6

Measurement of Surface
Water Flow
444446446i66446664i4#446464646444666444446

6.1

'

DETERMINATION OF STREAMFLOW
T h e q u a n t i t y o f w a t e r flowing i n a s t r e a m , i t s d i s t r i b u t i o n i n s p a c e , a n d i t s v a r i a b i l i t y w i t h
t i m e are r e q u i r e d i n f o r m a t i o n i n order t o p l a n a n y surface w a t e r supply project o r t o
design a h y d r a u l i c structure. T h e m o s t direct a n d desirable m e t h o d is t o measure t h e
q u a n t i t y o f flow p e r u n i t t i m e , r e f e r r e d t o as t h e streamflow o r discharge. F o r t h i s p u r p o s e ,
a s t r e a m g a g i n g s t a t i o n i s s e t u p . S i n c e l o n g - t e r m flow r e c o r d s a r e n e e d e d f o r t h e p l a n n i n g
o f a p r o j e c t b e c a u s e o f t h e h i g h v a r i a b i l i t y o f flow, a n e t w o r k o f s t r e a m g a g i n g s t a t i o n s i s
designed f r o m w h i c h data are c o n t i n u a u s l y collected for use at any t i m e i nt h e future. F o r
m e a s u r e m e n t s i n s m a l l c r e e k s a n d o p e n c h a n n e l s , h y d r a u l i c i n s t r u m e n t s s u c h as w e i r s ,
notches, a n d f l u m e s are c o n v e n i e n t m e a n s f o r c o m p u t i n g t h e discharge. D u r i n g periods o f
flooding,
i t i s n o t a l w a y s p o s s i b l e t o m a k e d i r e c t m e a s u r e m e n t s d u e t o s u c h p r o b l e m s as
inaccessibility o f t h e site, d a m a g e t o t h e m e a s u r i n g s t r u c t u r e , a n d s h o r t d u r a t i o n o f peak.
I n such a s i t u a t i o n , indirect m e t h o d s are used b y m a k i n g m e a s u r e m e n t s o f certain data
a f t e r t h e flood.
I t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o g a g e e v e r y s i t e w h e r e flow d a t a a r e d e s i r e d . I f t i m e p e r m i t s , a t e m p o r a r y gage c a n b e i n s t a l l e d t o collect d i r e c t i n f o r m a t i o n . H o w e v e r , w h e n t h e p r o j e c t f o r m u l a t i o n h a s t o p r o c e e d w i t h o u t delay, t h r e e alternatives are available. I n o r d e r o f
preference, t h e y a r e : e x t e n d i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m n e a r b y g a g i n g sites, e s t i m a t e s t r e a m f l o w s
f r o m p r e c i p i t a t i o n data, a n d use generalized i n f o r m a t i o n o r t h e e m p i r i c a l approach. T h e
p r o c e d u r e t o assess t h e s t r e a m f l o w c a n b e s u m m a r i z e d as f o l l o w s :
I. Measurement o f streamflow
T
A . Direct measurement o r stream gaging
1. M e a s u r e m e n t b y c u r r e n t m e t e r m e t h o d
2 . M e a s u r e m e n t b y floats
3. T r a c e r - d i l u t i o n t e c h n i q u e
4. U l t r a s o n i c m e t h o d
5. E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c m e t h o d
B. M e a s u r e m e n t t h r o u g h h y d r a u l i c devices
:'
1. W e i r s a n d notches
2. Orifices
. . .
3. F l u m e s
.
,
283

'

C. I n d i r e c t m e a s u r e m e n t o f peak f l o w s
1. Slope-area m e t h o d
2. C o n t r a c t e d - o p e n i n g m e t h o d
3. F l o w - o v e r - s t r u c t u r e m e t h o d
II. Estimation o f streamflow
A. A p p l i c a t i o n o f precipitation data
1. P r e c i p i t a t i o n - r u n o f f r e l a l i o n
'
' '
2. H y d r o g r a p h a n a l y s e s
3. E m p i r i c a l f o r m u l a s
.
B. E x t e n s i o n o f gage-sites data
C. G e n e r a t i o n o f s y n t h e t i c flows
D . Use o f generalized data, charts, tables, a n d e m p i r i c a l a p p r o a c h
I n this chapter w e discuss direct m e a s u r e m e n t o f s t r e a m f l o w . M e a s u r e m e n t s t h r o u g h
h y d r a u l i c devices a n d h y i n d i r e c t m e t h o d s are discussed i n C h a p t e r 10. T h e e s t i m a t i o n
p r o c e d u r e o f s t r e a m f l o w is d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r 7.

6.2

STREAM GAGING

S t r e a m g a g i n g o r h y d r o m e t r y is a p r o c e d u r e f o r m e a s u r i n g t h e w a t e r stage (level) a n d disc h a r g e a t a g a g i n g s t a t i o n w i t h t h e o h j e c t i v e o f o b t a i n i n g a c o n t i n u o u s r e c o r d o f stage a n d

d i s c h a r g e a t t h e s t a t i o n . F o r t h i s p u r p o s e , e q u i p m e n t i s i n s t a l l e d a t t h e s t r e a m site t h a t
enables c o n t i n u o u s o r r e g u l a r o b s e r v a t i o n o f w a t e r stage a n d f r e q u e n t m e a s u r e m e n t o f
d i s c h a r g e , a s w e l l a s o p t i o n a l r e c o r d i n g o f a n y o t h e r h y d r o l o g i c p a r a m e t e r , s u c h as s e d i m e n t load. A n u m b e r o f such stations i n a basin f o r m a hydrologic n e t w o r k that provides
i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e w a t e r resources o f t h e basin. T h e n e t w o r k o f c o n t i n u o u s - r e c o r d stat i o n s , k n o w n as t h e basin network, i s o f t e n a u g m e n t e d b y a n auxiliary network o f p a r t i a l record stations: f o r example, t o p r o v i d e data o n peak discharge only.
s j ' T h e s y s t e m a t i c r e c o r d s o f s t r e a m f l o w s as p u b l i s h e d b y t h e U . S . G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y f o r
each g a g i n g site f r o m y e a r t o y e a r i n v o l v e t h e m e a s u r e m e n t a n d c o m p u t a t i o n a l steps o u t lined below.
1. M e a s u r e m e n t o f w a t e r l e v e l ( s t a g e ) o n a c o n t i n u o u s o r d a i l y b a s i s
,

2 . M e a s u r e m e n t o f discharge f r o m t i m e t o t i m e

3. E s t a b l i s h i n g a r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n s t a g e a n d d i s c h a r g e

;>

4. C o n v e r s i o n o f t h e m e a s u r e d d a i l y stage i n t o discharge u s i n g t h e r e l a t i o n o f step 3

5. P r e s e n t a t i o n a n d p u b l i c a t i o n o f m e a s u r e d a n d c o m p u t e d d a t a
T h e m e a s u r e m e n t o f discharge i n step 2 is p e r f o r m e d u s i n g a c u r r e n t meter, floats,
t r a c e r d i l u t i o n , o r t h e u l t r a s o n i c o r e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c m e t h o d , a l t h o u g h t h e c u r r e n t m e t e r is
m o s t c o m m o n l y used.

6.3

STAGE MEASUREMENT
T h e s t a g e , a l s o k n o w n as g a g e h e i g h t , i s t h e h e i g h t o f t h e w a t e r s u r f a c e i n a s t r e a m a b o v e a
f i x e d d a t u m . T h e d a t u m c a n b e a r e c o g n i z e d r e f e r e n c e l e v e l , s u c h a s m e a n sea l e v e l , o r a n
a r b i t r a r y l e v e l c h o s e n f o r c o n v e n i e n c e . T w o o r t h r e e reference m a r k s o f k n o w n gage h e i g h t
are established o n stable structures t o m a i n t a i n a p e r m a n e n t d a t u m .

284

Measurement of Surface Water Flow

Chapter 6

T h e r e a r e t w o b r o a d c a t e g o r i e s o f gages: n o n r e c o r d i n g gages a n d r e c o r d i n g gages.

