Constitutional Law

FRATERNAL ORDER OF UTOPIA
ATENEO DE MANILA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF LAW
Atty. ARIS S. MANGUERA
MANGUERA OUTLINE 2010

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
PART I
VERSION 3.0
PRELIMINARIES
Subdivisions of Political Law

250
Basis of Philippine Political Law

Costitutio

Definition of Constitution

Philosophical View of the Constitution

Purpose of Constitution

Classifications of Constitutions

Qualities of a Good Written

Constitution

Essential Parts of a Good Written
Constitution

Permanency and Generality of

constitutions

Interpretation/Construction
of

Constitution

Brief Constitutional History

The 1987 Constitution

III. Costitutioal Law
Concept of Constitutional Law

Types of Constitutional Law

IV. Basic Cocepts
Constitutionalism

Philippine Constitutionalism

Doctrine of Constitutional Supremacy

Republicanism

Principle of Separation of Powers

System of Checks and Balances
Judicial Review

Due Process

I. POLITICAL LAW

A. Defiitio of Political Law

Branch of public law1 which deals with the

organization and operation of the governmental

1
Public law is understood as dealing with matters affecting the state,

the act of state agencies, the protection of state interests. Private law

deals with the regulation of the conduct of private individuals in their

relation with one another.

G
N
..#..... Political Law
Definition of Political Law
Comprehensive Definition: That body of rules

and maxims in accordance with which the powers
of sovereignty are habitually exercised.5 (Cooley)
organs of the state and defines the relations of the
American sense: A constitution is a written

instrument by which the fundamental powers of
government are established, limited, and defined
and by which these powers are distributed among
several departments, for their more safe and useful
exercise, for the benefit of the body politic. (Justice
Miller quoted by Bernas)
state with the inhabitants of its territory.2

Subdivisios of Political Law
Law of public administration
Constitutional law
Administrative law
Law of public corporations3
With particular reference to the Philippine

Constitution: That written instrument enacted by
direct action of the people by which the
fundamental powers of the government are
established, limited and defied, and by which
those powers are distributed among several
Basis of Philippie Political Law

The principles of government and political law of
the Philippines are fundamentally derived from
American jurisprudence. This conditions was the
inevitable outcome of the establishment of the
American rule in the Philippines. When Spain
ceded the Phils. to the US, the Spanish Political
laws were automatically displaced by those of the
US.4
II. CONSTITUTION
A. Defiitio of Costitutio
I sweat, I bleed, I soar

Service, Sacrifice, Excellence
As thus conceived public law consists of political law, criminal law

and public international law. Private law includes civil and
commercial law.
2
Vicente Sinco, Philippine Political Law 1, 10 th ed., 1954.

th
Vicente Sinco, Philippine Political Law 1, 10 ed., 1954.

3
4
This definition is comprehensive enough to cover written and

unwritten constitutions. (Cruz, Constitutional Law)

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departments for their safe and useful exercise for

the benefit of the body politic. (Malcolm, Philippine
Constitutional Law, p. 6)
In other words: It is the supreme writte law of
Opinion in the case of Province of North Cotabato

GRP
C. Purpose of the Costitutio
the lad.6
To prescribe the permanent framework of a system

of government, to assign to the several
departments their respective powers and duties,
and to establish certain first principles on which the
government is founded.9 (11 Am. Jur. 606 cited in
Cruz)
B. Philosophical View of the Costitutio

The Constitution is a social contract. (Marcos v.
Manglapus)
Viewed in the light of the Social Contract Theories,
the Constitution may be considered as the Social
Contract itself in the sense that it is the very basis
of the decision to constitute a civil society or State,
breathing life to its juridical existence, laying down
the framework by which it is to be governed,
enumerating and limiting its powers and declaring
certain fundamental rights and principles to be
inviolable.
Why would a society eerally committed to

majority rule choose to be overed by a
documet that is difficult to chae?
To prevent tyranny of the majority
Societys attempt to protect itself from
itself.
Protecting long term values from short
term passions.10
The Constitution as a political document may be

considered as the concrete manifestation or
expression of the Social Contract or the decision to
abandon the state of nature and organize and
found a civil society or State.
Costitutio as a Muicipal Law
According to Dean Baustista, the Constitution is a

