Power Plant Engineering Slide Part2

iv - Economic Comparison
There is a reason that once through

cooling was used in almost all steam
power plants built before 1970.
as It has the following advantages :
i - the simplest system
ii - the least initial cost
iii - the least operating cost.
Both the wet cooling tower system and
the air cooled condenser (dry cooling)
system have higher capital cost, higher
power requirement (and thus higher
operating cost), leading to approximately
1.9 % higher cost of electricity due to use
of a wet cooling tower and approximately
4.9 % higher cost of electricity for air
cooled condenser use, as shown in the
table below.
v - Percentage of Use
Four types of condenser/cooling

systems, is shown in the table below.
Most of the steam power plants built
in the U.S. before 1970 use once
through cooling. Due to increasing
concern about and regulation of water
use for electric power production,
Most of those built after 1970 use
cooling towers.
These two types of condenser cooling
systems account for about 84 % of
steam power plants.
Most of the rest use cooling ponds.
Dry cooling has emerged as another
option because of the water
withdrawal and consumption rates for
the other options, even with wet
cooling towers. About 1 % of steam
power plants use an air-cooled
condenser (dry cooling system).
Thermal Model of A Steam Condenser
m steam
& Ts ,in
m cw
m cw
& Tcw,in
m steam
& Ts ,out
& Tcw,out
Condenser heat balance
The heat balance of the condenser under the assumption of ideal conditions is that :
The heat gained by the cooling water is equal to heat lost from Steam .
Chapter two
steam power plant
2.05.2 - COOLING TOWER
COOLING TOWER
introduction
Cooling towers are heat removal devices used to transfer process waste
heat to the atmosphere.
Cooling towers may either use the evaporation of water to remove
process heat and cool the working fluid to near the wet-bulb air
temperature or rely solely on air to cool the working fluid to near the drybulb air temperature .
Common applications include cooling the circulating water used in oil
refineries, chemical plants, power stations and building cooling.
The towers vary in size from small roof-top units to very large hyperboloid
structures (as in above) that can be up to 200 metres tall and 100 metres
in diameter, or rectangular structures that can be over 40 metres tall and
80 metres long.
Smaller towers are normally factory-built, while larger ones are
constructed on site.
Classification
Cooling towers as defined above can be
identified in various methods, and this in
other words an attempt to classify such
element
1 - Classification by use
Cooling towers can generally be classified by use into either
HVAC (air-conditioning) or industrial duty.
HVAC
An HVAC cooling tower is a subcategory rejecting heat from a
chiller. Water-cooled chillers are normally more energy
efficient than air-cooled chillers due to heat rejection to tower
water at or near wet-bulb temperatures. Air-cooled chillers
must reject heat at the dry-bulb temperature, and thus have a
lower average reverse-Carnot cycle effectiveness. Large office
buildings, hospitals, and schools typically use one or more
cooling towers as part of their air conditioning systems.
Generally, industrial cooling towers are much larger than
HVAC towers
Industrial cooling towers

Industrial cooling towers can be used to remove heat from various sources
such as machinery or heated process material .
The primary use of large, industrial cooling towers is:
1. to remove the heat absorbed in the circulating cooling water systems used
in power plants, petroleum refineries, petrochemical plants, natural gas
processing plants, food processing plants, semi-conductor plants, and
other industrial facilities.
2. The circulation rate of cooling water in a typical 700 MW coal-fired power
plant with a cooling tower amounts to about 71600 cubic metres an hour
(315000) U.S. gallons per minute
3. and the circulating water requires a supply water make-up rate of perhaps
percent i.e .(3600) cubic metres an hour
2 - Heat transfer methods

With respect to the heat transfer mechanism employed, the main types
are:
1. Wet cooling towers or simply cooling towers operate on the principle of
evaporation. The working fluid and the evaporated fluid (usually HO) are
one and the same .
2. Dry coolers operate by heat transfer through a surface that separates the
working fluid from ambient air, such as in a heat exchanger, utilizing
convective heat transfer. They do not use evaporation .
3. Fluid coolers are hybrids that pass the working fluid through a tube
bundle, upon which clean water is sprayed and a fan-induced draft
applied. The resulting heat transfer performance is much closer to that of
a wet cooling tower, with the advantage provided by a dry cooler of
protecting the working fluid from environmental exposure
3 - Air flow generation methods
With respect to drawing air through the tower, there are three types of cooling
towers:
Natural draft, which utilizes buoyancy via a tall chimney. Warm, moist air naturally
rises due to the density differential to the dry, cooler outside air. Warm moist air is
less dense than drier air at the same pressure. This moist air buoyancy produces a
current of air through the tower .
Mechanical draft, which uses power driven fan motors to force or draw air through
the tower .
Induced draft: A mechanical draft tower with a fan at the discharge which pulls air
through tower. The fan induces hot moist air out the discharge. This produces low
entering and high exiting air velocities, reducing the possibility of recirculation in which
discharged air flows back into the air intake. This fan/fill arrangement is also known as
draw-through. (see Image , (
Forced draft: A mechanical draft tower with a blower type fan at the intake. The
fan forces air into the tower, creating high entering and low exiting air velocities
Fan assisted natural draft. A hybrid type that appears like a natural draft though
airflow is assisted by a fan
4 - Categorization by air-to-water flow

Crossflow
Counterflow
Crossflow is a design in which the air

flow is directed perpendicular to the
water flow (see diagram below). Air
flow enters one or more vertical faces
of the cooling tower to meet the fill
material. Water flows (perpendicular to
the air) through the fill by gravity. The
air continues through the fill and thus
past the water flow into an open
plenum area. A distribution or hot
water basin consisting of a deep pan
with holes or nozzles in the bottom is
utilized in a crossflow tower. Gravity
distributes the water through the
nozzles uniformly across the fill
material
In a counterflow design the air flow is

directly opposite to the water flow (see
diagram below). Air flow first enters an
open area beneath the fill media and is
then drawn up vertically. The water is
sprayed through pressurized nozzles and
flows downward through the fill, opposite
to the air flow.
Cooling tower fog

Under certain ambient conditions, plumes of water vapor (fog) can be seen rising out of the
discharge from a cooling tower (see Image below), and can be mistaken as smoke from a
fire. If the outdoor air is at or near saturation, and the tower adds more water to the air,
saturated air with liquid water droplets can be dischargedwhat is seen as fog. This
phenomenon typically occurs on cool, humid days, but is rare in many climates
Billowing
Another way of looking into this phenomena is through what is know as
BILLOWING . So, what is billowing ?
The working fluid (water) in Rankin cycle flows in a closed cycle loop, and it is
re-used continuously. The water vapor with entrained droplets often seen exhausting from
power station is actually generated by the cooling system and not from the closed loop
Rankin cycle.
The cooling tower operates by using the latent heat of vaporization of the cooling fluid. The
white clouds exhausted from the cooling tower are the results of water droplets entrained
in the cooling tower air flow, and they are not, as commonly thought, steam. The stream of
white clouds is know as billowing.
Such billowing stream represent the waste energy heat (vaporization) that could not be
converted to useful work in the turbine.
Losses in cooling Towers
The loss of water in a cooling tower is due to three different reasons and
has to be made up during the operation. The makeup percentage in
modern towers is around 1 %.
Evaporation loss. A part of the water evaporates, this is what creates the
cooling effect. This depends on the ambient temperature and Relative
humidity or the ambient wet bulb temperature.
Drift loss. The water particles carried away through the flowing air. Drift
eliminators and detail design have reduced this largely. In modern towers,
this could be in the range of 0.02 % of the water flow.
Blowdown losses. The evaporated water leaves behind the salts, which
over time accumulates increasing the TDS levels. This requires to be
blowdown occasionally. This constitutes a loss which has to be made up.
Tutorial
Recall Problem 4.2, in which we
analysed a Supercritical Steam Powr
Plant with Reheat and an Open
Feedwater Heater/De-aerator to service
about 10,000 households in Athens,
Ohio. The City Council was somewhat
perturbed about the possible thermal
pollution of the Hocking River and have
requested that we evaluate the use of a
Cooling Tower in order to cool the
condenser fluid stream, rather than
direct cooling by the Hocking River, with
only the makeup water being supplied by
the river. For purposes of this exercise we
have chosen the additional parameters
associated with the Cooling Tower as
shown in the diagram below.
We found in Problem 4.2 that the power required to cool the steam in the condenser is 12.9 MW. Furthermore since we are
not returning the water to the Hocking River we no longer have the restriction of a 10C maximum water temperature increase.
We have chosen a temperature of 40C at station (11) in order to ensure cooling since from the steam tables we find that the
saturation temperature at 10 kPa is 45.8C. In this problem we wish to evaluate the performance and suitability of this
proposed design.
Chapter two
steam power plant
2.06 - Industrial water treatment
introduction
Industrial Water Treatment can be classified into the
following categories:
Boiler water treatment
Cooling water treatment
Wastewater treatment
Water treatment is used to optimize most waterbased industrial processes, such as: heating, cooling,
processing, cleaning, , so that operating costs and
risks are reduced. Poor water treatment lets water
interact with the surfaces of pipes and vessels which
contain it.
Power plant
Boilers feed water needs to be as pure as possible
with a minimum of suspended solids and dissolved
impurities which cause corrosion . Steam boilers can
scale up or corrode, and these deposits will mean
more fuel is needed to heat the same amount of
water.
Cooling towers can also scale up and corrode, but
left untreated, the warm, dirty water they can
contain will encourage bacteria to grow, and
Legionnaires' Disease can be the fatal consequence
advantages
In many cases, effluent water from one process
might be perfectly suitable for reuse in another
process somewhere else on site. With the proper
treatment, a significant proportion of industrial onsite wastewater might be reusable. This can save
money in three ways:
1- lower charges for lower water consumption,
2- lower charges for the smaller volume of
effluent water discharged and
3- lower energy costs due to the recovery of heat in
recycled wastewater.
objectives
Industrial water treatment seeks to manage
four main problem areas:
scaling,
corrosion,
microbiological activity and
disposal of residual wastewater.
Boilers do not have many problems with
microbes as the high temperatures prevents
their growth
Scaling
Scaling occurs when the chemistry and temperature
conditions are such that the dissolved mineral salts in the
water are caused to precipitate and form solid deposits. These
can be mobile, like a fine silt, or can build up in layers on the
metal surfaces of the systems. Scale is a problem because :
1- it insulates and heat exchange becomes less efficient as
the scale thickens, which wastes energy.
2- it narrows pipe widths and therefore increases the energy
used in pumping the water through the pipes.
Corrosion
Corrosion occurs when the parent metal
oxidizes (as iron rusts, for example) and
gradually the integrity of the plant equipment
is compromised. The corrosion products can
cause similar problems to scale, but corrosion
can also lead to leaks, which in a pressurized
system can lead to catastrophic failures.
Microbes
Microbes can thrive in untreated cooling
water, which is warm and sometimes full of
organic nutrients, as wet cooling towers are
very efficient air scrubbers. Dust, flies, grass,
fungal spores and so on collect in the water
and create a sort of "microbial soup" if not
treated with biocides. Most outbreaks of the
deadly Legionnaires' Disease have been traced
to unmanaged cooling towers
Disposal of residual industrial wastewaters
Disposal of residual wastewaters from an industrial

plant is a difficult and costly problem. Most
petroleum refineries, chemical and petrochemical
plants have onsite facilities to treat their
wastewaters so that the pollutant concentrations in
the treated wastewater comply with the local and/or
national regulations regarding disposal of
wastewaters into community treatment plants or
into rivers, lakes or oceans.
Methods of Water treatment
The treatment of raw water ( natural water ) can be done in various methods , and
the
followings are briefly explained :
1- mechanical treatment.
Settling, filtering, and trapping are simple methods of removing suspended
solids.
2- chemical treatment.
For removing hardness by replacing the iron, calcium, and magnesium ions (
hardwater) by sodium ions .
3- cation exchange.
Positive charge metal ions exchange for removing residual hardness.
4- demineralization.
For removing dissolved solids (distillation), since boilers operates at high
pressure,Water evaporates and then condenses leaving solids behind
Chapter two
steam power plant
2.07 - Power Plant process
evaluation & assessment
introduction
There are two methods of such evaluation in actual sense, as evaluation of power
plant process is evaluating the plant main components , i.e the boiler and the
turbine.
The main parameters that shows how good the power plant operates are :
1- the level of the turbine mechanical output available for the electrical generator
to generate and produce electricity.
2- the level of the boiler utilizes the fuel heat energy to produce enough steam at
proper pressure and temperature to operate the turbine.
Therefore, the efficiencies of these components to operate, and thus the heat energy
transferred from components to components represent a good picture of how well
the plant is operating .
The two methods of plant evaluation and assessment are :
i- efficiencies.
ii- heat rate
I Efficiencies
1- cycle ideal efficiency ( Rankine )
R = (net work o/p) / (heat supplied by boiler)
= (h1 - h2 ) / (h1 - h4 )
2 turbine efficiency (T )
T = (actual h ) / ( ideal h )
= ( h1 - h2 ) / (h1 - h2 )
Where
1 2 : ideal expansion S1 = S2
reversible
1 2 : actual expansion S2 = S2
irreversible
3 boiler efficiency ( B )
for unit mass rate
B = (h1 - hfw ) / ( mf . HHV )
for a given mass rate
B = (ms . h ) / (mf . HHV).
=( ms . hb ) + ( mrht. hrht )) / (mf .
HHV ) with reheat
II Heat Rate
1 (turbine cycle) heat rate TCHR
This is defined as the heat required to be supplied to the
steam per KWhr of electric Power output.
TCHR = (heat supplied to turbine cycle /time) / (gross
generator output kw)
= (QT ) / ( PGO )
PGO
= Wa . G
Wa
= actual work done by the turbine
G
= electric generator efficiency
= ( electric power produced ) /
( mechanical power supplied)
However, the actual mechanical power

supplied by the turbine is related to the
turbine ability to utilize the thermal energy
available from the boiler, such turbine ability
means turbine efficiency, therefore
Wa = T ( th . QT )
TCHR = 1 / (T . G . th )
2 (Boiler-Turbine) heat rate BTHR

BTHR = QT / (B . PGO )
Where B is the boiler efficiency
3 Overall power plant heat rate OPPHR