N o n r e c o r d i n g g a g e s a r e m a n u a l l y o b s e r v e d a t f i x e d h o u r s . T h e s e c o m p r i s e t h e s t a f f gage,
w i r e w e i g h t g a g e , f l o a t - t a p e g a g e , a n d c r e s t - s t a t e g a g e . T h e s i m p l e s t is t h e s t a f f gage, w h i c h
consists o f p o r c e l a i n - e n a m e l e d i r o n sheet sections (gaged plates) o f 4 i n . (0.1 m ) w i d t h a n d
3.4 ft ( 1 m ) l e n g t h g r a d u a t e d e v e r y 0.02 ft ( 1 c m ) .
A u t o m a t i c o r s e l f - r e c o r d i n g gages p r o v i d e a c o n t i n u o u s r e c o r d o f s t a g e . T h e s e h a v e
a d v a n t a g e s o v e r n o n r e c o r d i n g gages. T h e i r f e a t u r e s a r e d i s c u s s e d b e l o w .

6.4

COMPONENTS OFAUTOMATIC GAGES

T h e r e a r e t h r e e c o m p o n e n t s o f a u t o m a t i c r e c o r d i n g gages. T h e s e p e r t a i n t o s e n s i n g o f t h e
w a t e r stage, m e t h o d o f its r e c o r d i n g , a n d storage o f t h e data. V a r i o u s types o f each o f these
c o m p o n e n t s a n d t h e i r c o m b i n a t i o n i n a r e c o r d i n g s y s t e m (gage) are s h o w n i n F i g u r e 6 . 1 . A
brief description follows.

6.5

SENSOR DEVICES

6.5.1 F l o a t S e n s o r
T h i s c o n s i s t s o f a f l o a t a t t a c h e d t o o n e e n d o f a c a b l e t h a t p a s s e s o v e r a p u l l e y a n d is
c o u n t e r - w e i g h t e d at the o t h e r end. T h e float f o l l o w s t h e rise a n d fall o f the w a t e r level
rotating the pulley. T h r o u g h a system o f other pulleys, this moves a pen up a n d d o w n ,
r e c o r d i n g t h e stage.
T h e f l o a t is i n s t a l l e d i n s i d e a s t i l l i n g w e l l , w h i c h p r o t e c t s t h e f l o a t a n d d a m p e n s t h e
w a t e r surface f l u c t u a t i o n s . Stilling wells can be m a d e o f bricks, concrete blocks, concrete,
concrete pipe, o r steel pipe. T h e y are placed d i r e c t l y i n t h e s t r e a m o r o n a b a n k i n t h e
v i c i n i t y o f t h e s t r e a m . I n t h e l a t t e r case, a n i n t a k e p i p e c o n n e c t s t h e s t r e a m t o t h e w e l l as
s h o w n i n F i g u r e 6 . 2 . T h e b o t t o m o f t h e w e l l i s a t l e a s t 1 f t b e l o w t h e m i n i m u m stage a n d
t h e t o p is a b o v e t h e 1 0 0 - y e a r f l o o d l e v e l . T h e d i m e n s i o n o f t h e w e l l i s u s u a l l y 4 ft i n d i a m e t e r o r 4 ft b y 4 ft i n s i z e . F o r i n t a k e t h e m o s t c o m m o n size i s a 2 - i n . - d i a m e t e r p i p e .
T h r e e e r r o r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f l o a t gages a r e f l o a t - l a g e r r o r , l i n e - s h i f t e r r o r , a n d c o u n t e r w e i g h t s u b m e r g e n c e error. T h e s e are discussed b y R a n t z a n d others ( 1 9 8 2 a ) .

6.5.2 B u b b l e - G a g e S e n s o r
T h i s is a p r e s s u r e - a c t u a t e d s y s t e m i n w h i c h a n o r i f i c e at t h e e n d o f a l e n g t h o f t u b i n g is
i n s t a l l e d u n d e r n e a t h t h e w a t e r s u r f a c e a t t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e g a g e d a t u m . T h e w a t e r l e v e l is
d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e p r e s s u r e a t t h e o r i f i c e . A gas, u s u a l l y n i t r o g e n , i s p a s s e d
t h r o u g h t h e t u b e t o b u b b l e f r e e l y i n t o t h e s t r e a m t h r o u g h t h e o r i f i c e . T h e gas p r e s s u r e i s
e q u a l t o t h e h e a d o n t h e o r i f i c e o r t h e gage h e i g h t . A s e r v o m a n o m e t e r o r a b e l l o w s s y s t e m
c o n v e r t s t h e pressure t o t h e shaft m o v e m e n t f o r stage r e c o r d i n g . F o r t h i s s y s t e m t h e o r i f i c e
is i n s t a l l e d d i r e c t l y i n s i d e a s t r e a m ; t h e t u b i n g r u n s a l o n g t h e s t r e a m b a n k a n d t h e r e c o r d e r
c a n b e i n s t a l l e d a w a y f r o m t h e s t r e a m as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 6 . 3 .

6.5.3

Pressure Transducers for Stage Sensing

T h e s e d e v i c e s c o n v e r t w a t e r p r e s s u r e i n t o e l e c t r i c a l s i g n a l s t h a t c a n b e r e c o r d e d a t t h e gage
site o r at a r e m o t e l o c a t i o n . A t r a n s d u c e r has t w o c o m p o n e n t s : a f o r c e - s u m m i n g - u p device
that responds t o pressure changes a n d a n o u t p u t device t o convert f o r c e - s u m m i n g - u p
device signals t o electrical signals.
S e c t i o n 6.5

Sensor Devices

285

Figure 6.1

C o m p o n e n t s of self-recording gages.

Sensor type:

Pressure
tranducer,
ultrasonic,
capacitance,
electrode

Float gage,
bubble gage

r
|
|
|
L

I
Recording method:
Mechanical

Electromechanical

I?

Electronic

1
Data storage:

Figure 6.2

Chart on
drum,
strip chart

Digital paper,
digital t a p e

Printer,
magnetic tape,
disk,
drum

Solid-state
Semiconductor
Magnetic

Optical

Stilling well for a float-type recorder (from Herschy, 1985a).

M e a s u r e m e n t o fSurface Water F l o w

Chapter 6

Figure 6.3

Bubble-gage installation (from Herschy, 1985a).

6.5.4 C a p a c i t a n c e , R e s i s t a n c e , a n d U l t r a s o n i c S e n s o r s
These have n o t been w i d e l y used i n s t r e a m gaging. T h e capacitance sensor operates b y
sensing the change i n capacitance b e t w e e n a n insulated w i r e electrode m o u n t e d vertically
for the full d e p t h o f t h e s t r e a m a n d the s u r r o u n d i n g water. T h e change i n w a t e r level varies
t h e capacitance i n a c o n t r o l l e d m a n n e r w h i c h is sensed e l e c t r o n i c a l l y .
Since w a t e r is a n electrical conductor, t h e resistance sensor operates b y detecting t h e
c h a n g e i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e o f a v e r t i c a l l y m o u n t e d s e n s i n g e l e m e n t as t h e w a t e r s u r face m o v e s o v e r i t .
I n a n u l t r a s o n i c s e n s o r , a n a c o u s t i c p u l s e is d i r e c t e d t o w a r d t h e w a t e r s u r f a c e b y t h e s e n sor. T h i s p u l s e is r e f l e c t e d f r o m t h e s u r f a c e b a c k t o t h e s e n s o r . T h e t i m e o f t r a v e l f r o m t r a n s m i s s i o n t o r e c e p t i o n i s m e a s u r e d a n d f r o m t h e v e l o c i t y o f s o u n d , t h e d i s t a n c e is c o m p u t e d .

6.6

RECORDING

MECHANISMS

6.6.1 M e c h a n i c a l D e v i c e s
T h i s type o f device consists o f a t i m e e l e m e n t a n d a water-level element. T h e t i m e element,
c o n t r o l l e d b y a c l o c k , m o v e s t h e c h a r t o r t a p e a t a p r e d e t e r m i n e d fixed r a t e . T h e w a t e r l e v e l e l e m e n t , a c t u a t e d b y a f l o a t o r b u b b l e gage, m o v e s t h e p e n s t y l u s o r t h e p u n c h b l o c k .