social contract between the government and the
people, the governing and the governed.7 (ASM: I
dont necessarily agree with this statement. As a
social contract, the Constitution, I think is a
contract between and among the people
themselves and not between the government and
the people. The government is only an effect or
consequence of the social contract of the people.
In other words, the government is only a creature
of the Constitution. Hence, the government cannot
be a party to a contract that creates it. In the 1987
Philippine Constitution, it reads, We the sovereign
Filipino peoplein order to build a society and
establish a government ordain and promulgate
this Constitution.)
Classificatio
(1) Rigid12
Flexible
(1) Written13
Unwritten
(1) Evolved14
Enacted
(1) Normative- adjusts to norms
Nominal not yet fully operational
Semantic-perpetuation of power
According to Dean Bautista, the Constitution

reflects
majoritarian
values
but
defends
minoritarian rights.8
See Constitition as Compact of the People by
Chief Justice Puno in his Separate Concurring
6
See People v. Pomar, 46 Phil 440. Bernas Commentary

xxxvii (2003 ed).
7
Andres D. Bautista, Introduction to Constitutional Law 1, Slide
3 June 16, 2007.
8
Andres D. Bautista, Introduction to Constitutional Law 1, Slide 3
June 16, 2007.; Majoritarianism is a traditional political philosophy
which asserts that a majority of the population is entitled to a certain
degree of primacy in the society, and has the right to make decisions
that affect the society.

A constitution is a municipal law. As such, it is

binding only within the territorial limits of the
sovereignty promulgating the constitution.11
Andres D. Bautista, Introduction to Constitutional Law 1, Slide

4 June 16, 2007.
Bernas Commentary, p 5(2003 ed).
Rigid constitution is one that can be amended only by a

formal and usually difficult process; while a flexible
constitution is one that can be changed by ordinary
legislation. (Cruz, Constitutional Law p 5)
A written constitution is one whose precepts are embodied

in one document or set of documents; while an unwritten
constitution consists of rules which have not been integrated
into a single, concrete form but are scattered in various
sources, such as statues of a fundamental character, judicial
decisions, commentaries of publicists, customs and traditions,
and certain common law principles. (Cruz, Constitutional Law
pp 4-5)
An enacted or conventional constitution is enacted,

formally struck off at a definitive time and place following a
conscious or deliberate effort taken by a constituent body or
ruler; while a cumulative or evolved is the result of political
evolution, not inaugurated at any specific time but changing by
accretion rather than by systematic method. (Cruz,
Constitutional Law p 5)

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The Constitution of the Philippines is written,

conventional and rigid.
Qualities of ood writte costitutio
15
Broad
Brief16
Definite17
Essetial parts of a ood writte costitutio

Constitution of government18
Constitution of liberty19
Constitution of sovereignty20
[Social and economic rights]
It has been said that the term constitution implies

an instrument of a permanent nature.25
Brief Costitutioal History
Malolos Constitution
The American Regime and the Organic Acts
The Japanese (Belligerent) Occupation
The 1987 Costitutio
The 1987 Constitution is the 4th fundamental law to
govern the Philippines since it became
independent on July 4, 1946.
H. Iterpretatio/Costructio of the Costitutio21

In Fransisco v HR, the SC made reference to the
use of well-settled principles of constitutional
construction, namely:
Backroud of the 1987 Costitutio

1. Proclamation of the Freedom Constitution
Procalamation No. 1, February 25, 1986,
announcing that she (Corazon Aquino) and
VP Laurel were assuming power.
Executive Order No.1, (Febrauary 28, 1986)
Procalamation No.3, March 25, 1986,
announced the promulgation of the
Provisional (Freedom) Constitution, pending
the drafting and ratification of a new
Constitution. It adopted certain provisions in
the 1973 Constitution, contained additional
articles on the executive department, on
government reorganization, and on existing
laws. It also provided of the calling of a
Constitutional Commission to be composed
of 30-50 members to draft a new
Constitution.
2. Adoption of the Constitution
a. Proclamation No. 9, creating the
Constitutional
Commission
of
50
members.
b. Approval of the draft Constitution by the
Constitutional Commission on October 15,
1986
Plebiscite held on February 2, 1987
Proclamation No. 58, proclaiming the
ratification of the Constitution.
Effectivity of the 1987 Constitution: February 2,
1987
Verba Legis22
Ratio legis et anima23
Ut magis valeat quam pereat24
I. Permaece ad Geerality of costitutios

