Concrete Basics

Concrete Basics
Contents
CONCRETE BASICS A Guide to Concrete Practice

CONTENTS
page 2
Foreword
CHAPTER 1
Concrete Materials
pages 35
CHAPTER 2
Concrete Properties
pages 69
CHAPTER 3
Concrete Testing
pages 1013
CHAPTER 4
Ordering Concrete
page 14
CHAPTER 5
Proportioning and Mixing Concrete
pages 1516
CHAPTER 6
Planning and Site Preparation
pages 1719
CHAPTER 7
Transporting and Placing Concrete
pages 2022
CHAPTER 8
Compacting Concrete
pages 2325
CHAPTER 9
Finishing Concrete
pages 2627
CHAPTER 10
Curing Concrete
pages 2830
CHAPTER 11
Joints in Concrete
pages 3133
CHAPTER 12
Hot and Cold Weather Concreting
pages 3435
CHAPTER 13
Surface Finishes on Concrete
pages 3639
CHAPTER 14
Defects in Concrete
pages 4043
CHAPTER 15
Removing Stains from Concrete
pages 4446
CHAPTER 16
Cracking in Concrete
pages 4749
CHAPTER 17
Reinforced Concrete
pages 5052
CHAPTER 18
Formwork
pages 5354
pages 5556
MORE Information
First Published July 1991

Second Edition 1992
Third Edition 1994
Fourth Edition 1996
Fifth Edition October 2002
Sixth Edition August 2004
Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia is a not for profit organisation
sponsored by the cement concrete and aggregate industries in Australia
to provide information on the many uses of cement and concrete. This
publication is produced by CCAA for that purpose. Since the information
provided is intended for general guidance only and in no way replaces the
services of professional consultants on particular projects, no legal liability
can be accepted by CCAA for its use.
Concrete Basics
CONTENTS
Foreword
2
Foreword
Concrete is widely used in domestic, commercial, recreational, rural and
educational construction.
Communities around the world rely on concrete as a safe, strong and simple
building material. It is used in all types of construction; from domestic work to
multi-storey office blocks and shopping complexes.
Despite the common usage of concrete, few people are aware of the
considerations involved in designing strong, durable, high quality concrete.
Concrete Basics aims to provide a clear, concise explanation of all aspects of
making quality concrete; from the Materials and Properties involved through
Planning, Preparation, Finishing and Curing.
Concrete Basics addresses the needs of unskilled and semi-skilled persons
undertaking general concreting projects including home and handyman projects.
Concrete Basics also assists owner builders in the supervision of construction.
It aims to develop an understanding of highly technical terms through clear
definition accompanied by simple illustrations. A general understanding of these
terms will help to facilitate communication within the building industry.
Concrete Basics will help to generate a higher standard of workmanship on-site
and facilitate better communication among construction workers, builders,
engineers, building surveyors, architects and anyone interested in understanding
the processes involved in making quality concrete.
Concrete Basics
Concrete Materials
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 Concrete Materials

CONCRETE is made by mixing:
CEMENT
WATER
COARSE AND FINE AGGREGATES
ADMIXTURES (if required).
The aim is to mix these materials in measured
amounts to make concrete that is easy to:
TRANSPORT
PLACE
COMPACT
FINISH
and which will set, and harden, to give a strong
and durable product.
The amount of each material (ie cement, water and
aggregates) affects the properties of hardened concrete.
(See CHAPTER 2 Concrete Properties)
WATER
CEMENT
CEMENT The cement powder, when mixed with water,

forms a paste.
This paste acts like glue and holds or bonds the
aggregates together.
AGGREGATES
6580% of mix volume
There are six major

types of cement sold
in Australia:
Type GP (General Purpose Portland cement)
Type GB (General Purpose Blended Cement)
Type HE (High Early Strength cement)
Type LH (Low Heat cement)
Type SR (Sulfate Resisting cement)
Type SL (Shrinkage Limited cement)
Each type of cement will produce concrete with different properties.
The most common types of cement are Type GP and Type GB.
Blended cements contain portland cement and more than 5% of
either fly ash, ground slag, silica fume, or a combination of these.
Concrete Basics
Concrete Materials
CONTENTS
STORAGE Cement should be stored off the ground in a

well-aired, clean, dry place.
Wrapping the cement bags in plastic sheets gives extra
protection,
Bulk cement will normally be stored in silos.
AGGREGATES Aggregates are of two basic types:

COARSE: crushed rock, gravel or screenings.
FINE: fine and coarse sands and crusher fines.
Sand should be concreting sand and not brickies sand or plasterers sand.
Aggregates should be:
STRONG and HARD A stronger, harder aggregate will give a stronger final
concrete. Never use a crumble or flakey rock like sandstone.
DURABLE to stand up to wear and tear and weathering.
CHEMICALLY INACTIVE so the aggregates
dont react with the cement.
CLEAN Dirt or clay sticking to the aggregates

will weaken the bond between paste and aggregates.
GRADED Aggregates should range in size so that they fit together well.
This gives a stronger and denser concrete.
Rounded aggregates give a more
workable mix. Angular aggregates
make concrete harder to place, work and compact,
but can make concrete stronger.
STORAGE Aggregates should be stored where they will stay clean, separated from other
materials and dry. If the aggregates are very wet use less water in the mix.
WATER Water is mixed with the cement powder to form a paste which
holds the aggregates together like glue.
Water must be clean, fresh and free from any dirt, unwanted chemicals or
rubbish that may affect concrete.
Many concrete plants now use recycled water.
Concrete Basics
Concrete Materials
CONTENTS
Always check bore water before use.

Dont use sea water as it may rust the steel
reinforcement in the concrete.
ADMIXTURES Admixtures are mixed into the concrete to change or alter its properties, ie
the time concrete takes to set and harden, or its workability.
HOW THE PROCESS WORKS Measured amounts of the coarse and fine aggregates are
mixed together.
A measured amount of cement is added and mixed in.

Enough water is added to make the mix workable. All the materials are then mixed
together well. The cement powder and water form a paste which bonds the aggregates
together like glue.
Concrete Basics
Concrete Properties
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 2 Concrete Properties

The Properties of Concrete are its characteristics or basic qualities.
The four main properties of concrete are:
WORKABILITY
COHESIVENESS
STRENGTH and
DURABILITY
Concrete has three different states:
PLASTIC
SETTING
HARDENING
In each state it has different properties.
CONCRETE STATES
Plastic State When the concrete is first mixed it is like 'bread dough'.
It is soft and can be worked or moulded into different shapes. In this
state concrete is called PLASTIC. Concrete is plastic during placing
and compaction.
The most important properties of plastic concrete are workability
and cohesiveness.
A worker will sink into plastic concrete.
Setting State Concrete then begins to stiffen. The stiffening
of concrete, when it is no longer soft, is called SETTING.
Setting takes place after compaction and during finishing.
Concrete that is sloppy or wet may be easy to place but will
be more difficult to finish.
A worker leaves footprints in setting concrete.
Hardening State After concrete has set it begins to

gain strength and harden. The properties of hardened
concrete are strength and durability.
Hardened concrete will have no footprints on it if walked on.
Concrete Basics
Concrete Properties
CONTENTS
Workability Workability means how easy it is to:

PLACE
HANDLE
COMPACT and
FINISH a concrete mix.
Concrete that is stiff or dry may be difficult to Handle, Place, Compact, and Finish and, if
not constructed properly, will not be as strong or durable when finally hardened. A slump
test can be used to measure the workability of concrete.
See CHAPTER 3 Concrete Testing
Workability is affected by:

THE AMOUNT OF CEMENT PASTE
The cement paste is the soft or liquid part of the concrete mix. The more paste
mixed with the coarse and fine aggregates, the more workable a mix.
THE AGGREGATE GRADING
See Aggregate Grading under Cohesiveness.
Well-graded, smooth, rounded aggregates improve the workability of a mix.
To make a more workable mix:

Add more CEMENT PASTE.
Use WELL GRADED aggregates.
Use an ADMIXTURE.
Never try to make a mixture more workable by just
adding more water because this lowers the strength
and durability of concrete.
Concrete Basics
Concrete Properties
CONTENTS
Strength and Durability Well made concrete is a naturally strong and durable material.
It is DENSE, reasonably WATERTIGHT, able to resist changes in TEMPERATURE, as well
as wear and tear from WEATHERING.
Strength and Durability are affected by the density of the concrete. Denser concrete is
more watertight (or less permeable).
Concrete durability INCREASES with strength.
Well made concrete is very important to protect the steel in reinforced concrete.
See CHAPTER 17 Reinforced Concrete
Strength of concrete in the hardened state is usually
measured by the COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
using the Compression Test.
See CHAPTER 3 Concrete Testing
Strength and Durability are affected by:
COMPACTION Compaction is removing the air from concrete. Proper compaction
results in concrete with an increased density which is stronger and more durable.
See CHAPTER 8 Compacting Concrete
CURING Curing is keeping concrete damp for a period, to allow it to reach maximum
strength. Longer curing will give more durable concrete.
See CHAPTER 10 Curing Concrete
WEATHER Warmer weather will cause concrete to have a higher early strength.
See CHAPTER 12 Hot and Cold Weather Concreting
TYPE OF CEMENT Different types of cement will affect concrete properties: ie how
quickly or slowly concrete gains strength.
THE WATER TO CEMENT RATIO Too much water and not enough cement means
concrete will be weaker and less durable.
The water to cement ratio (W/C) is
the weight of the water divided by
the weight of cement.
Water
W/C =
20 litres
ie
Cement
= 0.5
40 kg
Note: 1 litre of water weighs 1 kilogram.

The lower the ratio, the stronger
the concrete.
Concrete Basics
Concrete Properties
CONTENTS
Cohesiveness
Cohesiveness is how well concrete HOLDS TOGETHER when plastic.
Cohesiveness is affected by:
THE AGGREGATE GRADING
Graded Aggregate means that there is a range of size of aggregates, from large
rocks to small sands. Well-graded aggregates give a more cohesive mix, too much
coarse aggregate gives a boney mix.
WATER CONTENT
A mix that has too much water will not be cohesive and may separate and bleed.
Concrete Basics
Concrete Testing
CONTENTS
10
CHAPTER 3 Concrete Testing

There are two main tests to be done on concrete:
The SLUMP test.
The SLUMP test shows the WORKABILITY of concrete.
Workability measures how easy the concrete is to place, handle
and compact.
See CHAPTER 2 Concrete Properties
The COMPRESSION test.
The COMPRESSION test shows the best possible strength
concrete can reach in perfect conditions.
The compression test measures concrete strength in the
hardened state.
Testing should always be done carefully. Wrong test results can be costly.
SAMPLING The first step is to take a test sample from the large batch of concrete. This
should be done as soon as discharge of the concrete commences. The sample should be
representative of the concrete supplied.
The sample is taken in one of two ways:
For purposes of accepting or rejecting the load: Sampling after 0.2 m3 of the load has
been poured.
For routine quality checks: Sampling from three places in the load.
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Concrete Basics
Concrete Testing
11
CONTENTS
THE SLUMP TEST The slump test is done to make sure a concrete mix is workable.
The measured slump must be within a set range, or tolerance, from the target slump.
Tools
Standard slump cone (100 mm top diameter x 200 mm bottom diameter x 300 mm high)
Small scoop
Bullet-nosed rod
(600 mm long x 16 mm diameter)
Rule
Slump plate (500 mm x 500 mm)
Method
1 Clean the cone. Dampen with water and place on the slump plate.
The slump plate should be clean, firm, level and non-absorbent.
2 Collect a sample. See Sampling
3 Stand firmly on the footpieces and fill 1/3 the volume of the cone with
the sample. Compact the concrete by 'rodding' 25 times.
Rodding Rodding means to push a steel rod in and out of the
concrete to compact it into the cylinder, or slump cone.
Always rod in a definite pattern, working from outside into the middle.
4 Now fill to 2 /3 and again rod 25 times, just into the top
of the first layer.
5 Fill to overflowing, rodding again this time just into the top
of the second layer. Top up the cone till it overflows.
6 Level off the surface with the steel rod using a rolling
action. Clean any concrete from around
the base and top of the cone, push down on the
handles and step off the footpieces.
7 Carefully lift the cone straight up making sure
not to move the sample.
8 Turn the cone upside down and place the rod across the
up-turned cone.
The Slump Test continues on the next page
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Concrete Basics
Concrete Testing
12
CONTENTS
9 Take several measurements and report the average

distance to the top of the sample.
10 If the sample fails by being outside the
tolerance (ie the slump is too high or too low),
another must be taken. If this also fails the
remainder of the batch should be rejected.
THE COMPRESSION TEST The compression test shows the compressive strength of
hardened concrete. The testing is done in a laboratory off-site. The only work done on-site
is to make a concrete cylinder for the compression test.
The strength is measured in Megapascals (MPa) and is commonly specified as a
characteristic strength of concrete measured at 28 days after mixing. The compressive
strength is a measure of the concretes ability to resist loads which tend to crush it.
Tools
Cylinders (100 mm diameter x 200 mm high or 150 mm diameter x 300 mm high)
(The small cylinders are normally used for most testing due to their lighter weight)
Small scoop
Bullet-nosed rod (600 mm x 16 mm)
Steel float
Steel plate
Method
1 Clean the cylinder mould and coat the inside lightly with form oil,
then place on a clean, level and firm surface, ie the steel plate.
2 Collect a sample. See Sampling
3 Fill 1/2 the volume of the mould with concrete then compact by rodding
25 times. Cylinders may also be compacted by vibrating using a
vibrating table.
The Compression Test continues on the next page
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Concrete Testing
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CONTENTS
4 Fill the cone to overflowing and rod 25 times into the top of the first
layer, then top up the mould till overflowing.
5 Level off the top with the steel float and clean any
concrete from around the mould.
6 Cap, clearly tag the cylinder

and put it in a cool dry place
to set for at least 24 hours.
7 After the mould is removed the cylinder is sent to the laboratory

where it is cured and crushed to test compressive strength.
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Concrete Basics
Ordering Concrete
14
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 4 Ordering Concrete

WHEN ORDERING PRE-MIXED concrete you will need to tell the supplier:
Name and address for delivery
The use of the concrete (ie driveway, housing slab, commercial)
The amount you need in cubic metres
The Class of the concrete. There are two classes that concrete can be supplied as:
Normal Class and Special Class.
NORMAL CLASS CONCRETE has a strength grade of N20, N25, N32, N40
and N50 with the corresponding characteristic strength of 20, 25, 32, 40 and
50 MPa at 28 days. The slump at the point of delivery should be 20120 mm
and the maximum size of coarse aggregate should be 10, 14 or 20 mm.
Normal class concrete is suitable for most purposes. For most domestic
applications such as driveways and paths grade N20 and N25 are the
common grades ordered.
SPECIAL CLASS CONCRETE is specified when you have additional or
alternative requirements to those for normal class concrete, eg lightweight
aggregate, colour pigments, a non-standard strength grade. Special class
concrete will not always be available from every concrete supplier.
The slump in millimetres (mm). The slump measured workability.
See slump test in CHAPTER 3 Concrete Testing
The maximum aggregate size (eg 20 mm).
How you want to place the concrete (eg pump, shovel, etc).
Time of the first truckload and the time between truckloads. There must be enough
time to place and compact one load before the next arrives.
Any admixtures you may want in the concrete, though this is normally left to the
pre-mixed concrete company.
Always order more concrete (ie 10%) than you need to allow for construction
variations and/or some wastage. Concrete is ordered in 0.2 m3 increments.
Ensure you round up when ordering.
IF MIXING YOUR OWN concrete:
The cement powder is ordered in bags by weight (eg 20 kg) and type (eg Type GP).
The coarse and fine aggregates are ordered in cubic metres by maximum size
(eg 20 m3 of size 20 mm).
Water is used by the litre or kilogram (1 litre of water = 1 kilogram).
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Concrete Basics
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15
CHAPTER 5 Proportioning and Mixing Concrete