This is defined as the heat required to be supplied to the power plant in the form
of a basic fuel per unit KWhr of power output from the plant.
OPPHR = (heat available from fuel / time ) / ( PGO ( 1 (Pax / PGO ))
= QF / ( PGO ( 1 (Pax / PGO ))
Where Pax power consumed by auxiliary at site.
But,
Heat supplied to turbine / time = B ( heat available from fuel / time )
i.e ,
QT = B . QF
QF = QT / B
OPPHR = (QT / B ) / ( PGO ( 1 (Pax / PGO ))
= QT /( B . PGO ( 1 (Pax / PGO ))
Chapter Three
GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT
3.1 - Introduction
1 Introduction
The gas turbine in such plant obtains its power by utilizing the heat energy from the burnt
gases in the combustion chamber, inside which fuel and air combustion process takes
place.
The burnt gases are at high temperature and high pressure expands in the turbine through
a series of fixed & moving blades in exactly similar operation as in the steam power
plant .
The simplest form of the gas turbine power

plant consist of three main components:
i compressor. ( C )
ii combustion chamber ( CC )
iii turbine ( T )
The compressor is , either a centrifugal or axial type, is coupled with the turbine by the
driving shaft, i.e the compressor is driven by the turbine, and so compresses the working
fluid to a high pressure ranging between (1520 bars ).
Under such compression process, assuming no losses in both turbine and compressor,
the power developed by the turbine would just equal to the power consumed by the
compressor, and the net work output would then be zero .
To obtain useful outcome from the system, another component is necessary , where the
working fluid (WF) volume and pressure can be interrelated as follows :
I WF volume may be increased at constant pressure. ( diesel cycle )
II WF pressure may be increased at constant volume. ( otto cycle ).
This can be achieved by heat addition either under constant pressure according to the
theoretical diesel cycle, or under constant volume according to the theoretical otto cycle ,
where under both conditions the WF temperature will be raised.
This can be achieved by adding a combustion chamber to the system.
Therefore, this simple system can be illustrated as in ( fig. 1 ) .
Fig. 1
---
---
***
===
1 - as the compressor is coupled to the turbine, and thus absorb some of the power
produced by the turbine , then the system power production can be shown as follows :
net work = (work produced by the turbine) - (work absorbed by the compressor)
NW = Wt - Wc
2 - More than Fifty percent of the energy converted is used by the compressor. Only
around 35 % of the energy input is available for electric power generation in the
generator. The rest of the energy is lost as heat of the exhaust gases to the atmosphere.
3 the fuel used can be any of the
following :
i - fuel oil
ii - natural gas
iii- coal gas
iv- producer gas
v - blast furnace gas
vi- pulverized coal
R
E
M
A
R
K
S
4 - Three parameters that affect the

performance of a gas turbine are
The pressure of the air leaving the compressor.
The hot gas temperature leaving the
Combustion chamber.
The gas temperature of the exhaust gases
leaving the turbine
5 open & closed cycle

The system operation can be one of the followings :
i open cycle induction & exhausting from & to the atmosphere.
ii closed cycle using the same recycled WF with-out atmospheric direct connection.
6 start up
Means of external source of power is required to start the system operation, such as
prime-mover, electrical starter motor .etc., as compression process is essential for the
commencement of the cycle.
Gas Turbine
power plant classification
There are several parameters used to classify different types of gas turbine power plant.
Generally such parameters are commonly agreed upon in almost all engineering
institutions worldwide:
1 - Working cycle
i open cycle
ii closed cycle
5 combustion chamber
i single Combustion Chamber
ii two Combustion Chamber
2 shaft power out put

i single shaft system
ii two shafts system
6 working fluid flow

i multi turbine in series
ii multi turbine in parallel
3 turbines
i single turbine
ii multi turbine.
7 application
i electric power generation
ii jet propulsion
iii turbo-prop generation
iv industrial power generation
4 compressors
i single compressor
ii multi compressor
1 - Working cycle
i open cycle
ii closed cycle
Both cycles requires means of external source of power to start the

system operation, such as prime movers, electric starter motor, or other
means which is necessary to start compression and induction.
See hand-outs for more details.
2 shaft power out put
i single shaft system
ii two shafts system
3 turbines
i single turbine
ii multi turbine
4 compressors
i single compressor
ii multi compressor
5 combustion chamber
i single Combustion Chamber
ii two Combustion Chamber
6 working fluid flow

i multi turbine in series
ii multi turbine in parallel
7 application
i electric power generation
ii jet propulsion
iii turbo-prop generation
iv industrial power generation
Chapter Three
3.2 How does a Gas Turbine Power
Plant Work
I - The Main Equipment.

Gas turbine functions in the same way as the Internal
Combustion engine. It sucks in air from the
atmosphere, compresses it. The fuel is injected and
ignited. The gases expand doing work and finally
exhausts outside. The only difference is instead of
the reciprocating motion, gas turbine uses a rotary
motion throughout.
The main components of such system can be briefed
as below :
1. Compressor.
The compressor sucks in air from the atmosphere and compresses it to pressures in the
range of 15 to 20 bar. The compressor consists of a number of rows of blades mounted on
a shaft. This is something like a series of fans placed one after the other. The pressurized
air from the first row is further pressurized in the second row and so on. Stationary vanes
between each of the blade rows guide the air flow from one section to the next section.
The shaft is connected and rotates along with the main gas turbine.
2. Combustor.
This is an annular chamber where the fuel burns and is similar to the furnace in a boiler.
The air from the compressor is the combustion air. Burners arranged circumferentially on
the annular chamber control the fuel entry to the chamber. The hot gases in the range of
1400 to 1500 C leave the chamber with high energy levels. The chamber and subsequent
sections are made of special alloys and designs that can withstand this high temperature.
3. Turbine
The turbine does the main work of energy conversion. The turbine portion also consists
of rows of blades fixed to the shaft. Stationary guide vanes direct the gases to the next
set of blades. The kinetic energy of the hot gases impacting on the blades rotates the
blades and the shaft. The blades and vanes are made of special alloys and designs that
can withstand the very high temperature gas. The exhaust gases then exit to exhaust
system through the diffuser. The gas temperature leaving the Turbine is in the range of
500 to 550 C.
4 . generator
The gas turbine shaft connects to the generator to produce electric power. This is similar
to generators used in conventional thermal power plants.
II - The Auxiliary Systems.

The three main sections of a Gas Turbine are
the Compressor, Combustor and Turbine. The
gas turbine power plant has to work
continuously for long period of time without
output and performance decline. Apart from
the main sections there are other important
auxiliaries systems which are required for
operating a Gas Turbine Power Plant on a long
term basis.
1-Air Intake System

Air Intake System provides clean air into the compressor.
During continuous operation the impurities and dust in the air
deposits on the compressor blades. This reduces the
efficiency and output of the plant . The Air Filter in the Air
Intake system prevents this.
A blade cleaning system comprising of a high pressure pump
provides on line cleaning facility for the compressor blades.
The flow of the large amount of air into the compressor
creates high noise levels. A Silencer in the intake duct reduces
the noise to acceptable levels.
2-Exhaust System
Exhaust system discharges the hot gases to a level
which is safe for the people and the environment.
The exhaust gas that leaves the turbine is around 550
C. This includes an outlet stack high enough for the
safe discharge of the gases.
Silencer in the outlet stack reduces the noise to
acceptable levels.
In Combined Cycle power plants the exhaust system
has a diverter damper to change the flow of gases
to the Heat Recovery Boilers instead of the outlet
stack.
3-Starting System
Starting system provides the initial momentum for the Gas
Turbine to reach the operating speed. This is similar to the
starter motor of your car. The gas turbine in a power plant
runs at 3000 RPM (for the 50 Hz grid - 3600 RPM for the 60 Hz
grid). During starting the speed has to reach at least 60 % for
the turbine to work on its on inertia. The simple method is to
have a starter motor with a torque converter to bring the
heavy mass of the turbine to the required speed. For large
turbines this means a big capacity motor. The latest trend is to
use the generator itself as the starter motor with suitable
electrics. In situations where there is no other start up power
available, like a ship or an off-shore platform or a remote
location, a small diesel or gas engine is used.
4-Fuel System
The Fuel system prepares a clean fuel for burning in the
combustor. Gas Turbines normally burn Natural gas but can
also fire diesel or distillate fuels. Many Gas Turbines have dual
firing capabilities.
A burner system and ignition system with the necessary safety
interlocks are the most important items. A control valve
regulates the amount of fuel burned . A filter prevents entry
of any particles that may clog the burners. Natural gas directly
from the wells is scrubbed and cleaned prior to admission into
the turbine. External heaters heat the gas for better
combustion.
For liquid fuels high pressure pumps pump fuel to the
pressure required for fine atomization of the fuel for burning
III - ISO rating of Gas Turbines

The same Gas Turbine performs differently in the high altitudes of LaPaz,
Bolivia and the tropical island of Singapore. It performs differently in
winter and in summer in the Saudi Arabian deserts. This has to do nothing
with the Gas Turbine itself, but is due to the ambient atmospheric
conditions.
For example : The manufacturers brochure promises a machine capable of
100 MW output at an efficiency of 35 %. But the actual performance is
different. This is not due to the fault of the machine, but because of the
different ambient conditions.
To eliminate such misunderstandings, the gas turbine output and
performance is specified at Standard conditions called the ISO ratings.
These are specified as per ISO standards 3977-2 ( Gas Turbines Procurement - Part 2: Standard Reference Conditions and Ratings).
The Standard conditions are explained below.
1-Ambient temperature, Relative Humidity, and Elevation.

The three standard conditions specified in the ratings are Ambient
Temperature - 15 deg C, Relative Humidity - 60 % and Ambient Pressure at
Sea Level.
These conditions affect the air density. How does air density affect the Gas
Turbine output and performance ?
The compressor section in a fixed volume of air for each rotation of the
blades. The mass of the air depends on the air density. So at sea levels one
rotation sucks in more kg of air than at place at high altitude.
The work done by the gas turbine i.e.: the heat energy to mechanical
energy conversion depends on the mass of the hot gases, the specific heat
and the Temperature difference.
The mass of the hot gases depend on the mass of the air that is taken in.
This means at sea level the Gas turbine gives more output than at high
altitudes.
2-Inlet and Exhaust Losses.

The standard conditions specify that Inlet and
Exhaust losses as Zero.
The intake system and the exhaust system offer
resistance to the flow of air and the exhaust gases.
The energy to overcome these resistances comes
from the Gas Turbine. This reduces the nett output
of the Gas Turbine. The configuration and layout of
the intake and exhaust systems varies from plant to
plant and accordingly the losses. These losses reduce
the actual output of the Gas Turbine from the rated
value.
3-Base Load Operation at 100 % rated power.

The standard considers that the Gas Turbine operates at 100
% rated load. The efficiency quoted at the standard ratings are
for this 100 % Load. Efficiency of the gas turbine at part load
operations is different from that at 100 % load. If you buy a
machine rated at 100 MW and operate it at 75 MW you will
not get the rated efficiency.
The performance of a plant operating as a base load plant is
different than a peaking load plant. This is mainly due to the
frequent starts and stops that lead to deterioration of the
performance.
4-Corrections.
All the manufacturers provide correction factors for
deviations from the various standard ratings
discussed above. If the actual conditions ar known
the output and efficiency at the standard ratings is
corrected to the actual conditions. Consider these
corrections when specifying, purchasing and
operating Gas Turbine power plants.
Understanding of the ISO ratings and the actual plant
conditions is essential when specifying and buying a
Gas Turbine. Also this can be used to compare the
performance of Gas Turbines.
Chapter Three
3.3 - THEORETICAL ANALYSIS
Brayton cycle
The ideal cycle for gas turbine is Brayton cycle ( also known as Joule cycle ). This ideal
cycle is a closed type, using perfect gas as working fluid, where specific heat is assumed
constant.
The simplified schematic of the Brayton cycle can be seen in this fig.
(a). the open cycle.
(b) Brayton cycle as a closed system.
The Brayton Cycle works as follows:

1.
Ambient air is drawn into the compressor and brought to a higher pressure, also
increasing its temperature. This requires work input, (Win). Because it is a work
required, we want this value to be as small as possible
2.
The high pressure air then proceeds to the combustion chamber, where our fuel is
mixed with the air and combusted. This is modeled as a constant pressure heat
addition (Qin).
3.
The resulting high temperature gasses enter the turbine, where they are
expanded to a lower pressure. The turbine extracts work from the fluid
(Wout), producing a torque on the shaft that is connected to the compressor.
The work created by the turbine needs to be only large enough to drive the
compressor and auxiliary components.
4.
Finally, when modeling this as a

closed cycle, the exhaust gasses
can be modeled as a constant
pressure heat rejection.
Referring to the schematic , Ts , and PV diagrams below

(fig.4), the theoretical analysis
of this cycle will be based on
the following assumptions :
i working fluid is air
ii heat supplied and heat
rejected occur reversibly at
constant pressure.
iii expansion and compression
processes are isentropic
Fig. 4 - schematic
Work input to compressor

eq.1 // h2 h1 = Cp( T2 T1 )
Work output from turbine
eq.2 // h3 - h4 = Cp( T3 - T4 )
Heat supplied in heater
eq.3 // h3 h2 = Cp( T3 - T2 )
Heat rejected in cooler
eq.4 // h4 - h1 = Cp( T4 - T1 )
Where processes :1 2 and 3 4
are isentropic
The Brayton cycle governs the

behavior of the gas turbine, where
(fig.4) illustrates an ideal Brayton
cycle, where it has
two adiabatic-reversible ( isentropic) and

two constant pressure (isobaric) processes.
4.1 - Derivation of Thermal Efficiency
eq.5
eq.6
Since for thermal efficiency
Sub. For T3 & T2
For isentropic process
Ideally for air (=1.4), but in practice, losses

in compressor and turbine reduces the
thermal efficiency compared to that
evaluated in the above equation
4.2 - Work Ratio