6.6.2 E l e c t r o m e c h a n i c a l D e v i c e s
I n such a device, the t i m e e l e m e n t is c o n t r o l l e d b y a n electrically d r i v e n clock. W h e r e a n
A C p o w e r s o u r c e is a v a i l a b l e a t t h e site, i t c a n b e u s e d t o p o w e r t h e device.
S e c t i o n 6.6

Recording Mechanisms

287

6.6.3 E l e c t r o n i c D a t a - A c q u i s i t i o n S y s t e m s
M o d e r n devices have been developed t h a t are capable o f accepting a n d s t o r i n g data
e n t i r e l y electronically. S u c h devices are able t o :
1. Receive a s i g n a l f r o m a sensor
2. C o n v e r t t h a t signal t o c o m p a t i b i l i t y w i t h t h e r e c o r d i n g f o r m a t
3. R e c o r d c o r r e s p o n d i n g t i m e i n f o r m a t i o n
4. R e c o r d o t h e r site i d e n t i f i c a t i o n data
5. T r a n s f e r t h e d a t a t o a n a c q u i s i t i o n s y s t e m
A r e c o r d e r m a y f u n c t i o n as a s i n g l e - s i t e u n i t , o r t h e o p e r a t i o n s o f m a n y r e c o r d e r s m a y
be c o n t r o l l e d b y a c e n t r a l processing u n i t . T h e s e devices represent a significant advancem e n t i n stage r e c o r d i n g t e c h n o l o g y .

6.7

DATASTORAGE

6.7.1 G r a p h i c ( A n a l o g ) R e c o r d o n a D r u m
A c h a r t is m o u n t e d o n a d r u m , w h i c h is i n s t a l l e d i n s i d e a b o x e i t h e r h o r i z o n t a l l y o r v e r t i cally. T h e r o t a t i o n o f t h e d r u m a n d t h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e stylus p e n p r o v i d e a c o n t i n u o u s
trace o f t h e w a t e r stage w i t h respect t o t i m e .

6.7.2

Graphic Record o n a Strip Chart

A r o l l o f p a p e r ( c h a r t ) m o v e s h o r i z o n t a l l y f r o m o n e s m a l l d r u m t o a n o t h e r at a preadj u s t e d fixed r a t e . O v e r t h e c h a r t , t h e s t y l u s p e n m a k e s a c o n t i n u o u s r e c o r d o f t h e gage

height, similar to that o n the d r u m chart.

6.7.3
.

Digital Record o n Paper Tape

T h e paper tape s l o w l y m o v e s v e r t i c a l l y f r o m o n e s m a l l d r u m t o another. A t preselected

t i m e i n t e r v a l s , t h e t a p e is p u n c h e d f o r t h e gage h e i g h t t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e i n s t r u m e n t b y
r o t a t i o n o f t h e i n p u t shaft, w h i c h drives t w o code disks. E l e c t r o n i c t r a n s l a t o r s are used t o
read the p u n c h tape o n t o a tape suitahle for i n p u t i n t o a computer.

6.7.4 M a g n e t i c T a p e
Signals f r o m transducers, capacitance, resistance, a n d u l t r a s o n i c sensors can be recorded i n
digital f o r m a t o n a m a g n e t i c tape. A replay system t h e n reconstructs the data f r o m the
m a g n e t i c t a p e records. I t is o f t e n n e c e s s a r y t o t r a n s l a t e t h e r e c o r d e d t a p e d a t a i n t o a c o m puter tape format.

6.7.5 C o m p u t e r D a t a S t o r a g e
I n a n electronic data-acquisition system, records are transferred t o the data m e m o r y ,
w h i c h m a y be either a n i n t e g r a l part o f the device o r m a y be detachable f o r data e x t r a c t i o n
at a p r o c e s s i n g center. T h e d a t a m e m o r y is capable o f a c c e p t i n g large n u m b e r s o f records,
w h i c h enables broad-based data gathering, i n c l u d i n g recording o f air and water temperat u r e s a n d o t h e r s i t e i n f o r m a t i o n , as w e l l as c o r r e c t i o n a n d c h e c k i n g o f t h e d a t a .

2^

Measurement of Surface Water Flow

Chapter 6

6.8

R E M O T E TbANSMissioN O F S T A G E D A T A : IfeLEMETERiNG S Y S T E M
S t r e a m g a g i n g s t a t i o n s a r e u s u a l l y v i s i t e d b y h y d r o l o g i c field p a r t i e s a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s t o
s e r v i c e t h e s t a t i o n s a n d t o c o n d u c t h y d r o l o g i c m e a s u r e m e n t s . T h e r e c o r d o f t h e stage d a t a
is c o l l e c t e d a t t h e t i m e o f s u c h v i s i t s . H o w e v e r , w h e n s t a g e i n f o r m a t i o n is n e e d e d a t f r e q u e n t i n t e r v a l s , o r i t is n o t p r a c t i c a l t o v i s i t t h e gage site f o r a c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e , a t e l e m e t e r i n g s y s t e m is u s e d f o r r e m o t e t r a n s m i t t i n g o f t h e data. T h e r e are t w o types o f
telemetering system.

6.8.1 C o n t i n u o u s T r a n s m i s s i o n o f D a t a
Position-motor
system.
T h i s s y s t e m , f o r a d i s t a n c e u p t o 15 m i l e s , e m p l o y s a p a i r
o f s e l f - s y n c h r o n i z i n g m o t o r s . O n e m o t o r , o n t h e t r a n s m i t t e r side, is a c t u a t e d b y a f l o a t o r
b u b b l e - g a g e . T h e o t h e r , o n t h e r e c e i v i n g u n i t , f o l l o w s t h e r o t a r y m o t i o n o f t h e first o n e , t o
w h i c h i t is e l e c t r i c a l l y c o n n e c t e d b y a t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e .
I m p u l s e system.
T h i s system, o p e r a t i n g over a greater distance t h a n a p o s i t i o n m o t o r s y s t e m , u t i l i z e s t e l e p h o n e l i n e s . A n i m p u l s e s e n d e r a t t h e g a g i n g s i t e is a c t u a t e d b y a
f l o a t o r b u b b l e - g a g e a n d sends electrical pulses o v e r t h e l i n e t o t h e receiver, t o be r e c o r d e d
as d i g i t a l s i g n a l s .

6.8.2 I n t e r m i t t e n t T r a n s m i s s i o n a t P r e d e t e r m i n e d I n t e r v a l s
Telemarksystem.
T h i s s y s t e m codes t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s stage a n d signals i t v i a a telep h o n e circuit, by radio, or t h r o u g h cellular c o m m u n i c a t i o n o n V H F , U H F , and microwave
f r e q u e n c i e s . T h e d i s t a n c e i s u n l i m i t e d i n t h i s case. T h e d e v i c e c o n s i s t s o f a p o s i t i o n i n g e l e m e n t t h a t is a c t u a t e d b y a s e n s o r a n d a s i g n a l i n g e l e m e n t t h a t m a k e s c o n t a c t a c r o s s t h e s i g n a l i n g d r u m s p o s i t i o n e d i n c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h t h e stage.
Resistance
system.
T h i s system, f o r distances u p t o 4 0 m i l e s , consists o f t w o p o t e n t i o m e t e r s a n d a m i c r o a m m e t e r n u l l i n d i c a t o r . O n e p o t e n t i o m e t e r , a t t h e g a g e s i t e , is a c t u a t e d b y t h e s e n s o r . T h e o t h e r p o t e n t i o m e t e r , a t t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s i t e , is a d j u s t e d f o r a n u l l
b a l a n c e a n d t h e gage h e i g h t is r e a d f r o m a d i a l c o u p l e d t o t h e p o t e n t i o m e t e r .
Satellite
data-collection
system.
F r o m s t r e a m g a g i n g s t a t i o n s , stage d a t a are t r a n s m i t t e d u s i n g i n e x p e n s i v e b a t t e r y - o p e r a t e d r a d i o s , k n o w n as d a t a - c o l l e c t i o n p l a t f o r m s
( D C P s ) , t o a c o m m u n i c a t i o n satellite w h i c h t h e n r e t r a n s m i t s the data t o a g r o u n d receiving center. D a t a f o r t r a n s m i s s i o n are o b t a i n e d either d i r e c t l y f r o m a d i g i t a l recorder o r
t h r o u g h a m e m o r y device. T h e t w o basic types o f satellites used f o r data t r a n s m i s s i o n are
(1) p o l a r - o r b i t i n g a n d ( 2 ) geostationary. P o l a r - o r b i t i n g satellites have a l o w n o m i n a l altit u d e o f 8 7 0 k m a n d each o r b i t takes 101 m i n u t e s t o c o m p l e t e . T h u s , e v e r y day these satellites m a k e 14 o r b i t s a n d because o f t h e earth's r o t a t i o n , t h e i r o r b i t paths s h i f t w e s t w a r d so
t h a t t h e e n t i r e e a r t h is c o v e r e d i n 18 d a y s . T h e y p r o v i d e c o v e r a g e e v e r y w h e r e o n t h e g l o h e .
Several g e o s t a t i o n a r y - t y p e satellites are located at a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h a l t i t u d e o f a b o u t 35,000
k m . E a c h satellite o r b i t s y n c h r o n i z e s w i t h t h e r o t a t i o n o f t h e e a r t h . T h u s , these satellites
a p p e a r t o b e s t a t i o n a r y o v e r a fixed p o i n t o n t h e e a r t h ; i . e . , t h e y o b s e r v e t h e s a m e a r e a o f
the globe continuously.

