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Incorporating Spirituality in Feminist Social Work Perspectives

Diana Coholic
Affilia 2003 18: 49
DOI: 10.1177/0886109902239096
The online version of this article can be found at:
http://aff.sagepub.com/content/18/1/49

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10.1177/0886109902239096
Affilia
Spring
Coholic
ARTICLE
2003

Incorporating Spirituality in
Feminist Social Work Perspectives
Diana Coholic

This article describes a qualitative study of 20 feminist social workers conceptualizations of spirituality and spiritually influenced practices. A grounded-theory
analysis of the interviews uncovered major convergences among the participants
values and practices, which encouraged the development of a set of practice principles. One such practice principle, which encompasses the commonalities between
feminist social work and spiritual values and practices and the desire for holistic
approaches, is discussed.
Keywords: spirituality; feminist practice; practice principles
This article is concerned with the evolution of feminist social work theory
and practices and discusses one direction in this continued development
the incorporation of spirituality. The article explores the results of a qualitative study that investigated 20 feminist social workers ideas about spirituality and the influences (or not) of these understandings in their social work.
Spirituality and religion were defined differently in this study. Spirituality is
eclectic and transcends ideologies and institutions. It is a complex construct
that can be deeply personal and communal and that can encompass a sense
of connection with something bigger that transcends ordinary life experience (something bigger is necessarily self-defined). Religion can be
described as a construction of institutionalized worship that is dependent
on a notion of God or godheads and is based on doctrine or system of organized beliefs and behaviors, usually shared by people.
It was necessary to begin the study at an exploratory level of investigation
because of the dearth of research on spirituality and social work and the lack
of any cohesive practice guidelines or frameworks in the literature. However, despite the lack of empirically developed frameworks, there is a burgeoning interest in spirituality that is shared by various social work
AFFILIA, Vol. 18 No. 1, Spring 2003 49-67
DOI: 10.1177/0886109902239096
2003 Sage Publications

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modalities (Canda, 1998; Hickson & Phelps, 1998; Powers, 1995; Radford
Ruether, 1995; Ressler, 1998; Roberts, 1999).
As a feminist social worker, I wondered if other feminist practitioners
were also interested in spirituality and used it in their work. How and where
(if anywhere) did they talk about a spiritually influenced practice? Did they
identify spirituality as part of their practice and, if so, what were the effects
of spiritually influenced work? It was these questions that provided the
impetus for this research. I situated an exploration of spirituality specifically
in feminist social work practices because feminist social work values, processes, and analyses are well suited to consider marginalized knowledges
like spirituality by making room for the other, valuing experiences and
connections, grounding knowledge in practice, and emphasizing diversity
(Baines, 1997; Bricker-Jenkins, 1991; Dominelli, 1998; Lundy, 1993;
Ochshorn & Cole, 1995). In addition, some feminist social workers, such as
Bricker-Jenkins (1989) and Van Den Bergh (1995), have identified spirituality as an important emerging component of practice.
A grounded-theory analysis of data from the interviews uncovered surprising convergences among the participants beliefs, values, and practices.
These commonalities were developed into a set of practice principles for
social work and spirituality, which constitute new knowledge in this area.
The practice principles were refined with the research participants by way
of written feedback and focus groups. Although the practice principles as a
whole are briefly considered in this article, emphasis is placed on one practice principle in particular, which encompasses participants views about
the similarities between feminist social work and spiritual values and practices and the desire for holistic social work approaches. The discussion of the
practice principles is linked with current trends in general social work practice and knowledge development, because the results are better understood
when they are situated within this contexta context that also bears implications for the continued development of feminist social work perspectives.
For instance, there has been some discussion in the past few years about
the future of feminist social work approaches. Gross (1998a, 1998b) discussed the need for inclusiveness and the skepticism that some social workers feel about the continued relevance of feminism for practice. Similarly,
Dominelli (1998) argued that feminist approaches continue to be challenged
throughout the world. However, at the same time, feminist values and practices are increasingly shared with other social work perspectives. One example is the Life Model of Social Work Practice (Germain & Gitterman, 1996),
which points to the similarities in feminist and ecological thinking, such as a
commitment to social justice and helping people to empowerment.
Germain and Gitterman (1996) noted that concepts from feminism have
entered the practice of many, if not most, social workers during the past two
decades. They concluded that life-modeled practice, augmented by feminist
and social constructionist thought, is well suited to the social conditions of
todays world.