Work ratio = net work / gross work
Net work : is the work available at shaft output after its reduction due to
compressor & auxiliaries consumption
Gross work : is the work produced by the turbine
NW = work produced by turbine work consumed by compressor
= Cp ( T3 - T4 ) - Cp ( T2 T1 )
NW = Cp [( T3 - T4 ) - (T2 T1)]
GW = Cp (T3 -T4 )
Therefore
WR = NW / GW = Cp [(T3 -T4) - (T2 T1)] / Cp (T3 -T4)
WR =1 - (T2 T1) / (T3 - T4)
But (T2 = T1 . rp ) and (T4 = T3 / rp)
Therefore , sub in WR equation to obtain

WR =1- [(T1(rp - 1)) / (T3(1-(1/ rp))]
Rearranging and simplifying
WR = 1 - [ ( T1 / T3 ) rp]
***
since T1 = minimum temperature

T3 = maximum temperature
and so ,
WR = f ( rp , (Tmin / Tmax ) )
From this function, for a given inlet
temperature (T1 ),
the max temp (T3 ) must be raised as high as
possible to have high (WR).
4.3 - Actual and Isentropic operating conditions

The open cycle ( which is assumed actual cycle ), cannot be compared directly with the
ideal constant pressure cycle. The actual cycle involves the followings :
1- chemical reaction takes place in the combustion chamber which results in :
a- high temperature
b- combustion products chemically different from the reactants.
c- no energy exchange with the surroundings
2 gradual decrease in chemical energy with the corresponding increase in

enthalpy of the working fluid.
3 chemical energy released from combustion process in equivalent to constant
pressure heat transfer to the working fluid.
4 working fluid assumed to have constant specific heat, as actual (Cp ) varies
with temperature.
5 pressure loss in the combustion chamber is assumed negligible.
Remarks (3-5) are based on assumptions to allow ideal and

actual cycle to be drawn on T-s diagram as shown in (fig.5 )
below, from which the followings are concluded :
1 - 2
2 3
3 - 4
1 2
3 4
:
:
:
:
:
irreversible adiabatic compression

constant pressure heat supplied
irreversible adiabatic expansion
ideal isentropic compression
ideal isentropic expansion
Actual and isentropic processes both occurs between same pressures ( P1 , P2 )

Therefore
i compressor work input

= Cp ( T2 - T1 )
ii combustion chamber heat
addition
= Cp ( T3 - T2)
iii turbine work output

= Cp ( T3 - T4)
- T1 ) ) - Cp( T2NW = Cp (T3 -T4
and
net work
thermal efficiency = -------------------heat supplied
Cp ( T3 - T4 ) - Cp ( T2 - T1 )
th =
-------------------------------------------Cp ( T3 - T2)
Approximation are made in the above analysis as

follows :
i although ( Cp ) varies ii mass rate in
with ( T ), and
compressor is less than
that in combustion
( Cp ) for gases in
chamber and turbine,
combustion and turbine
as only air flows
differ from that in
through compressor,
compressor , mean
while a mixture of ( air
value of (Cp ) is assumed
+ fuel ) flows in
to simplify calculation.
combustion chamber
and turbine .
4.4 Compressor & Turbine Isentropic Efficiency
The isentropic efficiency of compressor

is the ratio of the work input required in
isentropic compression between ( P1 &
P2 ) to the actual work required, i.e
ic =
Cp ( T2 - T1 )
-------------------------Cp ( T2 - T1 )
( T2 - T1 )
ic = ---------------( T2 - T1 )
Similarly for turbine

it =
Cp ( T3 - T4)
-------------------------Cp ( T3 - T4 )
Therefore
it =
( T3 - T4)
---------------( T3 - T4 )
In general, the work output

from the turbine is used to drive
the compressor , and also to
supply the necessary work to
drive the electrical generator.
However, it is quite common
that two separate turbines are
incorporated in the system, one
to drive the compressor and the
other to drive the generator.
Where, see (fig. 6) for notation used

i the first turbine (T1) is a HP turbine
used to drive the compressor, this is also
know as compressor turbine , and
the work output from this HP turbine is
the work input to the compressor, i.e
Cpg ( T3 - T4 = ) Cpa ( T2 - T1 )
Cpg : specific heat of gases in turbine
Cpa : specific heat of air in compressor
ii the second turbine (T2) is a LP turbine used to drive the generator, which is also
known as power turbine , and the work output from the LP turbine is the net work
output to drive the generator, and is expressed as follows :
net work output = Cpg ( T4 - T5)
Chapter Three
3.4 - Regeneration
As shown previously that the temperature

of gases exhausted from turbine is higher
than that of air after compressor, i.e
T4 > T2
This means that heat energy is wasted,
unless utilized by some means.
This would be done by applying heat

exchanger to transfer heat from exhaust
gases to the compressed air located
before combustion chamber, as shown in
this figure
schematic diagram
Fig. 7
Schematic & T-s diagram
Ideally
Air is heated from T2 to T3
Gases is cooled from T5 to T6
Where (T3 = T5 ), and (T6 = T2)
This is an ideal case where no losses encountered in the heat exchanger, and so all the
heat from exhaust gases are transferred to the compressed air.
In actual practice however, this is impossible, since ( T ) must be available for the heat
transfer to take place, i.e
T6 must be > T2
And
T5 must be > T3
Then, the following T must exist
Ti = T6 - T2
Te = T5 - T3
Also if no heat losses in the heat exchanger is assumed, then the heat energy lost from
gases is equal to the heat energy gained by the air , i.e
mg . Cpg . (T5 - T6 ) = ma . Cpa .( T3 - T2 )
Maximum heat transfer

in regenerator
1 if
( T3 - T2 = ) rise in air temp.
Then heat energy gained by the air is

ma.Cpa(T3 -T2)
2 and
(T5 - T2 = ) max possible temp rise
Then max heat energy possible to be
transferred from gases to air is
mg .Cpg (T5 - T2 )
Regenerator effectiveness
from these analysis the following terms are expressed :
I heat exchanger effectiveness ( )
A heat exchanger effectiveness is defined to allow for the temperature deference
necessary for the transfer of heat between the turbine exhaust gas and the
compressor outlet air i.e
heat received by the air
Effectiveness = ------------------------------------------------max possible heat which could be
transferred from the gas in the heat
exchanger
ma . Cpa ( T3 - T2)
= -----------------------------mg . Cpg ( T5 - T2)
ii heat exchanger thermal ratio ( Rth )

( T3 - T2)
Rth = -----------------( T5 - T2)
Normally
85 % 70%
If [ ma . Cpa = mg . Cpg ],
then
= Rth
Regenerative cycle efficiency

The simple cycle ( th ) is
Cp (T4 - T5 ) - Cp (T2 - T1 )
th = ------------------------------------------Cp (T4 - T2 )
In this diagram for simple cycle with no regeneration,
then state points (3 & 2 ) are actually coincides at same
location that joins the compressor directly to the
combustion chamber.
for ideal regenerative cycle [T3 = T5 ]
and so thermal efficiency will be expressed
as :
th
Cp (T4 - T5 ) - Cp (T2 - T1 )
= ------------------------------------------Cp (T4 - T5 )
Rearranging to obtain
th = 1 -
(T2 - T1 )
----------------(T3 - T4 )
Recalling equations for ideal cycle as below

T2 = T1 . rp
T3 = T4 . rp
Where
T3 = Tmax
T4 = T after turbine
In regenerative cycle, notations differ,
where max temp. is denoted by (4) and
not (3), and similarly (5 instead of 4), i.e
T4 = Tmax
T5 = T after turbine
T2 = T1 . rp
T5 = T4 / rp
Sub in above
th = 1 -
T1 ( rp - 1 )
---------------------T3 ( 1 - 1/ rp)
th = 1 - ( T1 / T4 ) (rp)
For actual regenerative cycle

T3 T5
(see previous remarks )
And T3 < T5 is essential in order to have temperature difference for
the heat transfer to take place.
Then the actual thermal efficiency under regeneration conditions
will be
Cp (T4 - T5 ) - Cp (T2 - T1 )
th.a = -----------------------------------------Cp (T4 - T3 )
Since
th
Cp (T4 - T5 ) - Cp (T2 - T1 )
= ------------------------------------------Cp (T4 - T5 )
It is clear that as [(T4 - T3 ) > (T4 - T5])

Therefore, under regenerative conditions
th.a < th
When a regenerator is used then the heat

supplied in the ( CC ) combustion chamber
is reduced for a given max cycle
temperature due to the increase in air
temperature entering (CC) by regeneration
The amount of heat added per kg of air is
less than the simple cycle for all pressure
ratios where the air temperature at the
end of compression is lower than the gas
temperature at the end of expansion, that
is for
looking into the term [(T1/T3) (rp)]

let
( rp) = C
1 rp (T3/T1)/
it is obvious that ( T1 < T3 )

As T1 is inlet to compressor
= Tmin = Tambient
T3 is inlet to turbine
= Tmax
Therefore , for the above range of pressure

ratio, the efficiency of the cycle increases
by regeneration .
assuming that for such conditions this

term remains constant
Therefore
for ideal cycle

)ideal = 1 - 1/C
for regenerative cycle
th )regen = 1 - (T1 / T3 ) C
Then
th ) regenerative > th ) ideal
T1 / T3 < 1
th
However, the work output in this regenerative cycle for unit

mass flow .
W = Cp (T4 T5 )- Cp ( T2 - T1 )
since
T2 = T1 . rp
and
T5 = T4 / rp
Let (rp = Z ) Sub is above
W = Cp ( T4 - T5 ) - Cp ( T2 - T1 )
W = Cp(T4 T4 / Z ) - Cp( T1. Z - T 1 )
W = Cp T4 ( 1 - 1 / Z ) - Cp T1 ( Z - 1 )
W = Cp.T1{[(T4 /T1 )(Z-1 ) / ( Z) ] - (Z - 1)}
W = Cp.T1(Z - 1){ [( T4 / T1 ) / ( Z ) ] -1)}
This means that
W = f (Cp , T1 , T4 , Z )
Since ( T4 = Tmax ) ,
and for a given ( working fluid , pressure ratio , and initial conditions ) ,
then
W = f ( Tmax )
***
From above it can be concluded for the
regenerative cycle that
Thermal efficiency is improved
Work output remains the same
This means that ( better sfc for a given power
output ), and so, less fuel is consumed for the
same power output
conclusions
Regeneration can only be possible if there is a sufficient large
temperature difference between the gases leaving the turbine
(T4) and the air leaving the compressor (T2).
If for some reasons (T4) came out to be less than (T2).
Regeneration will be impossible in this case.
If in the case that (T4 > T2) but (T) between them may not be
large enough to make the extra capital cost for adding
regenerator a valid investment.
Also if (T) is small, then the surface area for the heat transfer
must be made large in order to achieve a reasonable value of
thermal ratio
Chapter Three
3.5 - Reheating
What is reheating
In reheating cycle, the the combustion gas expands
into two turbines instead of one, where the exhaust
of the first turbine (HP) is reheated in a reheater and
then expands in the second turbine (LP).
By reheating,
the power output of the system is increased, but
the cost of additional fuel consumption is also
increased.
***
Fig.8
Ideal cycle
In the ideal cycle
Work output = Cp (T3 T3i)+ Cp (T4i T5)
If one turbine is used, then expansion will take
place from (3) to (6), and the work output will
accordingly be :
W = C p ( T 3 T6 )
Important remarks
Consider the value of the term

( T3 T6 ) as shown in fig.8A,
where
( T3 T6 ) = ( T3 T3i) + (T3i T6)
But is it true to conclude that

( T3 T6 ) = (T3 T3i) + (T4i T5)
Which means that

(T4i T5) = (T3i T6)
The answer is NO
Why ?
Because
(T4i T5) (T3i T6)
Why ?
Because the constant pressure

lines are not parallel, where they
Diverge away from origin
Converge in towards origin
Therefore the magnitudes of the
vertical line sectors
4i 5 >3i 6
Which means that (T4i T5) > (T3i
T6)
The difference results in power
increase, and therefore we could
finally conclude that
Reheating increases power output
Work output
And therefore, accordingly, the work output
of the system under ideal considerations can
be expressed as follows :
Work output = Cp (T3 T3i)+ Cp (T4i T5)
Thermal efficiency
Thermal efficiency for the ideal system can be expressed as follows,

where the notation as shown in this fig.8B
Overall pressure ratio Rp
Assuming that reheating takes place in an intermediate pressure

(Pi ) between (P3 and P1), where
rp1 = P3 / Pi
And
rp2 = Pi / P1
And the overall pressure ratio is

rp = rp1 x rp2
Let n = ( 1) /
then
rp = rp1 x rp2
or
1/ rp2 = (rp1) / rp
th
& W
Work o/p = Cp [(T3 T3i)+(T4i T5) (T2 T1)]
The gas is reheated back to the maximum temperature of the

cycle , i.e
T3 = T4i = Tmax
W = Cp [T3 T3i+T4i T5 T2 + T1]
W = Cp [T3 T3i+T3 T5 T2 + T1]
W = Cp [ 2T3 T3i T5 T2 + T1]
W = CpT1 [ 2T3/T1 T3i /T1 T5/T1 T2/T1 +1 ]
W = CpT1 [ (2T3/T1) (T3 /T1 . T3i/T3) (T4i/T1 . T5/T4i) (T2/T1 )+1 ]
since
T3i/T3 = 1/ rp1
T5/T4i = 1/ rp2
T2/T1 = rp
Where ( n = ( 1) / )
Sub in above
W = CpT1 [ (2T3/T1) (T3 /T1 . 1/ rp1) (T3/T1 . 1/ rp2) (rp)+1 ]
Therefore
W = f (T1 , T3 /T1 , rp1 , rp2 , rp )
Max work output
As shown above, the work output is expressed as :

W = CpT1[(2T3/T1)(T3 /T1 .1/rp1)(T3/T1.1/ rp2) (rp)+1 ]
Differentiate with respect to (rp1) and equate to zero
Since CpT1 0
And
(T3/T1) 0
Then
(1/rp )(1/rp) = 0
1
From which both pressure ratios can be related as

rp1 = rp
For (Wmax) rp of HPT = (total rp)
Final conclusion
In a reheating process
I power o/p increases
II - th decreases due to high gas temperature
at outlet of the last stage of the turbine (T5)
Chapter Three
3.6 - (Regeneration + Reheating)
This system consist of a compressor and two turbines ( HP & LP) with :
1 combustion chamber between the compressor and the first (HP) turbine.
2 re-heater between the two turbines.
3 regenerator between the second (LP) turbine and the compressor.
Such system is illustrated in fig.9
Fig. 9
Remarks on fig.9
The schematic diagram notations are as
follows :
C : compressor
HPT : high pressure turbine
LPT : low pressure turbine
CC1 : combustion chamber
CC2 : re-heater
RG : regenerator
G
: electric generator
The T-s diagram of fig.9 shows that the

temperature drop across the turbines are
equal such that :
T3 - T3i = T4i - T4
work
The work is the same as in the reheat cycle, which was expressed as:
Work o/p = Cp [(T3 T3i)+(T4i - T4( )T2 T1)]

