Intro To Probability and Statistics

MAT 210
Introduction Probaility and Statistics

Lecture Notes
Muhammad El-Taha
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
University of Southern Maine
96 Falmouth Street
Portland, ME 04104-9300
MAT 210
Introduction to Probability and Statistics
Course Content.
Topic 1: Data Analysis
Topic 2: Probability
Topic 3: Random Variables and Discrete Distributions
Topic 4: Continuous Probability Distributions
Topic 5: Sampling Distributions
Topic 6: Point and Interval Estimation
Topic 7: Large Sample Estimation
Topic 8: Large-Sample Tests of Hypothesis
Topic 9: Inferences From Small Sample
Topic 10: Simple Linear Regression and Correlation
Contents
1 Data Analysis
1
Introduction . . . . . . . . .
2
Graphical Methods . . . . .
3
Numerical methods . . . . .
4
Percentiles . . . . . . . . . .
5
Sample Mean and Variance
For Grouped Data . . . . .
6
z-score . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 Probability
1
Sample Space and Events
2
Probability of an event . .
3
Laws of Probability . . . .
4
Counting Sample Points .
5
Random Sampling . . . .
6
Modeling Uncertainty . . .
3 Discrete Random Variables
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29
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35
38
42
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51
1
2
3
4
Random Variables . . . . . . .
Expected Value and Variance
Discrete Distributions . . . . .
Markov Chains . . . . . . . .
4 Continuous Distributions
1
Introduction . . . . . . .
2
The Normal Distribution
3
Uniform: U[a,b] . . . . .
4
Exponential . . . . . . .
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5 Sampling Distributions
82
1
The Central Limit Theorem (CLT) . . . . . . . . . 82
2
Sampling Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6 Large Sample Estimation
1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
Point Estimators and Their Properties
3
Single Quantitative Population . . . .
4
Single Binomial Population . . . . . .
5
Two Quantitative Populations . . . . .
6
Two Binomial Populations . . . . . . .
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7 Large-Sample Tests of Hypothesis

1
Elements of a Statistical Test . . . . . . . . . . .
2
A Large-Sample Statistical Test . . . . . . . . . .
3
Testing a Population Mean . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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89
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102
. 102
. 104
. 105
4
5
6
7
Testing a Population Proportion . . . . . . . .

Comparing Two Population Means . . . . . .
Comparing Two Population Proportions . . .
Reporting Results of Statistical Tests: P-Value
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106
108
110
111
8 Small-Sample Tests of Hypothesis

115
1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
2
Students t Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3
Small-Sample Inferences About a Population Mean 117
4
Small-Sample Inferences About the Dierence Between Two Means: Independent Samples . . . . . . 119
5
Small-Sample Inferences About the Dierence Between Two Means: Paired Samples . . . . . . . . . 122
6
Inferences About a Population Variance . . . . . . 125
7
Comparing Two Population Variances . . . . . . . . 127
9 Simple Linear Regression and Correlation
1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
A Simple Linear Probabilistic Model . . . .
3
Least Squares Prediction Equation . . . . .
4
Inferences Concerning the Slope . . . . . . .
5
Estimating E(y|x) For a Given x . . . . . .
6
Predicting y for a Given x . . . . . . . . . .
7
Coecient of Correlation . . . . . . . . . . .
8
Analysis of Variance . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
Computer Printouts for Regression Analysis
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Chapter 1
Data Analysis
Chapter Content.
Introduction
Statistical Problems
Descriptive Statistics
Graphical Methods
Frequency Distributions (Histograms)
Other Methods
Numerical methods
Measures of Central Tendency
Measures of Variability
Empirical Rule
Percentiles
Introduction
Aims and Goals.

Recognize statistical problems and formulate them in statistical terms
Apply suitable models
Apply statistical tools in form of statistical analysis
Draw correct conclusions from statistical results
Describe statistical results in a clear way
Be encouraged to use statistical thinking
Statistical Problems
1. A market analyst wants to know the eectiveness of a new
diet.
2. A pharmaceutical Co. wants to know if a new drug is
superior to already existing drugs, or possible side eects.
3. How fuel ecient a certain car model is?
4. Is there any relationship between your GPA and employment opportunities.
5. If you answer all questions on a (T,F) (or multiple choice)
examination completely randomly, what are your chances of passing?
6. What is the eect of package designs on sales.
7. How to interpret polls. How many individuals you need to
sample for your inferences to be acceptable? What is meant by
the margin of error?
8. What is the eect of market strategy on market share?
9. How to pick the stocks to invest in?
10. How to design a program for patients who need to lose

weight. How much to lose.
11. Are drug side eects and age related?
12. Scoring your satisfaction with your health care provider.
I. Denitions
Probability: A game of chance
Statistics: Branch of science that deals with data analysis
Course objective: To make decisions in the prescence of uncertainty
Terminology
Data: Any recorded event (e.g. times to assemble a product)
Information: Any aquired data ( e.g. A collection of numbers
(data))
Knowledge: Useful data
Population: set of all measurements of interest
(e.g. all registered voters, all freshman students at the university)
Sample: A subset of measurements selected from the population
of interest
Variable: A property of an individual population unit (e.g. major, height, weight of freshman students)
Descriptive Statistics: deals with procedures used to summarize the information contained in a set of measurements.
Inferential Statistics: deals with procedures used to make inferences (predictions) about a population parameter from information contained in a sample.
Elements of a statistical problem:

(i) A clear denition of the population and variable of interest.
(ii) a design of the experiment or sampling procedure.
(iii) Collection and analysis of data (gathering and summarizing data).
(iv) Procedure for making predictions about the population
based on sample information.
(v) A measure of goodness or reliability for the procedure.
Objective. (better statement)
To make inferences (predictions, decisions) about certain characteristics of a population based on information contained in a
sample.
Types of data:
(i) Nominal: used to classify or categorize.
Example: Which of the following describes your area of work?
a. educator, b. lawyer, c. Doctor, d. other
(ii) Ordinal: used to rank or order objects
Example: This tutorial is
Not helpful (1), moderately helpful (2), very helpful (3).
(iii) Interval: Numerical data where distance between numbers
have meaning.
Example: Degrees in F (32 vs 220) or in C(0 vs 100)
(iv) Ratio: ratio of two numbers is meningful.
Example: height, weight, time, volume, price,..., etc.
Comment: Data may also be classied as qualitative vs quantitative (OR discrete vs continuous).
Descriptive statistics
Descriptive statistics covers Graphical and Numerical Methods.
Graphical Methods
Frequency and relative frequency distributions (Histograms):

Example
Weight
20.5 19.5
15.4 12.7
16.9 7.8
13.4 14.3
8.8 22.1
Loss
15.6
5.4
23.3
19.2
20.8
Data
24.1
17.0
11.8
9.2
12.6
9.9
28.6
18.4
16.8
15.9
Objective: Provide a useful summary of the available information.

Method: Construct a statistical graph called a histogram (or
frequency distribution)
Let
k = # of classes
max = largest measurement
min = smallest measurement
n = sample size
Weight Loss Data

class
boundtally class
aries
freq, f
1
5.0-9.03
2
9.0-13.05
3
13.0-17.07
4
17.0-21.06
5
21.0-25.03
6
25.0-29.0
1
Totals
25
rel.
freq, f /n
3/25 (.12)
5/25 (.20)
7/25 (.28)
6/25 (.24)
3/25 (.12)
1/25 (.04)
1.00
w = class width
Rule of thumb:
-The number of classes chosen is usually between 5 and 20.
(Most of the time between 7 and 13.)
-The more data one has the larger is the number of classes.
Formulas:
k = 1 + 3.3log10 (n);
w=
Note: w =
28.65.4
6
max min
.
k
= 3.87. But we used
= 4.0 (why?)
w = 295
6
Graphs: Graph the frequency and relative frequency distributions.
10
Exercise. Repeat the above example using 12 and 4 classes respectively. Comment on the usefulness of each including k = 6.
Steps in Constructing a Frequency Distribution (Histogram)
1. Determine the number of classes
2. Determine the class width
3. Locate class boundaries
4. Proceed as above
Possible shapes of frequency distributions
1. Normal distribution (Bell shape)
2. Exponential
3. Uniform
4. Binomial, Poisson (discrete variables)
Important
-The normal distribution is the most popular, most useful,
easiest to handle
- It occurs naturally in practical applications
- It lends itself easily to more in depth analysis
Other Graphical Methods
-Statistical Table: Comparing dierent populations
- Bar Charts
- Line Charts
- Pie-Charts
- Cheating with Charts
11
Numerical methods
Measures of Central
Measures of Dispersion
Tendency
(Variability)
1. Sample mean
1. Range
2. Sample median
2. Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD)
3. Sample mode
3. Sample Variance
4. Sample Standard Deviation
I. Measures of Central Tendency

Given a sample of measurements (x1 , x2 , , xn ) where
n = sample size
xi = value of the ith observation in the sample
1. Sample Mean (arithmetic average)
or
n
x = x1 +x2 ++x
n
x
x = n
Example 1: Given a sample of 5 test grades

(90, 95, 80, 60, 75)
then
x = 90
+ 95 + 80 + 60 + 75 = 400
x
x
= n = 400
= 80.
5
Example 2: Let x = age of a randomly selected student sample:
12
(20, 18, 22, 29, 21, 19)

x = 20
+ 18 + 22 + 29 + 21 + 19 = 129
x
x
= n = 129
= 21.5
6
2. Sample Median
The median of a sample (data set) is the middle number when
the measurements are arranged in ascending order.
Note:
If n is odd, the median is the middle number
If n is even, the median is the average of the middle two numbers.
Example 1: Sample (9, 2, 7, 11, 14), n = 5
Step 1: arrange in ascending order
2, 7, 9, 11, 14
Step 2: med = 9.
Example 2: Sample (9, 2, 7, 11, 6, 14), n = 6
Step 1: 2, 6, 7, 9, 11, 14
= 8.
Step 2: med = 7+9
2
Remarks:
(i) x is sensitive to extreme values
(ii) the median is insensitive to extreme values (because median is a measure of location or position).
3. Mode
The mode is the value of x (observation) that occurs with the
greatest frequency.
Example: Sample: (9, 2, 7, 11, 14, 7, 2, 7), mode = 7
13
Eect of x, median and mode on relative frequency distribution.
14
II. Measures of Variability

Given: a sample of size n
sample: (x1 , x2 , , xn )
1. Range:
Range = largest measurement - smallest measurement
or Range = max - min
Example 1: Sample (90, 85, 65, 75, 70, 95)
Range = max - min = 95-65 = 30
2. Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD)
MAD =
|x x|
n
Example 2: Same sample

x=
x
= 80
n
x x x |x x|
90
10
10
85
5
5
65
-15
15
75
-5
5
70
-10
10
95
15
15
Totals 480
0
60
MAD =
|x x|
60
=
= 10.
n
6
Remarks:
15
(i) MAD is a good measure of variability

(ii) It is dicult for mathematical manipulations
3. Sample Variance, s2
(x x)2
n1
s =
4. Sample Standard Deviation, s
s = s2
or
s =
(xx)2
n1
Example: Same sample as before (x = 80)

x x x (x x)2
90
10
100
85
5
25
65
-15
225
75
-5
25
70
-10
100
95
15
225
Totals 480
0
700
Therefore
x=
x
480
=
= 80
n
6

2
s =
(x x)2
700
=
= 140
n1
5
16
2
s = s = 140 = 11.83
Computational Formula for Calculating s2 and s
2
2
( x)
x n
s2 =
n1
s=

2

x2 ( x )

n
n1
(or s = s2 ).
Example: Same sample
x
x2
90
8100
85
7225
65
4225
75
5625
70
4900
95
9025
Totals 480 39,100
s2 =
2
2
2
( x)
x n
39, 100 (480)
6
=
n1
5
39, 100 38, 400
700
=
=
= 140
5
5
2
s =
s = 140 = 11.83.
17
Numerical methods(Summary)
Data: {x1 , x2 , , xn }
(i) Measures of central tendency
Sample mean: x = n i
Sample median: the middle number when the measurements
are arranged in ascending order
Sample mode: most frequently occurring value
(ii) Measures of variability
Range: r = max min
(xi x)2
n1
Sample Variance: s =
Sample standard deviation: s= s2

Exercise: Find all the measures of central tendency and measures
of variability for the weight loss example.
Graphical Interpretation of the Variance:
Finite Populations
Let N = population size.
Data: {x1 , x2 , , xN }
Population mean: =
Population variance:
xi
N
(xi )2
=
N
Population standard deviation: = 2 , i.e.

2

(xi )2
N
18
Population parameters vs sample statistics.

Sample statistics: x, s2 , s.
Population parameters: , 2 , .
Practical Signicance of the standard deviation
Chebyshevs Inequality. (Regardless of the shape of frequency
distribution)
Given a number k 1, and a set of measurements x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ,
at least (1 k12 ) of the measurements lie within k standard deviations of their sample mean.
Restated. At least (1 k12 ) observations lie in the interval (x
ks, x + ks).
Example. A set of grades has x = 75, s = 6. Then
(i) (k = 1): at least 0% of all grades lie in [69, 81]
(ii) (k = 2): at least 75% of all grades lie in [63, 87]
(iii) (k = 3): at least 88% of all grades lie in [57, 93]
(iv) (k = 4): at least ?% of all grades lie in [?, ?]
(v) (k = 5): at least ?% of all grades lie in [?, ?]
Suppose that you are told that the frequency distribution is
bell shaped. Can you improve the estimates in Chebyshevs Inequality.
Empirical rule. Given a set of measurements x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , that
is bell shaped. Then
(i) approximately 68% of the measurements lie within one standard deviations of their sample mean, i.e. (x s, x + s)
(ii) approximately 95% of the measurements lie within two
standard deviations of their sample mean, i.e. (x 2s, x + 2s)
19
(iii) at least (almost all) 99% of the measurements lie within

three standard deviations of their sample mean, i.e. (x3s, x+3s)
Example A data set has x = 75, s = 6. The frequency distribution is known to be normal (bell shaped). Then
(i) (69, 81) contains approximately 68% of the observations
(ii) (63, 87) contains approximately 95% of the observations
(iii) (57, 93) contains at least 99% (almost all) of the observations
Comments.
(i) Empirical rule works better if sample size is large
(ii) In your calculations always keep 6 signicant digits
(iii) Approximation: s range
4
(iv) Coecient of variation (c.v.) =
s
x
Percentiles
Using percentiles is useful if data is badly skewed.

Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn be a set of measurements arranged in increasing order.
Denition. Let 0 < p < 100. The pth percentile is a number x
such that p% of all measurements fall below the pth percentile and
(100 p)% fall above it.
Example. Data: 2, 5, 8, 10, 11, 14, 17, 20.
(i) Find the 30th percentile.
Solution.
(S1) position = .3(n + 1) = .3(9) = 2.7
20
(S2) 30th percentile = 5 + .7(8 5) = 5 + 2.1 = 7.1

Special Cases.
1. Lower Quartile (25th percentile)
Example.
(S1) position = .25(n + 1) = .25(9) = 2.25
(S2) Q1 = 5 + .25(8 5) = 5 + .75 = 5.75
2. Median (50th percentile)
Example.
(S1) position = .5(n + 1) = .5(9) = 4.5
(S2) median: Q2 = 10 + .5(11 10) = 10.5
3. Upper Quartile (75th percentile)
Example.
(S1) position = .75(n + 1) = .75(9) = 6.75
(S2) Q3 = 14 + .75(17 14) = 16.25
Interquartiles.
IQ = Q3 Q1
We create a Box Plot by idenfying the inner and outer fencesas follows:
inner fences: Q1 1.5IQR, Q3 + 1.5IQR
outer fences: Q1 3IQR, Q3 + 3IQR
Less than 5% of measurements should fall beyond the inner
fences.
measuremants that fall outside outer fences are called outliers.
Exercise. Find the interquartile (IQ) in the above example.
21
Sample Mean and Variance

For Grouped Data
Example: (weight loss data)

Weight Loss Data
class boundaries mid-pt. freq. xf
x
f
1
5.0-9.07
3
21
2
9.0-13.011
5
55
3
13.0-17.015
7
105
4
17.0-21.019
6
114
5
21.0-25.023
3
69
6
25.0-29.0
27
1
27
Totals
25
391
f xf
x2 f
147
605
1,575
2,166
1,587
729
6,809
x2 f
Let k = number of classes. Note that n = f .

Formulas.
xf
n
xg =
s2g
2

x f ( xf )2 /n
n1
where the summation is over the number of classes k.
22
Exercise: Use the grouped data formulas to calculate the sample mean, sample variance and sample standard deviation of the
grouped data in the weight loss example. Compare with the raw
data results. (x = 16; xg = 15.64; s2 = 29.; s2g = 28.9.)
z-score
For bell-shaped data.
1. The sample z-score for a measurement x is
z=
xx
s
2. The population z-score for a measurement x is

z=
Example. A set of grades/scores has x = 75, s = 6. Suppose

your score is 85. What is your relative standing, (i.e. how many
standard deviations, s, above (below) the mean your score is)?
Answer.
85 75
xx
=
= 1.66
z=
s
6
standard deviations above average.
Review Exercises: Data Analysis
23
Please show all work. No credit for a correct nal answer

without a valid argument. Use the formula, substitution, answer
method whenever possible. Show your work graphically in all
relevant questions.
1. (Fluoride Problem) The regulation board of health in a
particular state specify that the uoride level must not exceed 1.5
ppm (parts per million). The 25 measurements below represent
the uoride level for a sample of 25 days. Although uoride levels
are measured more than once per day, these data represent the
early morning readings for the 25 days sampled.
.75 .86 .84 .85 .97
.94 .89 .84 .83 .89
.88 .78 .77 .76 .82
.71 .92 1.05 .94 .83
.81 .85 .97 .93 .79
(i) Show that x = .8588, s2 = .0065, s = .0803.

(ii) Find the range, R.
(iii) Using k = 7 classes, nd the width, w, of each class interval.
(iv) Locate class boundaries
(v) Construct the frequency and relative frequency distributions for the data.
24
class
frequency relative frequency
.70-.75.75-.80.80-.85.85-.90.90-.95.95-1.001.00-1.05
Totals
(vi) Graph the frequency and relative frequency distributions
and state your conclusions. (Vertical axis must be clearly labeled)
2. Given the following data set (weight loss per week)
(9, 2, 5, 8, 4, 5)
(i) Find the sample mean.
(ii) Find the sample median.
(iii) Find the sample mode.
(iv) Find the sample range.
(v) Find the mean absolute dierence.
(vi) Find the sample variance using the dening formula.
(vii) Find the sample variance using the short-cut formula.
(viii) Find the sample standard deviation.
(ix) Find the rst and third quartiles, Q1 and Q3 .
(x) Repeat (i)-(ix) for the data set (21, 24, 15, 16, 24).
Answers: x = 5.5, med =5, mode =5 range = 7, MAD=2,
ss , 6.7, s = 2.588, Q3 = 8.25.
25
3. Grades for 50 students from a previous MAT test are summarized below.
class
frequency, f xf x2 f
40 -504
50 -606
60-7010
70-8015
80-9010
90-100
5
Totals
(i) Complete all entries in the table.
(ii) Graph the frequency distribution. (Vertical axis must be
clearly labeled)
(iii) Find the sample mean for the grouped data
(iv) Find the sample variance and standard deviation for the
grouped data.
Answers: xf = 3610, x2 f = 270, 250, x = 72.2, s2 = 196, s =
14.
4. Refer to the raw data in the uoride problem.
(i) Find the sample mean and standard deviation for the raw
data.
(ii) Find the sample mean and standard deviation for the
grouped data.
(iii) Compare the answers in (i) and (ii).
26
Answers: x = 21.47, x2 = 18.5931, x = 0.8588, s62 =

0.006, s = .0803.
xf = 21.475, x2 f = 18.58, xg = 0.859, sg = .0745.
5. Suppose that the mean of a population is 30. Assume
the standard deviation is known to be 4 and that the frequency
distribution is known to be bell-shaped.
(i) Approximately what percentage of measurements fall in the
interval (22, 34)
(ii) Approximately what percentage of measurements fall in
the interval (, + 2)
(iii) Find the interval around the mean that contains 68% of
measurements
(iv)Find the interval around the mean that contains 95% of
measurements
6. Refer to the data in the uoride problem. Suppose that the
relative frequency distribution is bell-shaped. Using the empirical
rule
(i) nd the interval around the mean that contains 99.6% of
measurements.
(ii) nd the percentage of measurements that fall in the interval
( + 2, )
7. (4 pts.) Answer by True of False . (Circle your choice).
T F (i) The median is insensitive to extreme values.
T F (ii) The mean is insensitive to extreme values.
27
T F (iii) For a positively skewed frequency distribution, the

mean is larger than the median.
T F (iv) The variance is equal to the square of the standard
deviation.
T F (v) Numerical descriptive measures computed from sample
measurements are called parameters.
T F (vi) The number of students attending a Mathematics
lecture on any given day is a discrete variable.
T F (vii) The median is a better measure of central tendency
than the mean when a distribution is badly skewed.
T F (viii) Although we may have a large mass of data, statistical techniques allow us to adequately describe and summarize the
data by only using an average.
T F (ix) A sample is a subset of the population.
T F (x) A statistic is a number that describes a population
characteristic.
T F (xi) A parameter is a number that describes a sample
characteristic.
T F (xii) A population is a subset of the sample.
T F (xiii) A population is the complete collection of items
under study.
28
Chapter 2
Probability
Contents.
Probability of an Event
Equally Likely Outcomes
Conditional Probability and Independence
Laws of Probability
Counting Sample Points
Random Sampling
Modeling Uncertainity
Denitions
Random experiment: involves obtaining observations of some
kind
29
Examples Toss of a coin, throw a die, polling, inspecting an

assembly line, counting arrivals at emergency room, etc.
Population: Set of all possible observations. Conceptually, a
population could be generated by repeating an experiment indefinitely.
Outcome of an experiment:
Elementary event (simple event): one possible outcome of an
experiment
Event (Compound event): One or more possible outcomes of a
random experiment
Sample space: the set of all sample points (simple events) for an
experiment is called a sample space; or set of all possible outcomes
for an experiment
Notation.
Sample space : S
Sample point: E1 , E2 , . . . etc.
Event: A, B, C, D, E etc. (any capital letter).
Venn diagram:
Example.
S = {E1 , E2 , . . . , E6 }.
That is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. We may think of S as representation of possible outcomes of a throw of a die.
More denitions
Union, Intersection and Complementation
Given A and B two events in a sample space S.
1. The union of A and B, A B, is the event containing all
30
sample points in either A or B or both. Sometimes we use AorB

for union.
2. The intersection of A and B, A B, is the event containing
all sample points that are both in A and B. Sometimes we use
AB or AandB for intersection.
3. The complement of A, Ac , is the event containing all sample points that are not in A. Sometimes we use notA or A for
complement.
Mutually Exclusive Events (Disjoint Events) Two events are
said to be mutually exclusive (or disjoint) if their intersection is
empty. (i.e. A B = ).
Example Suppose S = {E1 , E2 , . . . , E6 }. Let
A = {E1 , E3 , E5 };
B = {E1 , E2 , E3 }. Then
(i)A B = {E1 , E2 , E3 , E5 }.
(ii) AB = {E1 , E3 }.
(iii) Ac = {E2 , E4 , E6 }; B c = {E4 , E5 , E6 };
(iv) A and B are not mutually exclusive (why?)
(v) Give two events in S that are mutually exclusive.
Probability of an event
Relative Frequency Denition If an experiment is repeated a

large number, n, of times and the event A is observed nA times,
31
the probability of A is
P (A)
nA
n
Interpretation
n = # of trials of an experiment
nA = frequency of the event A
nA
= relative frequency of A
n
P (A)
nA
n
if n is large enough.
(In fact, P (A) = limn nnA .)

Conceptual Denition of Probability
Consider a random experiment whose sample space is S with
sample points E1 , E2 , . . . ,. For each event Ei of the sample space S
dene a number P (E) that satises the following three conditions:
(i) 0 P (Ei ) 1 for all i
(ii) P (S) = 1
(iii) (Additive property)

P (Ei ) = 1,
where the summation is over all sample points in S.

We refer to P (Ei ) as the probability of the Ei .
Denition The probability of any event A is equal to the sum of
the probabilities of the sample points in A.
Example. Let S = {E1 , . . . , E10 }. It is known that P (Ei ) =
1/20, i = 1, . . . , 6 and P (Ei ) = 1/5, i = 7, 8, 9 and P (E10 ) = 2/20.
In tabular form, we have
32
Ei
p(Ei )
E1
E2
E3
E4
E5
E6
E7 E8 E9 E10
1/20 1/20 1/20 1/20 1/20 1/20 1/5 1/5 1/5 1/10
Question: Calculate P (A) where A = {Ei , i 6}.

A:
P (A) = P (E6 ) + P (E7 ) + P (E8 ) + P (E9 ) + P (E10 )
= 1/20 + 1/5 + 1/5 + 1/5 + 1/10 = 0.75
Steps in calculating probabilities of events
1. Dene the experiment
2. List all simple events
3. Assign probabilities to simple events
4. Determine the simple events that constitute an event
5. Add up the simple events probabilities to obtain the probability of the event
Example Calculate the probability of observing one H in a toss
of two fair coins.
Solution.
S = {HH, HT, T H, T T }
A = {HT, T H}
P (A) = 0.5
Interpretations of Probability
(i) In real world applications one observes (measures) relative
frequencies, one cannot measure probabilities. However, one can
estimate probabilities.
33
(ii) At the conceptual level we assign probabilities to events.

The assignment, however, should make sense. (e.g. P(H)=.5,
P(T)=.5 in a toss of a fair coin).
(iii) In some cases probabilities can be a measure of belief
(subjective probability). This measure of belief should however
satisfy the axioms.
(iv) Typically, we would like to assign probabilities to simple
events directly; then use the laws of probability to calculate the
probabilities of compound events.
Equally Likely Outcomes
The equally likely probability P dened on a nite sample
space S = {E1 , . . . , EN }, assigns the same probability P (Ei ) =
1/N for all Ei .
In this case, for any event A
P (A) =
NA
sample points in A
#(A)
=
=
N
sample points in S
#(S)
where N is the number of the sample points in S and NA is the

number of the sample points in A.
Example. Toss a fair coin 3 times.
(i) List all the sample points in the sample space
Solution: S = {HHH, T T T } (Complete this)
(ii) Find the probability of observing exactly two heads, at
most one head.
34
Laws of Probability
Conditional Probability
The conditional probability of the event A given that event B
has occurred is denoted by P (A|B). Then
P (A|B) =
P (A B)
P (B)
provided P (B) > 0. Similarly,

