Term Photoluninescence.: Fluorescence Occurs in Complex Gaseous, Liquid, and Solid Chemical Systems

FLUORESCENCE AND PHOSPHORESCENCE
Fluorescence and phosphorescence are alike in that excitation is brought about by absorption
of photons. As a consequence. the two phenomena are often referred to by the more general
term photoluninescence.
DIFFERENCE OF FLUORESCENCE AND PHOSPHORESCENCE:
The electronic energy transitions responsible for fluorescence do not involve a change
in electron spin.
Because of this, the excited states involved in fluorescence are short-lived (10^-5 s).
In contrast. a change in electron spin accompanies phosphorescence, and the lifetimes
of the excited states are much longer. often on the order of seconds or even minutes.
In most instances, photoluminescence. be it fluorescence or phosphorescence, occurs
at wavelengths longer than that of the excitation radiation.
CHEMILUMINESCENCE :
The third type of luminescence is based on the emission of radiation by an excited
species formed during a chemical reaction.

In some instances, the excited species is the product of a reaction between the analyte
and a suitable reagent (usually a strong oxidant such as ozone or hydrogen peroxide).
The result is an emission spectrum characteristic of the oxidation product of the
analyte or the reagent rather than the analyte itself. In other instances, the analyte is
not directly involved in the chemiluminescence reaction. Instead, the analyte inhibits
or has a catalytic effect on a chemiluminescence reaction.
MERITS
Measurement of the intensity of photoluminescence or chemiluminescence permits the
quantitative determination of a variety of important inorganic and organic species in
trace amounts.
Currently, the number of f1uorometric methods is far greater than the number of
applications of phosphorescence and chemiluminescence procedures.

One of the most attractive features of luminescence methods is their inherent
sensitivity, with detection limits are often one to three orders of magnitude lower
than those encountered in absorption spectroscopy.
In fact, for selected species under controlled conditions, single molecules have been
detected by fluorescence spectroscopy.

advantage of photoluminescence
Another
methods
is
their
large
linear
concentration ranges, which also are often significantly greater than those
encountered in absorption methods.
THEORY OF FLUORESCENCE AND PHOSPHORESCENCE
Fluorescence occurs in complex gaseous, liquid, and solid chemical systems.
The simplest kind of fluorescence is that exhibited by dilute atomic vapors.

For example. the 1s electrons of vaporized sodium atoms can be excited to the 3p state by absorption of
radiation of wavelengths 589.6 and 589.0 nm. After about 10^-8 s the electrons return to the ground state
and in so doing emit radiation of the same two wavelengths in all directions. This type of fluorescence,
in which the absorbed radiation is reemitted without a change in fre4uency, is known as resonance
radiation or resonance fluorescence.

Many molecular species also exhibit resonance fluorescence. Molecular fluorescence (or
phosphorescence) hands center at wavelengths longer than the resonance line. This shift toward longer
wavelengths is termed the Stokes shift
Electron Spin
The Pauli Exclusion Principle states that no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four
quantum numbers. This restriction requires that no more than two electrons occupy an orbital and
furthermore the two have opposed spin states.
Under this circumstance, the spins are said to be paired.

Because of spin pairing, most molecules exhibit no net magnetic field and are thus said to be
diamagnetic - that is they are neither attracted nor repelled by static magnetic fields.
In contrast, free radicals which contain unpaired electrons, have a magnetic moment and consequently
are attracted by a magnetic field. Free radicals are thus said to be paramagnetic.
Singlet and Triplet Excited States

A molecular electronic state in which all electro spins are paired is called a singlet state, and no
splitting of electronic energy levels occurs when the molecule is exposed to a magnetic field.
The ground state for a free radical. on the other hand, is a doublet state because there are two possible
orientations for the odd electron in a magnetic field, and each imparts slightly different energies to the
system. When one of a pair of electrons of a molecule is excited to a higher energy level. a singlet or a
triplet state is formed. In the excited singlet state, the spin of the promoted electron is still paired with
the ground-state electron. In the triplet state, however, the spins of the two electrons have become
unpaired and are thus parallel.
INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING FLUORESCENCE AND PHOSPHORESCENCE