Where the part of the cycle responsible to produce work consist in
both cycles of the same components, i.e
CC1 + HPT + CC2 + LPT
Thermal efficiency
Thermal eff. is improved due to that the compressed air temperature (T2i) is
increased by regeneration action, where
as shown in the T-s diagram of fig.9
T2i > T2
and hence heating from (T2i) to (T3) only that take place in CC1
And therefore the thermal eff. is
(T2 T1)
th = 1 - -----------2(T3 T3i)
For optimum conditions

T2i = T3i = T4
(T2 T1)
th = 1 - -----------2(T3 T3i)
eq.a
The term (T3i/T3) = 1/rp

3
But as shown previously in the
rp1 = rp
Consider the term (T2 T1)
reheat cycle that
(T2 T1) = T1 ( (T2/T1) 1)

= T1 ( (rp) 1)
eq,b
For (Wmax)
rp of HPT = (total rp)
Then
Similarly consider the term (T3 T3i)1/rp3

2(T3 T3i) = 2T1 [(T3/T1) (T3i/T1)]
= 2T1 (T3/T1) [(1) (T1/T3)(T3i/T1)]
= 2T1 (T3/T1) [(1) (T3i/T3)] eq.c
= 1/rp
then (T3i/T3) = 1/rp3 = ( 1/rp ) = ( 1/rp )/

Sub in eq.b to get
2(T3 T3i) = 2T1 (T3/T1) [(1) (T3i/T3)]
2(T3 T3i) = 2T1 (T3/T1) [(1) (( 1/rp )/ )]
eq.c
Sub.( eq.b & eq.c ) in eq.a

(T2 T1)
th = 1 - -----------2(T3 T3i)
eq.a
(T2 T1) = T1 ( (rp) 1)
eq.b
2(T3 T3i) = 2T1 (T3/T1) [(1) (( 1/rp )/ )]

To obtain
T1 ( (rp) 1)
th = 1 - ---------------------------------------2T1 (T3/T1) [(1) (( 1/rp )/ )]
eq.c
Finally
Therefore, it can be noted that

th = f ( rp , (T3/T1) , )
Chapter Three
3.7 - Inter - cooling
introduction
During any compression process, the air temperature
and pressure will be increased depending on the
encasement volume as previously seen in the air
standard otto diesel dual cycles.
Therefore, at the end of compression the working
fluid temperature is increased say from (T1 ) to ( T2 ).
In some power generation system of a large scale
plant, single stage compression may not be enough,
and therefore multi-stage compression will be
required.
In a multi-stage compression the outlet temperature from the first stage will be the
inlet to the next stage, and so compressive heating of the working fluid will keep
raising the outlet temperature of each stage, which eventually reach an undesirable
level and causes a marked reduction in the overall system performance, which in this
case a wasteful energy may economically be fairly costly.
This is why inter-cooling between compression stages is used to keep (Tin ) to any
stage almost equal to that inlet to the first stage.
Compression with Intercooling
Two stage compression

Consider the system shown schematically in (fig. 10 ), where the actual processes are
denoted as follows :
1 5 LP compressor
5 6 inter-cooler
HP compressor6 2
3 combustion chamber2
turbine3 4
The ideal cycle flow the state points

156234-1
It is useful to note the cycle without intercooling for further analysis, such cycle is
denoted as follows :
Iideal no-intercooling
1A34-1
IIactual no-intercooling
1 - A 3 4 - 1
Work i/p to compressor
1 work i/p with inter-cooling (Wic)

Wic = Cp (T5 T1) + Cp (T2 T6)
2 work i/p with no-intercooling (Wnic)
Wnic = Cp (TA T1)
Rearranging in reference with T-s diagram
shown in fig.
Wnic = Cp (T5 T1) + Cp (TA T5)

Note that Eqs.1 & 2 differ only in the
) T5 T6) and (TAsecond terms (T2
and
Since the constant pressure lines diverge
from left to right, which means that the
vertical distance between them increases
in the direction from left to right ,
resulting in that the following vertical
line sectors are related as :
(T2 T6) < (TA T5)
And therefore
Wic < Wnic
Conclusion from above is that the work input for a given pressure ratio and mass flow will
be reduced by inter-cooling
T-s diagram .. Fig.10

The following remarks are noted :
1- Wic = minimum , when
i- the (rp ) is equal in each stage
P5/P1 = P2/P6 = rp
ii- air is cooled in the intercooler down
to the original temperature.
T6 = T1 this case is known as
complete or perfect cooling
2- since (Wic) is reduced , then the (WR) is increased as:

WR = (Wt Wic)/ Wt
(Wt Wic) this the NW output from the system, and it is shown that
(NWic < NWnic)
3- heat supplied for the same max (T)
Qic = Cp(T3 T2)
Qnic = Cp(T3 TA)
Therefore
(Qic > Qnic)
because
(T2 < TA)
4- since th = NW/Qin
For intercooling:
( NWic ) and also (Qic )
But the magnitude increase in both differ, such that it was in general found that :
th.ic < th.nic
Ideal cycle
With complete inter-cooling and isentropic condition, the work input to the
compressor is :
Wic = Cp(T5 T1) + Cp(T2 T6)
= Cp.T1(T5/T1 1) + Cp.T6 (T2/T6 1)
Since
T 6 = T1
T5/T1 = (Pi/Pl)
T2/T6 = (Ph/Pi)
n = ( 1 ) /
(Pi/Pl) = (Ph/Pi) = rpi = rp.tot
The saving in work will depend on the choice of the intercooling pressure (Pi).
By differentiation (dw/dp) and equating to zero, the condition for minimum work is
found to be
Pi = P l . Ph
(Pi/Pl) = (Ph/Pi) = rpi
rpi = rp.tot
Wic = Cp. T1(rp / 1) + Cp.T1(rp / 1)
Wic = 2 Cp. T1(rp/ 1)
Chapter Three
3.8 - Combined cycle
&
Cogeneration
Gas turbine
combined cycle
Fig.1
A Heat Recovery Steam Generator or HRSG is a steam boiler that uses hot exhaust gases
from the gas turbines in a CHP (combined heat and power) plant to heat up water and
generate steam. This steam in turn drives a steam turbine .
FIG - 2
introduction
The following general remarks related to the combined cycle are useful to
understand the benefit of such system :
1- the combined cycle is a union of Brayton and Rankine

cycles.
2- Brayton cycle is topping while Rankine is bottoming.
3- the major components that makes up the combined cycle
are :
i- gas turbine.
ii- heat recovery steam generator (HRSG)
iii- steam turbine
4- steam turbine utilizes the energy in the gas turbine exhaust
gas as its input energy.
Fig.3
Combined cycle performance
Referring to fig.3 for notations :

1 gas turbine cycle
-compressor work (Wc)
Wc = ma (h2a h1a)
-turbine work output (Wtg)
Wtg = (ma+mf)(h3a h4a)
-net work (NW)
NWg = Wtg Wc
-heat input (Q2a3a)
Q2a3a = (ma+mf)h3a - ma.h2a
2 steam turbine cycle

-pump work (Wp)
Wp = ms (h4s h3s)
-turbine work output (Wts)
Wts = ms (h1s h2s)
Net work (NWs)
NWs = Wts Wp
-heat input (Q4s1s)
Q4s1s = ms(h1s h4s)
3 system performance
-system total work output (Wtot)
Wtot = NWg + NWs
= Wtg + Wts Wc Wp
-system thermal efficiency
= Wtot / (mf . LHV)
Energy distribution
Generally, the energy supplied in the combined cycle
is usually related to two operating conditions :
1- design operating condition (full load) where (60%)
of the system power is produced by the gas turbine
cycle, while (40%) comes from the steam turbine
cycle.
2- below (50%) of the design operating conditions,
where (40%) from each of the two cycles is supplied.
***
Due to various losses
encountered in the
system under actual
operating conditions,
the shown diagram
shows the energy
distribution as a
percentage of the total
energy input from fuel.
Pinch Point
An important performance parameter is the temperature difference between the
evaporator outlet temperature on the steam side, and that on the exhaust gas side. This
temperature difference is called the Pinch Point.
Ideally, the lower the pinch point the more heat recovered, but calls for more surface
area, and consequently, increases the back pressure and cost.
Also, excessively low pinch point, can mean inadequate steam production if the exhaust
gas is low in energy (low mass flow or low exhaust gas temperature).
General guide line call for a pinch point range of (8 22) C
Large scale system

fig.4
Gas turbine
cogenerative cycle
As weve studied in the steam power plant, cogeneration is actually an application

for utilizing surplus and waste heat energy to a further useful output of fairly low
level heat energy requirement.
Therefore, the followings is repeated statements of specific importance.
Cogeneration (also known as combined heat and power, CHP) is the use of a heat
engine or a power station to simultaneously generate both electricity and useful
heat. It is one of the most common forms of energy recycling
Conventional gas turbine power plants emit the heat created as a by-product of
electricity generation into the natural environment through flue gas. By contrast CHP
captures the by-product heat for domestic or industrial heating purposes, either very
close to the plant, or as hot water for district heatingwith temperatures ranging from
approximately 80 to 130 C. This is also called Combined Heat and Power District
Heating or CHPDH. Small CHP plants are an example of decentralized energy
Cogeneration is a thermodynamically efficient use of fuel. In separate production of

electricity some energy must be rejected as waste heat, but in cogeneration this
thermal energy is put to good use.
Gas turbine power plants in general, do not convert all of their thermal energy into
electricity. In most heat engines, a bit more than half is lost as excess heat . By
capturing the excess heat, CHP uses heat that would be wasted in a conventional
power plant, potentially reaching an efficiency of up to 89%, compared with 55% for
the best conventional plants. This means that less fuel needs to be consumed to
produce the same amount of useful energy.
Chapter 3
3.9 - Cycle configurations
Standard open cycle
Standard closed cycle
Brayton Cycle with Regeneration
Brayton Cycle with Reheat
Compression with Intercooling
Brayton Cycle With Intercooling,

Reheating and Regeneration
Chapter 3
3.5 IMPROVING SYSTEM
PERFORMANCE
Improving system performance will be done by two methods :

I improving system efficiency
II improving system power
Although both methods seems to end up with similar goal, i.e improving system overall
performance, but it is important to note that :
1 - improving system efficiency is by improving working fluid properties to do better
job, and this is done by changing its ( P & T ) for better thermodynamic behavior,
while improving system power is by providing extra energy input to virtually raise
energy output.
2 improving efficiency by utilizing waste heat for further application , while improving
power requires extra fuel which in fact decrease system efficiency.
3 therefore , it is clear that the two methods have completely different approach, but
aims towards common end results.
Methods to increase power

The power output of a Brayton engine can be improved in the following
manners:
Reheat, wherein the working fluidin most cases airexpands through a
series of turbines, then is passed through a second combustion chamber
before expanding to ambient pressure through a final set of turbines. This
has the advantage of increasing the power output possible for a given
compression ratio without exceeding any metallurgical
constraints.(typically about 1000 C)
The use of an afterburner for jet aircraft engines can also be referred to as
reheat, it is a different process in that the reheated air is expanded
through a thrust nozzle rather than a turbine. The metallurgical
constraints are somewhat alleviated enabling much higher reheat
temperatures . (about 2000 C)
The use of reheat is most often used to improve the specific power (per
throughput of air) and is usually associated with a reduction in efficiency,
this is most pronounced with the use of afterburners due to the extreme
amounts of extra fuel used .
Methods to improve efficiency

The efficiency of a Brayton cycle can be improved in the following
manners:
1 Intercooling.
2 Regeneration
3 combined cycle.
4 - cogeneration
Intercooling,
wherein the working fluid passes through a first stage of compressors, then a cooler,
then a second stage of compressors before entering the combustion chamber. While
this requires an increase in the fuel consumption of the combustion chamber, this
allows for a reduction in the specific volume of the fluid entering the second stage of
compressors, with an attendant decrease in the amount of work needed for the
compression stage overall. There is also an increase in the maximum feasible pressure
ratio due to reduced compressor discharge temperature for a given amount of
compression, improving overall efficiency .
Regeneration,
wherein the still-warm post-turbine fluid is passed through a heat exchanger to preheat the fluid just entering the combustion chamber. This directly offsets fuel
consumption for the same operating conditions improving efficiency; it also results in
less power lost as waste heat.
However, at higher pressure ratios, the compressor discharge temperature can exceed
the exhaust temperature. Under these conditions, regeneration would be
counterproductive. Therefore, regeneration is only an option when the pressure ratio is
sufficiently low that the exhaust temperature is higher than the compressor discharge
temperature .
combined cycle
A Brayton cycle also forms half of the
combined cycle system, which combines with
a Rankine engine to further increase overall
efficiency .
Cogeneration
Cogeneration systems make use of the
waste heat from Brayton engines, typically
for hot water production or space heating.
It is seen from previous lectures that the thermal efficiency is expressed as
and the work ratio is
and the net work output is
This shows that W = f (T1 , T3 , rp )

However, for a given pressure ratio (rp) and under specific initial conditions ( P1 ,
T1 ) the work output will be a function of ( T3 )
W = f ( T3 )
If we assume that (
) and (
become
W = Cp.T1{[(T4 /T1 )(Z-1 ) / ( Z) ] - (Z - 1)}
W = Cp.T1(Z - 1){ [( T4 / T1 ) / ( Z ) ] -1)}
See regeneration section for review
) as we did previously, then (NW) will
Optimization
The temperature ratio (T3/T1) is actually represent the ratio of max to min cycle
temperature under optimum operating conditions, i.e
Analysis towards optimum state is conducted using

mathematical approach of differentiating a specific
function.
The function of such consideration is that of
[ NW = f(rp) ], i.e
For max temperature ratio (T3/T1) , the max output

can be obtained by differentiation the above equation
with respect to (
) and equating to zero , i.e
and since ( Cp . T1 0 ),Therefore
rearrange to obtain
from previous analysis, its being shown that
Multiplying both equations to get:
since
also
Therefore
Again, its previously shown that
therefore
And also
and so
This means that