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This overlapping of values and practices across social work approaches is

in harmony with generalist practice, which Coates (1991) described as supporting the trend toward social workers becoming comfortable with
multimethod, multitheory, and multitechnique practice. Also, greater
emphasis is being placed on the art of practice and contextually based processes, which are shaping social work in a number of ways, including a
greater recognition of practice wisdom and personal knowledge (Drury
Hudson, 1997; Goldstein, 1999; Robbins, Chatterjee, & Canda, 1999). Certainly, emphases on practice wisdom and personal knowledge are highly
relevant for feminist perspectives and other marginalized knowledges
(such as spirituality) because the development of feminist social work
approaches and spiritually influenced practices has emerged from practitioners wisdom and personal knowledge. The strong relationship between
practice wisdom and spirituality is evidenced in the social work literature
that explores spirituality, which relies heavily on discussions of practice
experiences, case studies, and personal narratives (Abels, 2000; Amato-von
Hemert, 1994; Russel, 1998).
These trendsthe continued challenges to feminisms, the move toward
generalist practice, the sharing of feminist values and practices across various approaches, and the emphasis on practice wisdomsare reflected in the
research participants viewpoints and practices, specifically in their discussions of the feminist nature of the practice principles. To begin, spirituality
in feminist social work approaches and feminist spiritualities are briefly
examined, followed by a description of the research methodology and the
emergence of the practice principles.

FEMINIST SOCIAL WORK

PERSPECTIVES AND SPIRITUALITY

A few feminist social workers have discussed spirituality as an important

part of practice. Bricker-Jenkins (1989) identified spirituality as a highly significant emerging theme in practice. Her study found that feminist practitioners tend to explore and encourage spirituality in peoples lives and that
many incorporate methods into their practice that are aimed at legitimating,
validating, and strengthening the spiritual domain, even though spirituality is not generally considered an appropriate dimension of practice and is a
relatively undocumented aspect of feminist practice. Bricker-Jenkins identified feminist social work approaches that incorporate spirituality as holistic
perspectives that value and build alliances with peoples own healing
powers.
Van Den Bergh (1995) noted that priorities are shifting as they continue to
evolve and that new priorities include spirituality. She pointed out that during the 1980s and early 1990s, feminist social work approaches were concerned with eliminating false dichotomies, valuing process as well as

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product, renaming ones personal reality, reconceptualizing power, and

integrating the personal and political. She maintained that these priorities
were shifting in the late 1990s and that these approaches were interested in
the process of knowing (how people know through narratives and deconstruction), connection (focusing on holistic and spiritual practices and the
interdependence of people), caring (emphasizing morality and responsibility), and diversity (exploring pluralism). In their identification of feminist
ideological themes, Bricker-Jenkins and Hooyman (1986) listed validation
of the nonrationala theme that includes healing, spirituality, and nonlinear and multidimensional thinkingas important. They also noted that the
integration of mind, body, and spirit are enduring themes in the womens
movement. Similarly, Ballou (1995) identified spirituality as a process and
content central to the continuing development of feminist psychological
perspectives.
Feminists in general are demonstrating a growing interest in issues
related to spirituality and religion. For example, the Canadian Journal of
Womens Studies (Vol. 17, No. 1, 1997) devoted an entire issue to the exploration of womens spiritualities, as did Women and Therapy (Vol. 16, Nos. 1-2,
1995). Although focused more on issues related to religion, Australian Feminist Studies (Vol. 14, No. 30, 1999) also devoted an entire issue to the theme of
feminisms, religions, cultures, and identities, and half of another issue (Vol.
13, No. 28, 1998) to the theme of women, religion, and citizenship. Similarly,
the Hypatia produced a special issue (Vol. 9, No. 4, 1994) on feminist philosophies of religion. It is this increased interest within feminism in discussions
about spirituality and religion that demands a comprehensive exploration
and consideration of the spiritual dimension in feminist social work practices and theory. This demand is strengthened by the growing interest in
feminist spiritualities.

FEMINIST SPIRITUALITIES

Powers (1995) noted that for the past 25 years an area of study called feminist spirituality, feminist theology, or womens spirituality has been flourishing. She contended that the growth of interest in this area began as
women started to enter seminaries in greater numbers in the 1960s and
1970s, concurrent with the growth of feminism in general and the development of womens studies programs. Ochshorn and Cole (1995) noted that
feminist spirituality is often identified as a challenge to accepted ways of
being and knowing. They described feminist spirituality as the assertion of
womens entitlement to identify, name, explore, and assess their own spiritual experiences. King (1989) stated that feminist spirituality is socially
responsible, life affirming, and action oriented, not something added to life
or apart from it. According to her, a feminist spirituality permeates all activity, being a dynamic part of development. The fundamental challenge of a