S e c t i o n 6.8

Remote Transmission of Stage Data: Telemetering System

'

289

6.9

THEORY OFDISCHARGE

MEASUREMENT

D i s c h a r g e o r s t r e a m f l o w is t h e v o l u m e r a t e o f w a t e r f l o w i n a s t r e a m , e x p r e s s e d as c u h i c
f e e t p e r s e c o n d o r c u b i c m e t e r s p e r s e c o n d . I t is a p r o d u c t o f t h e a r e a o f c r o s s s e c t i o n a n d
t h e v e l o c i t y o f flow. A n a t u r a l s t r e a m c h a n n e l c a n h a v e a n i r r e g u l a r s h a p e a n d t h u s a s t a n d a r d f o r m u l a c a n n o t b e u s e d t o c o m p u t e t h e a r e a . S i m i l a r l y , t h e r e is n o fixed v e l o c i t y ; i t
varies i n b o t h w i d t h a n d d e p t h i n a s t r e a m section. T h u s the discharge can he given b y
vdA

Q =
;.
./ j
, ;

[L^T-i]

(6-la)

E x c e p t f o r t h e t r a c e r - d i l u t i o n t e c h n i q u e , i n w h i c h t h e e q u a t i o n o f t h e m a s s r a t e o f flow
is used, t h e o t h e r discharge m e t h o d s are b a s e d o n eq. ( 6 . 1 ) . T h e c u r r e n t m e t e r a n d f l o a t
m e t h o d s p e r f o r m algebraic i n t e g r a t i o n ( s u m m a t i o n ) . T h e s t r e a m s e c t i o n is d i v i d e d i n t o a
n u m b e r o f subsections. T h e d e p t h a n d v e l o c i t y m e a s u r e m e n t s are a r r a n g e d t o d e t e r m i n e
a n a v e r a g e v e l o c i t y f o r e a c h s u b s e c t i o n . T h e d i s c h a r g e is c o m p u t e d b y
Q = Iav

[L^T-i]

(6.1b)

where
fl = i n d i v i d u a l s u b s e c t i o n a r e a
V = m e a n velocity o f flow i n the subsection

"

'

M e a s u r e m e n t s u s i n g u l t r a s o n i c a n d e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c m e t h o d s give t h e average v e l o c i t y
for t h e e n t i r e s t r e a m s e c t i o n . T h e n t h e discharge is o b t a i n e d b y m u l t i p l y i n g t h e average
v e l o c i t y b y t h e e n t i r e area o f cross section.

6.10

M E A S U R E M E N T B YC U R R E N T

METER

T h e u s e o f t h e c u r r e n t m e t e r is a c o m m o n m e t h o d o f d i s c h a r g e m e a s u r e m e n t . T h e c u r r e n t
m e t e r consists o f a cup- o r propeller-type rotor. T h e n u m b e r o f r e v o l u t i o n s o f the r o t o r i n
a g i v e n p e r i o d is d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e v e l o c i t y o f w a t e r . T h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n r e v o l u t i o n s p e r s e c o n d , n , a n d v e l o c i t y o f f l o w , v, is o f a s t r a i g h t - l i n e f o r m ( v = a + bn). V a l u e s
o f a a n d b are established f r o m t h e c a l i b r a t i o n o f t h e m e t e r b y t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r a n d are
k n o w n as t h e m e t e r r a t i n g . F o r c o n v e n i e n c e , t h e r a t i n g d a t a a r e p r o d u c e d i n a t a b l e f o r m .
T h e c u r r e n t m e t e r is d i v i d e d i n t o t w o b r o a d c a t e g o r i e s o f v e r t i c a l - a x i s m e t e r a n d h o r i z o n t a l - a x i s m e t e r , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e r o t o r shaft. T h e vertical-axis r o t o r s
are m o u n t e d w i t h cups o r vanes t h a t rotate w i t h the c u r r e n t . T h e h o r i z o n t a l - a x i s r o t o r s
h a v e a p r o p e l l e r - t y p e a t t a c h m e n t . I n b o t h cases, e a c h r e v o l u t i o n o f t h e r o t o r c o m p l e t e s a
circuit t h r o u g h a battery connection that produces an audible click i n a headphone or
m o v e s a d i g i t a l c o u n t e r . A s t o p w a t c h is u s e d t o m e a s u r e t h e t i m e o v e r w h i c h r e v o l u t i o n s
a r e c o u n t e d . B o t h t y p e s a r e a v a i l a b l e i n a s t a n d a r d s i z e a n d a m i n i a t u r e size f o r u s e i n v e r y
small depths.
T h e v e r t i c a l - a x i s c u p m e t e r , k n o w n as t h e P r i c e c u r r e n t m e t e r a f t e r i t s i n v e n t o r , is
m o s t c o m m o n i n t h e U n i t e d States. A c o m p l e t e a s s e m b l y o f s u s p e n s i o n cable, h e a d p h o n e ,
b a t t e r y u n i t , a n d s o u n d i n g w e i g h t is s h o w n i n F i g u r e 6.4
T h e U . S . G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y has d e v e l o p e d a n o p t i c a l c u r r e n t m e t e r . T h i s is a s t r o b o s c o p i c d e v i c e u s e d t o m e a s u r e s u r f a c e v e l o c i t i e s a t t h e t i m e o f floods w i t h o u t i m m e r s i n g
the instrument.

290

Measurement of Surface Water Flow

Chapter 6

Figure 6.4

A s s e m b l y of a type AA current meter (courtesy of Geophysical

Instrument and Supply Co.).

Headband
'-'^
Earphone
Dry cell battery (1.5 V)
Telephone cable
Double contact connector female
Suspension cable, 35 ft
Link connector
Steel wire cable, 35 ft
Weight hanger
Binding post
K Tailpiece
L Counterpoise
M Lead weight
Weight pin

6.10.1 P r o c e d u r e s o f C u r r e n t M e t e r M e a s u r e m e n t
M e a s u r e m e n t s b y c u r r e n t m e t e r a r e c l a s s i f i e d as f o l l o w s i n t e r m s o f t h e p r o c e d u r e u s e d t o
cross a s t r e a m d u r i n g the m e a s u r e m e n t .
By w a d i n g

"

7:,.

F r o m a bridge
F r o m a cableway
By boat
O v e r ice c o v e r
I n the w a d i n g procedure, m e a s u r e m e n t s are m a d e b y e n t e r i n g t h e s t r e a m . T h e m e t h o d
is t h u s a p p l i c a b l e t o s h a l l o w d e p t h s u p t o 4 f t a n d v e l o c i t i e s o f less t h a n 3 t o 4 ft/sec.