DISCUSSION
See the schematic & T-s diagrams, and explain what (T2 =T4) means
Returning to
sub in previous eq.

to obtain
This eq. in square brackets is similar to an algebraic equation of this form
Therefore
From these results , the followings should be noted :

I [ (T3/T1) must be > 1 ] in order to have maximum power output .
II - from eq. shown below
This max temperature ratio [(T3/T1) ]max fixes the value of ( rp ) as
And so ,
III - also from previous eq. shown below

(P2 / P1 ) = rp
This means that in order for a compression process to take place in the compressor,
the pressure after compression must exceeds that before compression, so
(P2 / P1 ) = rp must be 1
IV it can be concluded from ( I III ) above
(T3/T1) > 1
rp must be 1
conclusion
From all of the above analysis, and from practical point of
view, it has been shown that always the temperature of
exhaust gas from turbine is higher than that of air after
compressor, i.e
T4 > T2
This would mean that the heat energy in the exhaust gas can
be utilized to increase the temperature of the compressed air
before entering the combustion chamber, and therefore
would improve combustion economy and combustion
efficiency, and would as an overall results improves the
system efficiency.
Comparison assessment
Gas turbine power plant is shown to have means of performance improvement both in
terms of power and/or efficiency.
Also, it has being shown that optimum state can be achieved if specific requirement is
fulfilled. This also was shown to be conflicted when power & efficiency are considered
at the same time.
cycle
Standard
Reheat
Regeneration
Reheat
+
regeneration
Inter-cooling
Ideal
Actual Net Work
efficiency efficiency output
Work
ratio
Power
output
cycle
Standard
Ideal efficiency
Actual efficiency
- T1 ) ) - Cp ( T2
Cp ( T3 - T4
th = -------------------------------------------)
Reheat
Regeneration
Reheat
+
regeneration
Inter-cooling
Cp ( T3 - T2
Net
Work
output
Work
ratio
Power
output
cycle
Standard
Reheat
Regeneration
Reheat
+
regeneration
Inter-cooling
Ideal
efficien
cy
Actual
efficien
cy
Net Work output

NW = Cp [( T3 - T4 ) - (T2 T1)]
Work ratio
WR = 1 - [ ( T1 / T3 ) rp]
Power
output
cycle
Standard
Reheat
Regeneration
Reheat
+
regeneration
Inter-cooling
Ideal
efficien
cy
Actual
efficienc
y
Net
Work
output
Work
ratio
Power output
Chapter 4
Hydro Electric Power Generation
4.1 - Clean renewable sustainable
Energy source
Hoover Dam releasing water from the jet-flow gates i
Power Plant Engineering
Introduction
Hydroelectricity is electricity generated by hydropower, i.e., the production of electrical
power through the use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water. It is the most
widely used form of renewable energy. Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the
project produces no direct waste.
The essential elements of a hydropower plant
are listed below :
1. Catchment area.
2. Reservoir.
3. Dam.
4. Spillways.
5. Conduits.
6. Surge tank.
7. Prime-movers.
8. Draft tubes
9. Powerhouse.
10. Equipments.
The diagram aside is the flow sheet of hydropower plant. The description of these
elements are as follows:
1.
Catchment area the whole area behind the dam draining into a stream or river
across the dam.
2.
Reservoir it is a water storage area employed for further utilization to generate

power by running hydraulic turbines.
I natural reservoir is a lake in high mountains.
ii artificial reservoir is built by erecting a dam across the river.
3.
Dam is a barrier to confine or raise water for storage or diversion to create

hydraulic head. In a hydropower system, the dam direct or divert the flow from
the river to the turbine.
4.
Spillway a safeguarding structure that must be available at site to prevent excess

dam water accumulation.
5.
Conduits are functioning as:

i headrace, is a channel leads water to the turbine.
ii tailrace, is a channel which discharge water out of the of the system.
generally, conduits are either open or close:
a- open conduits (canals, flumes)
b- closed conduits (tunnels, pipelines, penstock)
6.
Surge tank is a small reservoir or tank in which water level rises or falls to reduce
the pressure swings (ups & downs) so that they are not transmitted in full to a
closed system.
7.
Primemovers in a hydropower systems, primemovers (turbines)are devices that

converts the energy of the water into mechanical energy and further into
electrical energy.
8.
Draft tubes it is the downstream exit, which allows the turbine to be set above
tail water level without loss of head to facilitate inspection and maintenance.
9.
Powerhouse this the overall buildings that accommodate the plant in such a
layout that provides adequate space for running repairing, inspection,
maintenance of plant equipments and facilities.
10. Equipments in general, electric power generation plant should includes, among
many parts, main equipments such as turbines, electric generators, heat
exchangers, valves & pumps, measuring & monitoring instruments, switch boards
& control systems, connections & pipes etc.
Types of Conduits
i canal is an open waterway excavated in natural ground.
ii flume an open channel erected on the surface of supported above ground on a
trestle.
iii tunnel closed channel excavated through a natural obstruction such as a ridge of
higher land between the dam and the powerhouse.
iv pipeline is closed conduit usually supported on or above the surface of the land,
this is also known in this respect as flow line.
v penstock is a closed conduit for supplying water under pressure to a turbine.
terminology
1.
Storage water upstream reservoir

needed for continuous operation .
Pondage water behind the dam.
2.
Basin is a natural earth grooves

which accommodate water from
natural rain or natural pond.
3.
Specific speed it is the speed of a

geometrically similar turbines that
would develop one brake
horsepower under the head of one
meter.
4.
Screen is a mesh structure at the

outside of the control gate, to
prevent sea animals, objects etc,
from passing through into the
turbine.
5.
Control gate or sluice gate this is an opening at the penstock upper end that
varies the flow section area an thus control how much water to be allowed
through depending on the load conditions.
6.
Runaway speed is the maximum speed at which a turbine would run when
there is no external load, where design should account for centrifugal stresses
caused by such speed, and generally ranged to (1.8-3.0) of rated speed.
Hydropower plant Advantages
It's Inexpensive
* The energy to turn the
turbine, and generator, is
provided by gravity pulling the
water down through the dam,
so no fuel is necessary.
It's Clean
* Since no fuel is burned, there
are no pollutants released into
the environment.
It's Essentially Inexhaustible
* Within the limits of the water
supply (see "disadvantage"
below), the power source will
keep replenishing itself.
15
Its multi purpose

* generation of power
* flood and river water level
control
* irrigation water storage
* drinking water supply
storage
Its operational flexible
*they can immediately
response to fluctuations in the
electricity demand
Its well established technology
* reliable technology and well
established and proven over time
disadvantages
1 - the amount of electricity that can be generated is limited
by the amount of water available. This will predict the water
head behind the dam, and therefore the amount of power
produced by the turbine.
2 high investment cost ( capital cost )
3 change the nature of the district
* inundation of land, wildlife, and fish habitat
* changes in reservoir and water stream
quality
* displacement of local population
16
Classification
I according to the water head
1- high head
100 m
2- medium head 30 100 m
3- low head
2 30 m
II system location
1- run-of-river schemes
2- base of dam location
3- integrated water supply system
III conversion system

1- impulse turbine
2- reaction turbine
17
18
Chapter 4
4.2 Hydropower
How it works
Hydroelectric power: How it works

So just how do we get electricity from water?
Actually, hydroelectric and coal-fired power plants
produce electricity in a similar way. In both cases a
power source is used to turn a propeller-like piece
called a turbine, which then turns a metal shaft in an
electric generator, which is the motor that produces
electricity. A coal-fired power plant uses steam to
turn the turbine blades; whereas a hydroelectric
plant uses falling water to turn the turbine. The
results are the same.
20
Take a look at this diagram of a hydroelectric power

plant to see the details:
21
The theory is to build a dam on a large river that has a

large drop in elevation.
The dam stores lots of water behind it in the reservoir.
Near the bottom of the dam wall there is the water
intake.
Gravity causes it to fall through the penstock inside the
dam. At the end of the penstock there is a turbine
propeller, which is turned by the moving water.
The shaft from the turbine goes up into the generator,
which produces the power.
Power lines are connected to the generator that carry
electricity to your home, industry, projects, minesetc.
The water continues past the propeller through the
tailrace into the river past the dam.
"A hydraulic turbine therefore converts the energy of
flowing water into mechanical energy. A hydroelectric
generator converts this mechanical energy into
electricity.
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Penstock
A penstock is a closed conduit,
sluice, gate, or intake structure that
controls water flow. Or an enclosed
pipe that delivers water under
pressure to hydraulic turbines.
Penstocks for hydroelectric
installations are normally equipped
with a gate system and a surge
tank. Flow is regulated by turbine
operation and is nil when turbines
are not in service
The number of penstocks may be:
1. one separate penstock for each turbine, this may be economically acceptable for
short length type.
2. Single penstock for the entire plant, which not recommended, as any damage to
this penstock would means plant shut-down.
3. Multi penstock, each penstock for at least two turbines.
32
Surge tank
A surge tank is used to prevent sudden increase of pressure in the supply line or the
penstock. It is placed as near as possible to the turbine. The tank may be open at the
top or closed. In case it is open at the top, it must not be lower than the level of the
water in the reservoir.
Surge tank should serve:

1. Reduces the distance between the free water surface and turbine, thus reducing
water hammer effects on penstock.
2. Supply tank to turbine when in the pipe is accelerating during increased load
conditions.
3. Storage tank when water is decelerating during reduced load conditions.
33
34
Spillways
When water enters the reservoir basin, the
level of water in basin rises. This rise is
arranged to be temporary, as excess
accumulation of water endangers the stability
of dam structure.
To relieve reservoir of this excess water, a
structure is provided in the body of a dam or
near the dam. This safeguarding structure is
called a spillway
Chapter 4
4.3 Water Turbines
Types of water turbines

Reaction turbines
Reaction turbines are acted on by water, which
changes pressure as it moves through the
turbine and gives up its energy. They must be
encased to contain the water pressure (or
suction), or they must be fully submerged in
the water flow.
Most water turbines in use are reaction
turbines and are used in low ( 30 m)and
medium ( 30 -300 m) head applications. In
reaction turbine pressure drop occurs in both
fixed and moving blades.
Francis
Reaction type turbines

Examples of Reaction turbines are:
Francis
Kaplan, Propeller, Bulb, Tube, Straflo
Tyson, Gorlov (Free flow type)
Water wheel
Archimedean screw turbine
39
40
Francis turbine
Flow enters through a
volute or scroll casing which
is designed to distribute the
flow around the periphery
of the inlet guide vane. The
inlet guide vanes increases
the angular momentum of
the water, which is reduced
again in the turbine rotor
that turns the flow from
radial to axial direction. The
flow is the exits into a draft
tube and so exhausted
away.
41
Francis turbine images
42
43
Kaplan turbine
Kaplan turbines are
axial flow reaction type,
generally used for low
heads.
The flow enters in a
radial manner inward
and makes a right-angle
turn before entering in
an axial direction.
44
Impulse turbines
Impulse turbines change the velocity of a water jet. The jet impinges on the
turbine's curved blades which change the direction of the flow. The resulting
change in momentum (impulse) causes a force on the turbine blades. Since the
turbine is spinning, the force acts through a distance (work) and the diverted water
flow is left with diminished energy.
Prior to hitting the turbine blades, the water's pressure (potential energy) is
converted to kinetic energy by a nozzle and focused on the turbine. No pressure
change occurs at the turbine blades, and the turbine doesn't require a housing for
operation.
Newton's second law describes the transfer of energy for impulse turbines.
Impulse turbines are most often used in very high (>m/ft) head
applications
45
Impulse Turbine
Examples of impulse turbines are :
1. Pelton
2. Turgo
3. Michell Banki ( cross flow)
4. Ossberger
47
Pelton turbine
The Pelton wheel is the
simplest form of water
turbine used for high head
installations.
Pelton wheel consists of
one or more nozzles which
produces high velocity jet of
water which impact a series
of buckets which divide the
flow in two streams and
then exits to the side of the
machine
49
50
Examples
Various types of water
turbine runners. From
left to right :
Pelton Wheel
two types of Francis
Turbine and
Kaplan Turbine
51
52
Chapter 4
4.4 Performance Evaluation
Performance evaluation
Power in general is a function of :
1. Hydraulic head
2. Rate of fluid flow
Where the head means the height of water
in the reservoir relative to its height after
discharge
Therefore, system analysis and performance
evaluation is done accordingly
54
Energy
1 the amount of energy (E) released when an object of mass (m) drops a height (h) in
a gravitational field of strength (g) is given by :
E=m.g.H
2 energy available to hydroelectric dams is the energy that can be liberated by
lowering water in a controlled way (rate), in these situation, the power is related to the
mass flow rate :
(E/t) = (m/t) . g . h
Where
Power
P=E/t
and
Mass rate
M=m/t
From which the power produced due to hydraulic head can be expressed as derived
below.
55
Power
3 - The power available in a stream of water is
Ph = . g . h . Q
where:
P = power (J/s or watts) this is also called

hydraulic power
= density of water (kg/m3)
g = acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s )
Q = flow rate (m/s)
h = head (m). For still water, this is the difference in
height between the inlet and outlet surfaces. Moving
water has an additional component added to account
for the kinetic energy of the flow. The total head
equals the pressure head plus velocity head. i,.e
h
56
Net water head

For still water
h = h = water head (at inlet at outlet)
For moving water
h = pressure head + velocity head
= (p1 p2) + (C1 - C2 )
As mentioned above that
Ph = . g . h . Q
We can define:
.Q=M
( mass rate kg/s )
g . h = specific hydraulic energy ( J/kg )
57
Turbine output
4 mechanical turbine output
Pt = Ph . t
Where
Pt turbine mechanical power output
Ph hydraulic power produced
t turbine efficiency
58
Generator output
5 effective power at switch board.
this is the effective power out of the electrical
generator available at the switch board, which can be
expressed as :
since Ph = . g . h . Q
Pt = Ph . t
P e = P t . g
where Pe effective power
g electrical generator efficiency
and
then
59
Specific hydraulic energy