P (B|A) =
P (A B)
P (A)
Independent Events
Denitions. (i) Two events A and B are said to be independent
if
P (A|B) = P (A).
(ii) Two events A and B that are not independent are said to
be dependent.
Remarks. (i) If A and B are independent, then
P (A B) = P (A)P (B); and
P (B|A) = P (B).
(ii) If A is independent of B then B is independent of A.
Probability Laws
Complementation law:
P (A) = 1 P (Ac )
35
Additive law:
P (A B) = P (A) + P (B) P (A B)
Moreover, if A and B are mutually exclusive, then P (AB) = 0
and
P (A B) = P (A) + P (B)
Multiplicative law (Product rule)
P (A B) = P (A|B)P (B)
= P (B|A)P (A)
Moreover, if A and B are independent
P (AB) = P (A)P (B)
Example Let S = {E1 , E2 , . . . , E6 }; A = {E1 , E3 , E5 }; B =
{E1 , E2 , E3 , E4 }; C = {E2 , E4 , E6 };D = {E6 }. Suppose that all
elementary events are equally likely.
(i) What does it mean that all elementary events are equally
likely?
(ii) Find P (A), P (B), and P (A B)
(iii) Use the complementation rule to nd P (Ac ).
(vi) Find P (A B).
(v) Find P (A|B) and P (B|A)
(vi) Are A and B independent?
(vii) Exercise: Repeat (ii)-(vi) for events C and D.
36
Law of total probability Let the B, B c be complementary events

and let A denote an arbitrary event. Then
P (A) = P (A B) + P (A B c ) ,
or
P (A) = P (A|B)P (B) + P (A|B c )P (B c ).
Bayes Law
Let the B, B c be complementary events and let A denote an
arbitrary event. Then
P (B|A) =
P (A|B)P (B)
P (AB)
=
.
P (A)
P (A|B)P (B) + P (A|B c )P (B c )
Remarks.
(i) The events of interest here are B, B c , P (B) and P (B c ) are
called prior probabilities, and
(ii) P (B|A) and P (B c |A) are called posterior (revised) probabilities.
(iii) Bayes Law is important in several elds of applications.
Example 1. A laboratory blood test is 95 percent eective in detecting a certain disease when it is, in fact, present. However, the
test also yields a false positive results for 1 percent of healthy
persons tested. (That is, if a healthy person is tested, then, with
probability 0.01, the test result will imply he or she has the disease.) If 0.5 percent of the population actually has the disease,
what is the probability a person has the disease given that the
test result is positive?
37
Solution Let D be the event that the tested person has the disease
and E the event that the test result is positive. Then the we have
the data summary: P (E|D) = 0.95, P (E|Dc ) = 0.01, P (D) =
0.005, P (Dc ) = 0.995.
The desired probability P (D|E) is obtained by
P (D|E) =
P (D E)
P (E)
P (E|D)P (D)
P (E|D)P (D) + P (E|Dc )P (Dc )
(.95)(.005)
(.95)(.005) + (.01)(.995)
95
.323.
294
Thus only 32 percent of those persons whose test results are positive actually have the disease.
Probabilities in Tabulated Form
Counting Sample Points

Is it always necessary to list all sample points in S?
Note that 230 109 = one billion, 240 1012 = one thousand
billion, 250 1015 = one trillion.
38
Coin Tosses
Coins sample-points Coins sample-points
1
2
2
4
3
8
4
16
5
32
6
64
10
1024
20
1,048,576
30
109
40
1012
50
1015
64
1019
RECALL: P (A) = nnA , so for some applications we need to

nd n, nA where n and nA are the number of points in S and A
respectively.
Basic principle of counting: mn rule
Suppose that two experiments are to be performed. Then if
experiment 1 can result in any one of m possible outcomes and if,
for each outcome of experiment 1, there are n possible outcomes
of experiment 2, then together there are mn possible outcomes of
the two experiments.
Examples.
(i) Toss two coins: mn = 2 2 = 4
(ii) Throw two dice: mn = 6 6 = 36
(iii) A small community consists of 10 men, each of whom has
3 sons. If one man and one of his sons are to be chosen as father
and son of the year, how many dierent choices are possible?
Solution: Let the choice of the man as the outcome of the
rst experiment and the subsequent choice of one of his sons as
39
the outcome of the second experiment, we see, from the basic

principle, that there are 10 3 = 30 possible choices.
Generalized basic principle of counting
If r experiments that are to be performed are such that the
rst one may result in any of n1 possible outcomes, and if for each
of these n1 possible outcomes there are n2 possible outcomes of
the second experiment, and if for each of the possible outcomes
of the rst two experiments there are n3 possible outcomes of the
third experiment, and if, . . ., then there are a total of n1 n2 nr
possible outcomes of the r experiments.
Examples
(i) There are 5 routes available between A and B; 4 between
B and C; and 7 between C and D. What is the total number of
available routes between A and D?
Solution: The total number of available routes is mnt = 5.4.7 =
140.
(ii) A college planning committee consists of 3 freshmen, 4
sophomores, 5 juniors, and 2 seniors. A subcommittee of 4, consisting of 1 individual from each class, is to be chosen. How many
dierent subcommittees are possible?
Solution: It follows from the generalized principle of counting
that there are 3 4 5 2 = 120 possible subcommittees.
(iii) How many dierent 7place license plates are possible if
the rst 3 places are to be occupied by letters and the nal 4 by
numbers?
Solution: It follows from the generalized principle of counting
40
that there are 26 26 26 10 10 10 10 = 175, 760, 000 possible

license plates.
(iv) In (iii), how many license plates would be possible if repetition among letters or numbers were prohibited?
Solution: In this case there would be 26 25 24 10 9 8 7 =
78, 624, 000 possible license plates.
Permutations: (Ordered arrangements)
The number of ways of ordering n distinct objects taken r at
a time (order is important) is given by
n!
= n(n 1)(n 2) (n r + 1)
(n r)!
Examples
(i) In how many ways can you arrange the letters a, b and c.
List all arrangements.
Answer: There are 3! = 6 arrangements or permutations.
(ii) A box contains 10 balls. Balls are selected without replacement one at a time. In how many dierent ways can you select 3
balls?
Solution: Note that n = 10, r = 3. Number of dierent ways
is
= 720,
10 9 8 = 10!
7!
(which is equal to
n!
).
(nr)!
Combinations
For r n, we dene
41
n
n!
=
r
(n r)!r!
and say that

n
r
represents the number of possible combinations
of n objects taken r at a time (with no regard to order).

Examples
(i) A committee of 3 is to be formed from a group of 20 people.
How many dierent committees are possible?
Solution: There are
20
3
20!
3!17!
20.19.18
3.2.1
= 1140 possible
committees.
(ii) From a group of 5 men and 7 women, how many dierent
committees consisting of 2 men and 3 women can be formed?
Solution:

5
2
7
3
= 350 possible committees.
Random Sampling
Denition. A sample of size n is said to be a random sample if

the n elements are selected in such a way that every possible combination of n elements has an equal probability of being selected.
In this case the sampling process is called simple random sampling.
Remarks. (i) If n is large, we say the random sample provides
an honest representation of the population.
(ii) For nite populations the number of possible samples of
42
size n is
N
n
. For instance the number of possible samples when
N = 28 and n = 4 is
28
4
= 20, 475.
(iii) Tables of random numbers may be used to select random

samples.
Modeling Uncertainty
The purpose of modeling uncertainty (randomness) is to discover the laws of change.

1. Concept of Probability. Even though probability (chance)
involves the notion of change, the laws governing the change may
themselves remain xed as time passes.
Example. Consider a chance experiment: Toss of a coin.
Probabilistic Law. In a fair coin tossing experiment the percentage of (H)eads is very close to 0.5. In the model (abstraction):
P (H) = 0.5 exactly.
Why Probabilistic Reasoning?
Example. Toss 5 coins repeatedly and write down the number
of heads observed in each trial. Now, what percentage of trials
produce 2 Heads?
answer. Use the Binomial law to show that

5
(0.5)2 (1 .5)3
2
5!
=
(0.5)2 (.5)3 = 0.3125
2!3!
P (2Heads) =
43
Conclusion. There is no need to carry out this experiment to

answer the question. (Thus saving time and eort).
2. The Interplay Between Probability and Statistics. (Theory versus Application)
(i) Theory is an exact discipline developed from logically dened axioms (conditions).
(ii) Theory is related to physical phenomena only in inexact
terms (i.e. approximately).
(iii) When theory is applied to real problems, it works ( i.e. it
makes sense).
Example. A fair die is tossed for a very large number of times.
It was observed that face 6 appeared 1, 500. Estimate how many
times the die is tossed.
Answer. Number of tosses is approximately 9000 times.
Review Exercises: Probability

relevant questions.
1. An experiment consists of tossing 3 fair coins.
(i) List all the elements in the sample space.
(ii) Describe the following events:
A = { observe exactly two heads}
44
B = { Observe at most one tail}

C = { Observe at least two heads}
D = {Observe exactly one tail}
(iii) Find the probabilities of events A, B, C, D.
2. Suppose that S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} such that P (1) = .1, P (2) =
.1,P(3)=.1, P(4)=.2, P (5) = .2, P (6) = .3.
(i) Find the probability of the event A = {4, 5, 6}.
(ii) Find the probability of the complement of A.
(iii) Find the probability of the event B = {even}.
(iv) Find the probability of the event C = {odd}.
3. An experiment consists of throwing a fair die.
(i) List all the elements in the sample space.
(ii) Describe the following events:
A = { observe a number larger than 3 }
B = { Observe an even number}
C = { Observe an odd number}
(iii) Find the probabilities of events A, B, C.
(iv) Compare problems 2. and 3.
4. Refer to problem 3. Find
(i) A B
(ii) A B
(iii) B C
(iv) Ac
(v) C c
45
(vi) A C
(vii) A C
(viii) Find the probabilities in (i)-(vii).
(ix) Refer to problem 2., and answer questions (i)-(viii).
5. The following probability table gives the intersection probabilities for four events A, B, C and D where B = Ac and D = C c :
C
D
A
B
.06 0.31
.55 .08
1.00
(i) Using the denitions, nd P (A), P (B), P (C), P (D), P (C|A),

P (D|A) and P (C|B).
(ii) Find P (B c ).
(iii) Find P (A B).
(iv) Find P (A B).
(v) Are B and C independent events? Justify your answer.
(vi) Are B and C mutually exclusive events? Justify your
answer.
(vii) Are C and D independent events? Justify your answer.
(viii) Are C and D mutually exclusive events? Justify your
answer.
6. Use the laws of probability to justify your answers to the
following questions:
46
(i) If P (A B) = .6, P (A) = .2, and P (B) = .4, are A and B

mutually exclusive? independent?
(ii) If P (A B) = .65, P (A) = .3, and P (B) = .5, are A and
B mutually exclusive? independent?
(iii) If P (A B) = .7, P (A) = .4, and P (B) = .5, are A and
B mutually exclusive? independent?
7. Suppose that the following two weather forecasts were reported on two local TV stations for the same period. First report:
The chances of rain are today 30%, tomorrow 40%, both today
and tomorrow 20%, either today or tomorrow 60%. Second report: The chances of rain are today 30%, tomorrow 40%, both
today and tomorrow 10%, either today or tomorrow 60%. Which
of the two reports, if any, is more believable? Why? No credit if
answer is not justied. (Hint: Let A and B be the events of rain
today and rain tomorrow.)
10. Calculate
(i) 8!
(ii) 16!
(iii)
10!
6!4!
9. A box contains ve balls, a black (b), white (w), red (r),

orange (o), and green (g). Three balls are to be selected at random.
(i) Find the sample space S (Hint: there is 10 sample points).
S = {bwr, }
47
(ii) Find the probability of selecting a black ball.

(iii) Find the probability of selecting one black and one red
ball.
10. A box contains four black and six white balls.
(i) If a ball is selected at random, what is the probability that
it is white? black?
(ii) If two balls are selected without replacement, what is the
probability that both balls are black? both are white? the rst is
white and the second is black? the rst is black and the second is
white? one ball is black?
(iii) Repeat (ii) if the balls are selected with replacement.
(Hint: Start by dening the events B1 and B2 as the rst ball
is black and the second ball is black respectively, and by dening
the events W1 abd W2 . as the rst ball is white and the second
ball is white respectively. Then use the product rule)
11. The American Cancer Society advises that the prostatespecic antigen (PSA) test should be oered annually for men
aged 50 and older with a 10-year life expectancy and to younger
men (40 and older) considered to be at high risk. It is now recommended that men be informed of the risks and benets of PSA
screening, including chances of developing the disease, pros and
cons of screening tests, eectiveness and potential side eects of
the treatments.(Patient Care, Tuesday, Nov. 15, 2005) The data
in the following table are based on 2620 men 40 years and older
undergoing PSA testing and biopsy (based on a PSA cutpoint of
48
4 ng/ml):
Prostate Cancer No Prostate Cancer
Positive PSA Test
800
1132
Negative PSA Test
130
558
Using the data given in the above contingency table, compute and interpret the following probabilities. For a man aged 40
and older selected at random, let even A be that he has prostate
cancer, and even B be that he has positive PSA test. Find the
probability that he:
(i) has prostate cancer? does not have prostate cancer?
(ii) has a positive PSA test? has a negative PSA test?
(iii) has a positive PSA test, given that he has prostate cancer?
(sensitivity of the test)
(iv) has a positive PSA test, given that he does not have
prostate cancer? (false-positive rate)
(v) has a negative PSA test, given that he has prostate cancer?
(false-negative rate)
(vi) has a negative PSA test, given that he does not have
prostate cancer? (specicity of the test)
(vii) has prostate cancer given he has a positive PSA test?
(positive-predictive value of the test)
(viii) does not have prostate cancer, given that he has a negative PSA test? (this is called the negative predictive value)
49
(ix) Suppose the PSA test has been oered to your friend.
What advice or information might you oer your friend as he
makes a decision about testing? Justify your recommendations.
12. Answer by True of False . (Circle your choice).
T F (i) An event is a specic collection of simple events.
T F (ii) The probability of an event can sometimes be negative.
T F (iii) If A and B are mutually exclusive events, then they
are also dependent.
T F (iv) The sum of the probabilities of all simple events in
the sample space may be less than 1 depending on circumstances.
T F (v) A random sample of n observations from a population
is not likely to provide a good estimate of a parameter.
T F (vi) A random sample of n observations from a population
is one in which every dierent subset of size n from the population
has an equal probability of being selected.
T F (vii) The probability of an event can sometimes be larger
than one.
T F (viii) The probability of an elementary event can never be
larger than one half.
T F (ix) Although the probability of an event occurring is .9,
the event may not occur at all in 10 trials.
T F (x) If a random experiment has 5 possible outcomes, then
the probability of each outcome is 1/5.
T F (xi) If two events are independent, the occurrence of one
event should not aect the likelihood of the occurrence of the other
event.
50
Chapter 3
Random Variables and
Discrete Distributions
Contents.
Random Variables
Expected Values and Variance
Binomial
Poisson
Hypergeometric
Eaxample of Markov Chains
Random Variables
The discrete rv arises in situations when the population (or

possible outcomes) are discrete (or qualitative).
51
Example. Toss a coin 3 times, then

S = {HHH, HHT, HT H, HT T, T HH, T HT, T T H, T T T }
Let the variable of interest, X, be the number of heads observed
then relevant events would be
{X = 0} = {T T T }
{X = 1} = {HT T, T HT, T T H}
{X = 2} = {HHT, HT H, T HH}
{X = 3} = {HHH}.
The relevant question is to nd the probability of each these
events.
Note that X takes integer values even though the sample space
consists of Hs and Ts.
The variable X transforms the problem of calculating probabilities from that of set theory to calculus.
Denition. A random variable (r.v.) is a rule that assigns a
numerical value to each possible outcome of a random experiment.
Interpretation:
-random: the value of the r.v. is unknown until the outcome
is observed
- variable: it takes a numerical value
Notation: We use X, Y , etc. to represent r.v.s.
A Discrete r.v. assigns a nite or countably innite number of
possible values
(e.g. toss a coin, throw a die, etc.)
A Continuous r.v. has a continuum of possible values.
52
(e.g. height, weight, price, etc.)

