Fermions

Quark Mixing

FCNC

Discrete Symmetries

Higgs Mass

Standard Model of Particle Physics

Chris Sachrajda
School of Physics and Astronomy
University of Southampton
Southampton SO17 1BJ
UK

SUSSP61, St Andrews
August 8th 23rd 2006

Standard Model

SUSSP61, Lecture 2, 10th August 2006

Fermions

Quark Mixing

FCNC

Discrete Symmetries

Higgs Mass

Contents

1. Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking

2. The Electroweak Theory
3. QCD
4. Flavourdynamics and Non-Perturbative QCD I
5. Flavourdynamics and Non-Perturbative QCD II

Standard Model

SUSSP61, Lecture 2, 10th August 2006

Fermions

Quark Mixing

FCNC

Discrete Symmetries

Higgs Mass

Lecture 2 The Electroweak Theory

1. Fermions
I
I
I

Chirality
Fermions in the SM
Fermion Masses and Yukawa Couplings

2. Quark Mixing
3. FCNC
4. Discrete Symmetries P, C and CP.

Standard Model

SUSSP61, Lecture 2, 10th August 2006

Fermions

Quark Mixing

FCNC

Discrete Symmetries

Higgs Mass

Chirality
I

Experiment only the left-handed components of the fermions

participate in charged current weak interactions, i.e. the Ws only couple
to the left-handed components.

1
1
(1 5 )
R = PR = (1 + 5 )
2
2
Under parity transformations L (x0 ,~x ) R (x0 , ~x ) and
R (x0 ,~x ) L (x0 , ~x )

L = PL =

PL and PR are projection operators

P2L = PL

and P2R = PR

(PL PR = PR PL = 0, PL + PR = I)

Standard Model

= L L + R R and = L R + R L .
(Thus for QCD with N massless fermions we have a U(N) U(N)
(global) chiral symmetry - I come back to this in later lectures.)
In order to accommodate the observed nature of the parity violation the
left and right-handed fermions are assigned to different representations
of SU(2) U(1), with the right-handed fields being singlets of SU(2).
SUSSP61, Lecture 2, 10th August 2006

Fermions

Quark Mixing

FCNC

Discrete Symmetries

Higgs Mass

Fermions
For a general representation of fermions the covariant derivative takes the
form:
D = igAa T a ig0 YB ,

where the T a are the corresponding generators of SU(2) and the Y 0 s are the
weak-hypercharges. The covariant derivative can be rewritten in terms of the
mass-eigenstates as:
ig
g2 T 3 g0 2 Y
gg0
D = (W+ T + + W T ) i p
Z i p
(T 3 + Y)A .
2
0
2
2
g +g
g2 + g0 2
I

Thus the electic charge operator is

Q = T3 + Y

Standard Model

gg0
and e = p
.
g2 + g0 2

(Q = 1 for the electron).

The left-handed quarks and leptons are assigned to doublets of SU(2)

and the right-handed fermions are singlets.

SUSSP61, Lecture 2, 10th August 2006

Fermions

Quark Mixing

FCNC

Discrete Symmetries

Higgs Mass

Assignment of Fermions
Q = T3 + Y
I

The left handed leptons are assigned to the doublet.

 

EL = e
.
e L
In order to have the correct charge assignments Ye = YeL = 1/2 .

For the right-handed lepton fields T3 = 0 and hence YeR = 1. In the

standard model we do not have a right-handed neutrino!

For the left-handed quark fields we have the left-handed doublet:

 
u
.
QL =
d L
with YQL = 1/6 .

I
I
Standard Model

The right-handed quark fields therefore have YuR = 2/3 and YdR = 1/3 .
Similar assignments are made for the other two generations.

