. The ecliptic circle
was always divided into sections of 30 representing the signs of the zodiac. On top of
all this is fitted a clock-type hand called the rule. The rule and the star pointers (called
the rete) are held in position by a pin through the center of the instrument and are free
to rotate over the fixed plate. The instrument could be set to show the orientation of the
local sky by rotating the rete until the object of interest is located on the correct altitude
arc. All of the stars represented on the rete will be at their correct position when any
one star is set to its altitude.
The back of the instrument was equipped with a rotating sighting vane (alidade)
and engraved with scales of degrees for measuring the altitude of the Sun or stars.
The altitude of the Sun or a star was measured by sighting through pinnules on the
alidade. Most instruments had a scale for converting the date to the Suns position in
the zodiac. The date to zodiac conversion scale was usually implemented in the form of
two slightly off-center circles. The outer circle, which was concentric with the center of
the instrument, was divided into sections of 30 representing the zodiac with the vernal
equinox corresponding to the beginning of Aries at the 3 oclock position. The inner
circle was divided by the calendar with its center offset toward aphelion to represent
the theoretically sound model of the Suns motion on an eccentric with the date of the
vernal equinox aligned with the beginning of the sign of Aries on the zodiac circle.
It is interesting to note that it is sometimes possible to get an approximate date of
manufacture or determine the source of the star positions for an old astrolabe from the
date of the vernal equinox used on the calendar conversion scale. Some astrolabes used
a calendar scale that is concentric with the center of the instrument and had variable
length days. The concentric calendar scale was easier to design but harder to engrave
accurately.
Islamic prayer times are astronomically defined and the astrolabe was potentially
an ideal aid for satisfying ritual prayer requirements. The back of Islamic instruments
often had special purpose scales used for finding the direction to Mecca (qibla) and
a scale of cotangents was often included as an aid in determining prayer times. The
astrolabe also saw some use in surveying and the backs of many instruments included
scales of trigonometric functions such as tangents or cosines. Other scales might be
included on the back depending on local customs. For example, there might be a
scale for conversion to and from equal (equinoctial) and unequal (seasonal) hours or
astrological tables.
The entire instrument was suspended by a cord connected to a ring located at the
top of the astrolabe.
The astrolabe was widely used in Europe, Moorish Spain, the Arab world, Persia
and India from the 10th through the 17th century. Stylistic differences evolved and
the specific functions included on instruments varied depending on tradition and use
for the region. The Electric Astrolabe is closest to a European instrument in the style
developed by the French scientist and craftsman, Jean Fusoris, in the late 14th century.
This style, while not universal, is the only style that can be considered typical for
European astrolabes.
Use of the astrolabe was very widespread among well educated people of the Middle

Introduction to the Astrolab

Ages, particularly in the Islamic world.
It is not totally clear what astrolabes were used for in everyday life but its uses
certainly included telling time, determining the length of the day and, as astrology
was a deeply embedded cultural tradition, finding aspects of horoscopes. Planispheric
astrolabes were definitely not observational or navigation instruments. There was a
device called the Mariners Astrolabe that was used to measure celestial altitudes at sea
but it was just a ring graduated in degrees with an alidade. The only use for a traditional
astrolabe on a ship would have been for timekeeping or astrology in conjunction with
planetary tables.
The most common use of the astrolabe was to tell time. Lets assume it is desired to
find the time at night. The procedure would be:
1. Suspend the astrolabe by its cord and hold it steady above eye level.
2. Use the alidade to measure the altitude of a known star above the horizon.
3. Find the position of the Sun on the ecliptic (or in the zodiac to be more specific)
using the conversion scale on the back of the astrolabe.
4. Set the rete so the pointer for the observed star is at the proper altitude line on the
plate.
5. Set the rule so it crosses the ecliptic at the zodiac position determined by the date.
6. The rule now points to the time on the hour scale on the limb.
An experienced user could perform this operation in about 20 30 seconds. It is easy
to find the time to within a few minutes this way (the astrolabe is not a very accurate
observing instrument).
Telling time during the day is similar using the altitude of the Sun.
Similarly, the time of Sunrise and Sunset and thus the length of the day can be
easily found by setting the Suns position in the zodiac on the east and west horizon
and noting the times.
In short, the classic planispheric astrolabe was a portable analog computer for
solving astronomical problems.
The plate of a planispheric astrolabe is designed by laying out the tropics and circles
of equal altitude and azimuth relative to the local horizon on a sheet of brass and then
engraving the arcs and lines. The actual execution requires great care but is not difficult
in theory. All methods for astrolabe plate layout rely on the preservation of angles
and circles in the stereographic projection to determine the size and orientation of the
various circles. That is, a circle is completely determined by finding the location of the
center and one point on the circumference or by finding two points on the circumference
with a common diameter.
The techniques used for astrolabe design are graphical, where the lines and circles are
laid out directly on the plate with a straightedge, compass and protractor, or analytical,
where the sizes and locations of the circles are precalculated and the measurements
are transferred to the plate. There is a Persian technique that uses an auxiliary device
based on zenith distance called the dastur that allows a graphical construction without
cluttering up the result with numerous layout lines that must be erased from the final
result. Available references on how to construct a working astrolabe are not particularly
complete and none shows all three methods.