Discrete Distributions The probability distribution of a discrete r.v., X, assigns a probability p(x) for each possible x such
that
(i) 0 p(x) 1, and

(ii) x p(x) = 1
where the summation is over all possible values of x.
Discrete distributions in tabulated form
Example.
Which of the following denes a probability distribution?
x
0
1
2
p(x) 0.30 0.50 0.20
x
0
1
2
p(x) 0.60 0.50 -0.10
x
-1
1
2
p(x) 0.30 0.40 0.20
Remarks. (i) Discrete distributions arise when the r.v. X is

discrete (qualitative data)
53
(ii) Continuous distributions arise when the r.v. X is continuous (quantitative data)
Remarks. (i) In data analysis we described a set of data (sample)
by dividing it into classes and calculating relative frequencies.
(ii) In Probability we described a random experiment (population) in terms of events and probabilities of events.
(iii) Here, we describe a random experiment (population) by
using random variables, and probability distribution functions.
Expected Value and Variance
Denition 2.1 The expected value of a discrete rv X is denoted

by and is dened to be
=
xp(x).
Notation: The expected value of X is also denoted by =

E[X]; or sometimes X to emphasize its dependence on X.
Denition 2.2 If X is a rv with mean , then the variance of X
is dened by
2 =
(x )2 p(x)
x
2
Notation: Sometimes we use 2 = V (X) (or X
).
Computational Formula
2 =
2
x p(x) 2
54
Denition 2.3 If X is a rv with mean , then the standard deviation of X, denoted by X , (or simply ) is dened by
V (X) =
(x )2 p(x)
Computational Formula
=

x2 p(x) 2
Discrete Distributions
Binomial.
The binomial experiment (distribution) arises in following situation:
(i) the underlying experiment consists of n independent and
identical trials;
(ii) each trial results in one of two possible outcomes, a success
or a failure;
(iii) the probability of a success in a single trial is equal to p
and remains the same throughout the experiment; and
(iv) the experimenter is interested in the rv X that counts the
number of successes observed in n trials.
A r.v. X is said to have a binomial distribution with parameters n and p if

p(x) =
n x nx
p q
(x = 0, 1, . . . , n)
x
55
where q = 1 p.
Mean: = np
Variance: 2 = npq, = npq

Example: Bernoulli.
A rv X is said to have a Bernoulli distribution with parameter
p if
Formula: p(x) = px (1 p)1x x = 0, 1.
Tabulated form:
x
0
p(x) 1-p
1
p
Mean: = p
Variance: 2 = pq, = pq
Binomial Tables.
Cumulative probabilities are given in the table.
Example. Suppose X has a binomial distribution with n =
10, p = .4. Find
(i) P (X 4) = .633
(ii) P (X < 6) = P (X 5) = .834
(iii) P (X > 4) = 1 P (X 4) = 1 .633 = .367
(iv) P (X = 5) = P (X 5) P (X 4) = .834 .633 = .201
Exercise: Answer the same question with p = 0.7
Poisson.
The Poisson random variable arises when counting the number of events that occur in an interval of time when the events
56
are occurring at a constant rate; examples include number of arrivals at an emergency room, number of items demanded from an
inventory; number of items in a batch of a random size.
A rv X is said to have a Poisson distribution with parameter
> 0 if
p(x) = e x /x!, x = 0, 1, . . . .
Graph.
Mean: =
Variance: 2 = , =
Note: e 2.71828
Example. Suppose the number of typographical errors on a single
page of your book has a Poisson distribution with parameter =
1/2. Calculate the probability that there is at least one error on
this page.
Solution. Letting X denote the number of errors on a single
page, we have
P (X 1) = 1 P (X = 0) = 1 e0.5 0.395
Rule of Thumb. The Poisson distribution provides good approximations to binomial probabilities when n is large and = np is
small, preferably with np 7.
Example. Suppose that the probability that an item produced
by a certain machine will be defective is 0.1. Find the probability
that a sample of 10 items will contain at most 1 defective item.
57
Solution. Using the binomial distribution, the desired probability is

P (X 1) = p(0) + p(1) =

10
10
(0.1)0 (0.9)10 +
(0.1)1 (0.9)9 = 0.7361
0
1
Using Poisson approximation, we have = np = 1

e1 + e1 0.7358
which is close to the exact answer.
Hypergeometric.
The hypergeometric distribution arises when one selects a random sample of size n, without replacement, from a nite population of size N divided into two classes consisting of D elements
of the rst kind and N D of the second kind. Such a scheme
is called sampling without replacement from a nite dichotomous
population.
Example. (Sampling without replacement)
Suppose an urn contains D = 10 red balls and N D = 15
white balls. A random sample of size n = 8, without replacement,
is drawn and the number of red balls is denoted by X. Then

f (x) =
10
x
Formula:
25
8
15
8x
f (x) =
D
x
0x8.
N D
nx

N
n
58
where max(0, n N + D) x min(n, D). We dene F (x) = 0,

elsewhere.
D
)
Mean: E[X] = n( N
n
D
)(n)( N
(1
Variance: V (X) = ( N
N 1
The
N n
N 1
D
))
N
is called the nite population correction factor.
Markov Chains
Example 1.(Brand Switching Problem)

Suppose that a manufacturer of a product (Brand 1) is competing with only one other similar product (Brand 2). Both manufacturers have been engaged in aggressive advertising programs
which include oering rebates, etc. A survey is taken to nd out
the rates at which consumers are switching brands or staying loyal
to brands. Responses to the survey are given below. If the manufacturers are competing for a population of y = 300, 000 buyers,
how should they plan for the future (immediate future, and in the
long-run)?
Brand Switching Data
This week
Last week Brand 1 Brand 2 Total
Brand 1
90
10
100
Brand 2
40
160
200
59
Brand 1
Brand 2
Brand 1
90/100
40/200
Brand 2
10/100
160/200
So

P =
0.9 0.1
0.2 0.8
Question 1. Suppose that customer behavior is not changed over

time. If 1/3 of all customers purchased B1 this week.
What percentage will purchase B1 next week?
What percentage will purchase B2 next week?
What percentage will purchase B1 two weeks from now?
What percentage will purchase B2 two weeks from now?
Solution: Note that 0 = (1/3, 2/3) = (0.33, 0.67), then
1 = (11 , 21 ) = (10 , 20 )P

1 = (11 , 21 ) = (1/3, 2/3)
0.9 0.1
0.2 0.8
= (1.3/3, 1.7/3)
Therefore 1 = (0.43, 0.57)

B1 buyers =300, 000(1.3/3) = 130, 000
B2 buyers = 300, 000(1.7/3) = 170, 000.
Two weeks from now: exercise.
Question 2. Determine whether each brand will eventually retain
a constant share of the market.
60
Solution:

We need to solve = P , and i i = 1, that is

(1 , 2 ) = (1 , 2 )
0.9 0.1
0.2 0.8
and
1 + 2 = 1
Matrix multiplication gives
1 = 0.91 + 0.22
2 = 0.11 + 0.82
1 + 2 = 1
One equation is redundant. Choose the rst and the third equations. We obtain
0.11 = 0.22
and 1 + 2 = 1
which gives
(1 , 2 ) = (2/3, 1/3)
Brand 1 will eventually capture two thirds of the market, i.e.
200, 000 customers.
Example 2. On any particular day Rebecca, while on medication, is either cheerful (c) or gloomy (g). Data is collected to study
the eect of the medication on behaviour. If Rebecca is cheerful
today then she will be cheerful tomorrow with probability 0.7.
61
If she is gloomy today then she will be gloomy tomorrow with

probability 0.4.
(i) What is the transition matrix P ?
Solution:

0.7 0.3
P =
0.6 0.4
(ii) What is the fraction of days Rebecca is cheerful? gloomy?
Solution: The fraction of days Rebecca is cheerful is the probability that on any given day Rebecca is cheerful. This can be
obtained by solving = P , where = (0 , 1 ), and 0 + 1 = 1.
Exercise. Complete this problem.
Review Exercises: Discrete Distributions

relevant questions.
1. Identify the following as discrete or continuous random
variables.
(i) The market value of a publicly listed security on a given
day
(ii) The number of printing errors observed in an article in a
weekly news magazine
(iii) The time to assemble a product (e.g. a chair)
62
(iv) The number of emergency cases arriving at a city hospital

(v) The number of sophomores in a randomly selected Math.
class at a university
(vi) The rate of interest paid by your local bank on a given
day
2. What restrictions do we place on the probabilities associated
with a particular probability distribution?
3. Indicate whether or not the following are valid probability
distributions. If they are not, indicate which of the restrictions
has been violated.
(i)
x
p(x)
-1 0 1 3.5
.6 .1 .1 .2
(ii)
x
p(x)
-1 1 3.5
.6 .6 -.2
(ii)
63
x
p(x)
-2 1 4 6
.2 .2 .2 .1
4. A random variable X has the following probability distribution:

x
p(x)
1
2
3
4
5
.05 .10 .15 .45 .25
(i) Verify that X has a valid probability distribution.

(ii) Find the probability that X is greater than 3, i.e. P (X >
3).
(iii) Find the probability that X is greater than or equal to 3,
i.e. P (X 3).
(iv) Find the probability that X is less than or equal to 2, i.e.
P (X 2).
(v) Find the probability that X is an odd number.
(vi) Graph the probability distribution for X.
5. A discrete random variable X has the following probability
distribution:
x
p(x)
10 15 20 25
.2 .3 .4 .1
64
(i) Calculate the expected value of X, E(X) = .

(ii) Calculate the variance of X, 2 .
(ii) Calculate the standard deviation of X, .
Answers: = 17, x2 p(x) = 310, 2 = 21, = 4.58.
6. For each of the following probability distributions, calculate
the expected value of X, E(X) = ; the variance of X, 2 ; and
the standard deviation of X, .
(i)
x
1 2 3 4
p(x) .4 .3 .2 .1
65
(ii)
x
p(x)
-2 -1 2 4
.2 .3 .3 .2
7. In how many ways can a committee of ten be chosen from

fteen individuals?
T F (i) The expected value is always positive.
T F (ii) A random variable has a single numerical value for
each outcome of a random experiment.
T F (iii) The only rule that applies to all probability distributions is that the possible random variable values are always
between 0 and 1.
T F (iv) A random variable is one that takes on dierent values
depending on the chance outcome of an experiment.
T F (v) The number of television programs watched per day
by a college student is an example of a discrete random variable.
T F (vi) The monthly volume of gasoline sold in one gas station
is an example of a discrete random variable.
T F (vii) The expected value of a random variable provides a
complete description of the random variables probability distribution.
T F (viii) The variance can never be equal to zero.
T F (ix) The variance can never be negative.
66
T F (x) The probability p(x) for a discrete random variable X

must be greater than or equal to zero but less than or equal to
one.
T F (xi) The sum of all probabilities p(x) for all possible values
of X is always equal to one.
T F (xii) The most common method for sampling more than
one observation from a population is called random sampling.
Review Exercises: Binomial Distribution

relevant questions.
1. List the properties for a binomial experiment.
2. Give the formula for the binomial probability distribution.
3. Calculate
(i) 5!
(ii) 10!
(iii)
7!
3!4!
4. Consider a binomial distribution with n = 4 and p = .5.

(i) Use the formula to nd P (0), P (1), , P (4).
(ii) Graph the probability distribution found in (i)
67
(iii) Repeat (i) and (ii) when n = 4, and p = .2.

(iv) Repeat (i) and (ii) when n = 4, and p = .8.
(i) Find P (0) and P (2) using the formula.
(ii) Find P (X 2) using the formula.
(iii) Find the expected value E(X) =
(iv) Find the standard deviation
(i) Find the expected value E(X) =
(ii) Find the standard deviation
(i) Find the expected value E(X) =
(ii) Find the standard deviation
(iii) Find P (0) and P (2) using the table.
(iv) Find P (X 2) using the table.
(v) Find P (X < 12) using the table.
(vi) Find P (X > 13) using the table.
(vii) Find P (X 8) using the table.
8. A sales organization makes one sale for every 200 prospects
that it contacts. The organization plans to contact 100, 000 prospects
over the coming year.
(i) What is the expected value of X, the annual number of
sales.
(ii) What is the standard deviation of X.
68
(iii) Within what limits would you expect X to fall with 95%
probability. (Use the empirical rule). Answers: = 500, = 22.3
9. Identify the binomial experiment in the following group of