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feminism that is spiritual as well as political is a radically changed perspective that calls into question our social, cultural, political, and religious
traditions.
Ballou (1995) pointed out that feminist spirituality is unmistakably
grounded in community, connection, and relationship and concurred that it
represents a challenge to established spiritual traditions and religions
regarding accepted ways of knowing and being. This view is congruent
with feminism in general and the challenges it has mounted against patriarchy. Hunt (1995) added that the womens spirituality movement is a concrete manifestation of feminist awakening in our culture. Marie-Daly (1993)
concluded that ecofeminism reflects this reemergence of the Divine in peoples lives because this feminist perspective emphasizes the connectedness
between people and the earth. Similarly, Gatens-Robinson (1994) stated that
ecofeminists have recognized the centrality of spiritual experience to the
development of ecological wisdom and that feminist spirituality in its various forms can serve as an important resource for understanding ecological
responsibilities.
Finally, as Neu (1995) pointed out, although feminists have diverse ideas
about feminist spirituality, various perspectives share themes that include a
reverence for the earth and all creation, valuing womens bodies, seeking
connections with all life, and emphasizing ritual. What is important is that a
feminist spirituality is rooted in womens experiences. The foregoing
descriptions demonstrate that feminist spiritualities value and are concerned with social justice issues, power dynamics and analysis, the importance of womens stories and experiences, interrelatedness with others and
the earth, and processvalues shared by feminist social work approaches
(Agnew, 1993; Bricker-Jenkins, 1994; Collins, 1986).

THE STUDY
Research Process

Although Glaser and Strauss (1967) originally developed grounded theory

as a method of analysis in sociology, practice professions, such as nursing
and social work, have made considerable use of it in their quest to conduct
research that is relevant for practice. In general, grounded theory is an
inductive approach that involves a continuous process of defining and redefining concepts and relationships among concepts (Gilgun, 1994). The purpose of a grounded theory approach is to generate rather than test theory
(Corbin, 1986). Gilgun (1994) contended that grounded theory is particularly suitable for social work research because not only do the findings of the
research fit the realities of practice but the similarities between practice and
grounded theory methods are significant. They include a focus on the participants/clients perspective and data collection techniques, such as

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interviewing. Grounded theory methods were particularly suitable for this

study because there is a lack of prior knowledge development in spirituality
and social work, and findings may be highly relevant for practitioners
because they emerge from the real world of practice.
In grounded theory, sampling procedures are linked to coding processes
that are being used to analyze incoming data. Typically, the process begins
with a purposive, open sampling method, and as the research inquiry progresses and the coding becomes more refined and abstract, the sampling
becomes discriminate (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). In discriminate sampling,
the researcher is deliberate about whom to sample to obtain needed data
and verify the theory, which has emerged from the data. For example, a
participant-information statement was initially used to help recruit the participants. The statement was mailed to all the organizations in the greater
metropolitan Sydney (Australia) area that supervised social work fieldwork
students for the University of New South Wales (UNSW)approximately
300 agencies. The statement was also distributed in undergraduate and
postgraduate classes at the UNSW and within a social work department in a
major teaching hospital. In addition, it was sent to the School of Social
Work at the Flinders University of South Australia and to contacts I had in
Brisbane in Queensland. I also contacted people who were identified as
potential participants by colleagues and social workers who had heard
about the study and by participants who were already committed to the
research. The sampling became more discriminate after the 14th interview
was transcribed and analyzed. As a result, 5 participants were recruited on
the basis of such characteristics as work experience, gender, and spiritual
perspective.
Participants

In total, 20 self-identified feminist social workers (3 men and 17 women)

were individually interviewed in depth using a semistructured format.
They were asked to discuss their ideas regarding feminist social work and
spirituality, expressions of spirituality (or not) in their practice, implications
of including spirituality (or not) in practice, and future directions of practice. The interview method fitted the grounded theory approach and
involved the participants in a meaningful way by grounding the research
inquiry in their experiences, beliefs, and values. Thus, it is a research process
that is well suited to explorations of spirituality because spiritual discourse
can be complex, abstract, and highly personal. The semistructured questions guided the dialogue but allowed for spontaneous questions, exploration, and the development of responses (Reinharz, 1992).
Overall, the participants represented an experienced group of practitioners with diverse direct-practice experiences. For example, they worked in
various settings, including hospitals, nongovernmental organizations,
community health centers, child protection agencies and childrens