S e c t i o n 6.10

Measurement by Current Meter

291

I n the bridge measurement, either a h a n d l i n e o r a s o u n d i n g reel supported b y a bridge

b o a r d o r a p o r t a b l e c r a n e i s u s e d t o s u s p e n d t h e m e t e r a n d t h e s o u n d i n g w e i g h t . T h e size
o f t h e s o u n d i n g w e i g h t s h o u l d be greater t h a n t h e m a x i m u m p r o d u c t o f v e l o c i t y a n d d e p t h
i n t h e cross section.
C a b l e w a y m e a s u r e m e n t is s u p e r i o r t o b r i d g e m e a s u r e m e n t b e c a u s e t h e r e is n o
o b s t r u c t i o n o f t h e f l o w passage, b u t i t i n v o l v e s m o r e i n i t i a l a n d o p e r a t i o n a l expenses. T h e
s o u n d i n g r e e l c a r r y i n g t h e m e t e r a n d t h e w e i g h t i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e c a b l e car.
I n deep rivers, w h e r e n o cableways o r suitable bridges are available, t h e m e a s u r e m e n t
is m a d e b y b o a t . A t a g l i n e i s f i r s t s t r e t c h e d a c r o s s t h e s e c t i o n . T h e t a g l i n e s e r v e s t h e d u a l
purpose o f h o l d i n g the boat i n position d u r i n g the measurement and measuring o f the
w i d t h o f the river.
F o r m e a s u r e m e n t u n d e r a n ice c o v e r , t h e m o s t d e s i r a b l e s e c t i o n is j u s t u p s t r e a m f r o m a
r i f f l e b e c a u s e t h e i c e c o v e r is t h i c k e s t t h e r e . A t l e a s t 2 0 h o l e s a r e c u t a c r o s s t h e s e c t i o n u s i n g
a n ice d r i l l . T h e e f f e c t i v e d e p t h o f t h e w a t e r is t h e t o t a l d e p t h m i n u s t h e d e p t h o f t h e ice
c o v e r . A m e t e r w i t h v a n e s i s p r e f e r r e d b e c a u s e t h e v a n e s d o n o t b e c o m e f i l l e d w i t h s l u s h ice.

6.11

\ ^ L O c i T Y DISTRIBUTION INA STREAM SECTION

T h e v e l o c i t y i n a s t r e a m s e c t i o n is n o t u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d , d u e t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e free
surface a n d f r i c t i o n a l o n g t h e s t r e a m w a l l . I t varies b o t h across t h e w i d t h a n d a l o n g the
d e p t h . F i g u r e 6.5 i n d i c a t e s t h e g e n e r a l p a t t e r n o f v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n a s t r e a m c h a n n e l .
T h e m a x i m u m v e l o c i t y u s u a l l y occurs b e l o w t h e free surface near t h e center o f t h e c h a n n e l
s e c t i o n . T h e v e l o c i t y decreases t o w a r d t h e b a n k s . A l s o , t h e closer t o t h e b a n k s , t h e deeper
t h e p o i n t o f h i g h e s t v e l o c i t y i n a v e r t i c a l section. Factors t h a t affect t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i h u t i o n are t h e shape o f t h e section, t h e roughness o f the channel, a n d the presence o f bends.
T h e surface w i n d has v e r y l i t t l e effect. A s p i r a l t y p e o f m o t i o n has b e e n o b s e r v e d i n l a b o r a t o r y i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . I n n a t u r a l r i v e r s , t h e s p i r a l m o t i o n is u s u a l l y s o w e a k t h a t i t s e f f e c t is
practically eliminated by the channel friction ( C h o w , 1959).
T h e p r o b l e m o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l v a r i a t i o n o f v e l o c i t y is r e s o l v e d h y d i v i d i n g t h e w i d t h o f
the river i n t o a n u m b e r o f segments w h i l e p e r f o r m i n g the velocity measurements. T h e vert i c a l v a r i a t i o n , h o w e v e r , has t o be c o n s i d e r e d at each s e g m e n t . T h e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i s b a s e d o n t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e boundary / a y e r t h e o r y h e c a u s e a n a l o g i e s h a v e b e e n f o u n d
between t u r b u l e n t boundary-layer flow and t u r b u l e n t pipe and channel flows. A b o u n d a r y
l a y e r is a r e g i o n n e x t t o t h e b o u n d a r y o f a n o b j e c t i n w h i c h t h e f l u i d v e l o c i t y is d i m i n i s h e d
because o f t h e shear resistance created b y t h e b o u n d a r y . T h e t u r b u l e n t c h a n n e l f l o w can be
v i s u a l i z e d as a t u r b u l e n t l a y e r t h a t h a s b e c o m e as t h i c k as t h e d e p t h o f f l o w .
* .

6.12

f,
V

BOUNDARY LAYER THEORY

O n a flat plate placed inside a f l u i d a l o n g t h e d i r e c t i o n o f flow, a l a m i n a r b o u n d a r y layer
develops w h i c h grows i n the d o w n s t r e a m direction and becomes a t u r b u l e n t b o u n d a r y
layer. T h e t u r b u l e n t b o u n d a r y layer has t h r e e zones: ( 1 ) l a m i n a r sublayer, ( 2 ) z o n e o f logar i t h m i c v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n , a n d ( 3 ) z o n e o f v e l o c i t y d e f e c t l a w , as i l l u s t r a t e d i n
F i g u r e 6.6. T h e l o g a r i t h m i c v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w has t h e w i d e s t a p p l i c a t i o n since i t
covers a m a j o r p o r t i o n o f t h e b o u n d a r y layer, overlaps i n t o t h e v e l o c i t y defect law, a n d
because flows b r o a d l y c o n f o r m t o this law. T h i s law, derived f r o m Prandtl's m i x i n g - l e n g t h
t h e o r y , has t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m f o r a flat plate:

Measurement of Surface Water Flow

Chapter 6

Figure 6 . 5

Figure 6 . 6

Typical velocity distribution in a stream c h a n n e l .

Velocity distribution in turbulent b o u n d a r y layer on a flat plate.

Turbulent
boundary
layer

Laminar
boundary
layer

Velocity
defect law

Vn-v

Log velocity _y

1_ |n yHf+ c

distribution u* ~ K
Laminar
V _ yu*
sublayer
t7*

= \n^^

I ^
where

" +C

'<;

(6.2)

[dimensionless]

' *

V = velocity at any distance y f r o m the plate

XQ
p,v

= shear stress a t t h e plate ( w a l l )

= density and kinematic viscosity o f

fluid

u* = ^ITQ/ p = s h e a r v e l o c i t y
K = v o n K a r m a n universal turbulent constant, = 0.4
C

= a constant

N i k u r a d s e ' s e x p e r i m e n t s a n d n u m e r o u s o t h e r tests o n r o u g h pipes c o n f i r m e d t h e v a l i d i t y

o f the logarithmic velocity law.
F o r pipes, the v o n K a r m a n l o g a r i t h m i c velocity d i s t r i b u t i o n has the f o l l o w i n g f o r m ,
w h i c h is a d i r e c t d e r i v a t i o n f r o m eq. ( 6 . 2 ) after s u b s t i t u t i o n o f t h e b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n o f
V=
at y = T Q , t h u s ascertaining c o n s t a n t C .
V

- V.,

" [dimensionless]
^0

(6.3)

w h e r e TQ r e p r e s e n t s t h e r a d i u s o f t h e p i p e .

S e c t i o n 6.12

Boundary Layer Theory

293

F o r o p e n c h a n n e l s , b y s u b s t i t u t i n g X Q = gds a n d TQ = d a n d m a n i p u l a t i n g e q . ( 6 . 3 ) ,
Vanoni (1941) obtained the following relation:
y=V +

[LT - n

^Jgds 1 + l n ^

(6.4)

where
V = average v e l o c i t y
d = depth o f flow
s = slope o f channel

Analyses have s h o w n that the power law equation o f the following f o r m provides a
result s i m i l a r t o the l o g a r i t h m i c d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w that c o n f o r m s t o the e x p e r i m e n t a l data
v e r y c l o s e l y i n t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r , as w e l l as p i p e a n d c h a n n e l f l o w s . A l s o , i t i s m o r e c o n v e n i e n t t o apply. A n extensive study b y D i c k i n s o n (1967) led t o the consensus that the distrib u t i o n i n s t r e a m s fits t h e p a r a b o l i c c u r v e g i v e n b y t h e p o w e r l a w .
(6.5)

[LT - n

v = y,
where
V = v e l o c i t y at a distance y f r o m t h e b e d

= a k n o w n v e l o c i t y at a distance a f r o m t h e b e d
m = a c o n s t a n t t h a t varies f r o m 6 t o 10 d e p e n d i n g o n t h e R e y n o l d s n u m b e r
( D a i l y a n d H a r l e m a n , 1966); usually, m equals 7

6.13

M E A N V E R T I C A L VfeLociTY
T h e m e a n v e l o c i t y i n a v e r t i c a l p l a n e is

; r

v = i

vdy

[LT- i i

(6.6)

dy

(a)

S u b s t i t u t i n g eq. ( 6 . 5 ) ,
y
aj

y = l
dJ
or

y^^l+l/m

(b)
dm + l

Jo

or

m +1 ^

294

[LT

Measurement of Surface Water Flow

(6.7)