statements.
(i) a shopping mall is interested in the income levels of its
customers and is taking a survey to gather information
(ii) a business rm introducing a new product wants to know
how many purchases its clients will make each year
(iii) a sociologist is researching an area in an eort to determine
the proportion of households with male head of households
(iv) a study is concerned with the average hours worked by
teenagers who are attending high school
(v) Determining whether or nor a manufactured item is defective.
(vi) Determining the number of words typed before a typist
makes an error.
(vii) Determining the weekly pay rate per employee in a given
company.
10. Answer by True or False . (Circle your choice).
T F (i) In a binomial experiment each trial is independent of
the other trials.
T F (i) A binomial distribution is a discrete probability distribution
69
T F (i) The standard deviation of a binomial probability distribution is given by npq.
70
Chapter 4
Continuous Distributions
Contents.
1. Standard Normal
2. Normal
3. Uniform
4. Exponential
Introduction
RECALL: The continuous rv arises in situations when the population (or possible outcomes) are continuous (or quantitative).
Example. Observe the lifetime of a light bulb, then
S = {x, 0 x < }
Let the variable of interest, X, be observed lifetime of the light
bulb then relevant events would be {X x}, {X 1000}, or
71
{1000 X 2000}.
The relevant question is to nd the probability of each these
events.
Important. For any continuous pdf the area under the curve is
equal to 1.
The Normal Distribution
Standard Normal.
A normally distributed (bell shaped) random variable with
= 0 and = 1 is said to have the standard normal distribution.
It is denoted by the letter Z.
pdf of Z:
1
2
f (z) = ez /2 ; < z < ,
2
Graph.
Tabulated Values.
Values of P (0 Z z) are tabulated in the appendix.
Critical Values: z of the standard normal distribution are given
by
P (Z z ) =
which is in the tail of the distribution.
Examples.
(i) P (0 Z 1) = .3413
(ii) P (1 Z 1) = .6826
(iii) P (2 Z 2) = .9544
72
(iv) P (3 Z 3) = .9974
Examples. Find z0 such that
(i) P (Z > z0 ) = .10; z0 = 1.28.
(ii) P (Z > z0 ) = .05; z0 = 1.645.
(iii) P (Z > z0 ) = .025; z0 = 1.96.
(iv) P (Z > z0 ) = .01; z0 = 2.33.
(v) P (Z > z0 ) = .005; z0 = 2.58.
(vi) P (Z z0 ) = .10, .05, .025, .01, .005. (Exercise)
Normal
A rv X is said to have a Normal pdf with parameters and
if
Formula:
1
2
2
f (x) = e(x) /2 ; < x < ,
2
where
< < ; 0 < < .
Properties
Mean: E[X] =
Variance: V (X) = 2
Graph: Bell shaped.
Area under graph = 1.
Standardizing a normal r.v.:
Z-score:
X X
Z=
X
73
OR (simply)
Z=
Conversely,
X = + Z .
Example If X is a normal rv with parameters = 3 and 2 = 9,
nd (i) P (2 < X < 5), (ii) P (X > 0), and (iii) P (X > 9).
Solution (i)
P (2 < X < 5) = P (0.33 < Z < 0.67)
= .3779.
(ii)
P (X > 0) = P (Z > 1) = P (Z < 1)
= .8413.
(iii)
P (X > 9) = P (Z > 2.0)
= 0.5 0.4772 = .0228
Exercise Refer to the above example, nd P (X < 3).
Example The length of life of a certain type of automatic washer
is approximately normally distributed, with a mean of 3.1 years
and standard deviation of 1.2 years. If this type of washer is
guaranteed for 1 year, what fraction of original sales will require
replacement?
74
Solution Let X be the length of life of an automatic washer

selected at random, then
z=
1 3.1
= 1.75
1.2
Therefore
P (X < 1) = P (Z < 1.75) =
Exercise: Complete the solution of this problem.
Normal Approximation to the Binomial Distribution.
When and how to use the normal approximation:
1. Large n, i.e. np 5 and n(1 p) 5.
2. The approximation can be improved using correction factors.
Example. Let X be the number of times that a fair coin, ipped
40, lands heads. (i) Find the probability that X = 20. (ii) Find
P (10 X 20). Use the normal approximation.
Solution Note that np = 20 and np(1 p) = 10.
P (X = 20) = P (19.5 < X < 20.5)
= P(
X 20
20.5 20
19.5 20
<
<
)
10
10
10
P (0.16 < Z < 0.16)

= .1272.
The exact result is

40
P (X = 20) =
(0.5)20 (0.5)20 = .1268
20
75
(ii) Exercise. (Answer: 0.5636)
Uniform: U[a,b]
Formula:
1
a<x<b
ba
= 0 elsewhere
f (x) =
Graph.
Mean: = (a + b)/2
Variance: 2 = (b a)2 /12; = (b a)/ 12

CDF: (Area between a and c)
P (X c) = 0, c a ,
ca
,a c b ,
P (X c) =
ba
P (X c) = 1, c b
Exercise. Specialize the above results to the Uniform [0, 1] case.
Exponential
The exponential pdf often arises, in practice, as being the distribution of the amount of time until some specic event occurs.
Examples include time until a new car breaks down, time until an
arrival at emergency room, ... etc.
76
A rv X is said to have an exponential pdf with parameter > 0

if
f (x) = ex , x 0
= 0 elsewhere
Properties
Graph.
Mean: = 1/
Variance: 2 = 1/2 , = 1/
CDF: P (X a) = 1 ea .
P (X > a) = ea
Example 1. Suppose that the length of a phone call in minutes
is an exponential rv with parameter = 1/10. If someone arrives
immediately ahead of you at a public telephone booth, nd the
probability that you will have to wait (i) more than 10 minutes,
and (ii) between 10 and 20 minutes.
Solution Let X be the be the length of a phone call in minutes
by the person ahead of you.
(i)
P (X > 10) = ea = e1 0.368
(ii)
P (10 < X < 20) = e1 e2 0.233
Example 2. The amount of time, in hours, that a computer
functions before breaking down is an exponential rv with =
1/100.
77
(i) What is the probability that a computer will function between 50 and 150 hours before breaking down?
(ii) What is the probability that it will function less than 100
hours?
Solution.
(i) The probability that a computer will function between 50
and 150 hours before breaking down is given by
P (50 X 150) = e50/100 e150/100
= e1/2 e3/2 .384
(ii) Exercise.
Memoryless Property
FACT. The exponential rv has the memoryless property.
Converse The exponential distribution is the only continuous
distribution with the memoryless property.
Review Exercises: Normal Distribution

relevant questions.
1. Calculate the area under the standard normal curve between
the following values.
78
(i) z = 0 and z = 1.6 (i.e. P (0 Z 1.6))

(ii) z = 0 and z = 1.6 (i.e. P (1.6 Z 0))
(iii) z = .86 and z = 1.75 (i.e. P (.86 Z 1.75))
(iv) z = 1.75 and z = .86 (i.e. P (1.75 Z .86))
(v) z = 1.26 and z = 1.86 (i.e. P (1.26 Z 1.86))
(vi) z = 1.0 and z = 1.0 (i.e. P (1.0 Z 1.0))
(vii) z = 2.0 and z = 2.0 (i.e. P (2.0 Z 2.0))
(viii) z = 3.0 and z = 3.0 (i.e. P (3.0 Z 3.0))
2. Let Z be a standard normal distribution. Find z0 such that
(i) P (Z z0 ) = 0.05
(ii) P (Z z0 ) = 0.99
(iii) P (Z z0 ) = 0.0708
(iv) P (Z z0 ) = 0.0708
(v) P (z0 Z z0 ) = 0.68
(vi) P (z0 Z z0 ) = 0.95
3. Let Z be a standard normal distribution. Find z0 such that
(i) P (Z z0 ) = 0.10
(ii) P (Z z0 ) = 0.05
(iii) P (Z z0 ) = 0.025
(iv) P (Z z0 ) = 0.01
(v) P (Z z0 ) = 0.005
4. A normally distributed random variable X possesses a mean
of = 10 and a standard deviation of = 5. Find the following
probabilities.
79
(i) X falls between 10 and 12 (i.e. P (10 X 12)).

(ii) X falls between 6 and 14 (i.e. P (6 X 14)).
(iii) X is less than 12 (i.e. P (X 12)).
(iv) X exceeds 10 (i.e. P (X 10)).
5. The height of adult women in the United States is normally distributed with mean 64.5 inches and standard deviation
2.4 inches.
(i) Find the probability that a randomly chosen woman is
larger than 70 inches tall. (Answer:z = 2.29, .011)
(ii) Alice is 71 inches tall. What percentage of women are
shorter than Alice. (Answer: z = 2.71,.9966)
6. The lifetimes of batteries produced by a rm are normally
distributed with a mean of 100 hours and a standard deviation
of 10 hours. What is the probability a randomly selected battery
will last between 110 and 120 hours.
7. Answer by True or False . (Circle your choice).
T F (i) The standard normal distribution has its mean and
standard deviation equal to zero.
T F (ii) The standard normal distribution has its mean and
standard deviation equal to one.
T F (iii) The standard normal distribution has its mean equal
to one and standard deviation equal to zero.
T F (iv) The standard normal distribution has its mean equal
to zero and standard deviation equal to one.
80
T F (v) Because the normal distribution is symmetric half of

the area under the curve lies below the 40th percentile.
T F (vi) The total area under the normal curve is equal to one
only if the mean is equal to zero and standard deviation equal to
one.
T F (vii) The normal distribution is symmetric only if the
mean is zero and the standard deviation is one.
81
Chapter 5
Sampling Distributions
Contents.
The Central Limit Theorem
The Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean
The Sampling Distribution of the Sample Proportion
The Sampling Distribution of the Dierence Between Two
Sample Means
The Sampling Distribution of the Dierence Between Two
Sample Proportions
The Central Limit Theorem (CLT)

Roughly speaking, the CLT says
The sampling distribution of the sample mean, X, is
Z=
X X
X
82
The sampling distribution of the sample proportion, P , is

Z=
p p
p
Sampling Distributions
Suppose the distribution of X is normal with mean and

standard deviation .
?
(i) What is the distribution of X
Answer: It is a standard normal, i.e.

Z=
I. The Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean

(ii) What is the mean (expected value) and standard deviation
of X?
Answer:
X = E(X) =
X = S.E.(X) =
n
(iii) What is the sampling distribution of the sample mean X?
Answer: The distribution of X is a normal distribution with
mean and standard deviation / n, equivalently,

Z=
X X
X
=
X
/ n
83
(iv) What is the sampling distribution of the sample mean, X,

if X is not normally distributed?
Answer: The distribution of X is approximately a normal dis
tribution with mean and standard deviation / n provided n
is large (i.e. n 30).
Example. Consider a population, X, with mean = 4 and
standard deviation = 3. A sample of size 36 is to be selected.
(i) What is the mean and standard deviation of X?
(ii) Find P (4 < X < 5),
(iii) Find P (X > 3.5), (exercise)
(iv) Find P (3.5 X 4.5). (exercise)
II. The Sampling Distribution of the Sample Proportion
Suppose the distribution of X is binomial with parameters n
and p.
(i) What is the mean (expected value) and standard deviation
of P ?
Answer:
P = E(P ) = p
P = S.E.(P ) =
pq
n
(ii) What is the sampling distribution of the sample proportion

P ?
84
Answer: P has a normal distribution with mean p and standard deviation
pq
,
n
equivalently
Z=
P P
P p
= pq
P
n
provided n is large (i.e. np 5, and nq 5).

Example. It is claimed that at least 30% of all adults favor brand
A versus brand B. To test this theory a sample n = 400 is to be
selected. Suppose x individuals indicated preference for brand A.
DATA SUMMARY: n = 400, p = .30, P = x/400 a random
variable.
(i) Find the mean and standard deviation of the sample proportion P provided that the claim is valid.
Answer:
p = p = .30
p =
pq
=
n
0.3 0.7
= .023
400
(ii) Find P (.27 < P < 0.33)

(Partial answer: z1 = 1.30; z2 = 1.30.)
(iii) Find P (.25 < P < 0.35)
Exercise. Answer questions (i)-(iii) if the sample size is to be
increased to n = 800.
85
III. Comparing two Sample Means

E(X 1 X 2 ) = 1 2

X 1 X 2 =
Z=
12 22
+
n1 n2
X 1 X 2 (1 2 )
12
n1
22
n2
provided n1 , n2 30.
IV. Comparing two Sample Proportions
E(P1 P2 ) = p1 p2

P1 P2 =
Z=
p1 q1 p2 q2
+
n1
n2
P1 P2 (p1 p2 )

p1 q 1
n1
p2 q 2
n2
provided n1 and n2 are large.

Review Exercises: Sampling Distributions
86

relevant questions.
1. A normally distributed random variable X possesses a mean
of = 20 and a standard deviation of = 5. A random sample
of n = 16 observations is to be selected. Let X be the sample
average.
(i) Describe the sampling distribution of X (i.e. describe the
distribution of X and give x , x ). (Answer: = 20, x = 1.2)
(ii) Find the z-score of x = 22 (Answer: 1.6)
(iii) Find P (X 22) =
(iv) Find P (20 X 22).
(v) Find P (16 X 19).
(vi) Find P (X 23).
(vii) Find P (X 18).
Answers: ((iii):0.0548; (iv):0.4452; (v):0.2119; (vi): 0.0082;
(vii): 0.9452).
2. The number of trips to doctors oce per family per year in
a given community is known to have a mean of 10 with a standard
deviation of 3. Suppose a random sample of 49 families is taken
and a sample mean is calculated.
(i) Describe the sampling distribution of the sample mean,
X. (Include the mean x , standard deviation x , and type of
distribution). (Answer: x = 10, x = 0.43
87
(ii) Find the probability that the sample mean, X, does not
exceed 9. (Answer: z = 2.33, .01)
(iii) Find the probability that the sample mean, X, does not
exceed 11. (Answer: z = 2.33, .99)
3. When a random sample of size n is drawn from a normal
population with mean and variance 2 , the sampling distribution of the sample mean X will be
(a) exactly normal.
(b) approximately normal
(c) binomial
(d) none of the above
T F (i) For a large sample the central limit theorem applies
regardless of the shape of the population frequency distribution.
T F (ii) The central limit theorem is important because it
explains why some estimators tend to possess, approximately, a
normal distribution.
88
Chapter 6
Large Sample Estimation
Contents.
1. Introduction
2. Point Estimators and Their Properties
3. Single Quantitative Population
4. Single Binomial Population
5. Two Quantitative Populations
6. Two Binomial Populations
7. Choosing the Sample Size
Introduction
Types of estimators.
1. Point estimator
2. Interval estimator: (L, U)
Desired Properties of Point Estimators.
89
(i) Unbiased: Mean of the sampling distribution is equal to

the parameter.
(ii) Minimum Variance: Small standard error of point estimator.
(iii) Small Error of Estimation: distance between a parameter
and its point estimate is small.
Desired Properties of Interval Estimators.
(i) Condence coecient: P(interval estimator will enclose the
parameter)=1 should be as high as possible.
(ii) Condence level: Condence coecient expressed as a percentage.
(iii) Margin of Error: (Bound on the error of estimation) should
be as small as possible.
Parameters of Interest.
Single Quantitative Population:
Single Binomial Population: p
Two Quantitative Populations: 1 2
Two Binomial Populations: p1 p2
Point Estimators and Their Properties

Parameter of interest:

Sample data: n, ,
Point estimator:
Estimator mean: = (Unbiased)
90
=
Standard error: SE()
Assumptions: Large random sample + others (to be specied

in each case)
z/2
In words condence interval is given by
point estimate (critical value)times(SE(point eatimator))
Single Quantitative Population
Sample data: n, x, s
Other information:
Point estimator: x
Estimator mean: x =
Standard error: SE(x) = / n (also denoted as x )

Condence Interval (C.I.) for :
x z/2
n
Condence level: (1 )100% which is the probability that the
interval estimator contains the parameter.
Margin of Error. ( or Bound on the Error of Estimation)
B = z/2
n
91
Assumptions.
1. Large sample (n 30)
2. Sample is randomly selected
Example 1. We are interested in estimating the mean number
of unoccupied seats per ight, , for a major airline. A random
sample of n = 225 ights shows that the sample mean is 11.6 and
the standard deviation is 4.1.
Data summary: n = 225; x = 11.6; s = 4.1.
Question 1. What is the point estimate of ( Do not give the
margin of error)?
x = 11.6
Question 2. Give a 95% bound on the error of estimation (also
known as the margin of error).
4.1
= 0.5357
B = z/2 = 1.96
n
225
Question 3. Find a 90% condence interval for .
x z/2
n
4.1
11.6 1.645
225
11.6 0.45 = (11.15, 12.05)
Question 4. Interpret the CI found in Question 3.
The interval contains with probability 0.90.
OR
92
If repeated sampling is used, then 90% of CI constructed would

contain .
Question 5. What is the width of the CI found in Question 3.?
The width of the CI is
W = 2z/2
n
W = 2(0.45) = 0.90
OR
W = 12.05 11.15 = 0.90
Question 6. If n, the sample size, is increased what happens to
the width of the CI? what happens to the margin of error?
The width of the CI decreases.
The margin of error decreases.
Sample size:
(z/2 )2 2
n
B2
where is estimated by s.
Note: In the absence of data, is sometimes approximated by
R
where R is the range.
4
Example 2. Suppose you want to construct a 99% CI for so
that W = 0.06. You are told that preliminary data shows a range
from 13.3 to 13.7. What sample size should you choose?
A. Data summary: = .01; R = 13.7 13.3 = .4;
so .4/4 = .1. Now
93
B = W/2 = 0.06/2 = 0.03. Therefore

(z/2 )2 2
n
B2
2.5762 (.1)2
=
= 73.7 .
0.032
So n = 77. (round up)
Exercise 1. What is the efect of reducing W in Example 2 from
0.06 to 0.04 on the sample size. (Answer: n = 166).
Exercise 2. Find the sample size necessary to reduce W in the
ight example to .6. Use = 0.05.
One-Sided Condence Intervals
Upper Condence Limit for :
x + z
n
Lower Condence Limit for :
x z
n
Single Binomial Population

Parameter of interest: p
Sample data: n, x, p = nx (x here is the number of successes).
Other information:
94
Point estimator: p
Estimator mean: p = p
Standard error: p =
pq
n
Condence Interval (C.I.) for p:

p z/2
pq
n
Condence level: (1 )100% which is the probability that the

interval estimator contains the parameter.
Margin of Error.

B = z/2
pq
n
Assumptions.
1. Large sample (np 5; nq 5)
Example 3. A random sample of n = 484 voters in a community
produced x = 257 voters in favor of candidate A.
= 0.531.
Data summary: n = 484; x = 257; p = nx = 257
484
Question 1. Do we have a large sample size?
n
p = 484(0.531) = 257 which is 5.
n
q = 484(0.469) = 227 which is 5.
Therefore we have a large sample size.
Question 2. What is the point estimate of p and its margin of
error?
257
x
= 0.531
p = =
n
484
95
B = z/2
pq
(0.531)(0.469)
= 1.96
= 0.044
n
484
Question 3. Find a 90% condence interval for p.

p z/2
pq
n
0.531 1.645
(0.531)(0.469)
484
0.531 0.037 = (0.494, 0.568)

Question 4. What is the width of the CI found in Question 3.?
The width of the CI is

W = 2z/2
pq
= 2(0.037) = 0.074
n
Question 5. Interpret the CI found in Question 3.

The interval contains p with probability 0.90.
OR
If repeated sampling is used, then 90% of CI constructed would
contain p.
Question 6. If n, the sample size, is increased what happens to
the width of the CI? what happens to the margin of error?
The width of the CI decreases.
The margin of error decreases.
Sample size.
pq)
(z/2 )2 (
.
n
B2
96
Note: In the absence of data, choose p = q = 0.5 or simply

pq = 0.25.
Example 4. Suppose you want to provide an accurate estimate
of customers preferring one brand of coee over another. You need
to construct a 95% CI for p so that B = 0.015. You are told that
preliminary data shows a p = 0.35. What sample size should you
choose ? Use = 0.05.
Data summary: = .05; p = 0.35; B = 0.015
pq)
(z/2 )2 (
n
B2
(1.96)2 (0.35)(0.65)
=
= 3, 884.28
0.0152
So n = 3, 885. (round up)
Exercise 2. Suppose that no preliminary estimate of p is available. Find the new sample size. Use = 0.05.
Exercise 3. Suppose that no preliminary estimate of p is available. Find the sample size necessary so that = 0.01.
One-Sided Condence Intervals
noindent Upper Condence Limit for p:

p + z
pq
n
Lower Condence Limit for p:

p z
97
pq
n
Two Quantitative Populations

Parameter of interest: 1 2
Sample data:
Sample 1: n1 , x1 , s1
Point estimator: X 1 X 2
Estimator mean: X 1 X 2 = 1 2
Standard error: SE(X 1 X 2 ) =
12
n1
22
n2
Condence Interval.

(x1 x2 ) z/2
12 22
+
n1 n2
Assumptions.
1. Large samples ( n1 30; n2 30)
2. Samples are randomly selected
3. Samples are independent
Sample size.
(z/2 )2 (12 + 22 )
n
B2
Two Binomial Populations

Parameter of interest: p1 p2
Sample 1: n1 , x1 , p1 = nx11
Sample 2: n2 , x2 , p2 =
x2
n2
98
p1 p2 (unknown parameter)
(signicance level)
Point estimator: p1 p2
Estimator mean: p1 p2 = p1 p2
Estimated standard error: p1 p2 =
p1 q1
n1
p2 q2
n2
Condence Interval.

(
p1 p2 ) z/2
p1 q1 p2 q2
+
n1
n2
Assumptions.
1. Large samples,
(n1 p1 5, n1 q1 5, n2 p2 5, n2 q2 5)
2. Samples are randomly and independently selected
Sample size.
(z/2 )2 (
p1 q1 + p2 q2 )
n
B2
For unkown parameters:
(z/2 )2 (0.5)
n
B2
Review Exercises: Large-Sample Estimation
99

relevant questions.
1. A random sample of size n = 100 is selected from a quantitative population. The data produced a mean and standard
deviation of x = 75 and s = 6 respectively.
(i) Estimate the population mean , and give a 95% bound on
the error of estimation (or margin of error). (Answer: B=1.18)
(ii) Find a 99% condence interval for the population mean.
(Answer: B=1.55)
(iii) Interpret the condence interval found in (ii).
(iv) Find the sample size necessary to reduce the width of the
condence interval in (ii) by half. (Answer: n=400)
2. An examination of the yearly premiums for a random sample of 80 automobile insurance policies from a major company
showed an average of $329 and a standard deviation of $49.
(i) Give the point estimate of the population parameter and a
99% bound on the error of estimation. (Margin of error). (Answer:
B=14.14)
(ii) Construct a 99% condence interval for .
(iii) Suppose we wish our estimate in (i) to be accurate to
within $5 with 95% condence; how many insurance policies should
be sampled to achieve the desired level of accuracy? (Answer:
n=369)
100
3. Suppose we wish to estimate the average daily yield of

a chemical manufactured in a chemical plant. The daily yield
recorded for n = 100 days, produces a mean and standard deviation of x = 870 and s = 20 tons respectively.
(i) Estimate the average daily yield , and give a 95% bound
on the error of estimation (or margin of error).
(ii) Find a 99% condence interval for the population mean.
(iii) Interpret the condence interval found in (ii).
(iv) Find the sample size necessary to reduce the width of the
condence interval in (ii) by half.
T F (i) If the population variance increases and other factors
are the same, the width of the condence interval for the population mean tends to increase.
T F (ii) As the sample size increases, the width of the condence interval for the population mean tends to decrease.
T F (iii) Populations are characterized by numerical descriptive measures called statistics.
T F (iv) If, for a given C.I., is increased, then the margin of
error will increase.
T F (v) The sample standard deviation s can be used to approximate when n is larger than 30.
T F (vi) The sample mean always lies above the population
mean.
101
Chapter 7
Large-Sample Tests of
Hypothesis
Contents.
1. Elements of a statistical test
2. A Large-sample statistical test
3. Testing a population mean
4. Testing a population proportion
5. Testing the dierence between two population means
6. Testing the dierence between two population proportions
7. Reporting results of statistical tests: p-Value
Elements of a Statistical Test

Null hypothesis: H0
Alternative (research) hypothesis: Ha
102
Test statistic:
Rejection region : reject H0 if .....
Graph:
Decision: either Reject H0 or Do no reject H0
Conclusion: At 100% signicance level there is (in)sucient
statistical evidence to favor Ha .
Comments:
* H0 represents the status-quo
* Ha is the hypothesis that we want to provide evidence to
justify. We show that Ha is true by showing that H0 is false, that
is proof by contradiction.
Type I error { reject H0 |H0 is true }
Type II error { do not reject H0 |H0 is false}
= P rob{Type I error}
= P rob{Type II error}
Power of a statistical test:
Prob{reject H0 |H0 is false }= 1
Example 1.
H0 : Innocent
Ha : Guilty
= P rob{sending an innocent person to jail}
= P rob{letting a guilty person go free}
Example 2.
H0 : New drug is not acceptable
Ha : New drug is acceptable
= P rob{marketing a bad drug}
103
= P rob{not marketing an acceptable drug}
A Large-Sample Statistical Test

Sample data: n, ,
Test:
Null hypothesis (H0 ) : = 0
Alternative hypothesis (Ha ): 1) > 0 ; 2) < 0 ; 3)
= 0
Test statistic (TS):
0
z=
Critical value: either z or z/2

Rejection region (RR) :
1) Reject H0 if z > z
2) Reject H0 if z < z
3) Reject H0 if z > z/2 or z < z/2
Graph:
Decision: 1) if observed value is in RR: Reject H0
2) if observed value is not in RR: Do no reject H0
statistical evidence to .
Assumptions: Large sample + others (to be specied in each
case).
One tailed statistical test
Upper (right) tailed test
104
Lower (left) tailed test

Two tailed statistical test
Testing a Population Mean
Other information: 0 = target value,
Test:
H0 : = 0
Ha : 1) > 0 ; 2) < 0 ; 3)
= 0
T.S. :
x 0
z=
/ n
Rejection region (RR) :
Graph:
2) if observed value is not in RR: Do no reject H0
Assumptions:
Large sample (n 30)
Sample is randomly selected
105
Example: Test the hypothesis that weight loss in a new diet

program exceeds 20 pounds during the rst month.
Sample data : n = 36, x = 21, s2 = 25, 0 = 20, = 0.05
H0 : = 20 ( is not larger than 20)
Ha : > 20 ( is larger than 20)
T.S. :
21 20
x 0
=
= 1.2
z=
s/ n
5/ 36
Critical value: z = 1.645
RR: Reject H0 if z > 1.645
Graph:
Decision: Do not reject H0
Conclusion: At 5% signicance level there is insucient statistical evidence to conclude that weight loss in a new diet program
exceeds 20 pounds per rst month.
Exercise: Test the claim that weight loss is not equal to 19.5.
Testing a Population Proportion
Parameter of interest: p (unknown parameter)

Sample data: n and x (or p = nx )
p0 = target value
(signicance level)
Test:
H0 : p = p0
Ha : 1) p > p0 ; 2) p < p0 ; 3) p
= p0
106
T.S. :
p p0
z=
p0 q0 /n
RR:
Graph:
Decision:
1) if observed value is in RR: Reject H0
2) if observed value is not in RR: Do not reject H0
Conclusion: At ()100% signicance level there is (in)sucient
Assumptions:
1. Large sample (np 5, nq 5)
Example. Test the hypothesis that p > .10 for sample data:
n = 200, x = 26.
Solution.
26
= .13,
p = nx = 200
Now
H0 : p = .10
Ha : p > .10
TS:
.13 .10
p p0
=
= 1.41
z=
p0 q0 /n
(.10)(.90)/200
107
RR: reject H0 if z > 1.645

Graph:
Dec: Do not reject H0
Conclusion: At 5% signicance level there is insucient statistical evidence to conclude that p > .10.
Exercise Is the large sample assumption satised here ?
Comparing Two Population Means
Sample data:
Test:
H0 : 1 2 = D0
Ha : 1)1 2 > D0 ; 2) 1 2 < D0 ;
3) 1 2
= D0
T.S. :
(x1 x2 ) D0

z=
12
22
+
n1
n2
RR:
Graph:
108
Decision:
Conclusion:
Assumptions:
1. Large samples ( n1 30; n2 30)
Example: (Comparing two weight loss programs)
Refer to the weight loss example. Test the hypothesis that
weight loss in the two diet programs are dierent.
1. Sample 1 : n1 = 36, x1 = 21, s21 = 25 (old)
2. Sample 2 : n2 = 36, x2 = 18.5, s22 = 24 (new)
D0 = 0, = 0.05
H0 : 1 2 = 0
Ha : 1 2
= 0,
T.S. :
(x1 x2 ) 0
= 2.14
z= 2
1
22
+ n2
n1
Critical value: z/2 = 1.96
RR: Reject H0 if z > 1.96 or z < 1.96
Graph:
Decision: Reject H0
Conclusion: At 5% signicance level there is sucient statistical evidence to conclude that weight loss in the two diet programs
are dierent.
Exercise: Test the hypothesis that weight loss in the old diet
program exceeds that of the new program.
109
Exercise: Test the claim that the dierence in mean weight loss
for the two programs is greater than 1.
Comparing Two Population Proportions