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services, private practice, local governmental services, hospices, disability

services, and a university. Twelve participants indicated that they had 10 or
more years of social work experience. In addition, 17 participants were aged
33 or older, 1 participant was an Aboriginal, and 6 were from non-Englishspeaking backgrounds.
Mizrahi and Abramson (1994) explained that the first step in the analysis
of data using the grounded theory approach is to devise a strategy to convert
the mass of data into systematic schema for examining its meaning, discovering themes and patterns, and making connections among concepts.
Coding represents the operations by which data are broken down, conceptualized, and reconstructed in new ways. I transcribed the interviews, color
coded the participants responses, and grouped the responses into categories that were continuously compared with one another and emerging data
to discover the links among them. I combined related categories and compared them again to incoming data and assessed hypotheses that were
emerging from the comparisons. This manual way of coding allowed for a
strong familiarity with the data. As the links between the categories were
formed and the main category was uncovered, I was surprised to find that
significant convergences had emerged as the main category. The scope of
congruent thoughts and beliefs was surprising, given the lack of previous
research in the area, the absence of any coherent spiritual-social work
framework in the literature, and the participants diverse spiritual backgrounds. However, the commonalities among the participants feminist
social work perspectives, the extent of their direct practice experiences, and
their interests in spirituality would have all contributed to the formation of
these convergences.
When considering the data, it became apparent that it would be an important step to develop these convergences into a framework for practice and
address the lack of empirically based frameworks and knowledge development, the marginalization of spiritual knowledge, and the need for language and models. Thus, I decided to write the main categories into a set of
practice principles, the final version of which are presented in Table 1.
The practice principles can be organized into three broad groupings, as is
indicated in Table 1. It should be noted that they do not build on one another
and although they make sense as a whole, each practice principle can stand
alone. All the participants were sent a preliminary draft of the practice principles and were invited to submit written feedback. Ten participants sent
back written feedback that was used to edit the practice principles. In addition, the participants were invited to take part in focus groups to discuss the
practice principles and related issues so as to check how accurately the practice principles reflected the participants viewpoints, values, and practices.
Another aim was to refine the practice principles further to maintain adherence to the feminist and qualitative research epistemology and increase the
rigor of the research process by adding another layer of data collection and
analysis.

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TABLE 1: Practice Principles for Social Work and Spirituality

Understandings of
spirituality and feminist
social work

Beliefs about the spiritual

essence of human
existence and spiritual
development

Spiritually influenced
practice processes

1. Spirituality and religion are conceptualized differently, but they

also overlap and influence each other.
2. The present reality that social work is a secular profession, coupled with the lack of theoretical development in spirituality, creates tensions in practice. This tension leads to a cautious attitude
regarding the incorporation of spirituality in practice. There is a
strong need for research and the development of frameworks that
explore spirituality in social work. Overall, a greater awareness of
spirituality is called for.
3. Social work, spiritual and feminist values, and practices converge
on a myriad of levels such as in a commitment to social change.
The incorporation of spirituality into social work approaches contributes to more holistic practice perspectives.
4. A persons spirit and/or spirituality is the essence of his or her
human existence and life experience. Respect and understanding
is demonstrated for a persons desire or lack thereof to recognize
this spiritual essence.
5. The development of spirituality is, above all, a complex and lifelong process that sometimes encompasses struggle. The process of
spiritual development can be influenced by family, friends, culture, religious/spiritual traditions, and transformative life events,
which can act as catalysts for spiritual discovery and exploration.
A commitment to the ongoing process of spiritual development is
important.
6. Generic language is often used with clients in discussions about
spirituality and spiritual issues. Language is shifted to accommodate clients perspectives, foster connections, and facilitate effective and helpful social work processes.
7. Social work contexts, client populations, and personal spiritual
development influence the incorporation of spirituality in practice. Some contexts and client populations better promote the
inclusion of spirituality, especially those that foster a more equal
distribution of power between worker and client. A commitment
to personal spiritual development and work experience also
encourage the incorporation of spirituality into practice.
8. Spirituality is often a part of making meaning of life and work
experiences. The social work process of making meaning can be a
spiritual one because it is an intimate, personal, and/or communal process that helps clients explore values and beliefs.
9. Connection in many forms, such as with oneself, community,
nature, and the universe or God is valued and deemed important
for the development of self-awareness and relationships with others. Also, fostering a connection with ones spirit or spirituality
can positively influence the quality and effectiveness of social
work processes. Disconnection is also important and is sometimes
a necessary process.
10. The relationship between a social worker and a client or clients is
important and can affect the meaningfulness and effectiveness of
social work processes. This relationship can be spiritual in that it
may involve the sharing of life stories, deep connection, and feelings of compassion and caring.
11. It is important to foster a clients ability to feel and experience
trust, love, and respect for self and others because these experiences can be linked with spiritual development. A clients spiritual beliefs may influence his or her self-perceptions and interactions with others.