Chapter 6

Suppose that the m e a n v e l o c i t y occurs at a distance Z f r o m the b o t t o m . M a k i n g v = y

i n e q . ( 6 . 5 ) b y s u b s t i t u t i n g y=Z,
a n d e q u a t i n g t o eq. ( 6 . 7 ) , w e o b t a i n
Vn

(z

V''

m
y.
m + 1

7+^l/'"

(c)

a)

or
/

Z =

m + 1

(6.8)

[L]

For values o f m b e t w e e n 6 a n d 10, eq. (6.8) p r o v i d e s Z t o be a p p r o x i m a t e l y equal t o 0.4d

(i.e., t h e average v e l o c i t y o c c u r s at 0.6 d e p t h b e l o w t h e surface).
A l s o , i f VQ 2 i s t h e v e l o c i t y a t y = 0 . 2 d a n d VQ g i s t h e v e l o c i t y a t y = 0 . 8 d ,
(d)
F r o m eq. ( 6 . 5 ) ,
^0.2d^^'"

0 . 8 d V

(e)

F o r m = 7,
y^=o.88yo

[LT

(6.9)

-ii

F o r m = 7 , e q . ( 6 . 7 ) g i v e s y = 0 . 8 8 y o ( d / f l ) ^ ' ' ^ , w h i c h is e q u a l t o

o f eq. ( 6 . 9 ) . T h u s

t h e m e a n o f 0 . 2 - d e p t h a n d 0 . 8 - d e p t h v e l o c i t i e s is e q u a l t o t h e average v e l o c i t y .

6.14

MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY
T h e c u r r e n t m e t e r o r a n y o t h e r i n s t r u m e n t m e a s u r e s v e l o c i t y at a p o i n t , whereas the m e a n
v a l u e o f v e l o c i t y i n a v e r t i c a l is r e q u i r e d t o e v a l u a t e t h e d i s c h a r g e . T h e m e a n v e l o c i t y i n a
v e r t i c a l is o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e p o i n t v e l o c i t y m e a s u r e m e n t s b y o n e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g m e t h o d s :

'
f

Two-point method
Six-tenths-depth m e t h o d
: ,v,

Vertical-velocity curve m e t h o d
Integrated measurement m e t h o d

x;. > ;

Three-point method

y +

:>

Five-point method
Six-point method
Two-tenths-depth method
Subsurface-velocity m e t h o d
Surface-velocity m e t h o d

S e c t i o n 6.14

Measurement of Velocity

295

T h e first t w o m e t h o d s are c o m m o n . A s p r o v e d i n t h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n , t h e v e l o c i t y at
0.6 d e p t h f r o m t h e surface o r m e a n o f 0.2 a n d 0.8 d e p t h s is t h e average v e l o c i t y b y t h e l o g a r i t h m i c d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d p o w e r l a w s . A field s t u d y b y S a v i n i a n d B o d h a i n e ( 1 9 7 1 ) i n d i cated t h a t t h e average v e l o c i t y d e t e r m i n e d b y b o t h o n e - p o i n t a n d t w o - p o i n t m e t h o d s
d i f f e r e d f r o m 1 0 - p o i n t m e a s u r e m e n t b y 0 . 7 % . T h e t w o - p o i n t m e t h o d is s l i g h t l y better, b u t
i t i s n o t u s e d w h e r e t h e d e p t h i s less t h a n 2 . 5 ft. A n i n d i c a t i o n as t o w h e t h e r t h e t w o - p o i n t
m e t h o d is a d e q u a t e is d e r i v e d f r o m t w o c o n d i t i o n s ; t h e 0 . 2 - d e p t h v e l o c i t y s h o u l d h e
g r e a t e r t h a n t h e 0 . 8 - d e p t h v e l o c i t y , a n d t h e 0 . 2 - d e p t h v e l o c i t y s h o u l d b e less t h a n t w i c e t h e
0.8-depth velocity.
A l t h o u g h t h e r e is a s t r i k i n g s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n o b s e r v e d v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d t h e
l o g a r i t h m i c ( a n d p o w e r ) l a w , t h e a c t u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n i n a n o p e n c h a n n e l is n o t s t r i c t l y l o g arithmic. According t o the l o g a r i t h m i c (and p o w e r ) law, the m a x i m u m velocity should
o c c u r a t t h e s u r f a c e , w h i c h i s n o t t h e a c t u a l case. I n n a t u r a l s t r e a m s t h e r e i s f u r t h e r d e v i a t i o n f r o m t h e t h e o r e t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , m e t h o d s 3 t h r o u g h 7, w h i c h i n v o l v e
o b s e r v a t i o n s a t a l a r g e r n u m b e r o f p o i n t s , a r e u s e d . M e t h o d s 8 t h r o u g h 10 a r e e m p l o y e d i n
special circumstances.
I n t h e v e r t i c a l - v e l o c i t y c u r v e m e t h o d , a n u m b e r o f v e l o c i t y o b s e r v a t i o n s are m a d e at
p o i n t s w e l l d i s t r i b u t e d b e t w e e n t h e w a t e r surface a n d t h e s t r e a m b e d at each vertical. A p l o t
is m a d e b e t w e e n o b s e r v e d v e l o c i t i e s a n d o b s e r v a t i o n d e p t h s as a r a t i o o f t o t a l d e p t h . A
g r a p h i c i n t e g r a t i o n is c a r r i e d o u t b y m e a s u r i n g t h e a r e a b e t w e e n t h e c u r v e a n d t h e o r d i n a t e a x i s . T h e m e a n v e l o c i t y is o b t a i n e d f r o m d i v i d i n g t h e a r e a b y t h e l e n g t h o f t h e o r d i n a t e a x i s . A r i t h m e t i c i n t e g r a t i o n ( s u m m a t i o n ) is a l s o a v e r y c o n v e n i e n t w a y t o o b t a i n t h e
m e a n velocity. T h e s e procedures o n t h e v e l o c i t y c u r v e m e t h o d are d e m o n s t r a t e d i n E x a m ples 6.1 t h r o u g h 6.4.
I n t h e i n t e g r a t e d m e a s u r e m e n t m e t h o d t h e c u r r e n t m e t e r is l o w e r e d t o t h e b e d a n d
raised t o t h e surface at a u n i f o r m rate. T h e m e a s u r e m e n t o f v e l o c i t y t h u s o h t a i n e d repres e n t s t h e m e a n v e l o c i t y f o r t h e s e c t i o n . T h e v e r t i c a l - a x i s c u r r e n t m e t e r is n o t u s e d i n t h i s
method.
T h e three-point m e t h o d comhines the t w o - p o i n t and six-tenths-depth methods. Fivea n d s i x - p o i n t m e t h o d s m a k e five a n d s i x o b s e r v a t i o n s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , e v e n l y d i s t r i b u t e d
t h r o u g h o u t t h e d e p t h . I n t h e t w o - t e n t h s - d e p t h m e t h o d t h e v e l o c i t y is o b s e r v e d at 0.2 o f t h e
d e p t h b e l o w t h e s u r f a c e a n d a c o e f f i c i e n t is a p p l i e d t o t h e v e l o c i t y o b s e r v e d . T h e U S G S
studies d e t e r m i n e d a coefficient o f 0.87. I n t h e subsurface v e l o c i t y m e t h o d , o b s e r v a t i o n s are
m a d e a t s o m e a r b i t r a r y d i s t a n c e b e l o w t h e s u r f a c e w h e n i t is n o t p o s s i h l e t o o h t a i n t h e
d e p t h s w i t h r e l i a b i l i t y at v e r y h i g h f l o w c o n d i t i o n s . T h e coefficients are necessary t o c o n v e r t
t h e s e t o t h e m e a n v e l o c i t y . T o d e t e r m i n e t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s , d e p t h s o f m e a s u r e m e n t , as c o m p a r e d t o t o t a l d e p t h , are e s t i m a t e d after t h e stage has receded. I n c o n d i t i o n s o f v e r y h i g h
f l o w ( i . e . , f l o o d s ) , t h e s u r f a c e v e l o c i t y m e t h o d is p r e f e r r e d o v e r s u b s u r f a c e v e l o c i t y i f a n
o p t i c a l c u r r e n t m e t e r i s a v a i l a b l e . A c o e f f i c i e n t b e t w e e n 0 . 8 5 a n d 0 . 9 0 is u s e d t o c o m p u t e t h e
m e a n v e l o c i t y . F o r s m o o t h e r s e c t i o n s a v a l u e t o w a r d t h e u p p e r l i m i t o f 0 . 9 is a p p l i e d .
EXAMPLE

6.1

T h e w a t e r v e l o c i t y i n a s t r e a m c h a n n e l has a d i s t r i b u t i o n across a vertical section given b y

V = 2 ( 4 - / ) ^ ' ' ' ' , w h e r e v i s t h e v e l o c i t y i n ft/s a n d y i s t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e w a t e r s u r f a c e .
T h e w a t e r d e p t h a t t h i s s e c t i o n i s 4 ft. (a) D e t e r m i n e t h e m e a n v e l o c i t y a c r o s s t h e v e r t i c a l
s e c t i o n , (b) D e t e r m i n e t h e d i s c h a r g e i n t h e c h a n n e l i f t h e v e r t i c a l s e c t i o n represents t h e
a v e r a g e c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e c h a n n e l o f r e c t a n g u l a r s h a p e o f 5 0 ft w i d t h .