A constitution differs from a statute, it is intended
not merely to meet existing conditions, but to
govern the future.
15
Broad. Because it provides for the organization of the entire

government and covers all persons and things within the territory of
the State and also because it must be comprehensive enough to
provide for every contingency. (Cruz, Constitutional Law pp 5-6)
Brief. It must confine itself to basic principles to be implemented

with legislative details more adjustable to change and easier to
amend. (Cruz, Constitutional Law pp 4-5)
Definite. To prevent ambiguity in its provisions which could result

in confusion and divisiveness among the people. (Cruz,
Constitutional Law pp 4-5)
Constitution of Government. The series of provisions outlining

the organization of the government, enumerating its powers, laying
down certain rules relative to its administration and defining the
electorate. (ex. Art VI, VII, VIII and IX)
Constitution of Liberty. The series of proscriptions setting forth

the fundamental civil and political rights of the citizens and imposing
limitations on the powers of government as a means of securing the
enjoyment of those rights. (Ex. Article III)
Features of 1987 Costitutio26

1. The new Constitution consists of 18
articles and is excessively long compared to
the 1935 and 1973 constitutions.
2. The independence of the judiciary has
been strengthened with new provisions for
appointment thereto and an increase in its
authority, which now covers even political
questions formerly beyond its jurisdiction.
Constitution of Sovereignty. The provisions pointing out the

mode or procedure in accordance with which formal changes in the
fundamental law may be brought about. (Ex. Art XVII)
Antonio B. Nachura, Outline/Reviewer in Political Law (2006 ed.)
Plain meaning rule. Whenever possible the words used in the

Constitution must be given their ordinary meaning except when
technical terms are employed.
Interpretation according to spirit. The words of the Constitution

should be interpreted in accordance with the intent of the framers.
The constitution has to be interpreted as a whole.

Ruling Case Law, vol.6, p16)

Cruz, Political Law.

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3. The Bill of Rights of the Commonwealth

and Marcos constitutions has been
considerably improved in the 1987
Constitution and even bolstered with the
creation of a Commission of Human Rights.
III. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW
A. Cocept of Costitutioal Law
Constitutional law is a body of rules resulting from
the interpretation by a high court of cases in which
the validity, in relation to the constitutional
instrument, of some act of governmenthas been
challenged. (Bernas Commentary xxxviii)
Constitutional law is a term used to designate the
law embodied in the constitution and the legal
principles growing out of the interpretation and
application made by courts of the constitution in
specific cases. (Sinco, Phil. Political Law)
Constitutional law is the study of the maintenance
of the proper balance between authority
represented by the three inherent powers of the
State and liberty as guaranteed by the Bill of
Rights. (Cruz, Constitutional Law)
Constitutional law consist not only of the
constitution, but also of the cases decided by the
Supreme Court on constitutional grounds, i.e.,
every case where the ratio decidendi is based on a
constitutional
provision.
(Defensor-Santiago,
Constitutional Law)
Types of Costitutioal law27
English type28
European continental type29
American type30
Weiht of America Jurisprudece
In the case of Francisco v. HR, (2003) The Supreme
Court speaking through Justice Carpio Morales opined:
American jurisprudence and authorities, much
less the American Constitution, are of dubious
application for these are no longer controlling
within our jurisdiction and have only limited
persuasive merit isofar as Philippie
costitutioal law is cocered. As held in
the case of Garcia vs. COMELEC, "[i]n
resolving constitutional disputes, [this Court]
Vicente Sinco, Philippine Political Law 67, 10th ed., 1954.

Characterized by the absence of a written constitution.
There is a written constitution which gives the court no power to

declare ineffective statutes repugnant to it.
Legal provisions of the written constitution are given effect

through the power of the courts to declare ineffective or void
ordinary statutes repugnant to it.