SUSSP61, Lecture 2, 10th August 2006

Fermions

Quark Mixing

FCNC

Discrete Symmetries

Higgs Mass

Fermion Lagrangian
The terms in the Lagrangian involving the fermions then take the form:
L

where
+

JW

JW

JZ

JEM
Standard Model

=
=
=

L (i 6 )QL + u R (i 6 )uR + d R (i 6 )dR

E L (i 6 )EL + e R (i 6 )eR + Q



+g W+ JW + W JW + Z0 JZ + eA JEM ,
1
( L eL + u L dL );
2
1
(eL L + d L uL );
2



1
1
1
e L eL + sin2 W e r eR
L L + sin2 W
cos W 2
2


2
1 2 2
sin W u L uL sin2 W u R uR
+
2 3
3



1
1 2
1
dL dL + sin2 W d R dR ;
sin W
+
3
2
3
2
1
e e + u u d d .
3
3
SUSSP61, Lecture 2, 10th August 2006

Fermions

Quark Mixing

FCNC

Discrete Symmetries

Higgs Mass

Fermion Masses - Yukawa Couplings

The standard mass term for the fermions is of the form
= m L R + m R L .
m
It is therefore not invariant under the SU(2)L gauge-symmetry and can be
shown to spoil renormalizability.
I

In the SM, mass terms for the fermions are generated through Yukawa
Couplings to the Higgs Doublet, for example:
Le = e (E Li i ) eR + h.c.
where i = 1, 2 is the SU(2) label. As before, we rewrite the complex
doublet in terms of the fields shifted by h i, so that

e v
Le = e L eR + h.c. + interaction terms
2
In this picture therefore

Standard Model

e v
me = .
2
SUSSP61, Lecture 2, 10th August 2006

Fermions

Quark Mixing

FCNC

Discrete Symmetries

Higgs Mass

Fermion Masses - Yukawa Couplings Cont.

e v
me = .
2
I

Thus we have generated a mass-term for the electron in a gauge

invariant way. We have traded the parameter me for the Yukawa coupling
e .

e is very small (v ' 250 GeV) and the problem of understanding the
pattern of fermion masses becomes the problem of understanding the
pattern of Yukawa couplings.
We can choose a gauge such that the scalar field is written in the form


1
0
(x) =
,
2 v + h(x)
where h(x) is the physicalHiggsscalar. The electron Yukawa term now

takes the form Le = me 1 + hv e e .

Standard Model

= i mve

SUSSP61, Lecture 2, 10th August 2006

Fermions

Quark Mixing

FCNC

Discrete Symmetries

Higgs Mass

Fermion Masses - Yukawa Couplings Cont.



h
Le = me 1 +
e e .
v
I

By construction, it is a general feature that the couplings of the Higgs

boson h are proportional to the masses (or squares of masses) of the
particles it is interacting with.
This is an important ingredient in the phenomenology of Higgs searches.
For the down quark we can introduce a similar Yukawa term to that of
the electron. For the up quark, this clearly does not work, but we can
exploit the existence of the invariant anti-symmetric tensor ij .
Lq

=
=
=

iL i dR u ij Q
iL j uR + h.c.
d Q
v
u v
d d L dR u L uR + h.c. + interaction terms
2
2




h
h
md 1 +
u u .
dd mu 1 +
v
v

(Note that apart from being singlets under SU(2), the terms in the action
also have zero net hypercharge.)
Standard Model

SUSSP61, Lecture 2, 10th August 2006

Fermions

Quark Mixing

FCNC

Discrete Symmetries

Higgs Mass

Quark Mixing
Two Experimental Numbers:
+
Decay) and B(K + + e+ e ) < 3 107 .
B(K + 0 e+ e ) ' 5% (Ke3
leptons
s
K+

u, d

0, +

Measurements like this show that s u (charged-current) transitions are not

rare, but that Flavour Changing Neutral Current (FCNC) transitions, such as
s d are.
In the picture that we have developed so far, there are no transitions between
fermions of different generations. This has to be modified.
The picture which has emerged is the Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa (CKM)
theory of quark mixing which we now consider.
Standard Model

SUSSP61, Lecture 2, 10th August 2006

Fermions

Quark Mixing

FCNC

Discrete Symmetries

Higgs Mass

CKM Theory
In the CKM theory the (quark) mass eigenstates are not the same as the
weak-interaction eigenstates which we have been considering up to now.
Let

0
u
u
0
U = c = Uu c = Uu U
t
t0
0

0
d
d
0
and D = s = Ud s = Ud D
b
b0
0

where the 0 s denote the weak interaction eigenstates and Uu and Ud are
unitary matrices.
I For neutral currents:
0 U0 = U
U
U

and

0 D0 = D
D
D

and no FCNC are induced. The represent Dirac Matrices, but the
identity in flavour.
I