Parameter of interest: p1 p2
Sample 1: n1 , x1 , p1 = nx11 ,
Sample 2: n2 , x2 , p2 =
x2
,
n2
p1 p2 (unknown parameter)
Common estimate:
p =
x1 + x2
n1 + n2
Test:
H0 : p1 p2 = 0
Ha : 1) p1 p2 > 0
2) p1 p2 < 0
3) p1 p2
= 0
T.S. :
(
p1 p2 ) 0
z=
pq(1/n1 + 1/n2 )
RR:
110

Graph:
Decision:
Conclusion:
Assumptions:
Large sample(n1 p1 5, n1 q1 5, n2 p2 5, n2 q2 5)
Samples are randomly and independently selected
Example: Test the hypothesis that p1 p2 < 0 if it is known that
the test statistic is z = 1.91.
Solution:
H0 : p1 p2 = 0
Ha : p1 p2 < 0
TS: z = 1.91
RR: reject H0 if z < 1.645
Graph:
Dec: reject H0
Conclusion: At 5% signicance level there is sucient statistical evidence to conclude that p1 p2 < 0.
Exercise: Repeat as a two tailed test
Reporting Results of Statistical Tests:

P-Value
Denition. The p-value for a test of a hypothesis is the smallest value of for which the null hypothesis is rejected, i.e. the
statistical results are signicant.
111
The p-value is called the observed signicance level

Note: The p-value is the probability ( when H0 is true) of
obtaining a value of the test statistic as extreme or more extreme
than the actual sample value in support of Ha .
Examples. Find the p-value in each case:
(i) Upper tailed test:
H0 : = 0
Ha : > 0
TS: z = 1.76
p-value = .0392
(ii) Lower tailed test:
H0 : = 0
Ha : < 0
TS: z = 1.86
p-value = .0314
(iii) Two tailed test:
H0 : = 0
Ha :
= 0
TS: z = 1.76
p-value = 2(.0392) = .0784
Decision rule using p-value: (Important)
Reject H0 for all > p value
Review Exercises: Testing Hypothesis
112

relevant questions.
1. A local pizza parlor advertises that their average time for
delivery of a pizza is within 30 minutes of receipt of the order.
The delivery time for a random sample of 64 orders were recorded,
with a sample mean of 34 minutes and a standard deviation of 21
minutes.
(i) Is there sucient evidence to conclude that the actual delivery time is larger than what is claimed by the pizza parlor? Use
= .05.
H0 :
Ha :
T.S. (Answer: 1.52)
R.R.
Graph:
Dec:
Conclusion:
((ii) Test the hypothesis that Ha :
= 30.
113

T F (i) If, for a given test, is xed and the sample size is
increased, then will increase.
114
Chapter 8
Small-Sample Tests of
Hypothesis
Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Students t distribution
3. Small-sample inferences about a population mean
4. Small-sample inferences about the dierence between two
means: Independent Samples
5. Small-sample inferences about the dierence between two
means: Paired Samples
6. Inferences about a population variance
7. Comparing two population variances
115
Introduction
When the sample size is small we only deal with normal populations.
For non-normal (e.g. binomial) populations dierent techniques are necessary
Students t Distribution
RECALL
For small samples (n < 30) from normal populations, we have
z=
/ n
If is unknown, we use s instead; but we no more have a Z

distribution
Assumptions.
1. Sampled population is normal
2. Small random sample (n < 30)
3. is unknown
t=
s/ n
Properties of the t Distribution:

(i) It has n 1 degrees of freedom (df)
(ii) Like the normal distribution it has a symmetric moundshaped probability distribution
116
(iii) More variable (at) than the normal distribution

(iv) The distribution depends on the degrees of freedom. Moreover, as n becomes larger, t converges to Z.
(v) Critical values (tail probabilities) are obtained from the t
table
Examples.
(i) Find t0.05,5 = 2.015
(ii) Find t0.005,8 = 3.355
(iii) Find t0.025,26 = 2.056
Small-Sample Inferences About a Population Mean
Other information: 0 = target value,
Point estimator: x
Estimator mean: x =
Estimated standard error: x = s/ n

Condence Interval for :
s
x t 2 ,n1 ( )
n
Test:
H0 : = 0
Ha : 1) > 0 ; 2) < 0 ; 3)
= 0 .
117
Critical value: either t,n1 or t 2 ,n1

T.S. : t =
x
0
s/ n
RR:
1) Reject H0 if t > t,n1
2) Reject H0 if t < t,n1
3) Reject H0 if t > t 2 ,n1 or t < t 2 ,n1
Graph:
2) if observed value is not in RR: Do not reject H0
Assumptions.
1. Small sample (n < 30)
3. Normal population
4. Unknown variance
Example For the sample data given below, test the hypothesis
that weight loss in a new diet program exceeds 20 pounds per rst
month.
1. Sample data: n = 25, x = 21.3, s2 = 25, 0 = 20, = 0.05
Critical value: t0.05,24 = 1.711
H0 : = 20
Ha : > 20,
T.S.:
x 0
21.3 20
=
= 1.3
t=
s/ n
5/ 25
118
RR: Reject H0 if t > 1.711

Graph:
Conclusion: At 5% signicance level there is insucient statistical evidence to conclude that weight loss in a new diet program
exceeds 20 pounds per rst month.
Exercise. Test the claim that weight loss is not equal to 19.5,
(i.e. Ha :
= 19.5).
Small-Sample Inferences About the

Dierence Between Two Means: Independent Samples
Sample data:
Other information: D0 = target value,
Point estimator: X 1 X 2
Estimator mean: X 1 X 2 = 1 2
Assumptions.
1. Normal populations
2. Small samples ( n1 < 30; n2 < 30)
119
5. Variances are equal with common variance

2 = 12 = 22
Pooled estimator for .

s=
(n1 1)s21 + (n2 1)s22

n1 + n2 2
Estimator standard error:

X 1 X 2 =
1
1
+
n1 n2
Reason:

X 1 X 2 =
12
n1
22
n2
2 2
+
n1 n2
1
1
+
n1 n2
Condence Interval:

(x1 x2 ) (t/2,n1 +n2 2 )(s

Test:
H0 : 1 2 = D0
Ha : 1)1 2 > D0 ; 2) 1 2 < D0 ;
3) 1 2
= D0
120
1
1
+ )
n1 n2
T.S. :
t=
(x1 x2 ) D0

1
n1
1
n2
RR: 1) Reject H0 if t > t,n1 +n2 2

2) Reject H0 if t < t,n1 +n2 2
3) Reject H0 if t > t/2,n1 +n2 2 or t < t/2,n1 +n2 2
Graph:
Decision:
Conclusion:
Example.(Comparison of two weight loss programs)
Refer to the weight loss example. Test the hypothesis that
weight loss in a new diet program is dierent from that of an old
program. We are told that that the observed value is 2.2 and that
n1 = 7, and n2 = 8. we
DATA SUMMARY
1. Sample 1 : n1 = 7
2. Sample 2 : n2 = 8
= 0.05, z = 2.2.
Solution.
H0 : 1 2 = 0
Ha : 1 2
= 0
T.S. :
(x1 x2 ) 0
= 2.2
t= 1
1
s n1 + n2
Critical value: t.025,13 = 2.160
121
RR: Reject H0 if t > 2.160 or t < 2.160

Graph:
Decision: Reject H0
Conclusion: At 5% signicance level there is sucient statistical evidence to conclude that weight loss in the two diet programs
are dierent.
Exercise: Test the claim that the dierence in mean weight loss
for the two programs is greater than 0.
Minitab Commands: A two sample t procedure with a pooled
estimate of variance
MTB> twosample C1 C2;
SUBC>pooled;
SUBC> alternative 1.
Note: alternative : 1=right-tailed; -1=left tailed; 0=two tailed.
Small-Sample Inferences About the

Dierence Between Two Means: Paired
Samples
Parameter of interest: 1 2 = d
Sample of paired dierences data:
Sample : n = number of pairs, d = sample mean, sd
Other information: D0 = target value,
Point estimator: d
Estimator mean: d = d
122
Assumptions.
2. Small samples ( n1 < 30; n2 < 30)
4. Samples are paired (not independent)
Sample standard deviation of the sample of n paired dierences

sd =
d)2
n1
n
i=1 (di
Estimator standard error: d = sd / n

Condence Interval.
d t/2,n1 sd / n
Test.
H0 : 1 2 = D0 (equivalently, d = D0 )
Ha : 1)1 2 = d > D0 ; 2) 1 2 = d < D0 ;
3) 1 2 = d
= D0 ,
T.S. :
d D0
t=
sd / n
RR:
1) Reject H0 if t > t,n1
2) Reject H0 if t < t,n1
3) Reject H0 if t > t/2,n1 or t < t/2,n1
Graph:
123
Decision:
Conclusion:
Example. A manufacturer wishes to compare wearing qualities of
two dierent types of tires, A and B. For the comparison a tire of
type A and one of type B are randomly assigned and mounted on
the rear wheels of each of ve automobiles. The automobiles are
then operated for a specied number of miles, and the amount of
wear is recorded for each tire. These measurements are tabulated
below.
Automobile
Tire A
Tire B
1
10.6
10.2
2
9.8
9.4
3
12.3
11.8
4
9.7
9.1
5
8.8
8.3
x1 = 10.24 x2 = 9.76
Note. Using the test of independent samples we would have t =
0.57 resulting in an insignicant test which is inconsistent with
the data.
Automobile
Tire A
Tire B
d=A-B
1
10.6
10.2
.4
2
9.8
9.4
.4
3
12.3
11.8
.5
4
9.7
9.1
.6
5
8.8
8.3
.5
x1 = 10.24 x2 = 9.76 d = .48
124
Q1: Provide a summary of the data in the above table.

Sample summary: n = 5, d = .48, sd = .0837
Q2: Do the data provide sucient evidence to indicate a difference in average wear for the two tire types.
Test. (parameter d = 1 2 )
H0 : d = 0
Ha : d
= 0
T.S. :
d D0
.48 0
= 12.8
=
t=
sd / n
.0837/ 5
RR: Reject H0 if t > 2.776 or t < 2.776 ( t.025,4 = 2.776)
Graph:
Decision: Reject H0
Conclusion: At 5% signicance level there is sucient statistical evidence to indicate that the average amount of wear for type
A tire is dierent from that for type B tire.
Exercise. Construct a 99% condence interval for the dierence
in average wear for the two tire types.
Inferences About a Population Variance
Chi-square distribution. When a random sample of size n

is drawn from a normal population with mean and standard
deviation , the sampling distribution of S 2 depends on n. The
125
standardized distribution of S 2 is called the chi-square distribution

and is given by
(n 1)s2
2
X =
2
Degrees of freedom (df): = n 1
Graph: Non-symmetrical and depends on df
Critical values: using X 2 tables
Test.
H0 : 2 = 02
Ha : 2
= 02 (two-tailed test).
T.S. :
(n 1)s2
2
X =
02
2
2
RR: Reject H0 if X 2 > X/2
or X 2 < X1/2
where X 2 is based
on (n 1) degrees of freedom.
Graph:
Decision:
Conclusion:
Assumptions.
1. Normal population
2. Random sample
Example:
Use text
126
Comparing Two Population Variances
F-distribution. When independent samples are drawn from two

normal populations with equal variances then S12 /S22 possesses a
sampling distribution that is known as an F distribution. That
is
s21
F = 2
s2
Degrees of freedom (df): 1 = n1 1; 2 = n2 1
Graph: Non-symmetrical and depends on df
Critical values: using F tables
Test.
H0 : 12 = 22
Ha : 12
T.S. :F =
s21
s22
where s21 is the larger sample variance.
larger sample variance

Note: F = smaller
sample variance
RR: Reject H0 if F > F/2 where F/2 is based on (n1 1) and
(n2 1) degrees of freedom.
Graph:
Decision:
Conclusion:
Assumptions.
2. Independent random samples
127
Example. (Investment Risk) Investment risk is generally measured by the volatility of possible outcomes of the investment.
The most common method for measuring investment volatility is
by computing the variance ( or standard deviation) of possible
outcomes. Returns over the past 10 years for rst alternative and
8 years for the second alternative produced the following data:
Data Summary:
Investment 1: n1 = 10, x1 = 17.8%; s21 = 3.21
Investment 2: n2 = 8, x2 = 17.8%; s22 = 7.14
Both populations are assumed to be normally distributed.
Q1: Do the data present sucient evidence to indicate that
the risks for investments 1 and 2 are unequal ?
Solution.
Test:
H0 : 12 = 22
Ha : 12
T.S. :
7.14
s22
= 2.22
F = 2 =
s1
3.21
.
RR: Reject H0 if F > F/2 where
F/2,n2 1,n1 1 = F.025,7,9 = 4.20
Graph:
Conclusion: At 5% signicance level there is insucient statistical evidence to indicate that the risks for investments 1 and 2
are unequal.
128
Exercise. Do the lower tail test. That is Ha : 12 < 22 .
129
Chapter 9
Simple Linear Regression
and Correlation
Contents.
1. Introduction: Example
2. A Simple Linear probabilistic model
3. Least squares prediction equation
4. Inferences concerning the slope
5. Estimating E(y|x) for a given x
6. Predicting y for a given x
7. Coecient of correlation
8. Analysis of Variance
9. Computer Printouts
130
Introduction
Linear regression is a statistical technique used to predict (forecast) the value of a variable from known related variables.
Example.( Ad Sales) Consider the problem of predicting the
gross monthly sales volume y for a corporation that is not subject to substantial seasonal variation in its sales volume. For the
predictor variable x we use the the amount spent by the company on advertising during the month of interest. We wish to
determine whether advertising is worthwhile, that is whether advertising is actually related to the rms sales volume. In addition
we wish to use the amount spent on advertising to predict the
sales volume. The data in the table below represent a sample of
advertising expenditures,x, and the associated sales volume, y, for
10 randomly selected months.
Remark. The data could represent other types of problems. For
example X can be the amount spent by a Co. on preventive health
care, and Y the savings in health care cost.
Denitions.
(i) Response: dependent variable of interest (sales volume)
(ii) Independent (predictor) variable ( Ad expenditure)
(iii) Linear equations (straight line): y = a + bx
Scatter diagram:
Best t straight line:
Equation of a straight line:
(y-intercept and slope)
131
Month
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Ad Sales Data
y(y$10,000) x(x$10,000)
101
1.2
92
0.8
110
1.0
120
1.3
90
0.7
82
0.8
93
1.0
75
0.6
91
0.9
105
1.1
A Simple Linear Probabilistic Model
Model.
Y = 0 + 1 X +
where
x: independent variable (predictor)
y: dependent variable (response)
0 and 1 are unknown parameters.
: random error due to other factors not included in the model.