should
not
be
beguiled
by
foreign
jurisprudence some of which are hardly
applicable because they have been dictated by
different constitutional settings and needs."
Indeed, although the Philippine Constitution
can trace its origins to that of the United
States, their paths of development have long
since diverged. In the colorful words of Father
Bernas, "[w]e have cut the umbilical cord."
(But see the case of Neri v. Senate Committees
where the Court cited many American cases)
IV. BASIC CONCEPTS
Constitutionalism
Philippine Constitutionalism
Doctrine of Constitutional Supremacy
Republicanism
Principle of Separation of Powers
Judicial Review
Due Process
A. Costitutioalism
Constitutionalism refers to the position or practice
that government be limited by a constitution.
The doctrine or system of government in which the
governing power is limited by enforceable rules of
law, and concentration of power is limited by
various checks and balances so that the basic
rights of individuals and groups are protected.
B. Philippie Costitutioalism
Constitutionalism in the Philippines, understood in
the American sense, dates back to the ratification
of Treaty of Paris. Then it grew from a series of
organic documents. These are:
Pres. Mc Kinleys Instruction to the

Second Phil. Commission,
Phil. Bill of 1902,
Phil. Autonomy Act of 1916. (Bernas,

Commentary xxxviii)
Doctrie of Costitutioal Supremacy (2004 Bar
Exam Question)
If a law violates any norm of the constitution, that
law is null and void; it has no effect. (This is an
overstatement, for a law held unconstitutional is
not always wholly a nullity)
The American case of Marbury v. Madison laid
down the classic statement on constitutional
supremacy It is a proposition too plain to be
contested, that the Constitution controls any
legislative act repugnant to it.

SCHOOL OF LAW
Constitutional
supremacy
produced
judicial
American sovereignty in the Philippines, the

principle was introduced as an inseparable feature
of the governmental system organized by the
United States in this country.37
31
review.
D. Republicaism
The essence of republicanism is representation
and renovation, the selection by the citizenry of a
corps of public functionaries who derive their
mandate from the people and act on their behalf,
serving for a limited period only, after which they
are replaced or retained at the option of their
principal.32
(More discussion of Republicanism under Article II)
Limitatios o the Priciple

Checks ad Balaces
The Constitution fixes certain limits on the
independence of each department. In order that
these limits may be observed, the Constitution
gives each department certain powers by which it
may definitely restrain the other from exceeding
their authority. A system of checks and balances is
thus formed.39
E. Priciple of Separatio of Powers

Essece. In essence, separation of powers means
that legislation belongs to Congress, execution to
the executive, settlement of legal controversies to
the judiciary. Each is prevented from invading the
domain of others. (Bernas, Commentary 656, 2003
ed.)
Division and Assignment. Its starting point is the
assumption of the division of the functions of the
government into three distinct classesthe
executive, the legislative and the judicial. Its
essence consists in the assignment of each class
of functions to one of the three organs of
government.33
To carry out the system of checks and balances,

the Constitution provides:
The acts of the legislative department
have to be presented to the executive for
approval or disapproval.
The executive department may veto
the acts of the legislature if in its judgment
they are not in conformity with the
Constitution or are detrimental to the
interests of the people.
The courts are authorized to
determine the validity of legislative
measures or executive acts.
Through its pardoning power, the
executive may modify or set aside the
judgments of the courts.
5. The legislature may pass laws that in
effect amend or completely revoke
decisions of the courts if in its judgment
they are not in harmony with its intention
or policy which is not contrary to the
Constitution.40
6. President must obtain the concurrence
of Congress to complete certain
significant acts.
7. Money can be released from the
treasury only by authority of Congress.41
Theory. The theory is that a power definitely

assigned by the Constitution to one department
can either be surredered or deleated by
that department, nor vested by statute in another
department or agency.34
Reaso. The underlying reason of this principle is
the assumption that arbitrary rule and abuse of
authority would inevitably result from the
concentration of the three powers of government in
the same person, body of persons or organ.35
More specifically, according to Justice Laurel, the
doctrine of separation of powers is intended to:
Secure action
To forestall overaction
To prevent despotism
To obtain efficiency36
History. Separation of powers became the pith and

core of the American system of government largely
through the influence of the French political writer
Montesquieu. By the establishment of the
Defensor Santiago, Constitutional Law 7.

Cruz, Political Law.
Williams v. US, 289 US 553 (1933).
Pangasinan Transportaion Co. v. PSC, 40 O.G., 8 th Supp. 57.

Existence of overlapping powers38
G. Judicial Review
US v. Bull, 15 Phil 7, 27.
The power of appointment is one of these. Although this is

executive in nature, it may however be validly exercised by any of
the three departments in selecting its own subordinates precisely to
protect its independence. (Vicente Sinco, Philippine Political Law
136, 10th ed., 1954).
Vicente Sinco, Philippine Political Law 135, 10th ed., 1954.