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Of the 20 participants, 14 (2 men and 12 women) took part in three focus

groups, which were held over a 6-week period after written feedback was
received from participants. Two groups each had 4 participants, and one
group had 6 participants. On the basis of the written feedback and further
consideration of the convergences that had emerged, the participants were
presented with three broad topics for discussion. They were asked to consider feminism and spirituality (What makes the practice principles feminist?), private knowledge (Might the practice principles help them discuss their practice?), and congruencies versus differences (How
important is it to name the differences among the participants?) and to
comment on the revised practice principles.
As with the individual interviews, I tape-recorded and transcribed the
focus-group meetings and sent copies of the transcripts to the participants to
check the accuracy of the transcription and offer the opportunity for feedback. The transcripts were analyzed in the same manner as the individual
interviews using a grounded-theory approach. This analysis generated
many of the same categories as the analysis of the interviews. New categories that emerged were related to the feminist nature of the practice principles. Given the focus of this article on the development of feminist social
work perspectives, the categories that are encompassed in the third practice
principle (see Table 1) are examined more fully. These categories included
the participants ideas about the commonalities between feminist social
work and spirituality and the implications of these similarities for the development of feminist social work practices and knowledge.

THE THIRD PRACTICE PRINCIPLE

According to the participants, their feminist social work perspectives and

spiritualities are concerned with process, values of diversity and inclusivity,
and action and change and are collective and personal constructs. These
shared values also shaped some participants choice of a career in social
work. One participant noted that spirituality is a lens just like feminism is a
lens, which she used to analyze and experience the world. Another participant believed that spiritual and feminist social work values emerge from the
same family of values. For example, 2 participants identified these shared
values as the promotion of positive change and growth, assisting people to
reach their potential and to discover their true worth. Several other participants said that some core social work values are spiritual values as well
beginning where the client is, demonstrating respect for people, honoring
that people do what they need to do and are really important people,
believing in the inherent right of self-determination and that clients are the
experts of their own experience, and demonstrating a nonjudgmental attitude. Also, one participant stated that spirituality is inclusiveness . . . inclusiveness of everyone . . . thats feminism, too.

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Most of the participants stressed that their feminist social work and spiritual values emphasize the importance of social action and justice. For example, one participant contended that feminist social workers should be helping people to develop a spirituality that is liberative and cognizant of
oppression and that acknowledges the equality of all people. Another participant stated that it would be possible to present spirituality within a social
work program because spirituality is not separate from politics. One participant argued that she cannot see how people can be Christian and say
that theyre not feminist, which illustrates the connections among her religious, spiritual, and feminist social work values. Similarly, a participant
who is affiliated with a Buddhist tradition explained that Buddhism has an
analysis of power, too, like feminist social work.
Another area of convergence is evident in the participants discussions of
how their choice of a social work career was influenced by their spiritual
and/or religious values and beliefs. As one participant stated, Because the
whole thing of improving the world, of helping people comes into it. Its
probably a lot of what motivated me to do social work. . . . I was always sort
of seen as a person whos going to go and change the world, fix it up.
Another participant acknowledged, What brought me to want to be a
social worker . . . I recognize that those had to do with some spiritual ideals.
One participant was not sure how many of her social work peers would
attribute value to spirituality but believed that social work attracts people
who see a need for righting the wrongs of society, which can be values
based in spirituality. In fact, the participants consistently described social
work as more than a job. There is a good fit between the participants spiritual and social work values and beliefs, and social work provides work contexts in which these values can have influence. For example, one participant
framed the social work he does as an act of spirituality, explaining that
this social work context allows me to be who I am. And allows me to . . . be
more generous and thoughtful. In addition to identifying various
convergences between feminist social work and spiritual values, most of the
participants also discussed how the incorporation of spirituality into feminist social work approaches can encourage a more holistic practice
approach.
Holistic Practice Approaches

Overall, holistic practice refers to meaningful helping approaches that

attend to body, mind, emotions, and spirit. Social work is identified as well
suited to adopt holistic practice approaches, although its knowledge bases
generally ignore considerations of spirituality. The participants emphasized
that social work needs to be more holistic in its understanding and assessment of people and stressed that if social work negates spirituality, it is not
capable of working in a holistic manner. For example, as one participant
noted, So to separate a spiritual dynamic or a spiritual experience or