For charged currents:

1 0 0
1
1
1
+
JW = U
L DL = UL Uu Ud DL = UL (Uu Ud )DL UL VCKM DL
2
2
2
2
Standard Model

SUSSP61, Lecture 2, 10th August 2006

Fermions

Quark Mixing

FCNC

Discrete Symmetries

Higgs Mass

The CKM Matrix

I The charged-current interactions are of the form

d
J+ = (u, c , t )L VCKM s ,
b L
I

2005 Particle Data Group summary for the magnitudes of the entries:

0.9739 0.9751
0.221 0.227
0.0029 0.0045
0.221 0.227
0.9730 0.9744
0.039 0.044 .
0.0048 0.014
0.037 0.043
0.9990 0.9992

How many parameters are there?

Let Ng be the number of generations.
Ng Ng unitary matrix has Ng2 real parameters.
(2Ng 1) of them can be absorbed into unphysical phases of the
quark fields.
(Ng 1)2 physical parameters to be determined.

Standard Model

SUSSP61, Lecture 2, 10th August 2006

Fermions

Quark Mixing

FCNC

Discrete Symmetries

Higgs Mass

Parametrizations of the CKM Matrix

I For Ng = 2 there is only one parameter, which is conventionally chosen
to be the Cabibbo angle:


cos c
sin c
VCKM =
.
sin c cos c
I

For Ng = 3, there are 4 real parameters. Three of these can be

interpreted as angles of rotation in three dimensions (e.g. the three
Euler angles) and the fourth is a phase. The general parametrization
recommended by the PDG is

c12 c13
s12 c13
s13 ei13
s12 c23 c12 s23 s13 ei13
c12 c23 s12 s23 s13 ei13
s23 c13

i
13
13
c12 s23 s12 c23 s13 e
c23 c13
s12 s23 c12 c23 s13 e
where cij and sij represent the cosines and sines respectively of the
three angles ij , ij = 12, 13 and 23. 13 is the phase parameter.

Standard Model

It is conventional to use approximate parametrizations, based on the

hierarchy of values in VCKM (s12  s23  s13 ).
SUSSP61, Lecture 2, 10th August 2006

Fermions

Quark Mixing

FCNC

Discrete Symmetries

Higgs Mass

The Wolfenstein Parametrization

The Wolfenstein parametrization is

2
1 2

VCKM =

A 3 (1 i )

I
I

Standard Model

A 3 ( i )
2
2

A 2

A 2
1

= s12 is approximately the Cabibbo angle.

A, and are real numbers that a priori were intended to be of order
unity.
Corrections are of O( 4 ).

SUSSP61, Lecture 2, 10th August 2006

Fermions

Quark Mixing

FCNC

Discrete Symmetries

Higgs Mass

The Unitarity Triangle

Unitarity of the CKM-matrix we have a set of relations between the entries. A
particularly useful one is:

Vud Vub
+ Vcd Vcb
+ Vtd Vtb
=0.

In terms of the Wolfenstein parameters, the components on the left-hand side

are given by:

Vud Vub

A 3 [ + i ] + O( 7 )

Vcd Vcb

Vtd Vtb

A 3 + O( 7 )

A 3 [1 ( + i )] + O( 7 ) ,

where = (1 2 /2) and = (1 2 /2).

The unitarity relation can be represented schematically by the famous
unitarity triangle (obtained after scaling out a factor of A 3 ).

Standard Model

SUSSP61, Lecture 2, 10th August 2006

Fermions

Quark Mixing

FCNC

Discrete Symmetries

Higgs Mass

The Unitarity Triangle Cont.

Vud Vub
+ Vcd Vcb
+ Vtd Vtb
=0.