Introduction to the Astrolab

It should be noted that, if you were constructing an astrolabe today, you would use
plastic instead of brass with a clear plastic rete and you might divide the ecliptic directly
by date.
The Electric Astrolabe updates the astrolabe principles with the use of computer
graphics. The original forms and uses have been preserved and no tricks have been
played. What you see on the screen is exactly the same form as with a classical
astrolabe and derived from identical principles.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE ASTROLABE

History repeats itself; historians repeat each other. Philip Guedella
As with many other histories, references on the history of the astrolabe are not in
universal agreement. Even scholars working from the same original sources draw different conclusions on important points and there are instances where eminent scholars
working at different times in their careers contradict themselves. Following is a very
brief summary of generally accepted highlights in the history of the astrolabe:
The evolution of the astrolabe took place in the following steps:
1. Realization that three dimensional objects can be accurately represented (projected)
on a plane (such as a drawing).
2. Discovery of the stereographic projection as a way to represent the celestial sphere.
3. Use of the stereographic projection to make astronomical instruments.
4. Eventual combination of the above elements into the device known today as the
astrolabe.
5. Various refinements of scales and design depending on use and local custom.
6. Gradual decline in use as more specialized and accurate instruments became available.
ORIGINS OF ASTROLABE THEORY

Eudoxus
Apollonius

The origins of the astrolabe were in classic Greece. Given their interest and sophistication in geometry, various types of projections came as naturally to the Greeks as
columns of figures do to us. It is known that Agarthus, an Athenian artist ca. 470 BC,
applied the concept of projections onto a plane surface to the theory of perspective. It
is easy to accept that a projection as simple as the stereographic projection would have
been investigated. Eudoxus of Cnidus (408 355 BC) is credited with a new form of
Sundial called the spiders web that some sources say may have been a crude form of
astrolabe (but it wasnt). There is speculation that Apollonius (ca. 225 BC), the great
codifier of conic sections, studied the stereographic projection based on some theorems
that have direct application to the projection.
The earliest evidence of use of the stereographic projection in a machine is in the
writing of the Roman author and architect, Vitruvius, who describes a clock (probably
a clepsydra or water clock) made by Ctesibius in Alexandria. Apparently, Ctesibius
clock had a rotating field of stars behind a wire frame indicating the hours of the

Ctesibius

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Introduction to the Astrolab

day. The wire framework (the spider) was possibly constructed using the stereographic
projection with the eye point at the north celestial pole. Similar constructions have been
found in Salzburg and north-eastern France so such mechanisms were apparently not
all that unusual to the Romans. It is almost certain that the famous Tower of the Winds
contained celestial maps using the stereographic projection.
The most influential individual on the theory of the stereographic projection was
Hipparchus who was born in Nicaea in Asia Minor (now Iznik in Turkey) about 180
BC but studied and worked on the island of Rhodes. Hipparchus, who also discovered
the precession of the equinoxes and was influential in the development of trigonometry,
redefined and formalized the stereographic projection and probably proved (or least
knew about) the preservation of circles in the projection. His main innovation might
well have been to move the eye point of the projection to the south celestial pole to
improve the utility in the northern hemisphere. Hipparchus was most likely studying
the most difficult problem of ancient astronomy: determining the length of the day as a
function of latitude (the so-called rising time problem). The problem involves finding
how many equatorial degrees pass for a given number of ecliptic degrees. The solution
clearly depends on the latitude of the observer and it was a problem of some magnitude
to find a solution. Hipparchus did not have spherical trigonometry to solve this type of
problem and the stereographic projection worked nicely. Hipparchus did not invent the
astrolabe but he did refine the projection theory.
The next major writer on the projection was the famous Claudius Ptolemy who wrote
extensively on it in his work known as the Planisphaerium. There are tantalizing hints
in Ptolemys writing that he may have had an instrument that could justifiably be called
an astrolabe. If he did have such an instrument it probably covered a larger portion
of the sky than later astrolabes. Ptolemy was deeply interested in the greatest always
invisible circle so any instrument of his would have covered the celestial sphere to the
Antarctic circle.

Hipparchus

EARLY ASTROLABES
No one knows exactly when the stereographic projection was actually turned into the
instrument we know today as the astrolabe. Theon of Alexandria (ca. 390) wrote a
treatise on the astrolabe that does not survive except for the table of contents which
was preserved by Yaqubi in his History of the World (ca. 880). This treatise was
evidently the basis for much that was written on the subject in the Middle Ages. Synesius
of Cyrene (378 430) apparently had an instrument constructed that was arguably a
form of astrolabe. This is plausible since Synesius was a student of Hypatia, Theons
daughter.
The earliest descriptions of actual instruments were written by John Philoponos
of Alexandria (a. k. a. Joannes Grammaticus) in the sixth century and a century later
Severus Sebokht, Bishop of Kenneserin, Syria, although it is likely that Sebokhts work
was derivative of Theon. It is certain that true astrolabes existed by the seventh century.