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spiritual ways of knowing life that people have, if were going to say . . . No
we dont deal with that, then we cant really do therapy in a very holistic setting at all. The participant described a holistic practice approach as incorporating spirituality but not emphasizing it over other resources and
aspects of a persons life. They did not identify spirituality as being more
important but rather as a part of the other work. As one participant advocated, Give it as much meaning as any other part of our work but no more
than. Many of the participants discussed the multiple levels of disadvantage that clients face. Thus, priorities often need to be established among
basic needs, such as housing, money, and food. One participant pointed out
that because of the nature of social work, practitioners should be able to
move fluidly between practical concerns and other issues like spirituality.
Also, one participant argued that holistic practice is different from eclecticism because it includes mind, body, and soul, whereas eclectic practice may
not recognize spirituality.
A third of the participants stated that social work is the helping profession
that has the potential and ability to assume a multifaceted role and holistic
practice approach, which is consistent with the literature and reflects
Candas (1998) and Carrolls (1998) views that social work should strive for a
holistic understanding of the person-in-environment. Bricker-Jenkins
(1989, p. 221) identified a feminist social work perspective that includes
spirituality as a holistic approach and noted that these approaches engage
physical and spiritual dimensions as well as intellectual, social, and emotional aspects of life. One participant said that social workers can talk to people on a lot of different levels and that there are few helping professionals
left who can assume this type of role because of increasing specialization.
Indeed, social workers continue to assume roles, such as case management,
that encourage the development of knowledge across various fields.
However, several participants noted that social work theories and practices are not generally holistic and usually dismiss discussions of spirituality. For example, one participant described developmental and change theories as located too much at a . . . cognitive cerebral level and that social
work needs to ponder, What is that experience of what really happens with
the relationship that makes the difference? I think somewhere in there,
spirituality fits. Two participants expressed their irritation with a problemsolving model, brief therapy, and cognitive behavioral approaches even
though they occasionally use these models, describing them as narrow and
incredibly constricting, confining of the human spirit. And the Aboriginal
participant explained that a social worker relying on mainstream models
and approaches wouldnt have a hope of surviving working with Indigenous communities. These comments are not surprising, given the thin state
of knowledge and the lack of empirical study in this area.
Along these lines, the participants also discussed the need for the analysis
of spirituality. One participant said, Lots of people are doing it [working
with spirituality]; they just havent named it . . . there isnt a framework that

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people feel . . . they can use. Other participants identified the need for more
clarity regarding spirituality and deemed it important to explore how spirituality is helpful and not helpful for clients. One participant stated that
including spirituality in social work will eventually help social workers
become more objective about spirituality, helping to ensure that personal
perspectives are not imposed on clients. The needs identified here reflect the
demands within social work for research on the efficacy of spiritual interventions (Russel, 1998) and the need for language, practice methods, and
models that are designed to integrate spirituality and social work theory
(Bullis, 1996).
This section has discussed categories that are encompassed in the third
practice principlethe similarities between feminist social work and spiritual values and practices and the desire for more holistic social work
approaches. Spirituality and feminist social work were identified as reflecting values of diversity and a concern with process and social change. Holistic practices were described as contributing to meaningful and relevant
practices.
During the focus-group discussions, the participants were asked to consider whether the practice principles as a whole are feminist. Although the
participants recognized the feminist nature of the practice principles, they
also pointed out that the practice principles do not have to exist within an
exclusive feminist framework. These ideas are considered next.

THE FEMINIST NATURE OF

THE PRACTICE PRINCIPLES

Overall, the three focus groups described the practice principles as feminist
because of the process that was followed in their development and the shared
values they reflect. For example, the practice principles are feminist because
they were developed using a feminist process and with self-identified feminist social workers. As one participant noted,
I guess one of the aspects of feminism has been a recognition of what hasnt
been said, or the other. . . . And this whole issue of spirituality in social work is
really a recognition of something thats not really been talked about, in the
same way that feminism brings up issues that arent really talked about and
that are covered over. . . . Here, youre identifying experiences that are
other. . . . In that way, it sort of does reflect feminism.

All the focus-group participants discussed values and agreed that the
practice principles reflect convergent feminist, spiritual, and social work
values. These common values were identified as promoting equality, process, diversity, and social justice and change. The focus group discussions
about values enriched the original analysis of data from the interviews. For

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example, one focus group discussed how feminism and spirituality help
people to transcend oppressive ideas about who we should be and how we
should live and that both also help to address issues of oppression. As one
participant wondered, Are we, through our practice, actually trying to
keep people oppressed within the oppressive masculine-dominated systems, or are we trying to free up the individual, whoever that might be, to
follow whatever is their best path. And not allow that oppression to
happen?
Another focus group discussed the emergence of the practice principles
from a shared feminist, spiritual, and social work value base. This discussion is illustrated in the following dialogue:
Participant 1: I think frameworks or . . . principles of practice . . . are only
ways that assist us to do what we actually want to do anyway.
Participant 2: Or theyre composed out of what were doing. . . . They come
afterward.
Participant 3: But its values first and framework later in a sense, isnt it? So
its like we develop our . . . theoretical framework based upon what we
feel and believe at a more fundamental level.
Participant 2: And frameworks evolve and change over time as thinking
changes and experience and growth and all that take place.
This discussion illustrates the strong connection in social work among
values, knowledge, and practice and points to the significance of the practice principles because they emerge from and encompass the participants
values, beliefs, and practices. Knowledge that emerges from practice experiences seems to be particularly relevant for social workers because it reflects
the real world of practice and may be highly applicable to practice situations. In addition, this dialogue reinforces the importance of personal exploration and how this process influences practice and practice frameworks.
Although the members of all three focus groups believed that the practice
principles encompass feminist values, they also contended that the practice
principles can go beyond a feminist context because they reflect values
shared across social work perspectives. As one participant argued, the practice principles could also reflect personal growth frameworks. Any
psychotherapeutic frameworks which work with respect of other as a basic
premise. Another participant in the same focus group concurred, pointing
out that I use very much a strengths perspective or a more narrative perspective in my work, and most of these [practice principles] would fit that,
too . . . as they would a feminist perspective. As these comments illustrate,
the participants used various social work perspectives that all share values.
Thus, their practices reflect the trend within social work of a move toward a
more generalist practice, described earlier as a multimethods, multitheory,
and multitechnique social work practice (Coates, 1991). This move toward