A CONCRETE MIX is designed to produce concrete
that can be easily placed at the lowest cost.
The concrete must be workable and cohesive when
plastic, then set and harden to give strong and
durable concrete.
The mix design must consider the environment that
the concrete will be in; ie exposure to sea water,
trucks, cars, forklifts, foot traffic or extremes of hot
and cold.
PROPORTIONING Concrete is a mixture of
Cement, Water, Coarse and Fine Aggregates and
Admixtures.
The proportions of each material in the mixture affects the properties of the final hardened
concrete. These proportions are best measured by weight. Measurement by volume is not
as accurate, but is suitable for minor projects.
CEMENT CONTENT As the cement content
increases, so does strength and durability.
Therefore to increase the strength, increase
the cement content of a mix.
WATER CONTENT Adding MORE WATER to

a mix gives a WEAKER hardened concrete.
Always use as little water as possible, only
enough to make the mix workable.
WATER TO CEMENT RATIO As the Water to

Cement ratio INCREASES, the strength and
durability of hardened concrete DECREASES.
To increase the strength and durability of
concrete, decrease the Water-Cement ratio.
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CONTENTS
AGGREGATES Too much fine aggregate gives a sticky mix.
Too much coarse aggregate gives a harsh or boney mix.
MIXING Concrete must be mixed so the Cement, Water,

Aggregates and Admixtures blend into an even mix.
Concrete is normally mixed by MACHINE.
Machine mixing can be done on-site or be a Pre-Mixed
concrete company. Pre-Mixed concrete is batched
(proportioned) at the plant to the job requirements.
Truck Mixing The materials are normally added to the
trucks at batching plants and mixed for required time and
speed at the plant. The trucks drum continues to rotate to
agitate the concrete as it is delivered to the site.
Site Mixing When site mixing begin by loading a MEASURED AMOUNT of coarse
aggregate into the mixer drum. Add the sand before the cement, both in measured amounts.
NEVER USE A SHOVEL AS A MEASURE AS VOLUMES CAN VARY WIDELY.
Mix materials together until there is no visible sand in the mix.
Add enough water to get a workable mix.
Be careful not to overload the mixer. Too much
concrete in the mixer means each batch takes longer
to be properly mixed, which causes costly delays
in the long run or it will not mix at all.
Always check how much the mixer holds so you know
how much concrete can be produced at once.
Avoid delays between batches to get maximum output.
Small quantities of concrete may be mixed by hand with
a shovel. Mixing should be done on a clean board, or plate,
or in a wheelbarrow. Mix the materials together until they are even.
Then dish the material and add water. Use only enough water to get
an even, workable mix. Finish mixing.
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER 6 Planning and Site Preparation

The most important step in placing concrete is planning.
Always plan every step before any concrete is delivered.
Proper planning avoids delays, wastage, segregation and
problems which develop from these.
To eliminate problems of Delay, Segregation and Wastage,
see CHAPTER 7 Transporting and Placing Concrete
SAFETY Workers on the site should always wear protective
clothing, strong boots and, if required, helmets or eye protection.
Always avoid direct contact with cement and never kneel in or
touch the concrete mix directly. Wear gloves or use barrier creams.
Ensure that anyone using heavy equipment, such as screeds or
vibrators, has been properly trained.
The following steps should be taken before any concrete is placed.
MEASUREMENT Measure and stake out the area to
be concreted and consider how thick the slab must be.
The thickness will depend on the weight the concrete
must carry (ie driveway carries the weight of a car
and needs to be thicker than a garden path).
THE FINISHING LEVEL Once the thickness of concrete has been established, work out
where the concrete will finish. Concrete cannot finish too high against steps or the external
house wall and should not cover any part of weepholes in the wall. The finishing level
shows how much digging or excavation must be done. Pavements must grade away from
buildings and boundaries.
STEPS Steps must have even risers.
EXCAVATION The ground should be excavated as deep
as is required by the finishing levels. Any roots or grass
must be dug out until there is firm soil to place on. Always
dig the hole wider than needed to allow for the formwork.
Try to keep the edges and corners square.
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CONTENTS
SUBGRADE The soil a concrete pavement or

floor rests on is called the subgrade. If the soil is
soft or varies in softness, a layer of crushed rock
should be used. If there are only a few poor areas
these can be dug out, refilled and compacted. It is
important that the soil evenly supports the concrete.
Many later problems can be avoided by properly
preparing the subgrade.
FORMWORK Formwork gives concrete its shape,
Formwork must be properly braced so it is strong.
It should not flex or move.
See CHAPTER 18 Formwork
SERVICES Plumbing, heating or electrical

services often run through a slab. These must be
in place before any concrete is poured.
UNDERLAY AND SERVICES The underlay, or
vapour barrier, is a heavy plastic covering the
ground to minimise water vapour rising through the
hardened concrete. Always overlap the sheets a
minimum of 200 mm and do not tape them. Tape
the edges of underlay only around drainage pipes
or services which pass vertically through the
concrete slab.
Termite protection may be required around service
penetrations and round the perimeter of the slab.
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CONTENTS
19
REINFORCEMENT LOCATION Reinforcement can be used to increase the strength of

concrete and/or to help control cracking.
For house floors resting on the ground it is placed in the top 1/3 of slabs and in the bottom
of trenches and footings.
The reinforcement must be covered by a set amount of concrete which protects the steel
from rusting. This is called cover. The amount of cover depends on whether it is inside or
outside and is measured to the top or bottom of the outer surface.
Reinforcement should be securely held for slab on ground construction. It should overlap a
set distance or from one piece of reinforcing bar, or wire fabric, to another and at the
corners of a trench.
ACCESS Clear access must be provided to transport the concrete.
If concrete is to be delivered by trucks make sure they have unrestricted access to the site
in all weather conditions.
PLACEMENT Ensure all planning and site preparation takes into account how concrete
will be placed allowing room for trucks, ramps for wheelbarrows, space for a pump etc.
JOINTS The position, type and number of joints should be planned well before the
concrete is placed.
See CHAPTER 11 Joints in Concrete
WASTAGE Good planning and site preparation reduces wastage. Reducing wastage can
cut costs, since up to 15% of concrete can be lost this way.
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER 7 Transporting and Placing Concrete

When transporting and placing concrete, avoid:
DELAY
SEGREGATION and
WASTAGE.
TRANSPORTATION The method used to
transport concrete depends on which one is the
lowest cost and easiest for the job size.
Some ways to transport concrete include: a
concrete truck, a concrete pump, a crane and
bucket, a chute, a conveyor or a hoist. On small
jobs a wheelbarrow is the easiest way to
transport concrete.
Always transport concrete as little as possible to
reduce problems of segregation and wastage.
PLACING When placing concrete be careful
not to damage or move the formwork and reinforcement.
Place concrete as near to its final position as possible.
Start placing from the corners of the formwork or,
in the case of a sloping site, from the lowest level.
IMPORTANT SAFETY INFORMATION

When handling and using cement or fresh concrete, avoid skin contact.
Wear suitable protective clothing.
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CONTENTS
DELAY Delay can cause the concrete to dry-out and stiffen.

Delay is more of a problem on a hot, and/or
windy, day when the concrete will dry-out
and stiffen more quickly.
To avoid delay plan ahead. Check that all

labour, tools and containers are ready and
that all preparations for placing have been
done before the concrete is
delivered.
Never just add water to the

concrete to make it more
workable, always use a mix
of cement paste (ie water
AND cement).
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CONTENTS
SEGREGATION Segregation is when the coarse and fine aggregate, and cement paste,
become separated. Segregation may happen when the concrete is mixed, transported,
placed or compacted.
Segregation makes the concrete:
WEAKER,
LESS DURABLE,
and will leave A POOR SURFACE FINISH.
To avoid segregation:
Check the concrete is not 'too wet' or 'too dry'.
Make sure the concrete is properly mixed.