Tarlac v. Gale, 26 Phil. 338 cited in Vicente Sinco, Philippine
Political Law 135, 10th ed., 1954.
Bernas, Commentary 656, 2003 ed.
FRATERNAL
ORDER OF UTOPIA

SCHOOL OF LAW
Defiitio. Judicial review refers to the power of
arbitrariness on the part of the government.
the courts to test the validity of governmental acts

in light of their conformity with a higher norm (e.g.
the constitution).
Expressio of
Costitutioal Supremacy.
Observance of both substantive and procedural

rights is equally guaranteed by due process.48
(More discussion of Due Process under Article III)
Judicial review is not an assertion of superiority by

the courts over the other departments, but merely
an expression of the supremacy of the
Constitution.42 Constitutional supremacy produced
judicial review, which in turn led to the accepted
role of the Court as the ultimate interpreter of the
Constitution.43
Judicial Review i Philippie Costitutio.
Unlike the US Constitution44 which does not
provide for the exercise of judicial review by their
Supreme Court, the Philippine Constitution
expressly recognizes judicial review in Section 5
(2) (a) and (b) of Article VIII of the Constitution.
(More discussion of Judicial Review under Article
VIII)
H. Due Process
Orii: By the 39th chapter of the Magna Carta
wrung by the barons from King John, the despot
promised that no man shall be taken, imprisoned
or disseized or outlawed, or in any manner
destroyed; nor shall we go upon him, nor send him,
but by the lawful judgment of his peers or by the
law of the land.
In 1335, King Edward IIIs Statute 28 declared that
no man, of what state or condition whoever be,
shall be put out of his lands, or tenements, nor
taken, nor imprisoned, nor indicted, nor put to
death, without he be brought in to answer by due
process of law. It is this immortal phrase that has
resounded through the centuries as the formidable
champion of life, liberty and property in all-freedom
loving lands. (Cruz)
Defiitio45: Embodiment of the sporting idea of
fair play.46 It is the responsiveness to the
supremacy of reason, obedience, to the dictates of
process is a guaranty against
justice.47 Due
42
Angara v. Electoral Commission, 63 Phil 139.

See Cooper v. Aaron, 358 US 1 (1956)
44
The case of Marbury v. Madison established the doctrine of
judicial review as a core legal principle in American constitutional
system: So if a law be in opposition to the constitution; of both the
law and the constitution apply to a particular case, so that the court
must either decide that case conformably to the law, disregarding the
constitution; or conformably to the constitution, disregarding the law;
the court must determine which of these conflicting rules governs the
case. This is the very essence of judicial duty.
45
The idea that laws and legal proceedings must be fair. Due process
is best defined in one word- fairness.
46
Frankfurter, Mr. Justice Holmes and the Supreme Court pp
32-33
43
47
Ermita-Malate Hotel & Motors Association v. City of Manila

48
(Tupas v. CA)

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PREAMBLE
Meaning
Function
Social Contract Theory
Meai
Preamble means to walk before. (Praeambulus:
Walking in front)
independence and democracy under the rule of law

and the regime of truth, justice, freedom, love,
equality and peace.
III. Social Cotract Theory
ASM: I submit that the Preamble is somehow a
manifestation of the Social Contract Theory as it
states: We the sovereign Filipino peoplein
order to build asociety and establish a
government do ordain and promulgate this
constitution.
II. Fuctio
Function
Origin/Authorship
Scope and Purpose
A. Fuctios
1.
2.
3.
It sets down the origin, scope and purpose of

the Constitution.49
It enumerates the primary aims and expresses
the aspirations of the framers in drafting the
Constitution.50
Useful as an aid in the construction and
interpretation of the text of the Constitution.51
Thus, Preamble is a source of light.52 It is not a

source of rights or obligations. (Jacobson v.
Massachusetts, 197 U.S. 11, 22 (1905).
B. Orii/Authorship
Its origin, or authorship, is the will of the sovereign
Filipino people.
The identification of the Filipino people as the
author of the constitution also calls attention to an
important principle: that the document is not just
the work of representatives of the people but of the
people themselves who put their mark of approval
by ratifying it in a plebiscite.53
C. Scope ad Purpose
To build a just and humane society as to establish
a government that shall embody our ideals and
aspirations, promote the common good, conserve
and develop our patrimony, and secure to
ourselves and our posterity the blessings of
Bernas Primer at 1 (2006 ed.)
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 49 (1995 ed).