296

Measurement of Surface Water Flow

Chapter 6

SOLUTION

(a)

M e a n velocity across the vertical section,

^

V =

1 4
4. 0
1 4
4. 0
4

V dy ( s i n c e y f r o m t o p )

2 ( 4 - A "

V8;L-

J O

: 2.13 ft/s
(b) D i s c h a r g e i n t h e c h a n n e l .
Q = A U = (50)(4)(2.13)
= 4 2 6 cfs

E X A M P L E 6.2

T h e v e r t i c a l - v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n a 4 - f f - d e e p c h a n n e l is g i v e n b y v = 2y^'^, w h e r e y is t h e
distance f r o m the b o t t o m . D e t e r m i n e the m e a n velocity by graphic integration.
SOLUTION
F i g u r e 6.7

T h e velocities f o r various

depths are computed

-

below a n d plotted i n

Height from bottom (ft)

Ratio of depth/total depth

Velocity, v = 2y'^'^ (ft/sec)

025

0.50

2.83

0.75

3.46

1.0

4.0

X scale

10 d i v i s i o n s = 1 ft/sec

7 scale

10 d i v i s i o n s = 0.2
100 s q u a r e s * = 0.2 ft/sec
1 square = 0.002

ft/sec

Area covered by the curve = 1340 squares

o r 17 = 1 3 4 0 x 0 . 0 0 2
"

= 2 . 6 8 ft/sec

E X A M P L E 6.3

S o l v e E x a m p l e 6.2 b y a l g e b r a i c s u m m a t i o n .
* A s m a l l s q u a r e f o r m e d b y o n e d i v i s i o n o n x a n d y scales.

Section 6.14

M e a s u r e m e n t of Velocity

297

Figure 6.7

Plot of velocity versus d e p t h for E x a m p l e 6 . 2 .

Velocity o f flow (ft/sec)

SOLUTION

E i t h e r f r o m t h e v e l o c i t y e q u a t i o n o f E x a m p l e 6.2 o r f r o m t h e p l o t i n F i g u r e 6.7, t h e v e l o c i ties c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s o f d e p t h s are as f o l l o w s :

(1)
Height (ft)
0

(2)
Velocity (ft/s)
0

0.5

1.41

1.0

1.5

2.45

2.0

2.83

2.5

3.16

3.0

3.46

3.5

3.74

4.0
Total

(3)
Mean l/^(ft/s)

(4)
Area of Curve''(ft^/s)

0.71

0.36

1.70

0.85

2.22

1.11

2.64

1.32

3.0

1.50

3.31

1.66

3.60

1.80

3.87

1.94

4.0
10.54

^ Average of two successive values of col. 2

''col. 3 X (difference of two successive values in col. 1)
V =7^(10.54

ft2/s)

= 2.64

ft/sec

Measurement of Surface Water Flow

Chapter 6

E X A M P L E 6.4

T h e following point-velocity observations were m a d e i n a vertical section o f a stream

c h a n n e l . D e t e r m i n e t h e m e a n v e l o c i t y b y v a r i o u s m e t h o d s a n d c o m p a r e t h e i r results. T h e
t o t a l d e p t h o f f l o w is 4 m .
Ratio of observation to
total depth

Velocity (m/s)

0.05

0.36

0.2

0.35

'

0.4

0.34

0.6

0.32

0.8

0.28

0.95

0.20

SOLUTION

1. V e r t i c a l - v e l o c i t y c u r v e m e t h o d :
D e p t h versus v e l o c i t y d a t a are p l o t t e d i n F i g u r e 6.8.
x-scale

10 d i v i s i o n s = 0.04 m / s

y-scale

10 d i v i s i o n s = 0.2
100 squares = 0.008 m / s
1 square = 8 x 1 0 " ^ m / s

A r e a u n d e r the p l o t = 1420 squares (8 X 1 0 " ^ ) = 0.114 m / s

M e a n velocity = d a t u m + 0.114
V = o.2 + 0 . 1 1 4 = 0 . 3 1 4 m / s

^ J
2. T w o - p o i n t m e t h o d :
V= 0 . 5 (

,
2 + V o g) = 0 . 5 ( 0 . 3 5 + 0 . 2 8 ) = 0 . 3 1 5 m / s

3. S i x - t e n t h s - d e p t h m e t h o d :
V = Vo g = 0.32 m / s

4. T h r e e - p o i n t m e t h o d :
. ,

V = 0.25(yo.2+2Vo.6+n.8)

"

= 0.25 0 . 3 5 + 2 ( 0 . 3 2 ) + 0 . 2 8 ] = 0.318 m / s
5. T w o - t e n t h s - d e p t h m e t h o d :
^0.2=0-35

V = (coefficient) VQ 2 = (0.87)(0.35) = 0.305 m / s

6. S u r f a c e - v e l o c i t y m e t h o d :
y = ( c o e f f i c i e n t ) V^yrf^^g = ( 0 . 8 5 ) ( 0 . 3 6 ) = 0 . 3 0 6 m / s

S e c t i o n 6.14

Measurement of Velocity

299

Figure 6.8

Vertical-velocity profile for E x a m p l e 6.4.

0.16

0.20

0.24

0.28

0.32

0.36

0.40

Velocity ( m / s )
7. F i v e - p o i n t m e t h o d :
y= O - l K u r f + 3 U o . 2 + 3 V o . e , +2V,_, +V^^^)
= 0.l[0.36 + 3(0.35) + 3(0.32) + 2(0.28) + 0.20] = 0.313m/s
8. S i x - p o i n t m e t h o d :

:;

- ;

V = o.i(y,rf + 2 ^ 0 . 2 + 2 V o . 4 + 2 y o . , + 2 V o 3 + y ^ e d )
= 0. l [ 0 . 3 6 + 2 ( 0 . 3 5 ) + 2 ( 0 . 3 4 ) + 2 ( 0 . 3 2 ) + 2 ( 0 . 2 8 ) + 0.20"
= 0.314 m / s
Summary of Results
Method

Mean Velocity (m/s)

Error (%)

0.001

0.3

0.006

1.9

0.314

2. Two-point

0.315

3. Six-tenths

0.320

4 . Three-point

0.318

0.004

5. Two-tenths-depth

0.305

0.009

6. Surface-velocity

0.306

7. Five-point

0.313

8. Six-point

0.314

'

T h u s , the vertical-velocity curve, six-point,

b e t t e r results i n t h i s case.

300

Deviation

1. Vertical-velocity curve

five-point,

1-3

2.9

0.008

2.5

0.001

0.3

and two-point methods provide

Measurement of Surface Water Flow

Chapter 6

6.15

MEASUREMENT OFD E P T H (SOUNDING)

A l o n g w i t h velocity, m e a s u r e m e n t o f d e p t h at vertical sections is required t o c o m p u t e discharge. T h e f o l l o w i n g f o u r m e t h o d s are used f o r d e p t h m e a s u r e m e n t :
1. W a d i n g r o d
2. S o u n d i n g w e i g h t suspended b y a h a n d line
3. S o u n d i n g w e i g h t s u s p e n d e d b y a r e e l l i n e
4. Sonic sounder

6.15.1 W a d i n g R o d
T h i s i s a g r a d u a t e d s t e e l r o d o f h e x a g o n a l o r r o u n d s h a p e , w i t h a d i a m e t e r o f 1/2 i n . T h e
r o d is placed i n t h e s t r e a m so t h a t t h e base plate rests o n t h e s t r e a m b e d a n d t h e d e p t h o f
w a t e r is read o n t h e g r a d u a t e d r o d . T h e c u r r e n t m e t e r c a n b e set at a desired p o s i t i o n o f
0.2, 0.6, o r 0.8 d e p t h .