THE ASTROLABE IN ISLAM

The astrolabe was probably introduced to the Islamic world in the eighth and ninth

Theon

Synesius
Hypatia

John Philoponos
Severus Sebokht

Introduction to the Astrolab

centuries through translations of classical texts that began under the Abbasid dynasty,
notably Harun al-Rachid (the caliph of the Tales of the Arabian Nights) and his son, AlMamun. The astrolabe came into full bloom during the Islamic period. Arab treatises
on the astrolabe were published in the ninth century and indicate a long familiarity with
the instrument. (The oldest existing instruments are Arabic from the tenth century and
there are nearly 40 instruments from the 11th and 12th centuries). The astrolabe was
inherently valuable in Islam because of its ability to determine the time of day and,
therefore, prayer times and as an aid in finding the direction to Mecca. It must also
be observed that astrology was a deeply imbedded element of Islamic culture and that
astrology was one of its principle uses.
Based on some of the instruments preserved in museum collections, it is easy to
infer that it must have become something of a status symbol in Baghdad to have a
really good astrolabe since some of the instruments appear to be presentation pieces
rather than working tools. For example, there is an Islamic astrolabe from 1698 in the
Buffalo Museum of Science, Buffalo, NY, that was definitely made for one Mahmud
Agha who was chief of the arsenal during the time of Shah Sulayman I (1667 1694)
and Shah Husain I (1694 1722) of the Safavid dynasty (see Saliba, George, The
Buffalo Astrolabe of Muhammad Khalil, Al Abhath, vol. XXVI). It is not clear what
use the chief of the arsenal would have for an astrolabe unless he were also an amateur
astrologer, but it is easy to conjecture that he could have one if he wanted one since
he controlled the weapons. One wonders if Mahmud Agha was a very good military
official since his Shah was defeated by Mahmud the Afghan while he was in office.
Perhaps he spent too much time playing with his astrolabe.
This point of view is somewhat at odds with the journal of Jean Chardin, a French
jeweler who lived in Ispahan in the 17th century. According to Chardin, Persian astronomers (astrologers) were also fine craftsmen who made their own instruments and
skill in the craft was prerequisite to being accepted as a scholar.
Persian astrolabes became quite complex and some were genuine works of art. There
are a number of interesting stylistic differences between astrolabes from eastern Islam
(the Mashriq), Northern Africa (the Maghrib), Moorish Spain (Andalusia) and India.

THE ASTROLABE IN EUROPE

The astrolabe moved with Islam through North Africa into Spain (Andalusia) where
it was introduced to European culture through Christian monasteries on the border
between Christian Europe and Islamic Spain. It is likely that information about the
astrolabe was available in Europe as early as the 11th century but European usage was
not widespread until the 13th and 14th centuries. By the end of the twelfth century
there were at least a half dozen competent treatises in Latin and there were hundreds
available only a century later. It is possible that the European adoption of many Arabic
star names is a direct result of the engravings on astrolabes imported to England.
European makers extended the plate engravings to include the astrological houses and
various timekeeping variations used in that era. Features related to Islamic ritual prayers
were generally discarded in European instruments.
The astrolabe was widely used in Europe in the late Middle Ages and Renaissance
with the peak in popularity in the 15th and 16th centuries. Skill in its use was a sign

11

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Introduction to the Astrolab

of proper breeding and education. Their primary use was, however, astrological. Many
fine instruments were produced during the guild period including glorious clocks with
astrolabe dials where the sidereal rotation rate of the rete was produced with ingenious
gear trains. A number of monumental clocks with astrolabe dials were made in the
14th through 16th centuries with the most famous being the astronomical clock at the
Strasbourg cathedral. The inclusion of an astrolabe dial on a clock gives one a sense of
unity with time and space. It is a shame they are not still used.
Several interesting astrolabe variations to make a single instrument usable in all
latitudes were invented in 15th and 16th centuries but due to their high cost and complex
operation never gained the popularity of the planispheric type. These instruments
projected the celestial sphere on the equinoctial colure (see the glossary) and lacked
the intuitive appeal of the planispheric type.

THE ASTROLABE TO MODERN TIMES

The use of the astrolabe declined as more reliable clocks and more accurate scientific
devices became available but production, particularly in the Arab world, continued into
the 19th century. Much like Sundials, any instruments made today are for curiosity or
fun.
It should be noted that astrolabe concepts are still in wide use today. The famous
Swiss watch maker Ulysse Nardin sells a very expensive astrolabe wristwatch. There are
a number of navigational aids based on the same concepts and the popular star finders
are generally just simplified astrolabes. Any astronomical instrument constructed to
measures the altitudes of celestial objects is often called an astrolabe. For example,
the Astro Compass, Mk. II, used by the U.S. air force until recently and the prismatic
astrolabe used to find the precise instant that a star reaches a specified altitude (usually
60 ). Such instruments are not astrolabes in the sense used here but adopt the name as
applying to any instrument that is used to determine celestial altitudes.
Considering the age of the astrolabe, it is tempting to justify the Electric Astrolabe
program solely on the grounds that it is about time someone computerized it.