6 - As before
E=g.h
for unit mass rate
= (1/)(P1 P2) + (C1 C2 ) + g(Z1 - Z2)
where P : pressure at specific location
C : water velocity at same location
Z : elevation at such location
1 , 2 : upstream and downstream
also, it is useful to express
h = E/g
60
Specific turbine speed - Nss

7 turbine specific speed is defined as
the speed at which the turbine runs for a particular discharge (Q) and unit
head to produce unit power
where
or
61
Nss turbine specific sped

n rotational speed of turbine (rpm)
P power (kW)
h head (m)
Q discharge (m/s)
E specific hydraulic energy (J/kg)
Specific speed empirical correlation

for various types of turbines
62
Water wheel power

8 in water wheel system there will be no
change in height
Pww = . Q . V
where V = speed of water
since Q = A . V
( A : flow cross section area )
Pww = . A . V
63
Chapter 4
4.5 Catchment Area
&
Rain Fall
catchment area & rainfall
Catchment area is the whole area behind the dam draining into a stream or river
across which the dam has been constructed .
The characteristics of the catchment area includes it's size, shape, surface,
altitude, topography and geology.
The bigger the catchment area, steeper is the slope, higher is the altitude, and
greater is the total runoff of water.
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
Rain fall (precipitation) may be defined as the total condensation of moisture that
reaches the earth in any form. It includes all forms of rain, ice, snow, hail. The rainfall is
measured in terms of (cm water) over a given area over a period of time (year).
Evaporation represent all of the rainfall that is returned to the atmosphere from the
land and water surfaces.
Run-off is the portion of the rainfall that flows through the catchment area
and therefore
run-off = total rainfall total evaporation
Ex. catchment area = 500 sq.km
rainfall
= 100 cm/yr
Quantity of water available per year is (q) = catchment area x rainfall
q = (500 sq.km x 10**6 sq.m/sq.km) x (100 cm/yr / 100 cm/m)
cu.m/yr
From which we can evaluate water volume flow rate from this available quantity of
water, i.e
Q = (q cu.m/yr) / [365 day/yr x 24 hr/day x 3600 sec/hr]
= cu.m / sec
73
Recalling section [3 - The power available in a stream of water is ]

Ph = . g . h . Q
from the value of (Q) running through the catchment area, we can evaluate the power
produced by the stream of water through the turbine.
Also it is always important to remember the types of efficiencies encountered in
hydropower plant, i.e
1. t turbine efficiency
t = Pt / Ph
2. g electrical generator efficiency
g = Pe / Pt .
3. Penstock efficiency which takes the friction losses inside the penstock into
consideration, and thus reduces the effective water head actually striking the turbine
blades, so the power at turbine inlet will be
P = p [ . g . h . Q]
74
Typical range of heads
75
H = head in (m)
Hydraulic wheel turbine
Archimedes' screw turbine
Kaplan
Francis
Pelton
Turgo
0.2 < H < 4

1 < H < 10
2 < H < 40
10 < H < 350
50 < H < 1300
50 < H < 250
Combined hydro + steam

power plants
This is a completely different aspects of power generation as compared to gas + steam
combined plants, where
1. gas + steam plant utilizes the waste heat energy from the gas plant to heat the
water and produce steam in the steam plant, which makes the two plants as one
combined cycle.
2. hydro + steam combination is actually two separate plants and remains that way in
all point of view. However the combined term used here has the following
meanings :
i when the rate of flow of water is low, then :
** steam plant work at constant load producing better efficiency
(base plant).
** hydro plant works at peak load (peak load plant).
ii when high rate of water is available, then :
** steam plant provides peak load.
** hydro plant provides base load.
76
Chapter Five
Nuclear Power Plant
5.01 - Introduction
Nuclear Power Plant - 01
Introduction
Nuclear power, although controversial, produces
approximately 17% of the world's electricity. There are over
400 nuclear power plants throughout the world. Of those,
about 100 are in the USA. Many countries depend on nuclear
power for their electricity supply, some more than others. For
example; France is reputed to generate approximately 75% of
its requirements from nuclear plants and the USA about 15%.
The use of nuclear power plant is a strategic and economic necessity for the world to
maintain future power production :
1.
Strategic reasons
due to oil reserve will be totally consumed in time, an alternative and efficient
source of power must be established.
2.
Economic reasons
one large nuclear PP saves as much as of (50000) barrels of oil per day, assuming
the cost of ($50/barrel), thus resulting in a saving of ($2,500,000) for one PP
for one day. Accordingly, such PP would retain its capital cost within few years.
Advantages
1. Unit cost per kW.hr is lower than that for coal
2. Improving the conventional PP efficiency
3. The by-products are useful:
special case :
a PP may have its main purpose to produce
plutonium and the by-products is used in power
generation plant
disadvantages
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Problem of nuclear safety of waste disposal.

Weapons production of mass destruction.
Economic reasons
Public opinion and uncertain safety.
Nuclear fuel security.
Chapter Five
Nuclear Power Plant
5.02 Nuclear Chemistry
Basic Chemistry
10
The atom is the basic unit of the nuclear reaction, and the size of it, is such a small,
that (10**13) atoms occupies a volume of less than the pin head. However each
atom is itself like a miniature universe.
The atom is normally electrically neutral, where almost the entire of its mass is
concentrated in the nucleus , whereas its volume is determined by envelope
enclosing the outer orbit, such volume is mostly an empty space.
Energy from any chemical reaction is developed by the fact that when an electrons
changes from one orbit to another, energy is either emitted or absorbed.
The nuclear reaction is concerned with the nucleus and not the electron orbiting
behavior, where the nucleus has a very high cohesive force biding the protons and
neutrons. This force is much higher and stronger than that holding the electrons in
orbit.
Such nuclear reaction is splitting the nucleus (fission) and is accompanied by the
release of a very large amount of energy.
Atom structure
11
In general the atom structure can be described as :

1- the atom of an element is made up of three sub-atomic units:
a- electrons (-ve charge)
b- protons (+ve charge)
c- neutrons ( no charge )
the electrical charge is equal in magnitude opposite in polarity.
2- the atom consists of :
i- nucleus at the centre.
ii- a system of electrons in motion outside the nucleus.
3- the mass of the atom is almost entirely concentrated in the nucleus
4- the volume of the atom is the volume which contains all of the moving electrons.
5- nucleus at the center consists of the (+ve) charge particles (protons) and the charge-less (neutron).
At this nucleus, most of the mass of the atom is concentrated.
6- the electrons are of a very small mass relative to the protons (about 1/1800), and travels at a very
high velocity around the nucleus in a specific orbit or shells.
7- the atom as a whole is electrically neutral, where
number of protons (+ve) = number of electrons (-ve) in orbit
Chemical symbols
Symbols that represent nuclear chemistry is shown below :
: number of protons ( atomic number)

n : number of nucleons (mass number)
X : the usual chemical symbols
Z
12
Z : the atomic number defines the number of protons in the

nucleus , which is the same number as the orbital electrons.
n : represent the total number of nucleons in the nucleus,
which is the sum of
( number of protons + number of neutrons)
13
Examples - 1
H : hydrogen
1H
: deuterium (1D)
2He4
: helium
92U234 : uranium 234
94Pu239 : plutonium
14
Examples - 2
Calculation of number of neutrons y :
number of neutrons = mass number atomic number
(protons)
y=nz
For example

y = 234 92 = 142
y = 235 92 = 143
15
Atom description
Mass of atom particles :

neutron mass = 1.008665 amu
proton mass = 1.007277 amu
electron mass = 0.0005486 amu
where amu is atomis mass unit (e), and amu = (1.66 x 10**-27) kg
from which it can be seen that most of the weight of the atom is concentrated
in the nucleus.
Volume of atom particles :
Atom behavior :
*the atom is electrically neutral, i.e ,the numbers of electron (-ve) and the numbers protons (+ve) are equal
* No. of electrons (orbital), determine the atom chemical family and behavior
* No. of protons & neutrons, establish the nuclear characteristics of the atom
16
Useful terms
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
17
Fission
Fertelization
Isotopes
Heavy water
Radioactivity
Fusion
1 - Fission
simply, fission is the action of splitting the
nucleus, or specifically
The spontaneous disintegration of a heavy
atom into two or more lighter one, whereby
the process involves a loss of mass which is
converted into nuclear energy
18
2 Fertelization
This is the union of two different particles
(U238 + neutron) to form a new products
(Pu239), for example :
U238 capture a neutron, becomes radioactive
and decay to Pu239 which itself is radioactive.
striking Pu239 by a neutron produces Pu240
which is fertile. Further neutron strike
produces fissionable Pu241
19
3 - Isotopes
Isotopes can be defined as :
the atomic forms of an element differ in atomic mass but not in chemical properties.
Or
when atoms of an element have same number of protons but a different number of
neutrons
Ex. 92U234
92U235
: uranium 234
: uranium 235
Where isotopes has :

1.
Same atomic number
2.
Same proton number in nucleus
3.
And therefore, the differences in mass
number between isotopes of a given
element are accounted for by the
variation in the number of neutrons in
the nucleus.
4 - Heavy water
ordinary water uses ordinary hydrogen:
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O
Heavy water uses hydrogen (H2 ) isotopes deuterium (D2):
2D2 + O2 = 2D2O
Therefore the chemical symbols are
ordinary water is (H2O)
heavy water is
(D2O)
5 - Radioactivity
* radioactive element continuously undergoes spontaneous (without outside
help) disintegration
* such disintegration usually occurs with the emission of one or more smaller
particles from parent nucleus and thus changing it into another, or daughter
nucleus
* parent nucleus decay to daughter nucleus
* the daughter nucleus may or may not be stable
6- Fusion
Two light nuclear particles combine or fuse
together by which energy is released.
The product nuclei have less mass than the
original particles.
The mass difference is converted to energy at
a rate governed by Einstein equation:
E = m . c
22
Chapter Five
Nuclear Power Plant
5.03 Process of energy
release
23
Methods of energy release
1.
2.
1.
2.
24
Fission
is a nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts, often
producing free neutrons and lighter nuclei, which may eventually produce photons (in the
form of gamma rays).
Fission of heavy elements is an exothermic reaction which can release large amounts of
energy both as electromagnetic radiation and as kinetic energy of the fragments (heating
the bulk material where fission takes place).
Nuclear fission produces:
energy for nuclear power and to
drive the explosion of nuclear weapons.
Both uses are made possible because certain substances called nuclear fuels undergo
fission when struck by free neutrons and in turn generate neutrons when they break
apart. This makes possible a self-sustaining chain reaction that releases energy:
at a controlled rate in a nuclear reactor
at a very rapid uncontrolled rate in a nuclear weapon
Fusion
It takes considerable energy to force nuclei to fuse, even those of the lightest
element, hydrogen. This is because all nuclei have a positive charge (due to their
protons), and as like charges repel, nuclei strongly resist being put too close
together. Accelerated to high speeds (that is, heated to thermonuclear
temperatures), they can overcome this electromagnetic repulsion and get close
enough for the attractive nuclear force to be sufficiently strong to achieve fusion.
The fusion of lighter nuclei, which creates a heavier nucleus and a free neutron,
generally releases more energy than it takes to force the nuclei together; this is
an exothermic process that can produce self-sustaining reactions.
Fission Process
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
26
This process produces :

200 MeV of energy
2-3 neutrons
2 lighter nuclei ( fission fragments)
Gama ray
Neutrinos
The fission fragments undergo radioactive decay,
thus producing additional fission products.
Fig.1
27
28
Fissile & Fertile
Natural uranium is composed of
*99.3 % isotope (U238) non-fissionable,

*0.7 % uranium (U235) fissionable
There are two classes of fissionable materials :

1. Fissile material; is the one that will undergo fission when
bombarded (strike) by neutrons of any energy. ex. U235
2. Fertile material; is the one that will capture a neutron and
thus transmute by radioactive decay into a fissile material.
Ex U238
29
Fissile U235
This is a naturally fissionable material, which requires
a simple detonation element (neutron) to initiate
fission reaction as shown below :
30
Fertile U238
U238 capture a neutron, becomes radioactive and decay to
Pu239 which itself is radioactive. striking Pu239 by a neutron
produces Pu240 which is fertile. Further neutron strike
produces fissionable Pu241
31
Plutonium Pu
Plutonium-240,
however, is again a
fertile material. If it
capture a second
neutron, it will become:
Plutonium-241
Which is fissile material
32
Thorium Th232
Th232 capture a neutron, undergoes decay as shown
below, yielding the fissile U233
33
Fusion process
Two light nuclear particles combine or fuse together by
which energy is released.
The product nuclei have less mass than the original particles.
The mass difference is converted to energy at a rate governed
by Einstein equation:
E = m . c
However, such fusion requires a very high temperature level
(hundreds of millions deg.) to get started, which will be only
available by fission reaction prior to fusion.
34
Fusion
35
Fusion reaction
The possibility of release of large amount of nuclear energy
can be seen by comparing the masses of nuclei of low atomic
number.
Suppose that one could combine hydrogen nuclei and two
neutrons to form helium nucleus, in the reaction :
2(1H) + 2(0n) = 2He4
The mass-energy difference (using atom masses) is :
[ 2(1.007825) + 2(1.008665) ] [ 4.002603] = 0.030377 amu

which corresponds to (28.3)MeV energy
36
Hydrogen bomb
Fusion is considered as uncontrollable reaction, and so for non-military
application is not yet achieved.
As a weapon, hydrogen bomb is almost the only application recognized so far
from fusion.
In the Hydrogen bomb, the very high temperature required for the fusion to take
place is obtained by fission reaction, thus :
fission reaction causes fusion reaction to proceeds
The resulting fusion reaction proceeds in a very rapid and uncontrolled manner.
If this fusion reaction can be controlled, then utilization of inexpensive
abundant fuel to produce huge amount of power will be most attractive.
Chapter Five
Nuclear Power Plant
5.04 - Nuclear Fuel
38
Nuclear Fuel
Similar to fossil power plants, nuclear power
plants produce steam to drive a turbinegenerator set to make electricity. The heat
source for todays nuclear power plants is
uranium in contrast to combustion for the
fossil units.
39
Type of reactions
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
40
As seen earlier, energy is released from nuclear fuel