It is important that the concrete is mixed at the
correct speed in a transit mixer for at least two
minutes immediately prior to discharge. The
concrete should be placed as soon as possible.
When transporting the mix, load carefully.
If placing concrete straight from a truck, pour
vertically and never let the concrete fall more than
one-and-a-half metres.
Always pour new concrete into the face of concrete

already in place.
When compacting with a poker vibrator

be sure to use it carefully.
See CHAPTER 8 Compacting Concrete
Never spread concrete sideways with a poker
vibrator as this may cause segregation of the mix.
Always be sure to vibrate concrete evenly.
WASTAGE Wastage can be costly, especially
on small jobs. To minimise wastage; mix, load,
transport and place carefully.
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Compacting Concrete
23
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 8 Compacting Concrete
WHAT IS COMPACTION Compaction is done by shaking,

or vibrating, the concrete which liquefies it, allowing the
trapped air to rise out.
The concrete settles, filling all the space in the forms.
WHEN TO COMPACT Compaction must be done

as concrete is placed, while it is still plastic. Never
let concrete dry-out and stiffen because it will be
too hard to compact.
WHY COMPACT Properly compacted concrete is
more dense, strong and durable. Off-form finishes
will also be better.
EXTERNAL VIBRATION
Screeding Screeding levels and compacts thin concrete slabs and the top layers of
thicker slabs. A screed board will not compact the concrete very well. Mechanical vibration
or hand rodding is required to provide adequate compaction.
The Mechanical Screed Concrete is screeded TWICE.
The first screed levels the concrete roughly and compacts it.
The second screed levels and compacts the concrete more.
The screed is pulled along the top of the forms by two
workers.
Always keep a small amount, or surcharge, of
concrete, in front of both beams of the screed to
avoid holes forming in the surface. If a hollow
develops, the screed will not compact the concrete.
The mechanical screed compacts the concrete as it vibrates.
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Compacting Concrete
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CONTENTS
INTERNAL VIBRATION Internal vibration is

done with a mechanical vibrator or poker
vibrator. The POKER is put into concrete and
vibrates it from the inside.
Method
Make sure there are enough workers so some
can compact while others continue to place.
Put the poker into the concrete QUICKLY. Take the poker out very SLOWLY otherwise a hole,
or weak spot, may be left in the concrete.
The SIZE of the poker determines how much concrete is vibrated at one time.
The area vibrated at one time is called the
RADIUS OF ACTION. This can be seen by over
what radius air bubbles rise to the surface.
The radius of action will be greater with a
LARGER poker and more-workable concrete.
Always compact in a definite pattern so the radius
of action overlaps and covers the whole area of
the concrete.
The poker should be long enough to reach

and enter into the layers of concrete under
the one being compacted.
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Compacting Concrete
CONTENTS
25
PRECAUTIONS Taking the poker out TOO QUICKLY will leave a hole in the concrete.
To close the hole, vibrate near the hole and take the poker out VERY SLOWLY.
NEVER touch the form face with the

poker as it can damage the formwork
and the concrete.
NEVER touch the reinforcement with

the poker.
NEVER spread or move concrete sideways with

the poker, always use a shovel.
NEVER leave the poker running when not in use.
HOW LONG TO COMPACT For concrete of average workability (ie slump of 80 mm)
with a poker size between 2575 mm, concrete should usually be vibrated for between
5 and 15 seconds.
It is worse to UNDER-VIBRATE than to OVER-VIBRATE concrete.
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Concrete Basics
Finishing Concrete
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER 9 Finishing Concrete
WHAT IS FINISHING Finishing is

screeding, floating or trowelling the
concrete surface to densify and further
compact the surface of concrete, as
well as giving it the look you want.
Finishing takes place in two stages:
INITIAL and
FINAL finishing.
INITIAL FINISHING Concrete is first screeded to the level of the formwork, then
bullfloated and left to set.
In some cases screeding leaves a good enough finish, especially if floor coverings are to
be used over the concrete.
Water then appears on the surface of the concrete.
This water is called bleed water.
No final finishing can begin until the bleed
water has dried up. Mixing bleed water with the
surface paste will weaken it, possibly resulting
in a dusty surface.
Excess bleed water can be removed by dragging
an ordinary garden hose across the surface of the
concrete.
Never try to dry up the bleed water using stone dust or cement as this will weaken the
concrete surface in the long run.
Once the bleed water dries up and concrete can support a persons weight, with only a
slight marking to the surface, the final finishing can begin.
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FLOATING There may be two stages in floating:

The BULLFLOAT, which is part of the initial float.
The POWER or HAND FLOAT which is part of the final float.
Floating helps compact and level the surface and close minor cracks.
See CHAPTER 16 Cracking in Concrete
Floating can be done by hand or with a power float.
Power floating leaves a better finish than hand floating.
FINAL FINISHING This involves floating, trowelling, edging, jointing or patterning the
concrete. Special finishes such as brooming, colouring or patterned finishes can be
applied to the surface.
See CHAPTER 13 Surface Finishes on Concrete
Trowelling Trowelling leaves a dense, hard, smooth
and durable surface.
The surface should be trowelled TWICE. A well
trowelled surface will be very smooth and can be
slippery when wet. Trowelling can be done by hand or
power trowel.
Edging and Grooving All the edges of a slab should be

finished with a special edging tool. This gives a neater and
stronger edge, less prone to chipping. Joints should
be planned before placing and are usually formed
into the concrete during finishing.
Once any surface has been finished it MUST be cured.
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Curing Concrete
28
CHAPTER 10 Curing Concrete
WHAT IS CURING Curing means to cover

the concrete so it stays MOIST.
By keeping concrete moist the bond between
the paste and the aggregates gets stronger.
Concrete doesnt harden properly if it is left
to dry out.
WHEN TO CURE Curing is done just after
finishing the concrete surface, as soon as it
will not be damaged.
Precautions When curing leave the formwork in place to help reduce water loss. In hot
weather (above 30C), or during high winds and low humidity, concrete can dry out easily.
In these conditions take extra care while curing.
WHY CURE Concrete that is cured is:
LESS LIKELY TO CRACK.
More DURABLE.
Cured concrete has a surface that wears
better, lasts longer and better protects the
steel reinforcement.
Stronger The concrete can carry more

weight without breaking.
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HOW TO CURE Concrete is cured by:

APPLYING EXTRA WATER to the surface of the concrete, or
STOPPING water loss from the concrete.
Methods The most common methods of curing are explained below.

The simplest method of APPLYING WATER is to put a
continuous fine, misty spray of water over the concrete.
BEWARE: The spray must be a very fine mist or
else it will damage the surface of the concrete.
Concrete will dry out more quickly in hot weather.
Keep the concrete continuously moist.
The most important thing in curing is to keep
the concrete moist at all times. Hosing in the
morning and again at night and letting the
concrete dry out in between is no good.
Another way to cure concrete is to cover with PLASTIC SHEETS to slow down water loss.
This method is easy and cheap. The only problem
is that the sheets may cause concrete to become
darker in places. To avoid this keep concrete
EVENLY moist.
The sheets must be held down to stop them
blowing away and the concrete surface drying out.
The sheets can be overlapped and stuck together
and/or held down with sand, timber or bricks.
Always check under the plastic from time to time
to make sure the concrete is EVENLY moist. If it
feels dry, sprinkle with water and put back the
plastic sheets carefully. Condensation on the
underside of the plastic is a good sign.
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30
Concrete may also be cured by applying a CURING COMPOUND which slows water loss.
This should be applied soon after finishing. Always follow the manufacturers instructions
carefully. Curing compounds may be sprayed or brushed on.
BEWARE: Some types of curing compounds may later make it harder or impossible
to apply a surface finish to concrete such as paint, or to stick down floor coverings.
When using a curing compound, check with the supplier to ensure compatibility
with surface coatings or adhesives for future overlay finishes such as vinyl or tiles.
In rapid drying conditions (ie high wind, dry air and/or hot air) the use of an EVAPORATION
RETARDANT minimises the rapid loss of surface moisture and as such reduces the
incidence of early age plastic cracking.
These products contain a fugitive dye and are applied after initial screeding and floating,
and reapplied after each successive surface working until finished. In severe conditions
retardants will require reapplication. Evaporation retardants are not curing compounds;
their effect is temporary therefore once the concrete is finished, normal curing techniques
should still be used immediately.
HOW LONG TO CURE Concrete keeps getting HARDER AND STRONGER over TIME.
Household concrete jobs MUST be cured for at least 3 DAYS.
For better strength and durability, cure concrete for 7 DAYS.
The LONGER concrete is cured, the closer it will be to its best possible strength and
durability.
See CHAPTER 2 Concrete Properties and
See CHAPTER 3 Concrete Testing)
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER 11 Joints in Concrete
WHAT ARE JOINTS Joints are PLANNED BREAKS in concrete which allow it to move
and prevent random cracking.
WHEN TO MAKE JOINTS Joints can be made at two different times:

BEFORE any concrete is poured. As for Construction joints or Isolation joints.
AFTER concrete has been placed and compacted, as for Control joints.
Joints are used to control CRACKING in concrete. Random
cracking can weaken the concrete and spoil its appearance.
TYPES OF JOINTS
Control Joints Wet formed joints are inserted with the use of a grooving tool to create a
plane of weakness which conceals where the shrinkage crack will occur. To be effective the
joint must be tooled to a minimum depth of 1/4 to 1/3 the depth of the concrete,
eg for 100 mm thick concrete joint depth should be a minimum of 25 mm to 35 mm.
Control joints may be made while concrete is
hardening by slicing it with a thin piece of metal.
The edges of the joints should be finished with a
grooving or edging tool.
See CHAPTER 9 Finishing Concrete
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Joints in Concrete
32
Alternatively a crack inducer may be cast, or pressed into, the concrete.

Control joints may also be sawn, but timing is very important.
Too early and the sawcut can ravel and too late the
concrete will have already cracked randomly.
A joint may be filled with a flexible filler to minimise
water entry and to prevent stones etc entering which
may later cause spalling of the concrete.
The position and number of control joints must be carefully planned. Control joints in an
unreinforced concrete slab should divide it into roughly square areas. (ie A one-metre-wide
path needs a control joint about every one metre).
Control joints in unreinforced concrete should be located at a spacing of a width to depth
ratio of about 20 (to 25) to 1 ie a 100 mm deep slab should have joints every 2 to 2.5 m.
In steel reinforced slabs the joint spacing is controlled by the area of steel. The more steel
there is, the further apart the joints can be.
Isolation Joints An isolation joint totally separates a concrete element from another
concrete element, or a fixed object such as a wall or column, so that each can move and
not affect the other. The joint filling should be full depth and soft. It can be made of cork,
foam rubber, or some other flexible material.
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33
Construction Joints A construction joint is a place where work finishes temporarily.

Formwork is used to support the edge of the concrete already in place so that it doesnt just
collapse. Concrete is finished square and the reinforcement normally runs through the joint.
When placing begins again:
Remove the formwork and brush any loose material from the old surface.
Roughen the old surface, to expose the coarse aggregate, to help the new
concrete bond properly.
Pour the new concrete against the old surface.
PLANS The position of ALL JOINTS should be shown on the plans

for any concrete slab.
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CHAPTER 12 Hot and Cold Weather Concreting

In extremes of heat and cold concrete must be:
HANDLED
PLACED
COMPACTED
FINISHED and
CURED carefully.
Extremes of heat and cold mainly cause problems of cracking. When conditions of heat
and cold are expected some of the following precautions will improve the quality of your
final concrete.
IN HOT WEATHER
Workability In hot and/or windy weather a concrete mix may stiffen rapidly and not be
workable.
A 'set retarding' admixture may be added to the concrete during mixing to give a longer
working time.
In hot and/or windy weather, if concrete stiffens quickly, a cold unbonded joint may form
between concrete already in place and the new concrete.
If there is a chance of this happening you may
need to make a construction joint.
To Stop Concrete Drying out and Cracking

Use one or more of the following:
Use SHADE to keep all materials out of direct sun
and keep the aggregates MOIST.
DAMPEN subgrade and formwork,
but dont leave excess water lying around.
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Put up SHADES and WINDBREAKS or try

to place in the cooler parts of the day.
Avoid DELAYS once the job begins by
planning ahead.
Use a 'Set-Retarding' ADMIXTURE.
SPRAY concrete with 'aliphatic Alcohol' after
the initial finishing, which reduces
EVAPORATION and CRACKING.
CURE concrete carefully.
Keep it COOL. In extreme conditions iced water, or other methods, may be used in the mix
to keep it cool. Do not apply cold water to a hot concrete surface as thermal cracking may
result due to the sudden cooling.
IN COLD WEATHER Frozen or very cold water will also slow down the setting time which
can cause costly delays.
In extremely cold weather water turns to ice, EXPANDS and can CRACK hardened
concrete.
To Stop Water Freezing and Cracking Concrete Use one or more of the following:
Keep all MATERIALS warm.
Use WARM WATER in the mix.
COVER the formwork and subgrade, to keep them free
of frost and ice.
Use a 'Set-Accelerating' ADMIXTURE.

Try to keep concrete as much above 10C
as possible for the first few days.
NEVER lay concrete on frozen ground.
CURE concrete carefully to keep it warm. The best method will be one that KEEPS HEAT
in the concrete. The curing methods should not cool the concrete. An insulating layer may
be needed.
In cold climates with frequent freeze/thaw conditions the concrete may need an
Air-Entraining Admixture for long term durability.
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CHAPTER 13 Surface Finishes on Concrete

Concrete can be given many different surface finishes including:
BROOMING
COLOURING
PATTERNING or
POLISHING
A coloured or patterned surface finish can make
concrete look more attractive and interesting.
CONCRETE In order to minimise problems arising when using any form of coloured
concrete for domestic paving, either a minimum grade of 25 MPa or concrete containing
not less than 280 kg of cement/m3 should be used. Other forms of decorative concrete,
or in commercial work, will normally require a higher grade of concrete.
TEST PANELS To find out how a colour or pattern will look always do a small test area
before beginning the bulk of the work.
CURING COLOURED CONCRETE Curing is the most important step in colouring
concrete. The concrete surface must stay evenly moist or the colour will be uneven. Poorly
cured concrete can even affect a painted concrete surface.
COLOURED FINISHES There are four ways to colour concrete.

The Dry-Shake Method The dry-shake method
uses a mixture of a mineral oxide pigment (or
colour), cement and specially graded fine
aggregates. The colour is added when
compaction, screeding and bleeding has
finished, as part of finishing. Uniform reliable
results are best achieved if the concrete is
supplied pre-mixed by the supplier using weight
batched dry components.
Shake 2/3 of the dry material onto the concrete
surface, spreading it evenly with a float. Leave
for a minute or so to soak up some moisture.
The Dry-Shake Method continues on next page
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Shake the last 1/3 of the dry material onto the

concrete at right angles to the first application
and again after it has dampened up, spread
evenly with a float. The two applications help to
give a more uniform colour and thickness.
Re-tool any edges and joints.
After a while the surface must be re-floated.
FULL DEPTH COLOUR The colour is added to the concrete
during mixing so all the concrete is coloured, then the concrete
is compacted and finished as for normal concrete.
The colour pigment additives should generally be in the range
of 37% by weight of the cement. Higher quantities may affect
the strength and durability of the concrete. Check
manufacturer details for colour selection.
See CHAPTER 2 Properties of Concrete
Each batch must be accurately proportioned, thoroughly mixed and well floated
to give an even colour.
The colour of the cement powder may effect the shade of the final colour,
ie a dark grey cement may affect light colours.
APPLIED FINISHES Applied finishes, including paints, tinted
sealers and trowelled-on coatings provide a wide range of
colours and are easily applied to hardened dry concrete.
Paint finishes are either water-based or solvent
based. They will wear easily and will need to be
reapplied periodically.
CHEMICAL STAINS A chemical stain soaks into the
concrete surface and colours its, only wearing away
as much as the surface does.
There is only a limited colour
range in concrete stains.
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STAMPED PATTERN FINISH A number