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generalist practice and the concurrent move away from grand unifying theories and frameworks is further demonstrated in the following comment:
I actually think we are moving away from what I would consider to be these
grand theories . . . any type of sort of isms into . . . what I would consider a
much more constructive way of looking at peoples lives and seeing their lives
as being an individual experience. And working with people from a much
more individual framework in a way . . . and pulling down things as we need
them. . . . Its not cut and dry . . . but it doesnt make your practice not feminist.
It doesnt make your practice not spiritual.

Although all the focus group members agreed that the practice principles
can exist within multiple social work frameworks, they also emphasized
that the feminist nature of the practice principles should be acknowledged
because feminist values are sometimes co-opted and the particular benefits
of feminist analysis are not recognized. One focus group pointed out that
there is no difficulty in holding the practice principles within various contexts, as long as frameworks or approaches share feminist values. As one
participant contended, So I think that I could live quite comfortably with
taking it out of the realm of saying its feminist, as long as we were using . . .
equity and fairness. Equity and fairness could be identified as both feminist and more general social work values; hence, the practice principles fit
into feminist and nonfeminist frameworks. The participants would likely
agree that more of a problem is posed if the practice principles are held
within a framework that reflects antifeminist or anti-social work values.
Another focus group discussed the importance of naming feminism and
feminist values. As the following comment illustrates, the increasingly
shared nature of social work knowledge, practice, and values can lead to
what this participant identified as a co-optation of feminist values and
practices.
I think that feminism has had enormous impact. . . . I see young women now
doing things that 25 years ago would not have been possible. And I think its
important that were able to name that as feminism . . . the impact that it has.
And I dont like that sometimes . . . feminism gets co-opted . . . not only the
ideas, but the practices. . . . What I was saying before . . . the emphasis on the
importance of process as well as content. Sometimes it has . . . been used, but it
hasnt been named.

Similarly, one participant in another focus group wondered about not

encouraging what were calling feminism to become so generic that . . . our
values can be called by any name. . . . I wonder there, where the recognition
of gender differences and gender experiences and the experiences of always
being positioned in gender go? As this comment points out, one of the continued relevances of feminism is the focus on gender. Certainly, other participants agreed with the continued need for feminist analysis. Thus, despite

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the inevitability that the practice principles may be moved into different
contexts, it is important to recognize the feminist nature of the practice principles and the significance of feminist social work perspectives and
analyses.
It should also be noted that although the participants thought that feminist, social work, and spiritual values are similar and reflected in the practice
principles, they did not necessarily believe that feminist social work and
spirituality have to be connected. For example, one participant noted his
concern that people who are committed to feminism who may not understand that as spiritual could . . . feel invalidated when we begin to define
them as the same thing. I also think it can affect how we start defining each
one. And as another participant pointed out, Some people might also feel
that they were feminists and not believe in any of this. However, the focus
groups all agreed about the importance of acknowledging the feminist
nature of the practice principles.
The valuing of diversity is emphasized by feminist and nonfeminist
social work approaches. Diversity is one of the shared convergent values
that was discussed by each focus group, in part because the members were
asked to consider issues of diversity and similarity in the use of the practice
principles.

VALUING DIVERSITY

All three focus groups stressed that diversity in the application of the practice principles and their own practices should be assumed. One group discussed that making diverse points of view visible not only reflects feminist
process but helps to shift difference out of the margins by encouraging people to consider alternative viewpoints, such as spirituality. At the least, recognizing differences provides support and a voice for people who may be
marginalized. These issues are illustrated in the following dialogue:
Participant 1: I love . . . what I call people seeing themselves on the pageif
you see your experience written downthis isnt just me who thinks like
this. So I think if we only do the convergences, then you lose a lot of the
stuff. . . . If youre outside the mainstream, youre not going to see yourself
on the page.
Participant 2: Thats right. . . . I think this wouldnt fit with a feminist perspective, if you look at keeping those people who have slightly different
views out of it. . . . Theyre being isolatedmarginalized. . . . I would have
thought that if were very much about . . . social work and feminism and
all those things, then its about bringing people in and being inclusive.
Participant 3: I would be in agreement with that, too.