by one of the following reactions:
Fission
Radioactivity
Fusion
In all of these reactions, a decrease in mass will
result in an exothermic energy released. Such
energy is utilized for various application most of
which are for :
Power generation.
Military application.
Choice of fuel
41
Since fusion controllable reaction is not yet

achieved, fissionable fuel remains the only choice
for nuclear power generation .
Since fission can be caused by neutron strike,
which is considered most appropriate for energy
release
And since that there are only few isotopes which
are fissionable by neutron of all energies, and
these are (U235, Pu239, U233).
Then, these are considered as best choice of
nuclear fuel for power generation application.
Uranium
Uranium is the only substance occurring naturally
which is fissionable.
There are three uranium isotopes :
92U234
: uranium 234
92U235
: uranium 235
92U238
: uranium 238
From these isotopes, only uranium 235 is fissionable
42
Ore
Natural uranium (ore) is composed of
* 99.3 % isotope (U238) non-fissionable,
* 0.7 % uranium (U235) fissionable
Therefore, uranium ore contains a very low

percentage of the desired atoms of the
fissionable (U235) for nuclear fuel.
The fuel fabrication process includes steps to
increase the fraction of (U235) from the
natural availability of (0.7%) to a higher
percentage of about (3-4 %)
The increase of natural uranium percentage is
called enrichment process
Uranium Enrichment
Enriched uranium is a kind of uranium in which
the percent composition of uranium-235 has
been increased through the process of isotope
separation.
Natural uranium is 99.284% U238 isotope, with
U235 only constituting about 0.711% of its
weight
The uranium metal must be:
1.extracted from the ore,
2.Purified, and
3.Prepared, for reaction
4.artificial enrichment to raise the fraction of
U-235 to (3- 4)%.
uranium dioxide
The reactor fuel is uranium dioxide (UO2), which is
formed into a ceramic fuel pellet that is compatible
with the water coolant.
The fuel pellets are stacked into a Zircaloy clad fuel
rod.
Many fuel rods are placed in a square lattice to
construct a fuel assembly (see Figure 1).
A couple hundred fuel assemblies are generally
needed to fuel the entire reactor core.
The reactor core is housed in a reactor pressure
vessel that is composed of steel 8 to 10 inches thick.
45
Fig.1
46
Plutonium Pu239
U238 capture a neutron, becomes radioactive and decay
to Pu239 which itself is radioactive. striking Pu239 by a
neutron produces Pu240 which is fertile. Further neutron
strike produces fissionable Pu241
47
Uranium U233
This is produced from thorium Th232, by neutron
strikes
48
Chain reaction
49
A schematic nuclear fission chain

reaction.
1. A uranium-235 atom absorbs a neutron
and fissions into two new atoms (fission
fragments), releasing three new neutrons
and some binding energy.
2. One of those neutrons is absorbed by
an atom of uranium-238 and does not
continue the reaction. Another neutron is
simply lost and does not collide with
anything, also not continuing the reaction.
However one neutron does collide with an
atom of uranium-235, which then fissions
and releases two neutrons and some
binding energy.
3. Both of those neutrons collide with
uranium-235 atoms, each of which fissions
and releases between one and three
neutrons, which can then continue the
reaction.
conclusions
Fuel of a nuclear reactor should be fissionable
material, when strikes by neutron undergoes nuclear
fission and thus producing chain reaction.
U235 is most unstable type, capable of sustaining
chain reaction, and therefore it is referred to as
primary fuel.
Pu239 & U233, are artificially produced from U238 &
Th232 respectively, and are called secondary fuel .
Pu239 and U233 so produced can be fissioned by
thermal neutrons.
50
Chapter Five
Nuclear Power Plant
5.05 - energy
Einsteins Law
One atom may be transformed into another by losing or acquiring some of

its sub-particles. Such reaction results in a change in mass and therefore
release or absorb energy (E).
According to Einsteins law :
E = (1/gc) . (m.c)
Where
1/gc : conversion factor
m : reactants mass
c
: speed of light in vacuum
This equation is applicable to all processes physical , chemical , nuclear

Such energy is classified as nuclear when it is associated with changes in
the atomic nucleus.
Mass and energy are inter-convertible,

where the disappearance of (m) gm of
a matter would generates (m.v) ergs
of energy, where:
V : is the velocity of light (cm/s)
Example - 1
m = 1 gm
Therefore
This means that ( 1 gm ) of matter is equivalent to (25) million of (kw.hr)
Examples - 2
1. Atomic bomb --- almost pure U235 (90% of
ore)
2. Reactor fuel --- natural uranium enrichment
with U235 (3-4 % ) of ore.
3. Fertile material --- U238, which means that
uranium fertilization by :
U238 + absorbing neutron fissionable
plutonium Pu239
Energy calculation
1 - Avogadros hypothesis
equal volume of all gases under same conditions of (T & P) contains the
same number of molecules.
this number of molecules is called Avogadros number N
N = 6.023 x 10**23 molecules/gm.mole
AV
AV
N = 6.023 x 10**26 molecules/kg.mole

2 fission
If one neutron runs into a U235 nucleus, this nucleus will absorb the neutron,
become unstable; splits; and fracture immediately .
3 nuclear reaction
from this reaction, neutrons are expelled and energy is produced
AV
4 energy produced per fission is (200 MeV)

5 one MeV = {1.6 x (10**-13)} J
6 - number of U235 atom that must be fissioned per second to produce thermal
power of (1 W) is :
This means that to produce (1J) of energy requires (3.12 x 10**10) of U235 atoms to be
fissioned per second.
7 the equivalent mass of material (Meqv)
Nav = 6.023 x 10**23 atom/gm.mole
for U235 = 235 gm/gm.mole
8 from 6 & 7, the mass (M) of U235 /J

M = Meqv x Nf
= 1.22 x 10**-11 gm U235/J

9 for 1MW/day multiply by
therefore
This means that about (1 gm) of fuel is used per (1MW-day) of useful thermal energy
released. So, in a typical reactor which produces (3000 MW) of thermal power, the
U235 fuel consumed is about 3kg/day.
To produce same energy by the use of fossil fuel (coal, oil, gas), millions of times as
much weight would be required.
conclusion
1 - U235-n corelation
== xn is freed , and 1n absorbed
== if there is no other U235 atom around, then
(x-1)n will fly away in space
== but, the fissioned U235 is part of mass of
uranium, and therefore, there will be plenty
of U235 atom available for the flying (x-1)n
to collide with
== from each (U235-n) collision, another (x-1)n are
freed for the second fission
== and so, for the 3rd & 4th etc
== this continuous process is chain reaction.
2 fission time
Chain reaction means a process of continuous capturing neutrons & nucleus splitting
in such a very fast rate, which is in the order of (1 picoseconds), where
1 picoseconds = (1 x 10**-12 ) second
3 mass of U235
i- critical mass
only one of the free (n) collides with U235 and cause it to split for each fission, the mass
of U235 is said to be critical , and the temperature is stable.
ii- subcritical mass
Less than one of the free (n) hit another U235, then the mass is subcritica , and
eventually fission will end.
iii- supercritical
More than one of the free (n) hit another U235, then the mass is supercritical , and the
reactor will heats up.
4 reactor bomb
i- nuclear bomb
Requires very supercritical U235 mass, so all of the U235 atoms split in a single
microsecond.
ii- nuclear reactor
Requires slightly supercritical mass, so plant operators can raise and lower reactor
temperature by some means of control (control rod) .
Chapter Five
Nuclear Power Plant
5.06 structure & components
introduction
Nuclear reactor is an apparatus in which heat is
produced due to nuclear fission chain reaction.
A nuclear power plant is a very complex system,
where thousands of valves and pumps; miles of
tubing and electrical wiring; and many tons of rebar
and structural steel are all required.
62
Nuclear Power Plant
Lay-out example
63
Nuclear Power Plant
Plant structure
There are three major buildings that make up the plant structure :
1 - Containment building
houses the reactor and its high pressure steam generating system.
2 - Turbine building
houses the steam turbines, condensers, and electrical generator.
3 - Auxiliary building
houses normal and emergency support systems, such as the residual heat removal
system. Fuel handling and storage equipment, laboratories, maintenance areas,
and control room.
4 depending upon the plant location and environmental regulations, there may or
may not be cooling tower to remove excess heat from the facility.
64
Nuclear Power Plant
65
Nuclear Power Plant
Steel structure
66
Nuclear Power Plant
67
Nuclear Power Plant
Reactor major parts

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
68
Nuclear Power Plant
Nuclear fuel
Modurator
Control rod
Reflector
Reactor vessel
Biological shielding
Coolant
Reactor core
1 nuclear fuel
Nuclear fission is the basis of most commercial reactors, so
the fissionable type of fuel previously mentioned (U235,
Pu239, U233) will be considered.
Nuclear fuel should be :
* inexpensive
* operate at high temperature
* resist radiation damage
Nuclear fuel may either one of
* uranium oxide (UO2 ) - brittle ceramic
* uranium carbide (UC) black ceramic
69
Nuclear Power Plant
Fabrication of nuclear fuel
70
The enriched U235 or UO2 is typically

formed into 2.5cm long pellets of
about 1cm diameter.
These pellets are than arranged into
12ft long slender metal tube,
generally made of zirconium alloy
(zincraloy). Such tubes are called
fuel clading.
When a tube is filled with the
uranium pellets, it is pressurized
with helium gas, and plugs are
installed and welded to seal the
tube. The filled rod is called fuel
rod
Nuclear Power Plant
The fuel rods are bundled

together into fuel assemblies or
fuel element, and ready for
installation into the reactor
vessel.
The fuel assemblies at the
instance of installation consist of :
* fuel rods
* spacer grids
* upper and lower end
fittings.
Fuel rods are arranged in a square
matrix ranging from (8x8) to
(17x17).
71
Nuclear Power Plant
2 - moderator
In a chain reaction, the neutrons produced are

fast moving objects.
These fast moving neutrons are less effective in
causing U235 fission, tendinf to escape from
reactor.
Reducing the speed of these neutrons is thus
important to enable its utilization. Such is done
as follows :
i- colliding them with nuclei of other lighter
material which does not capture but scatter
them.
ii- each of such collision causes a loss in energy,
resulting in overall speed reduction.
iii- such material is called moderator
the slowed down neutron so produced are then
easily captured by nuclear fuel and chain
reaction will proceeds smoothly.
Types of moderators generally used are any of
the following materials :
1- graphite
2- heavy water
3- beryllium
72
Nuclear Power Plant
Graphite moderated reactor
3 Control Rod
Since the nuclear reactor usually contains as much fuel as is sufficient to operate a
large power plant for several months.
Then, the consumption of this fuel and the power level of the reactor depends upon
its neutron flux in the reactor core.
the energy produced in the reactor, due to fuel surplus availability, by fission process
during chain reaction may reach a very high level, if not controlled, will cause a very
high heat energy released and thus the entire core surrounding structure will
eventually melt down, resulting in a radioactive fission products to escape out of the
reactor.
Therefore, some mean of control, is a must requirement, to prevent overheating and
the dangerous after period.
Control rods are made of materials that absorb neutrons such as boron or
cadmium, fabricated in the form of cylindrical shape (sometimes sheet form) that can
be moved in and out of the reactor core assembly using appropriate lifting mechanism.
Raising and lowering the control rods allow the operator to control the rate of the
nuclear reaction, i.e
1- raising the control rods, results in reducing neutron absorption, and therefore
allowing for more rate of fission to take place, thus releasing more heat energy.
2- lowering the control rods, increases the number of neutrons absorbed and this
reduces the rate of fission process, and so produces less heat energy.
3- if the rods are lowered completely into the uranium bundle, the reactor will be
shut down. This is done in an emergency conditions.
4 Reflector
74
The neutrons produced during fission process will be partly absorbed by:
1- fuel rods
2- moderator
3- coolant
4- structural materials
The unabsorbed neutrons try to escape from reactor core and therefore will be
lost. Such losses should be minimized to improve fission probability rate.
to prevent the loss of these neutrons, the reactor core is surrounded by a material
called reflector.
The reflector send neutrons back into the core, and these will cause more fission.
Therefore, improves the neutrons economy of the reactor.
Generally, reflectors are made of graphite & beryllium.
Nuclear Power Plant
5 Reactor vessel
the reactor vessel is a pressure
vessel containing the coolant and
reactor core.
It is a device for containing and
controlling a chemical reaction.
The chemical process enables to
convert raw material into final
product under given pressure and
temperature.
During the reaction it becomes
necessary to remove excess heat
in the process to enable keep
process under control.
Vessels are built to withstand
high pressure in the system.
75
Nuclear Power Plant
6 reactor core
The nuclear reactor core (also referred to as the "reactor
core", or the "core") is the region within a nuclear reactor
where the nuclear fuel assemblies are located and the nuclear
reaction consequently takes place.
Inside the core are pencil-thin nuclear fuel rods, each about
12 feet (3.7 m) long, which are grouped by the hundreds in
bundles called "fuel assemblies". Inside each fuel rod, pellets
of uranium, or more commonly uranium oxide, are stacked
end to end. Also inside the core are control rods, filled with
pellets of substances like cadmium that readily capture
neutrons .
76
Nuclear Power Plant
7 - Coolant
There are two main types of coolant system in
the nuclear power plant, namely :
1 pressurized water reactor
2 boiling water reactor
77
Nuclear Power Plant
Pressurized water reactor
78
PWRs utilize two coolant loops with an intermediate heat exchanger (steam
generator).
The reactor core heats the primary reactor coolant (water) to about 600F at which
point it flows to the steam generator.
After transferring its heat to the secondary water in the steam generator, the
temperature of the primary coolant is reduced to about 540F.
The reactor coolant is then circulated by a pump back to the reactor core.
The reactor coolant is kept at a pressure of about 2200 psia which prevents the
primary coolant from boiling.
The secondary water, which receives the transferred heat, is changed to steam
that is piped to the turbine.
The remainder of the plant is very similar to a large coal-fired unit in that the
exiting steam from the turbine is condensed and sent back to the steam generator
via feedwater heaters and pumps
Nuclear Power Plant
Pressurized water reactor
79
Nuclear Power Plant
Boiling water reactor