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Exclusive Economic Zone/Patrimonial

Sea (200 N.mi from baseline)
High seas (Waters beyond territorial

sea)
ARTICLE I: NATIONAL TERRITORY
Territory
Archipelago
Archipelagic Principle
C. Siificace of Territory
Control over territory is of the essence of a state
(Las Palmas case). Certain rights and authority are
exercised within the states territory.
I. Territory
1. States sovereignty is over its:
Land territory (and airspace above it)
Internal Waters (and airspace above it

and seabed under it)
Archipelagic Waters( and airspace

above it and seabed under it)
o Territorial Sea (and airspace above it and
seabed under it)
The coastal state has a right against innocent
passage57 in its internal waters.
The coastal state exercises authority over the
area (contiguous zone) to the extent necessary to
prevent
infringement
of
customs,
fiscal,
immigration or sanitation authority over its territorial
waters or territory and to punish such infringement.
4. The coastal state has rights over the economic
resources of the sea, seabed and subsoil.
A. What is Territory
Territory is the fixed portion of the surface of the
earth inhabited by the people of the state.54
Territory as an element of a state means an area
over which a state has effective cotrol.55
(Read Province of Cotabato v. GRP. October 14,
2008)
B. What does territory iclude?
Territory includes land, maritime areas, airspace
and outer space.56
Airspace
Each state has exclusive jurisdiction

over the air above its territory.
The consent for transit must be

obtained from the subject nation.
o
Aircrafts not engaged in international
air service, shall have the right to make
flights into or in transit non-stop across its
territory and to make steps for non-traffic
purposes without the necessity of obtaining
prior permission and subject to the right of
the State flown over to require landing.
(Chicago Convention on International Civil
Action)
D. Scope of Philippie Natioal Territory Defied i

Article I, Sectio 1.
It includes:
The Philippine archipelago;
All other territories over which the Philippines
has sovereignty or jurisdiction;
The territorial sea, seabed, subsoil, insular
shelves
and
other
submarine
areas
corresponding to (1) and (2). Moreover, (1)
and (2) consist of terrestrial, fluvial and aerial
domains.58
E. Territories Covered uder the Defiitio of Article
1
Outerspace
o
Sovereignty over airspace extends
only until where outerspace begins. (50-100
miles from earth)
Differet areas beyod the lad territory
Territorial Seas (12 N.mi from

baseline)
Contiguous Zone (24 N.mi from

baseline)
Those ceded to the US by virtue of the Treaty

of Paris on December 10, 1898.
Those defined in the treaty concluded between
the US and Spain (Treaty of Washito) on
November 7, 1990, which were not defined in
the Treaty of Paris, specifically the islands of
Cagayan, Sulu and Sibuto.
Those defined in the treaty concluded on
January 2, 1930, between the US and Great
Britain (Treaty with Great Britai), specifically
the Turtle and Mangsee islands.

Bernas, An Introduction to Public International Law, 97 (2002
ed).
Bernas, An Introduction to Public International Law, 97 (2002

ed).

Passage that is not prejudicial to the peace, good order or

security of the coastal state.

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The island of Batanes, which was covered

under a general statement in the 1935
Constitution.
Those contemplated in the phrase belonging
to the Philippines by historic right or legal title
in the 1973 Constitution.59
C. Archipelaic Waters
According to UNCLOS, Archipelagic waters refers
to areas enclosed as internal waters by using the
baseline method which had not been previously
considered as internal waters. (See Article 53 of
UNCLOS)
All other territories which the Philippies has

sovereity ad jurisdictio.
Article 8(2) of UNCLOS: Where the

establishment of a straight baseline in
accordance with the method set forth in Article
7 has the effect of enclosing as internal waters
areas which had not previously been
considered as such, a right of innocent
passage as provided in this Convention shall
exist in those waters.
This includes any territory which presently belongs

or might in the future belong to the Philippines
through any of the internationally modes of
acquiring territory.
Batanes islands
Those belonging to the Philippines by

historic right or legal title (Sabah, the
Marianas, Freedomland)
According to UNCLOS, in archipelagic waters, a