The components of instruments for measuring photoluminescence are similar to those found
in ultraviolet-visible photometers or spectrophotometers.
There are different types of instruments are used to measure fluorescence and
phosphorescence like fluorometers, spectrofluorometers, fiber optic fluorescenesensors and
phospborimeters etc.
COMPONENTS
SOURCE:
FLUOROMETER
More intense sources are used in luminescence methods like mercury lamp.
The common source for filter fluorometer is a low-pressure mercury vapor lamp equipped with a fused
silica window.
This source produces useful lines for exciting fluorescence at 254,302,313,546,578,691and 773nm.
Individual lines can be isolated with suitable absorption or interference filters.
fluorescence can be induced in most fluorescing compounds by variety of wavelengths.
SPECTROPHOTOMETER
A continuous source of radiation is required,a 75-to-450W high pressure xenon arc lamp is commonly
employed.
Xenon lamp require a power supply capable of producing direct currents of 5 to 20A at 15-30V
The spectrum from xenon arc lamp is continuum from about 300 to 1300nm
The spectrum approximates black body radiation
Other sources:
LED
Blue light emitting diodes have also been used in fluorescence instruments.
These lamps emit radiation at 450-475nm are suitable for exciting some fluorophores
Mixtures of phosphors in some LEDs can provide wavelength in the UV region to about 375nm.
LASER
Most commercial spectrophotometer use lamp sources because they are less expensive and more
applicable to determine multiple analytes with different excitation wavelength
ADVANTAGES OF LASER
When samples are very small,as in microbore chromatography and capillary electrophoresis where the
amount of sample is a microliter or less.
In remote sensing, as in fluorometric detection of hydroxyl radicals in atmosphere or a chlorophyll in
bodies of water, where the collimated nature of laser beams is vital.
When highly monochromatic excitation is needed to minimize the effects of fluorescing interference.
FILTERS AND MONOCHROMATORS
Interference and absorption filters have been used in fluorometer for wavelength selection of both the
excitation beam and the resulting fluorescence radiation.
Spectrofluorometer are equipped with at least one and often two grating monochromators.
TRANSDUCERS
Luminescence emission signals are typically quite low in intensity therefore, sensitive transducer are
required.
Photomultipler tubes are most common transducers in sensitive fluorescence instruments.
Often,these are operated in the photon-counting mode to give improved signal- to- noise ratio.
Transducers are sometimes cooled to improve signal-to-noise ratios.
Charge
transducers
devices
such
as
charge
coupled
device(CCD),are
also
used
for
spectrophotometery.
This type of transducers permits the rapid recording of both excitation and emission spectra and is
particularly useful in chromatography and electrophoresis.
CELL AND CELLS COMPARTMENTS
Both cylindrical and rectangular cells fabricated of glass or silica are employed for fluorescence
measurements
Low volume micro cells are available for suitation with sample volume are limited
Sample handling accessories include micro-plate readers, microscope attachment,andfibre optic probes.
Low volume cells are often used for room temperature phosphorescene and for chemiluminescence.
Special cells and sample heading are needed for low temperature phosphorescence measurements.
DATA MANIPULATION
Modern computer-based luminescence instruments have many different data manipulation schemes
available in softwares.
Specialized softwares is available for kinetics for high performance liquid chromatography detection,
for analysis of mixtures and time resolved measurements.
FLUOROMETER
Fluorometers are compact, rugged and easy to use.

The source beam is split near the source into reference beam and a sample beam.
The reference beam is attenuated by aperture disk so that its intensity is roughly the same as the
fluorescence intensity.
Both the beams pass through the primary filters, with the reference beam then being reflected to the
reference photomultiplier tube.
The sample beam is focused on the sample by pair of lenses and causes fluorescence emission
The emitted radiation passes through a second filter and then is focused on the second photomultiplier
tube.
The electrical outputs from the two transducers are then processed to compute the ratio of the sample to
reference intensities,which serves as the analytical variable.
The instrument just described is representative of the dozen or more fluorometer available
commercially.
Some of these are simpler single beam instruments.
Some are portable instruments for field work.
SPECTROPHOTOMETER
Spectrophotometer capable of providing both excitation and emission spectra

The optical design of one of these,which employs two grating monochromators.
Radiation from the excitation monochromator is spilt, part passing to a reference photomultiplier and
part to sample.
The resulting fluorescence radiation,after dispersion by the emission monochromator is detected by
second photomultiplier.
The emission spectra obtained will not, however, necessarily compare well with spectra from other
instruments because the output depends not only on the intensity of fluorescence but also on the
characteristic of the lamp, transducers and monochromators
All of these instrument characteristic vary with wavelength and differ from instrument to instrument.
PHOSPHORIMETERS

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FLUORESCENCE AND PHOSPHORESCENCE

species formed during a chemical reaction.

applications of phosphorescence and chemiluminescence procedures.

detected by fluorescence spectroscopy.

The simplest kind of fluorescence is that exhibited by dilute atomic vapors.

radiation or resonance fluorescence.

Under this circumstance, the spins are said to be paired.

Singlet and Triplet Excited States

INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING FLUORESCENCE AND PHOSPHORESCENCE

Fluorometers are compact, rugged and easy to use.

Spectrophotometer capable of providing both excitation and emission spectra

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