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Participant 4: And I think it pushes the boundaries a bit as well if you incorporate difference. So it might help extend things over time . . . forcing people to maybe move out of the comfort zone or to reconsider some things
they hadnt considered. . . . Push the limits.
One participant in another focus group pointed out that because individual practice changes over time and depends on context, diversity in ones
personal practice approach should be assumed as well. The rest of the focus
group participants agreed with his idea, which reiterates the importance
placed on continual self-development. The participant stated that the practice principles are
ideas for us to think about in our practice, so that when we went to the local
context of our practice, they could be informative. . . . But then they would
always be different, depending on who we were at that time . . . and who our
clients were . . . the different contexts of life . . . we are always bringing things to
every context, including what we feel about our political commitments, our
spiritual commitments.

In addition, no difficulty was expressed in any of the focus groups regarding the coexistence of the shared convergent value base of the practice principles and this emphasis on valuing diversity in beliefs and expressions of
practice. The interplay between valuing commonalities and differences was
well expressed by a participant who pointed out the following:
[I am not] a poststructural girl, although there are bits of poststructuralism
that I love. . . . I do believe that there are universals. I do believe in absolutes. . . . Thats why I think there has to be something that we all believe in.
And yet, how we express it . . . I believe in not having . . . totalizing stuff. You
know, we make everything the same. I dont believe in that, but there still has
to be something which is a common cord.

The common cord here is the shared base of convergent values that the practice principles reflect, but the expression of the practice principles must be
considered diverse not just across participants but within ones own practice. This need to recognize similarities and differences is supported in the
feminist literature (Brodribb, 1992; Dominelli, 1996; Fawcett, 1998;
Hirschmann, 1997).

CONCLUSION

The future of feminist perspectives is beginning to be discussed in the literature as feminist approaches continue to be challenged. Discussions about
spirituality are becoming part of these explorations, given that some feminist social workers have identified spirituality as an important emerging
component of practice and that priorities are shifting to holistic practices.

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Indeed, feminists in general have demonstrated a growing interest in spiritual matters, as is evidenced in the literature. Feminist spiritualities are
diverse but share themes, such as valuing womens bodies, experiences, and
stories; emphasizing ritual, process, and social justice; and seeking connections with all life. These values and practices are in harmony with feminist
social work approaches.
Utilizing semistructured interviews and a grounded-theory methodology and analysis, the study discussed here explored feminist social workers
conceptualizations of spirituality and spiritually influenced practices. The
grounded-theory analysis uncovered striking convergences among participants beliefs, values, and practices regarding spirituality and feminist
social work and life experiences. These commonalities were further considered and analyzed, which encouraged the development of practice principles. The collection of more data and another layer of analysis took place by
way of focus groups, which allowed the convergences to be checked, further
refined the practice principles, and involved the participants meaningfully
in the research. Although it is beyond the scope and purpose of this article to
discuss the relevance of the practice principles in any depth, it may be said
that the practice principles are relevant because they emerged from practice wisdom and constitute new knowledge in this area. They can be used
to promote discussions about spirituality, guide practice and pedagogy, and
provide a base for the future development of spiritually influenced
frameworks.
This article focused on one practice principle in particular, which reflects
the participants views that feminist social work perspectives and
spiritualities share values. For example, feminist social work approaches
and spiritualities emphasize process, values of diversity and inclusivity,
and social action and change and are collective and personal constructs.
Also, the participants expressed a desire for more holistic approaches
meaningful practices that attend to body, mind, emotions, and spirit. In
addition, the feminist nature of the practice principles as a whole was considered. Although the practice principles are applicable across a variety of
social work modalities, the participants stressed that the feminist social
work values they are based on should be recognized, as well as the feminist
process that was followed in their development.
The current context of social work knowledge and practice encourages
the embracing of practice wisdom and a move away from all-encompassing
theories to a more context- dependent practice. These influences are highly
relevant for spiritual and feminist knowledges in that these perspectives
emerge from personal experiences, values, and viewpoints. Feminist social
work values, processes, and analyses are particularly suited to consider
marginalized knowledges because they make room for the other, value
experiences and connections, aim to ground knowledge in practice, and
emphasize diversity. Therefore, feminist social work approaches are well

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suited for the consideration of spirituality as an important emerging component in social work practice and knowledge development.

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Diana Coholic, Ph.D., is an assistant professor in the School of Social Work, Laurentian
University, Ramsey Lake Road, Sudbury, Ontario P3E 2C6, Canada; e-mail: dcoholic@
laurentian.ca.

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