of DIFFERENT PATTERNS can be stamped
into the surface of setting concrete. This
includes cobblestone, slate, tile, brick tile
and timber finishes.
The concrete is placed and compacted
normally, and floated once. A dry shake
colour may also be used.
The patter stamps or pads/mats are then placed carefully on the concrete surface. When
mats are used a release agent will be needed to allow the mat to be removed. At least two
moulds are needed to step from one to another giving continuous and matching patter.
Step onto the moulds, pressing them into the concrete surface to the desired depth; up to
610 mm for cobblestones and less for other patterns. Deep patterns may be a hazard for
pedestrians.
When using pads the grooves may be rounded by laying a sheet of plastic across the
concrete surface before stamping. The surface must then be broomed to give a non-slip
finish. Use small handstamps for the edges and any difficult to reach areas.
Brick, or tile finishes, (stencilled concrete) can be obtained by floating a paper template
into the concrete surface before applying a dry shake. The template forms the mortar lines.
EXPOSED AGGREGATE FINISH An exposed aggregate finish can be an attractive
decorative finish. Different sizes and colours of aggregates allow many different looks.
The concrete can be made as normal, and the course aggregate exposed. This is done by
waiting until the surface is firm, but not dry, then brush, wash or broom away any cement
paste until the aggregates are exposed. Then cure the concrete.
A surface retardant can be used to aid the process.
Alternatively, there are two ways to get an exposed aggregate finish by adding special
aggregates to the surface.
Method A
Place, compact and level the concrete to about 10 mm below the top of the forms.
Spread selected aggregates over the concrete in a layer and press them into the concrete
until completely covered.
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39
Method B
Place, compact and level concrete to about 5 mm below the top of the forms.
Mix a 'Topping Coat' A mix of aggregates and cement paste in the ratio 2:1.
Use only enough water to make the coat workable.
Spread the topping over the concrete, level,
tamp down and finish with a trowel.
FOR BOTH METHODS leave the concrete until the cement paste on the surface is firm,
but not dry, then brush or with a fine mist spray wash away some of the cement paste
covering the aggregates.
In both cases extra cleaning can be done with a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid.
The solution should be 1 part acid to 20 parts water. Wet the concrete first and rinse off
thoroughly afterwards. Observe safety procedures.
See CHAPTER 15 Removing Stains from Concrete
To see what an aggregate finish will look like, do a test area first.
Different colours of cement can be used to get a better effect. For instance a white or
off-white cement may be used with a light stone where a grey cement may create a clash
of colours.
A BROOMED FINISH To give a skid-resistance surface a stiff, or soft, bristle broom can
simply be drawn across the surface of concrete. The broom can be drawn in straight or 's'
shape lines.
POLISHED CONCRETE Polished concrete is a finish used on the interior and exterior of
dwellings. A variety of finishes can be achieved by using different techniques or products.
The different finishes can be achieved by using liquid polishes, latex coatings, chemical
sealers, grinding to expose the aggregates, colours, stains and special aggregates to
achieve other desired effects.
For further details please refer to Polished Concrete Floors Briefing 05.
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER 14 Defects in Concrete

Some defects are obvious only to a trained eye,
others, such as cracking, are obvious to anyone.
Some common defects, their causes and how to
prevent and repair them are explained below.
If in doubt please consult an expert.
COLOUR VARIATION
Difference in colour across the surface of concrete. May appear as patches of light and dark.
Causes Uneven or variable curing conditions.
See CHAPTER 10 Curing
Applying a different brand or type of cement to the surface as a 'drier'.
Prevention Use an even concrete mix when placing, compacting and finishing and keep
concrete evenly moist. Do not use driers.
Repair Many colour variations from workmanship
will be permanent. To hide the variation a SURFACE
COATING can be applied.
Rectification of colour variation from stains is a very
difficult operation and may need repeated gentle
treatments with a weak acid.
See CHAPTER 15 Removing Stains from Concrete.
CRAZING
A network of fine cracks across the surface of concrete.
Causes Crazing is caused by minor surface shrinkage
in rapid drying conditions. (ie Low humidity and hot
temperatures, or alternate wetting and drying.)
Prevention Finish and cure concrete correctly.
See CHAPTER 9 Finishing Concrete and
Repair Repair may not be necessary because crazing will not weaken concrete. If the
crazing looks too bad then a surface coating of a paint or other overlay sealer can be
applied to cover and/or minimise the effect of the cracks.
See CHAPTER 13 Surface Finishes on Concrete
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DUSTING
A fine powder on the concrete surface which comes off on your fingers.
Causes Finishing before the bleed water has dried.
Also finishing during the rain.
Not curing properly, or the surface is drying too quickly.
Concrete subject to severe abrasion or of too low a grade for the end use.
Prevention Let any bleed water dry up before trowelling or in cold conditions remove the
water. Cure correctly.
Protect concrete from drying out too quickly in hot or windy conditions.
For harsh conditions use a stronger concrete.
Repair As previously detailed, dusting concrete surfaces result from inadequate attention
to prescribed placement and finishing practices namely, the addition of excess water,
working in of bleedwater, the inadequate compaction and curing of concrete. Where
surface dusting is minimal the application of a surface hardener can be beneficial. If the
surface is showing significant wear distress it is essential to remove all loose material by
grinding or scrapping the surface to a sound base and then applying a suitable topping.
RAIN DAMAGE
The surface has bits washed away or many small dents.
Causes Heavy rain while concrete is setting or rainwater
being allowed to run across the concrete surface.
Prevention Cover the concrete if it is raining or it looks
like it might rain. Dont lay concrete if it looks like it might rain.
Repair If the concrete has not hardened and damage is minimal the surface can be
refloated and re-trowelled taking care not to overwork excess water into the surface.
If the concrete has hardened it may be possible to grind or scrape the minimal amount of
the surface layer and apply a topping layer of new concrete or a repair compound. This
may not always be possible and should only be done with expert advice.
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CONTENTS
SPALLING
When the slab edges and joints chip or break
leaving an elongated cavity.
Causes Edges of joints break because of heavy loads or
impact with hard objects. As concrete expands and contracts
the weak edges may crack and break.
Entry of hard objects, such as stones, into joints may cause spalling when the concrete
expands.
Poor compaction of concrete at joints.
Prevention Design the joints carefully. Keep joints free from rubbish. Keep heavy loads
away from the joints and edges until they have properly hardened.
Ensure proper compaction.
Repair For small spalled areas: scrape, chip or grind away the weak areas until you reach
sound concrete, making sure you brush the old concrete clean of any loose material. Then
refill the area with new concrete or repair mortar. Compact, finish and cure the new patch
carefully. Care should be taken that all joints be maintained and not filled.
For large spalled areas: seek expert advice
EFFLORESCENCE
A white crystalline deposit sometimes found on
the surface of concrete soon after it is finished.
Causes Sometimes mineral salts are dissolved in
water. If water with dissolved mineral salts collect
on the concrete surface as water evaporates salt
deposits are left on the surface.
Excess bleeding can also result in efflorescence.
Prevention Use clean, salt-free water and washed sands. Avoid excessive bleeding.
Repair Remove efflorescence by dry brushing and washing with clean water. Do not use
a wire brush. Wash with a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid.
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HONEYCOMBING
When too much coarse aggregate appears on the surface.
Causes Poor compaction, segregation during placing or
paste leakage from forms. A poor concrete mix with not
enough fine aggregate causing a rocky mix.
Prevention Use a better mix design. Take care during
placing concrete to avoid segregation. Compact concrete
properly. Good watertight formwork.
Repair If honeycombing happens only on the surface it can be rendered. If honeycombing
happens throughout the concrete it may need to be removed and replaced. The surface
may require rendering. Rendering means to cover the surface with a layer of mortar.
BLISTERING
Blisters are hollow, low profile bumps
on the concrete surface filled with
either air or bleed water.
Causes They are caused when the fresh concrete surface is sealed by trowelling while
trapping air or bleed water under the surface. This may particularly occur in thick slabs or
on hot, windy days when the surface is prone to drying out.
Prevention After placing, screeding and floating leave the concrete as long as possible
before trowelling, which seals the surface. Cure to prevent evaporation.
If blisters are forming delay trowelling as long as possible and take steps to reduce
evaporation.
Repair Grind off the weakened layer to an even finish.
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CHAPTER 15 Removing Stains from Concrete