right of innocent passage shall exist in these
waters. But, the Philippines made a reservation,
thus, The concept of archipelagic waters is
similar to the concept of internal waters under the
Constitution of the Philippines, and removes straits
connecting these waters with the economic zone
or high sea from the rights of foreign vessel to
transit passage for international navigation.
II. Archipelao
Archipelago
Archipelagic State
Archipelagic Waters
Philippine Archipelago
A. Archipelao
Bernas: The reservation is ad cautelam. The claim

made in the Constitution took effect in 1973 before
the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention was
formulated. Article 8(2) of the Convention itself
says that the new rule on archipelagic waters
applies only to areas which had not previously
been considered as internal waters.61
Archipelago is a body of water studded with

islands.60
Q: Do you consider the Spratlys Group of Islands
as part of Philippine Archipelago?
A: No. It is far from the three main islands of the
Philippines and it is not covered by what was
ceded in the Treaty of Paris.
Q: Do you consider the Spratlys group of Islands
as part of the National Territory?
A: Yes. Under the 2nd phrase, and all other
territories over which the Philippines has
sovereignty and jurisdiction Basis: Discovery of
Tomas Cloma in the 1950s. Cloma waived his
rights over the islands in favor of the Philippine
government. Philippine troops then occupied the
islands. Marcos issued PD 1956 constituting
Spratllys islands as a regular municipality
(Municipality of Kalayaan) under the Province of
Palawan. In May 20, 1980, the Philippines
registered its claim with the UN Secretariat.
D. Philippie Archipelao
The Philippine archipelago is that body of water
studded with islands which is delineated in the
Treaty of Paris, modified by the Treaty of
Washington and the Treaty of Great Britain.
III. Archipelaic Priciple
Archipelagic Doctrine
Archipelago Doctrine of Article I
Elements of Archipelagic Doctrine
Purpose of Archipelagic Doctrine
A. Archipelaic Doctrie
(1989 Bar Question)
B. Archipelaic State
It is the principle whereby the body of water

studded with islands, or the islands surrounded
with water, is viewed as a uity of islands and
waters together forming oe iterated uit. For
this purpose, it requires that baselines be drawn by
connecting the appropriate points of the outermost
islands to encircle the islands within the
Archipelagic state means a state constituted wholly

by one or more archipelagos and may include
other islands. (Article 46 (a) of UNCLOS)
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SCHOOL OF LAW
archipelago. We consider all the waters enclosed

by the straight baselines as internal waters.
62
Elemets of Archipelaic Doctrie

63
Definition of internal waters

The straight line method of delineating the
territorial sea.
Straight Baseline Method- drawn connecting
selected points on the coast without departing to
any appreciable extent from the general direction
of the coast. RA 3046 and RA 5446 have drawn
straight baselines around the Philippines.
(The problem with the straight baseline method is
that it conflicts with the Law of the Sea because it
recognizes the right of innocent passage in
archipelagic waters. That is why we made a
reservation. However, as Bernas pointed out, the
reservation is ad cautelam)
Purposes of Archipelaic Doctrie
Territorial Integrity
National Security
Economic reasons
It is said that the purpose of archipelagic doctrine is
to protect the territorial integrity of the archipelago.
Without it, there would be pockets of high seas
between some of our islands and islets, thus
foreign vessels would be able to pass through
these pockets of seas and would have no
jurisdiction over them.
D. Archipelao Doctrie i Article I, Sectio 1
(1989 Bar Question)
The waters around, between and connecting the
islands of the archipelago, regardless of their
breadth and dimensions, form part of internal
waters of the Philippines
Q: Differetiate archipelaic waters, territorial
sea ad iteral waters. (2004 Bar Question)
A:
According to UNCLOS, Archipelagic waters refers
to areas enclosed as internal waters by using the
baseline method which had not been previously
considered as internal waters. (See Article 53 of
UNCLOS)
Territorial sea is an adjacent belt of sea with a
breadth of 12 nautical miles measured from the
Internal waters refer to all waters landwards from the

baseline of the territory.
Note: The Philippines considers all waters connecting the
islands as internal waters.