6.15.2 W e i g h t w i t h a H a n d L i n e
W h e n i t is n o t possible t o u s e a w a d i n g r o d d u e t o deep o r swiff water, a s o u n d i n g w e i g h t is
s u s p e n d e d b e l o w t h e c u r r e n t m e t e r . T h e a s s e m b l y is attached t o a cable a n d is used f r o m a
bridge, boat, o r cableway t o p e r f o r m measurements. T h eweights are streamlined t o a
b o m b shape.

6.15.3 W e i g h t w i t h a R e e l L i n e
F o r h i g h - w a t e r m e a s u r e m e n t s r e q u i r i n g heavier weights, a s o u n d i n g reel is used. I t has a
d r u m f o r w i n d i n g t h e s o u n d i n g cable; a c r a n k a n d r a t c h e t a s s e m b l y f o r l o w e r i n g , r a i s i n g ,
a n d h o l d i n g t h e current meter a n d weight assembly; a n d a depth indicator. Often, air a n d
w e t - l i n e c o r r e c t i o n s h a v e t o b e a p p l i e d t o t h e s o u n d i n g c a b l e m e a s u r e m e n t s as d i s c u s s e d
below.

6.15.4 S o n i c S o u n d e r
Based o n the principle o f echo sounding, a sonic sounder provides a continuous strip-chart
record o f the depth o f the stream. T h e portable sounder w o r k s o n a 6- o r 1 2 - V storage battery. I t s t r a n s d u c e r releases pulses o f u l t r a s o n i c e n e r g y a t f i x e d intervals. T h e i n s t r u m e n t
measures the t i m e t a k e n b y these pulses o f energy t o travel t o the streambed, t o b e reflected,
a n d t o r e t u r n t o t h e transducer. W i t h a k n o w n velocity o f s o u n d i n water, t h e i n s t r u m e n t
computes a n d records the depth.

6.15.5 A i r C o r r e c t i o n f o r D e p t h
T h e p o s i t i o n t h a t a s o u n d i n g l i n e w i l l t a k e i s s h o w n i n F i g u r e 6 . 9 . T h e a i r c o r r e c t i o n i s de
and f r o m trigonometry given h y
de =

'l-cos0^

ah

[F]

(6.10)

cos 6

T h e a i r c o r r e c t i o n s f r o m e q . ( 6 . 1 0 ) as a p e r c e n t o f v e r t i c a l d e p t h ah a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 6 . 1
f o r v a r i o u s v a l u e s o f 0.

S e c t i o n 6.15

Measurement of Depth (Sounding)

301

Figure 6.9

Table 6.1

Deflection of current meter cable In deep, swift water.

Air Correction

Vertical Angle
(deg)

Correction
(%)

Vertical Angle
(deg)

^ 7

Correction
(%)

0.24

18

5.15

0.55

20

6.42

0.98

22

7.85

10

1.54

24

12

?.?3

26

14

3.06

28

13.26

16

4.03

30

15.47

9.46
. ^ ^

11.26 .
.:

6.15.6 W e t - L i n e C o r r e c t i o n f o r D e p t h
B e l o w t h e w a t e r surface, t h e t a n g e n t a t a n y p o i n t o f t h e cable is e q u a l t o t h e t o t a l h o r i z o n t a l
force ( o f the current) divided b y the t o t a l vertical force ( o f the s o u n d i n g w e i g h t ) at that
p o i n t . T h i s provides t h e value o f t h e angle t h a t the cable m a k e s at any p o i n t b e l o w the
w a t e r surface. These angles f o r i n c r e m e n t a l depths are c o m p u t e d a n d t h e n u s i n g the relat i o n o f eq. ( 6 . 1 0 ) , c o r r e c t i o n s are c o m p u t e d . T h e s u m m a t i o n o f these p r o v i d e s t o t a l w e t l i n e c o r r e c t i o n , w h i c h h a s b e e n t a b u l a t e d as a f u n c t i o n o f w e t - l i n e d e p t h efin T a b l e 6 . 2 f o r
v a r i o u s v a l u e s o f 0.
T h e f o l l o w i n g p r o c e d u r e is f o l l o w e d t o a p p l y t h i s c o r r e c t i o n :
1 . D e p t h , aef, is m e a s u r e d b y t h e s o u n d i n g l i n e .
2 . M e a s u r e t h e v e r t i c a l d i s t a n c e , ab, b y t a k i n g t h e r e a d i n g w h e n t h e w e i g h t i s p l a c e d a t t h e
w a t e r s u r f a c e . D e t e r m i n e t h e a i r c o r r e c t i o n f r o m T a b l e 6 . 1 f o r ab.

302

Measurement of Surface Water Flow

Chapter 6

Table 6.2

Wet-Line Correction
Correction

Vertical Angle

(deg)

(%)

(deg)

(%)

0.06

18

1.64

0.16

20

2.04

0.32

22

10

0.50

24

12

Vertical Angle

Correction

2.48
-

2.96

0.72

26

3.50

14

0.98

28

4.08

16

1.28

30

4.72

3 . W e t - l i n e d e p t h , e / = aef - (ab + a i r c o r r e c t i o n ) . D e t e r m i n e w e t - l i n e c o r r e c t i o n f r o m
T a b l e 6 . 2 f o r ef
4. T h e c o r r e c t e d he is c o m p u t e d t o b e be = aef - ab - ( a i r c o r r e c t i o n + w e t - l i n e c o r r e c t i o n )

[L]

(6.11)

5. T o p o s i t i o n t h e c u r r e n t m e t e r a t 0 . 2 d e p t h : F o r 0 . 2 d e p t h , t h e w e t - l i n e c u r v a t u r e i s
disregarded.
vertical distance
= flh + 0 . 2 h c +
t o 0.2 d e p t h

v;

( c o r r e c t e d 0.2 d e p t h ) =

distance f r o m the
bottom of weight
to current meter

air correction for

vertical distance
t o 0.2 d e p t h

vertical distance
t o 0.2 d e p t h

(6.12a)

[L]

[L]

(6.12h)

6. T o p o s i t i o n t h e m e t e r a t 0 . 6 - o r 0 . 8 - d e p t h :
be
corrected
wet-line
= aef-0.2 o r 0.4
f r o m + correction
( 0 . 8 o r 0.6 d e p t h )
eq. ( 6 . 1 1 )

distance f r o m
weight to the
current meter

[L]

(6.13)

F q u a t i o n s ( 6 . 1 2 h ) a n d ( 6 . 1 3 ) are u s e d f o r p l a c i n g t h e c u r r e n t m e t e r a t 0.2 a n d 0.8

d e p t h s i n cable-suspended m e a s u r e m e n t s e v e n w h e n air a n d w e t - l i n e c o r r e c t i o n s are n o t
i n v o l v e d . I n s u c h cases t h e c o r r e c t i o n t e r m s a r e t r e a t e d as b e i n g e q u a l t o z e r o .
E X A M P L E 6.5

I n gaging a deep, swiff s t r e a m t h r o u g h a cableway, the total d e p t h o f t h e s o u n d line was

f o u n d t o b e 2 5 . 2 f t . T h e d e p t h f r o m t h e g u i d e p u l l e y t o t h e s u r f a c e w a s m e a s u r e d t o b e 10.3
f t . A p r o t r a c t o r m e a s u r e d t h e v e r t i c a l a n g l e o f 24. T h e w e i g h t h a n g e r s e p a r a t e s t h e c u r r e n t
m e t e r f r o m t h e w e i g h t b y 1 f t . D e t e r m i n e t h e (a) t r u e d e p t h o f t h e w a t e r , (b) p o s i t i o n f o r
0 . 2 d e p t h , a n d (c) 0 . 8 d e p t h o f t h e c u r r e n t m e t e r .
,
..
SOLUTION

R e f e r t o F i g u r e 6.9.

(a) aef= 25.2 ft

afc= 10.3ff

S e c t i o n 6.15

Measurement of Depth (Sounding)

303