Simple stains and everyday grime can be removed by washing and
scrubbing. Water jet washing may also be successful. Stains from
oil, rust or paint leave ugly marks on concrete, ruining its
appearance. These stains soak into the concrete surface and
can often be very difficult to remove.
A stain may be removed using a special chemical stain
remover, or a specially prepared chemical mix. In
extreme cases if a stain cannot be removed chemically,
it may be sand blasted. This removes the surface of
the concrete and may expose the aggregates.
Some types of stains can be covered by simply painting
over with a concrete paint. However oil based stains may
soak through a paint and must be removed first.
SAFETY
When using any chemicals mentioned in this chapter always wear
protective clothing, gloves and shoes. Protective eye goggles and face
masks may also be necessary.
Dont breathe in fumes from any of these chemicals.
If chemicals come in contact with skin or eyes, wash the area with
plenty of cold water, and seek doctors advice.
Always read the safety directions on the label of any chemical
container prior to starting work.
Ways to remove specific stains are:

OIL AND GREASE STAINS These can be difficult to remove completely
because they tend to soak into the concrete surface. If the oil or grease has
hardened it can simply be scraped off. If an oil or grease spill has just
occurred, stop it spreading by encircling it with sand, dirt, sawdust or cat
litter. These can also be used to assist in soaking up or removing as
much of the oil and grease as possible.
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Cover residue stain with a poultice made of 1 part lime to 2 parts

mineral turpentine. Spread a 5 mm layer of the paste over the
stained area ensuring the spread is 50100 mm
beyond the edge of the stained area. Cover with
plastic sheeting and leave for 24 hours.
Remove the cover and scrape off
the powder. It may be necessary to
repeat this process again within a
day or so to remove any deeply
ingrained oil or grease. Scrub with
warm water and laundry detergent
then rinse with clean water at
the end of the treatment.
RUST External rust, from objects placed on the concrete,

may be removed with a detergent based concrete
cleaner or a weak solution (1:25) of hydrochloric acid
(if this is not successful please seek professional advice).
Prior to applying the acid solution, wet the concrete first
and always wash down the surface with clean water
afterwards. Be careful where the run off goes as it may
create problems on other concrete surfaces or gardens.
A poultice method may also be used.
Stains from rusting of the embedded steel reinforcement,
if this type of stain is present, seek professional advice.
TIMBER Timber stains wash off with a domestic
chlorine bleach.
Scrub the area with bleach.
Wash with water.
If this does not work well, mix 120 grams of oxalic acid
with 4 litres of hot water. Apply, wash off and neutralise
with a solution of bicarbonate of soda and water.
PAINT Paint spillage stains come off best with a paint remover.
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ALGAL AND FUNGAL GROWTH Algal and fungal stains

are removed with domestic chlorine bleach.
Wash and scrub the area with bleach.
Leave for a few days.
Scrub or scrape growth off.
Wash with water.
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CHAPTER 16 Cracking in Concrete

Random cracking in concrete is not desirable, it can make
your concrete look ugly and lead to structural weakness
of the concrete.
Reinforcement and joints are used to control
cracking. Bad cracking leaves the reinforcement
exposed to air and moisture, which may cause it
to rust and weaken concrete.
See CHAPTER 11 Joints in Concrete and
TYPES OF CRACKS
Two types of cracks happen in reinforced concrete:
PRE-SETTING CRACKS Cracks that happen BEFORE concrete hardens,
while it is still workable.
HARDENED CRACKING Cracks which happen AFTER concrete hardens.
PRE-SETTING CRACKS
Pre-setting cracks are cracks which form during placing, compaction and finishing caused
by movement of concrete before it is dry.
There are three types of pre-setting cracks:
PLASTIC SETTLEMENT cracks
PLASTIC SHRINKAGE cracks, and
Cracks caused by MOVEMENT OF THE FORMWORK.
Pre-setting cracks can be prevented by looking for them as they happen, while the
concrete is still setting.
If they are detected early on they can be easily fixed by re-compacting, re-trowelling or
re-floating the concrete surface.
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Plastic Settlement Cracks

When do they form? They form soon after
concrete is placed, while it is still plastic. They
get bigger as concrete dries and shrinks and
tend to follow the lines of reinforcement.
Prevention
Revibrate the concrete.
Re-trowel the surface.
Look for cracks as the concrete is
setting. At this stage they can easily
be fixed.
Plastic Shrinkage Cracks

When do they form? On very hot days or in low humidity and moderate winds. Cracking
is more common in summer but may occur during winter.
Plastic shrinkage cracks appear in lines,
roughly parallel or in a crazed haphazard
way. They are usually 300600 mm long but
may be between 25 mm and 2 m in length.
Prevention
Dampen the subgrade and forms and protect
concrete from the wind.
Keep all materials cool on hot days.
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Place, compact and cure as quickly as possible on hot days so concrete wont dry out.
Once the concrete has been compacted, screeded and floated apply a uniform spray film
of EVAPORATIVE RETARDANT (Aliphatic Alcohol) to prevent rapid loss of surface
moisture, then continue with finishing.
Try to place at the cooler times of the day.
Repair Cracks may be closed by reworking
the plastic concrete.
Formwork Movement
If formwork is not strong enough it may bend or bulge. Formwork movement may happen
at any time during placement and compaction.
Prevention Make sure formwork is strong.
If the concrete collapses, strengthen the formwork and re-vibrate the concrete.
Thermal Shock
Applying cold water, as curing, over concrete on a hot day can result in cracks from the
sudden contraction.
Prevention Use warm water.
CRACKS AFTER HARDENING

Cracks after hardening may be caused by drying shrinkage, movement or settling of the
ground, or placing higher loads on the concrete than it was designed to carry.
Little can be done with cracks after hardening. Careful and correct placement helps
prevent serious cracking after hardening.
Only uncontrolled cracks are a possible problem. Cracks at control joints or controlled by
steel reinforcing is expected and acceptable.
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER 17 Reinforced Concrete

The steel found in many concrete structures is called REINFORCEMENT.
Reinforcement helps concrete resist TENSILE and SHEAR forces, and helps control
CRACKING in concrete.
CONCRETE PROPERTIES
Normal Concrete:
HIGH compressive strength
VERY LOW tensile strength
VERY LOW shear strength
Reinforced Concrete:
VERY HIGH compressive strength
VERY HIGH tensile strength
VERY HIGH shear strength
WHY USE REINFORCEMENT?