Assumptions.
1. E(
) := = 0.
2. V ar(
) := 2 = 2 .
3. The r.v.
has a normal distribution with mean 0 and
variance 2 .
132
4. The random components of any two observed y values are

independent.
Least Squares Prediction Equation
The least squares prediction equation is sometimes called the

estimated regression equation or the prediction equation.
y = 0 + 1 x
This equation is obtained by using the method of least squares;
that is

min (y y)2
Computational Formulas.
Objective: Estimate 0 , 1 and 2 .

x = x/n; y = y/n

SSxx = (x x)2 = x2 ( x)2 /n

SSyy = (y y)2 = y 2 ( y)2 /n

SSxy = (x x)(y y) = xy ( x)( y)/n
1 = SSxy /SSxx
0 = y 1 x.
To estimate 2
SSE = SSyy 1 SSxy
= SSyy (SSxy )2 /SSxx .
s2 =
SSE
n2
133
Remarks.
(i) 1 : is the slope of the estimated regression equation.
(ii) s2 provides a measure of spread of points (x, y) around the
regression line.
Ad Sales example
Question 1. Do a scatter diagram. Can you say that x and y
are linearly related?
Answer.
Question 2. Use the computational formulas to provide a data
summary.
Answer.
Data Summary.
x = 0.94; y = 95.9
SSxx = .444
SSxy = 23.34
SSyy = 1600.9
134
Optional material
Month
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Sum
x=
Ad Sales Calculations
x
y
x2
1.2
101
1.44
0.8
92
0.64
1.0
110
1.00
1.3
120
1.69
0.7
90
0.49
0.8
82
0.64
1.0
93
1.00
0.6
75
0.36
0.9
91
0.81
1.1
105
1.21

2
x
y
x
9.4
959
9.28
x = 0.94 y = 95.9
x/n = 0.94; y =
SSxx =
SSxy =
SSyy =
xy
121.2
73.6
110.0
156.0
63.0
65.6
93.0
45.0
81.9
115.5

xy
924.8
y/n = 95.9
2
2

x ( x)2 /n = 9.28 (9.4)
= .444
10

(9.4)(959)
xy (
x)(
y2
10,201
8,464
12,100
14,400
8,100
6,724
8,649
5,625
8,281
11,025
2
y
93,569
y)/n = 924.8
10
= 23.34
2
2

y ( y)2 /n = 93, 569 (959)
= 1600.9
10
135
Question 3. Estimate the parameters 0 , and 1 .

Answer.
1 = SSxy /SSxx = 23.34
= 52.5676 52.57
.444
0 = y 1 x = 95.9 (52.5676)(.94) 46.49.
Question 4. Estimate 2 .
Answer.
SSE = SSyy 1 SSxy

= 1, 600.9 (52.5676)(23.34) = 373.97 .
Therefore
s2 =
SSE
373.97
=
= 46.75
n2
8
Question 5. Find the least squares line for the data.

Answer.
y = 0 + 1 x = 46.49 + 52.57x
Remark. This equation is also called the estimated regression
equation or prediction line.
Question 6. Predict sales volume, y, for a given expenditure
level of $10, 000 (i.e. x = 1.0).
Answer.
y = 46.49 + 52.57x = 46.49 + (52.57)(1.0) = 99.06.
So sales volume is $990, 600.
Question 7. Predict the mean sales volume E(y|x) for a given
expenditure level of $10, 000, x = 1.0.
Answer.
136
E(y|x) = 46.49 + 52.57x = 46.49 + (52.57)(1.0) = 99.06

so the mean sales volume is $990, 600.
Remark. In Question 6 and Question 7 we obtained the same
estimate, the bound on the error of estimation will, however, be
dierent.
Inferences Concerning the Slope

Parameter of interest: 1
Point estimator: 1
Estimator mean: 1 = 1
Estimator standard error: 1
= / SSxx
Test.
H0 : 1 = 10 (no linear relationship)
Ha : 1
= 10 (there is linear relationship)
T.S. :
1 10
t=
s/ SSxx
RR:
Reject H0 if t > t/2,n2 or t < t/2,n2
Graph:
Decision:
Conclusion:
Question 8. Determine whether there is evidence to indicate a
linear relationship between advertising expenditure, x, and sales
volume, y.
137
Answer.
Test.
Ha : 1
T.S. :
1 0
52.57 0
t=
=
= 5.12
6.84/ .444
s/ SSxx
RR: ( critical value: t.025,8 = 2.306)
Reject H0 if t > 2.306 or t < 2.306
Graph:
Decision: Reject H0
Conclusion: At 5% signicance level there is sucient statistical evidence to indicate a linear relation ship between advertising
expenditure, x, and sales volume, y.
Condence interval for 1 :
s
1 t/2,n2
SSxx
Question 9. Find a 95% condence interval for 1 .
Answer.
s
1 t/2,n2
SSxx
6.84
52.57 2.306
.444
52.57 23.57 = (28.90, 76.24)
138
Estimating E(y|x) For a Given x
The condence interval (CI) for the expected (mean) value of

y given x = xp is given by

y t/2,n2
s2 [
1 (xp x)2
+
]
n
SSxx
Predicting y for a Given x
The prediction interval (PI) for a particular value of y given

x = xp is given by

y t/2,n2
s2 [1
1 (xp x)2
+ +
]
n
SSxx
Coecient of Correlation
In a previous section we tested for a linear relationship between

x and y.
Now we examine how strong a linear relationship between x
and y is.
We call this measure coecient of correlation between y and
x.
SSxy
r=
SSxx SSyy
139
Remarks.
(i) 1 r 1.
(ii) The population coecient of correlation is .
(iii) r > 0 indicates a positive correlation (1 > 0)
(iv) r < 0 indicates a negative correlation (1 < 0)
(v) r = 0 indicates no correlation (1 = 0)
Question 10. Find the coecient of correlation, r.
Answer.
23.34
SSxy
=
r=
= 0.88
SSxx SSyy
0.444(1, 600.9)
Coecient of determination
Algebraic manipulations show that
r2 =
SSyy SSE
SSyy
Question 11. By what percentage is the sum of squares of deviations of y about the mean (SSyy ) is reduced by using y rather
than y as a predictor of y?
Answer.
SSyy SSE
= 0.882 = 0.77
r2 =
SSyy
r2 = is called the coecient of determination
140
Analysis of Variance
Notation:

T SS := SSyy = (y y)2 (Total SS of deviations).

y y)2 (SS of deviations due to regression or exSSR = (
plained deviations)

SSE = (y y)2 (SS of deviations for the error or unexplained
deviations)
T SS = SSR + SSE
Question 12. Give the ANOVA table for the AD sales example.
Answer.
ANOVA Table
Source df
SS
MS
F
p-value
Reg.
1 1,226.927 1,226.927 26.25 0.0001
Error 8
373.973
46.747
Totals 9 1,600.900
Source df
Reg.
1
Error n-2
Totals n-1
ANOVA Table
SS
MS
SSR MSR=SSR/(1)
SSE MSE=SSE/(n-2)
TSS
141
F
p-value
MSR/MSE
Question 13. Use ANOVA table to test for a signicant linear

relationship between sales and advertising expenditure.
Answer.
Test.
Ha : 1
T.S.: F =
M SR
M SE
= 26.25
RR: ( critical value: F.005,1,8 = 14.69)

Reject H0 if F > 14.69
(OR: Reject H0 if > p-value)
Graph:
Decision: Reject H0
Conclusion: At 0.5% signicance level there is sucient statistical evidence to indicate a linear relationship between advertising
expenditure, x, and sales volume, y.
Computer Printouts for Regression

Analysis
Computer output for Ad Sales example:
More generally we obtain:
142
The regression equation is

y=46.5 + 52.6 x
Predictor Coef
Stdev
t-ratio
Constant 46.486
9.885
4.70
x
52.57
10.26
5.12
s=6.837
R-sq=76.6%
P
0.000
0.000
R-sq(adj)=73.7%
Source df
SS
MS
F
p-value
Reg.
1 1,226.927 1,226.927 26.25 0.000
Error 8
373.973
46.747
Totals 9 1,600.900
Review Exercises: Linear Regression

relevant questions.
1. Given the following data set
x -3 -1 1 1 2
y 6 4 3 1 1
143
The regression equation is

y = 0 + 1 x
Predictor
Constant
x
Coef
0
1
s = M SE
Source df
Reg.
1
Error n-2
Totals n-1
Stdev
0
1
R sq = r2
t-ratio
TS: t
TS: t
P
p-value
p-value
R-sq(adj)
SS
MS
F
p-value
SSR MSR=SSR/(1) MSR/MSE
SSE MSE=SSE/(n-2)
TSS
(i) Plot the scatter diagram, and indicate whether x and y

appear linearly related.

(ii) Show that x = 0; y = 15; x2 = 16; y 2 = 63; SSxx =
16; SSyy = 18; and SSxy = 16.
(iii) Find the regression equation for the data. (Answer: y =
3 x)
(iv) Plot the regression equation on the same graph as (i); Does
the line appear to provide a good t for the data points?
(v) Compute SSE and s2 . (Answer: s2 = 2/3 = 0.67)
(vi) Estimate the expected value of y when x = 1
(vii) Find the correlation coecient r and nd r2 . (Answer:
144
r = .943, r2 = .889)
2. A study of middle to upper-level managers is undertaken to
investigate the relationship between salary level,Y , and years of
work experience, X. A random sample sample of 20 managers is

chosen with the following results (in thousands of dollars): xi =

235; yi = 763.8; SSxx = 485.75; SSyy = 2, 236.1; and SSxy =
886.85. It is further assumed that the relationship is linear.
(i) Find 0 , 1 , and the estimated regression equation.
(Answer: y = 16.73 + 1.826x)
(ii) Find the correlation coecient, r.(Answer: r = .85)
(iii) Find r2 and interpret it value.
3. The Regress Minitabs command has been applied to data
on family income, X, and last years energy consumption, Y , from
a random sample of 25 families. The income data are in thousands
of dollars and the energy consumption are in millions of BTU. A
portion of a linear regression computer printout is shown below.
Predictor Coef
Constant 82.036
X
0.93051
s=
R-sq=92.0%
Source
DF SS
Regression
Error
23
Total
8291
stdev
t-ratio P
2.054
39.94 0.000
0.05727
16.25 0.000
R-sq(adj)=91.6%
MS
F
P
7626.6 264.02 0.000
145
(i) Complete all missing entries in the table.

(ii) Find 0 , 1 , and the estimated regression equation.
(iii) Do the data present sucient evidence to indicate that Y
and X are linearly related? Test by using = 0.01.
(iv) Determine a point estimate for last years mean energy
consumption of all families with an annual income of $40,000.
T F (i) The correlation coecient r shows the degree of association between x and y.
T F (ii) The coecient of determination r2 shows the percentage change in y resulting form one-unit change in x.
T F (iii) The last step in a simple regression analysis is drawing
a scatter diagram.
T F (iv) r = 1 implies no linear correlation between x and y.
T F (v) We always estimate the value of a parameter and
predict the value of a random variable.
T F (vi) If 1 = 1, we always predict the same value of y
regardless of the value of x.
T F (vii) It is necessary to assume that the response y of a
probability model has a normal distribution if we are to estimate
the parameters 0 , 1 , and 2 .
146

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MAT 210

Introduction Probaility and Statistics

7 Large-Sample Tests of Hypothesis

Testing a Population Proportion . . . . . . . .

8 Small-Sample Tests of Hypothesis

Aims and Goals.

10. How to design a program for patients who need to lose

Elements of a statistical problem:

Frequency and relative frequency distributions (Histograms):

Objective: Provide a useful summary of the available information.

Weight Loss Data

= 3.87. But we used

I. Measures of Central Tendency

Example 1: Given a sample of 5 test grades

(20, 18, 22, 29, 21, 19)

Eect of x, median and mode on relative frequency distribution.

II. Measures of Variability

Example 2: Same sample

(i) MAD is a good measure of variability

4. Sample Standard Deviation, s

Example: Same sample as before (x = 80)

Sample standard deviation: s= s2

Population standard deviation: = 2 , i.e.

Population parameters vs sample statistics.

(iii) at least (almost all) 99% of the measurements lie within

(iv) Coecient of variation (c.v.) =

Using percentiles is useful if data is badly skewed.

(S2) 30th percentile = 5 + .7(8 5) = 5 + 2.1 = 7.1

Sample Mean and Variance

Example: (weight loss data)

Let k = number of classes. Note that n = f .

where the summation is over the number of classes k.

2. The population z-score for a measurement x is

Example. A set of grades/scores has x = 75, s = 6. Suppose

Please show all work. No credit for a correct nal answer

(i) Show that x = .8588, s2 = .0065, s = .0803.

Answers: x = 21.47, x2 = 18.5931, x = 0.8588, s62 =

T F (iii) For a positively skewed frequency distribution, the

Sample Space and Events

Examples Toss of a coin, throw a die, polling, inspecting an

sample points in either A or B or both. Sometimes we use AorB

Relative Frequency Denition If an experiment is repeated a

(In fact, P (A) = limn nnA .)

where the summation is over all sample points in S.

Question: Calculate P (A) where A = {Ei , i 6}.

(ii) At the conceptual level we assign probabilities to events.

where N is the number of the sample points in S and NA is the

provided P (B) > 0. Similarly,

Law of total probability Let the B, B c be complementary events

Counting Sample Points

RECALL: P (A) = nnA , so for some applications we need to

the outcome of the second experiment, we see, from the basic

that there are 26 26 26 10 10 10 10 = 175, 760, 000 possible

and say that

represents the number of possible combinations

of n objects taken r at a time (with no regard to order).

= 350 possible committees.

Denition. A sample of size n is said to be a random sample if