BWRs utilize a single coolant loop and therefore boil
water in the reactor core.
The produced steam is sent directly to the turbine .
The steam pressure is about 1100psia, which
corresponds to a steam temperature of 556F.
Jet pumps at the reactor pressure vessel provide
forced coolant circulation through the reactor core.
80
Nuclear Power Plant
Boiling water reactor
81
Nuclear Power Plant
Chapter Five
Nuclear Power Plant
5.07 - Inside Nuclear Power Plant
inside a normal Nuclear Power Plant
Outside a normal Nuclear Power Plant
If not careful
You get
Outside Nuclear Power Plant
This is pretty much ground zero for a nuclear reactor. The overarching structure is called
the containment vessel. With its layers of thick concrete and steel, it's intended to protect
against radiation leaking into the environment. You can also see the reactor itself.
Now we're looking at the very core of the reactor, the coolant-filled vat where the fuel
and control rods are located. The fuel rods are drawn in red and the control rods are
blue. Moving the control rods regulates the rate of the nuclear reaction (and the heat
generated). Submerging the control rods shuts down the power plant completely.
The blue pipe on the left pumps cold coolant into the reactor core while the red pipe on
the right draws hot coolant into the steam generator, the second vessel you see here. The
pumps that keep coolant flowing throughout the system are critical to the safe
functioning of a nuclear reactor.
The steam generator then sends the collected steam to the turbine by way of a steam
line (at top).
At last, the steam drives a turbine.
In this picture, we get a good look at the turbine (above) and the cooling water
condenser (below). The condenser ultimately will send the newly cooled liquid it
produces back to the steam generator to maintain the core temperatures needed
there.
The cooling water condenser also sends

coolant to the coolant tower.
The coolant tower does what its name implies -- decreases the temperature of the
liquid moving through it so it's ready to head back toward the condenser or, in some
models, be discharged into the environment. The vapor that you see rising from a
cooling tower is just ordinary water.
Electricity generation
Chapter Five
Nuclear Power Plant
5.08 - classification
Nuclear Power Plant can be classified in

general according to the followings :
1. Type of nuclear reaction.
2. Moderator materials.
3. Coolant application system.
4. Reactor generation (age)
5. Phase of fuel.
6. Application and usage.
1 type of nuclear reaction
I nuclear fission.
most commercial reactors are based on nuclear fission, and this is divided
roughly into two classes:
a/ thermal reactor (slow neutron reactor)
almost all current reactors are of this type, where it uses
slowed or thermal neutrons, which is characterized by :
* high probability of fissioning the fissile nuclei U235
* low probability of capturing neutron by U238.
b/ fast neutron reactor
it uses fast neutrons, which is characterized by:
* no moderator required.
* requires highly enriched fissile material (20%)
ii nuclear fusion
fusion power is an experimental technology with hydrogen as fuel, and it is not
currently established as power generation system,
although it is a highly advanced military weapon at the present time, where hydrogen
bomb have been tested and approved as the most powerful destructive weapon
actually produced by mankind.
iii radioactive decay
Radioactive decay is the process by which an atomic nucleus of an unstable atom loses
energy by emitting ionizing particles (ionizing radiation). The emission is spontaneous,
in that the atom decays without any interaction with another particle from outside the
atom (i.e., without a nuclear reaction).
Radioactive decay is a random process at the level of single atoms, and it is impossible
to predict when a given atom will decay. However, given a large number of identical
atoms (nuclides), the decay rate for the collection is predictable, via the Law of Large
Numbers.
2 moderator material
1. Graphite moderated reactor
2. Water moderated reactor (heavy & light water ).
3. Light element moderated reactor (molten salt &
liquid metal cooled reactors)
4. Organically moderated reactor
3 - coolant
1 water cooled reactor
i- pressurized water reactor (PWR)
ii- boiling water reactor (BWR)
iii- pool type reactor
2 liquid metal cooled reactor
i- sodium-cooled
ii- lead-cooled
3 gas cooled reactor
4 molten salt reactor
4 reactor generation (age)

1.
2.
3.
4.
Generation - I
Generation - II (most current NPP)
Generation - III (improved of existing design)
Generation - IV (technology still under development)
5 phase of fuel
1. Solid fueled
2. Fluid fueled
3. Gas fuelled
6 application & usage

1 electricity production (NPP)
2 nuclear propulsion
I nuclear marine propulsion.
ii rocket propulsion
3 heat utilization
I domestic & industrial heating
ii desalination (desalting)
iii hydrogen production
4 reactor production
I breeder reactor
ii creating radioactive isotopes
iii nuclear weapons
5 providing source of neutron radiation
6 research reactor
Chapter Six
Wind Turbine
6.1 - Introduction
Wind is the movement of air from an area of high pressure

to an area of low pressure. In fact, wind exists because the
sun unevenly heats the surface of the Earth.
As hot air rises, cooler air moves in to fill the void.
As long as the sun shines, the wind will blow.
And as long as the wind blows, people will harness it to
power their lives.
Ancient mariners used sails to capture the wind and

explore the world.
Farmers once used windmills to grind their grains and
pump water.
Today,
more and more people are using wind turbines to wring
electricity from the breeze.
Over the past decade, wind turbine use has increased at
more than 25 percent a year. Still, it only provides a small
fraction of the world's energy.
Most wind energy comes from turbines that

-- can be as tall as a 20-story building and
-- have three (60-meter-long) blades.
These contraptions look like giant airplane
propellers on a stick.
The wind spins the blades, which turn a shaft
connected to a generator that produces electricity.
Other turbines work the same way, but the turbine
is on a vertical axis and the blades look like a giant
egg beater.
Wind turbines convert wind energy to

electricity for distribution. Conventional
horizontal axis turbines can be divided into
three components:
1 - The rotor component,

which is approximately 20% of the wind turbine
cost, includes the blades for converting wind
energy to low speed rotational energy.
2 - The generator component,
cost, includes the electrical generator, the control
electronics, and most likely a gearbox ,
component for converting the low speed
incoming rotation to high speed rotation suitable
for generating electricity.
3 - The structural support component,
cost, includes the tower and rotor yaw
mechanism.
Wind is a clean source of renewable energy that produces no air or water

pollution. And since the wind is free, operational costs are nearly zero once a
turbine is erected. Mass production and technology advances are making turbines
cheaper, and many governments offer tax incentives to spur wind-energy
development.
Therefore, in simple terms, wind turbine has the following advantages:
1 clean
2 renewable
3 pollution free
4 almost no operation cost
5 cheap in production
6 government support.
wind farm
Wind farms have tens and
sometimes hundreds of these
turbines lined up together in
particularly windy spots, like
along a ridge. Smaller turbines
erected in a backyard can
produce enough electricity for a
single home or small business.
A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in
the same location used to produce electric
power. A large wind farm may consist of
several hundred individual wind turbines,
and cover an extended area of hundreds of
square miles.
A wind farm may also be located offshore.
General remarks
1 - economic wind generators require wind speed of 10 mph (16 km/h) or greater.
2 - An ideal location would have a near constant flow of non-turbulent wind throughout
the year, with a minimum likelihood of sudden powerful bursts of wind.
3 - The wind blows faster at higher altitudes because of the reduced influence of drag.
4 - The increase in velocity with altitude is most dramatic near the surface and is affected
by topography, surface roughness, and upwind obstacles such as trees or buildings.
Wind Turbine classification

1 location
i on-shore installation
ii off-shore installation
2 turbine axis (rotor)
i vertical axis
ii horizontal axis
WIND Turbine wiring diagram

This is to show how the
generator output may be
utilized for a particular
application
Chapter Six
Wind Turbine
6.2 - Fundamentals
Chapter Six
Wind Turbine
6.2 - Calculation Of Wind Power
1) The power output of a wind generator is proportional to the area swept by the
rotor - i.e. double the swept area and the power output will also double.
2) The power output of a wind generator is proportional to the cube of the wind
speed - i.e. double the wind speed and the power output will increase by a factor
of eight (2 x 2 x 2)!
Wind is made up of moving air molecules which have mass - though not a lot. Any
moving object with mass carries kinetic energy in an amount which is given by
the equation:
Kinetic Energy = 0.5 x Mass x Velocity2
where the mass is measured in kg, the velocity in m / s, and the energy is given in joules .
1-
Air has a known density (around 1.23 kg/m3 at sea level), so the mass of air hitting
our wind turbine (which sweeps a known area) each second is given by the
following equation:
Mass/sec (kg/s) = Velocity (m/s) x Area (m2) x Density (kg/m3)
2-
And therefore, the power (i.e. energy per second) in the wind hitting a wind
turbine with a certain swept area is given by simply inserting the mass per second
calculation into the standard kinetic energy equation given above resulting in the
following vital equation:
Power = 0.5 x Swept Area x Air Density x Velocity3
3
where P ow er is given in Watts (i.e. joules/second), the Sw ept area in square

meters, the Air density in kilograms per cubic meter, and the Velocity in meters
per second.
Example
The world's largest wind turbine generator has a rotor blade
diameter of 126 metres and so the rotors sweep an area of
x (diameter/2)2 = 12470 m2
As this is an offshore wind turbine, we know it is situated at
sea-level and so we know the air density is 1.23 kg/m3. The
turbine is rated at 5MW in 30mph (14m/s) winds, and so
putting in the known values we get:
Wind Power = 0.5 x 12,470 x 1.23 x (14 x 14 x 14)
...which gives us a wind power of around 21,000,000 Watts.
Why is the power of the wind (21MW) so much larger than
the rated power of the turbine generator (5MW)? Because of
the Betz Limit, and inefficiencies in the system.
Betz Limit
A German physicist Albert Betz concluded in 1919 that no wind turbine can convert
more than [ 16/27 (59.3%) ] of the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical
energy turning a rotor. To this day, this is known as the
Betz Limit or Betz Law.

The theoretical maximum power efficiency of any design of wind turbine is 0.59
(i.e. no more than 59% of the energy carried by the wind can be extracted by a
wind turbine). This is called the power coefficient and is defined as:
C pmax = 0.59
power coefficient
wind turbines however cannot operate at this maximum limit (Betz Limit).
** The Cp value is unique to each turbine type and is a function of wind speed that
the turbine is operating in.
** Once we incorporate various engineering requirements of a wind turbine strength and durability in particular the real world limit is well below the Betz Limit
with values of 0.35-0.45 common even in the best designed wind turbines.
** By the time we take into account the other factors in a complete wind turbine
system - e.g.
1 - the gearbox,
2 - bearings,
3 - generator and so on
only 10-30% of the power of the wind is ever actually converted into usable
electricity. Hence, the power coefficient needs to be factored in above equation (4)
therefore, the extractable power from the wind is given by:
4-
Effective factors
Power coefficient ( Cp )
Betz limit
0.59
strength and durability

requirement
0.35 - 0.45
Effects of gearbox, bearings,

generator and so on
0.1 0.3
Available Power
Theoretically, The power P available in the wind impinging on a wind driven
generator is given by:
P = CAv3
Where
C is an efficiency factor known as the Power Coefficient which depends on the
machine design,
A is the area of the wind front intercepted by the rotor blades (the swept area),
is the density of the air (averaging 1.225 Kg/m3 at sea level) and
v is the wind velocity.
Note that the power is proportional to area swept by the blades, the density of the
air and to the cube of the wind speed.
Thus doubling the blade length will produce four times the power and doubling
the wind speed will produce eight times the power.
Note also that the effective swept area of the blades is an annular ring, not a
circle, because of the dead space around the hub of the blades.
The swept area of the turbine

The swept area of the turbine can be calculated from the length of the turbine blades
using the equation for the area of a circle:
where the radius is equal to the blade length as shown in the figure below:
CALCULATIONS WITH GIVEN DATA

We are given the following data:
Blade length [ l = 52 m ]
Wind speed [ V = 12 m/s ]
Air density [ = 1.23 kg/m3
Power coefficient [ Cp = 0.4 ]
Therefore
Swept area =
= 8495 m2
We can then calculate the power converted

from the wind into rotational energy in the
turbine using above equation
Power = 3.6 MW

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iv - Economic Comparison

There is a reason that once through

Four types of condenser/cooling

Thermal Model of A Steam Condenser

Condenser heat balance

Industrial cooling towers

2 - Heat transfer methods

3 - Air flow generation methods

4 - Categorization by air-to-water flow

Crossflow is a design in which the air

In a counterflow design the air flow is

Cooling tower fog

Losses in cooling Towers

Disposal of residual industrial wastewaters

Disposal of residual wastewaters from an industrial

Methods of Water treatment

= ( electric power produced ) /

( mechanical power supplied)

However, the actual mechanical power

2 (Boiler-Turbine) heat rate BTHR

3 Overall power plant heat rate OPPHR

The simplest form of the gas turbine power

4 - Three parameters that affect the

5 open & closed cycle

2 shaft power out put

6 working fluid flow

Both cycles requires means of external source of power to start the

2 shaft power out put

i single shaft system

ii two shafts system

ii two Combustion Chamber

6 working fluid flow

ii multi turbine in parallel

iii turbo-prop generation

iv industrial power generation

I - The Main Equipment.

II - The Auxiliary Systems.

1-Air Intake System

III - ISO rating of Gas Turbines

1-Ambient temperature, Relative Humidity, and Elevation.

2-Inlet and Exhaust Losses.

3-Base Load Operation at 100 % rated power.

The Brayton Cycle works as follows:

Finally, when modeling this as a

Referring to the schematic , Ts , and PV diagrams below

Work input to compressor

The Brayton cycle governs the

two adiabatic-reversible ( isentropic) and

4.1 - Derivation of Thermal Efficiency

Since for thermal efficiency

Sub. For T3 & T2

For isentropic process

Ideally for air (=1.4), but in practice, losses

4.2 - Work Ratio

Therefore , sub in WR equation to obtain

since T1 = minimum temperature

4.3 - Actual and Isentropic operating conditions

2 gradual decrease in chemical energy with the corresponding increase in

Remarks (3-5) are based on assumptions to allow ideal and

irreversible adiabatic compression