As a force is applied to concrete there will be
compressive, tensile and shear forces acting
on the concrete. Concrete naturally resists
compression (squashing), very well, but is
relatively weak in tension (stretching).
Horizontal and/or vertical reinforcement is
used in all types of concrete structures where
tensile or shear forces may crack or break
the concrete. HORIZONTAL reinforcement
helps resist tension forces. VERTICAL
reinforcement helps resist shear forces.
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Concrete Basics
Reinforced Concrete
CONTENTS
51
Below are some examples of reinforcement use:

In a SUSPENDED (off-the-ground) concrete slab,
horizontal reinforcement resists tension and vertical
reinforcement (in say supporting beams) resists
shear forces.
In a SLAB-ON-GROUND, reinforcement increases
the tensile strength and helps control the width of
shrinkage cracks.
It does not prevent cracks but controls the width that cracks can open.
Uses of reinforcement include:
Increasing the spacing of control joints
Odd shaped slabs
Slabs with re-entrant corners.
REINFORCEMENT POSITION
The position of reinforcement will be shown in the plans. Reinforcement must be fixed in
the right position to best resist compressive, tensile and shear forces and help control
cracking.
The reinforcement in trenches and slabs rests on
BAR CHAIRS and must be securely fixed to the
bar chairs so it wont move when concrete is
placed around it.
Concrete Cover The reinforcement must be placed so there is enough concrete covering
it to protect it from rusting.
Typical covers are shown in the diagram. To ensure durability, both the concrete cover and
strength should be shown in the plans.
51
Concrete Basics
Reinforced Concrete
52
CONTENTS
Cracking and Reinforcement Reinforcement alone WILL NOT STOP cracking, but helps
control cracking. It is used to control the width of shrinkage cracks.
Concrete Reinforcement Bond To help control the width of cracks, or their location (at
joints), there must be a strong bond between concrete and reinforcement. This allows the
tensile forces (which concrete has a very low ability to resist) to be transferred to the
reinforcement.
To help achieve a strong bond:
The reinforcement should be CLEAN (free from flakey rust, dirt or grease).
The concrete should be PROPERLY COMPACTED around the reinforcement bars.
Reinforcing bars and mesh should be located so that there is enough room between
the bars to place and compact the concrete.
To improve the transfer of tensile forces to the steel,
the reinforcement is often anchored by:
BENDING,
HOOKING, or
LAPPING the bars.
Types of Reinforcement Two types of steel

reinforcement used are mesh sheets or loose bars.
Loose bars are normally deformed, while mesh may
be made from either smooth or deformed bars.
Typical bar diameters are 12, 16, 20 and 24 mm.
Typical mesh sizes are SL42, 52, 62, 72 and 82. The
SL stands for Square mesh Low Ductility and the
numbers represent meanings as well. For example
for SL42 the 4 is the nominal bar size and the 2
refers to the wire spacing (200 mm).
Fibre Reinforcement Synthetic fibres can be added to concrete to aid in minimising early
age plastic shrinkage and can reduce the presence of excessive bleedwater. However,
synthetic fibres are not a replacement for fabric or steel reinforcement. In slab on ground
construction the control joint spacing is the same as plain concrete.
Steel fibres are used for the above and to improve the toughness of concrete. However
they can be used to control drying shrinkage cracking over limited spacings and for oddshaped slabs. They also increase the flexural, or bending, strength of concrete.
52
Concrete Basics
Formwork
CONTENTS
53
CHAPTER 18 Formwork
Formwork gives concrete its SHAPE.
Formwork provides a mould, into which concrete is placed.
When concrete has hardened the formwork is removed.
Formwork must be:
ACCURATE
STRONG, and
WELL MADE.
Formwork that is not will leak from the joints, may sag, bulge or
move and, especially in large construction, will not be safe.
The surface of the forms in contact with concrete affects how
concrete will look. If the final look of the concrete is important choose
a material which will leave the surface texture wanted.
PLACEMENT Be sure that formwork is placed so it can be removed. If formwork is placed
in awkward positions or tight corners it may be difficult to remove when the concrete had
hardened.
It is helpful if formwork is:
SIMPLE to build,
EASY to hand, and
RE-USEABLE.
Formwork sections should be of simple design, not too big and of standard sizes if they
are to be re-used.
MATERIALS Formwork is normally made from steel or timber. Timber is easy to make
into formwork while steel will allow a greater number of re-uses.
Formwork can be made on site or bought from formwork suppliers. Special forms made
from various materials can be purchased for forming waffle slabs, circular columns and
other special profiles.
53
Concrete Basics
Formwork
CONTENTS
54
REMOVAL TIMES Form Oil should be applied to the inside of the formwork to stop it
sticking to the concrete and make removal easier. Coat BEFORE the reinforcement is put
in place. Formwork may be left in place to help curing.
Removal time may vary according to the weather,
In cold weather, concrete may take longer to gain strength than in warmer weather,
therefore removal times will be longer.
In normal conditions (around 20C) 7 days is long enough to leave the forms in place
unless the concrete is suspended when other conditions apply.
54
Concrete Basics
More Information
55
CONTENTS
MORE Information
Table 1 METRIC MEASUREMENTS, some useful approximations

10 millimetres (mm)
25 mm
100 mm
300 mm
1 metre (1000 mm)
1 square metre (1 m2)
1 cubic metre (1 m3)
1 litre
4.5 litres
1 kilograms (kg)
0.4 inch (in)

1 in
4 in
1 foot (ft)
3 ft 3.37 in
10.76 ft2 or 1.2 yard2 (yd2)
35 ft3 or 1.3 yd3
1.75 pint (pt)
1 gallon
2.2 pounds (lb)
If you found Concrete Basics to be useful you may also find the following
Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia publications available for sale through
Standards Australia (1300 654 646 or www.standards.com.au) to be of interest:
Guide to Concrete Construction C&CAA T41 2002
A valuable guide for anyone involved in concrete construction projects of any size.
Provides a guide to the materials, manufacture, testing and properties of concrete and
details techniques and practices for carrying out various operations involved in concrete
construction.
Concrete Practice on Building Sites C&CAA T43 1995
Provides a guide to good practice regarding all aspects of concreting activities on building
sites. This user-friendly guide advises on forming, reinforcing, handling, placing,
compacting, finishing and curing of concrete.
The following FREE OF CHARGE publications and data sheets may also be useful to you.
These can be downloaded from www.concrete.net.au.
The Housing Concrete Handbook Supported by the Housing Industry Association of
Australia this publication is designed for house-builders and on-site workers. Providing
more detailed information than Concrete Basics it acts as a solid reference guide to
understanding, ordering and handling concrete and other cement-based materials to
ensure good quality concreting practices.
The Housing Concrete Handbook
55
Concrete Basics
More Information
CONTENTS
56
DATA SHEETS
Assessing Concrete Volumes
Curing of Concrete
Compaction of Concrete
Avoiding Surface Imperfections in Concrete a series of data sheets covering
Crazing, Popouts, Honeycombing, Dusting and Flaking
Plastic Shrinkage Cracking
Plastic Settlement Cracking
Cleaning Concrete
Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia is committed to being the major source of
information on cement, concrete and aggregates in Australia. For a complete listing of all
retail and free publications please visit and bookmark the CCAA website www.concrete.net.au.
56

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Concrete Basics

CONCRETE BASICS A Guide to Concrete Practice

Proportioning and Mixing Concrete

Planning and Site Preparation

Transporting and Placing Concrete

Hot and Cold Weather Concreting

Surface Finishes on Concrete

Removing Stains from Concrete

First Published July 1991

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

CHAPTER 1 Concrete Materials

CEMENT The cement powder, when mixed with water,

There are six major

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

STORAGE Cement should be stored off the ground in a

AGGREGATES Aggregates are of two basic types:

CLEAN Dirt or clay sticking to the aggregates

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

Always check bore water before use.

A measured amount of cement is added and mixed in.

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

CHAPTER 2 Concrete Properties

Hardening State After concrete has set it begins to

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

Workability Workability means how easy it is to:

Workability is affected by:

To make a more workable mix:

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

Note: 1 litre of water weighs 1 kilogram.

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

CHAPTER 3 Concrete Testing

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

The Slump Test continues on the next page

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

9 Take several measurements and report the average

The Compression Test continues on the next page

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

6 Cap, clearly tag the cylinder

7 After the mould is removed the cylinder is sent to the laboratory

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

CHAPTER 4 Ordering Concrete

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

Proportioning and Mixing Concrete

CHAPTER 5 Proportioning and Mixing Concrete

WATER CONTENT Adding MORE WATER to

WATER TO CEMENT RATIO As the Water to

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

Proportioning and Mixing Concrete

AGGREGATES Too much fine aggregate gives a sticky mix.

Too much coarse aggregate gives a harsh or boney mix.

MIXING Concrete must be mixed so the Cement, Water,

Planning and Site Preparation

CHAPTER 6 Planning and Site Preparation

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

Planning and Site Preparation

SUBGRADE The soil a concrete pavement or