A = ( , )

+ i

C = (0, 0)

1 ( + i )

B = (1, 0)

A particularly important approach to testing the Limits of the SM is to

over-determine the position of the vertex A to check for consistency.
Standard Model

SUSSP61, Lecture 2, 10th August 2006

Fermions

Quark Mixing

FCNC

Discrete Symmetries

Higgs Mass

PDG2006 Unitarity Triangle

1.5
lude
exc

excluded area has CL > 0.95

t CL
da

5
> 0.9

md

sin 2

ms & md
0.5

|Vub/Vcb|
-0.5

-1

sol. w/ cos 2 < 0

(excl. at CL > 0.95)

-1.5
-1

-0.5

0.5

1.5

Standard Model

SUSSP61, Lecture 2, 10th August 2006

Fermions

Quark Mixing

FCNC

Discrete Symmetries

Higgs Mass

Flavour Changing Neutral Currents (FCNC)

We have seen that in the SM, unitarity implies that there are no FCNC
reactions at tree level, i.e. there are no vertices of the type:
b

.
Quantum loops, however, can generate FCNC reactions, through box
diagrams or penguin diagrams.
Example relevant for B 0 B0 mixing:

Standard Model

u, c, t

u, c, t

u, c, t

u, c, t

SUSSP61, Lecture 2, 10th August 2006

Fermions

Quark Mixing

FCNC

Discrete Symmetries

Higgs Mass

FCNC Cont.
Examples of penguin diagrams relevant for b s transitions:
W

u, c, t
b

u, c, t

s
W

Z0, , G

Z0,

We will discuss several of the physical processes induced by these

loop-effects.
The Glashow-Illiopoulos-Maiani (GIM) mechanism FCNC effects vanish
for degenerate quarks (mu = mc = mt ). For example unitarity implies

Vub Vus
+ Vcb Vcs
+ Vtb Vts = 0

each of the above penguin vertices vanish.

Standard Model

SUSSP61, Lecture 2, 10th August 2006

Fermions

Quark Mixing

FCNC

Discrete Symmetries

Higgs Mass

The Discrete Symmetries P, C and CP

Parity
(~x, t) (~x, t).
The vector and axial-vector fields transform as:
V (~x, t) V (~x, t) and A (~x, t) A (~x, t).
I

The vector and axial-vector currents transform similarly.

Left-handed components of fermions L = ( 12 (1 5 ) ) transform into

right-handed ones R = ( 12 (1 + 5 ) ), and vice-versa.
I

Since CC weak interactions in the SM only involve the left-handed

components, parity is not a good symmetry of the weak force.

QCD and QED are invariant under parity transformations.

Standard Model

SUSSP61, Lecture 2, 10th August 2006

Fermions

Quark Mixing

FCNC

Discrete Symmetries

Higgs Mass

Charge Conjugation Charge conjugation is a transformation which relates

each complex field with .
Under C the currents transform as follows:

1 2 2 1 and 1 5 2 2 5 1 ,
where i represents a spinor field of type (flavour or lepton species) i.
CP Under the combined CP-transformation, the currents transform as:

1 2 2 1 and 1 5 2 2 5 1 .
The fields on the left (right) hand side are evaluated at (~x, t) ( (~x, t) ).

Standard Model

SUSSP61, Lecture 2, 10th August 2006

Fermions

Quark Mixing

FCNC

Discrete Symmetries

Higgs Mass

CP Cont.

Consider now a charged current interaction:

i (1 5 )Vij Dj + (W1 + iW2 ) D
j (1 5 )Vij U i ,
(W1 iW2 ) U
U i and Dj are up and down type quarks of flavours i and j respectively.
Under a CP transformation, the interaction term transforms to:
j (1 5 )Vij U i + (W1 iW2 ) U
i (1 5 )Vij Dj
(W1 + iW2 ) D
I

CP-invariance requires V to be real

(or more strictly that any phases must be able to be absorbed into the
definition of the quark fields).

For CP-violation in the quark sector we therefore require 3 generations.

Standard Model

SUSSP61, Lecture 2, 10th August 2006

Fermions

Quark Mixing

FCNC

Discrete Symmetries

Higgs Mass

Higgs Mass and Interactions

Imagine that the Higgs potential is
V = ( ) + ( )
2

In terms of h(x):

I
I

and write =

1
2

0
(v + h(x))

where v2 =

2
.

V = 2 h2 + h3 + h4 .
4

We know v = / = 250 GeV from MW and other quantities.

The mass of the Higgs is 2 . Today, we have no direct way of knowing

this.

The larger that mh is, the stronger are the Higgs self interactions.

Finally, I stress that even if the overall picture is correct, the Higgs sector
may be more complicated than the simplest picture presented here.

Standard Model

SUSSP61, Lecture 2, 10th August 2006