baselines of a state and over which the state has

sovereignty. (Article 2, 3 of UNCLOS)
Internal waters refer to all waters landwards from
the baseline of the territory. Is from which the
breadth of territorial sea is calculated. (Brownlie,
Principles of PIL) No right of innocent passage for
foreign vessels exist in the case of internal waters.
(Harris, Cases and Material on International Law,
5th ed., 1998, p.407)
Under Section 1, Article I of the 1987 Constitution,
the internal waters of the Philippines consist of the
waters around between and connecting the islands
of the Philippine archipelago regardless of their
breadth and dimensions including the waters in
bays, rivers, and lakes.
Q: Distiuish briefly but clearly betwee the
cotiuous zoe ad the exclusive ecoomic
zoe. (2004 Bar Question)
Contiguous zone is a zone contiguous to the
territorial sea and extends up to twelve nautical
miles from the territorial sea and over which the
coastal state may exercise control necessary to
prevent infringement of its customs, fiscal,
immigration or sanitary laws and regulations within
its territory or territorial sea. (Article 33 of the
Convention on the Law of the Sea.)
The EEZ extends 200 nautical miles from the
baseline. The EEZ is recognized in the UN
Convention on the Law of the Sea. Although it is
not part of the national territory, exclusive
economic benefit is reserved for the country within
the zone.
By virtue of PD 1599, the Philippine declares that it
has sovereign rights to explore, exploit, conserve
and manage the natural resources of the seabed,
subsoil, and superjacent waters. Other states are
prohibited from using the zone except for
navigation and overflight, laying of submarine
cables and pipeline, and other lawful uses related
to navigation and communication.
Q: Distiuish the fla state ad the fla of
coveiece. (2004 Bar Question)
Flag state means a ship has the nationality of the
flag of the state it flies, but there must be a genuine
link between the state and the ship. (Article 91 of
the Convention on the Law of the Sea)
Flag of convenience refers to a state with which a
vessel is registered for various reasons such as
low or non-existent taxation or low operating costs
although the ship has no genuine link with the
state. (Harris, Cases and Materials on International
Law, 5th ed., 1998, p. 425.)
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11

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XXIX.
ARTICLE II
DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES AND
STATE POLICIES
Full Public Disclosure (28)

I. Priciples ad State Policies
A. Descriptio
This portion of the Constitution (Article II) might be
I.
II.
called the basic political creed of the atio.64
Principles and State Policies
State as a Legal Concept
By its very title, Article II of the Constitution is a

declaration of principles and state policies. x x
x.These principles in Article II are not intended to
be self-executing principles ready for enforcement
through the courts. They are used by the judiciary
as aids or as guides in the exercise of its power of
judicial review, and by the legislature in its
enactment of laws. (Tanada v. Angara cited in
Tondo Medical Center Employees Association v.
CA, July 17, 2007)
PRINCIPLES
III.
IV.
V.
VI.Authority(3)
VII.
VIII.
Republicanism ( 1)
Incorporation Clause (2)
Supremacy of Civilian
Defense of State (4)
Peace and Order(5)
Separation of Church and
State (6)
STATE POLICIES
IX.
X.Policy(7)
XI.Weapons(8)
XII.Order (9)
XIII.(10)
XIV.Dignity(11)
XV.( 12-13)
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.Ecology(-16)
XIX.Technology(17)
XX.
XXI.
XXII.Enterprise (20)
Independent Foreign
B. Fuctio of the Declaratio of Priciples ad

State Policies i the Costitutio
It is the statement of the basic ideological principles
and policies that underlie the Constitution. As such,
the provisions shed light on the meaning of the other
provisions of the Constitution and they are a uide for
all departmets of the government in the
implementation of the Constitution.65
Freedom from Nuclear

Just and Dynamic Social
Promotion of Social Justice
C. What are Priciples? What are Policies?
Respect for Human
Priciples are binding rules which must be

observed in the conduct of the government.66
Family, Rearing the Youth
Policies are guidelines for the orientation of the

Women(14)
Health (15)
state.67
Note: The distinction between principles and
polices is of little significance because not all of the
six principles are self-executory and some of the
policies already anchor justiciable rights.68
Section 5 (maintenance of peace and

orderpromotion of general werlfare) is a
mere guideline.
(Section 16 (right of the people to a

balanced and healthful ecology is rightconferring provisions. (Oposa vs. Factoran)
o Section 28 is self-executory (Province of
North Cotabato v. GRP)
Balanced and healthful

Education, Science and
Labor(18)
Economy(19)
Private Sector and Private
Comprehensive Rural
Development
(21)
XXIII.
Indigenous Cultural
Communities
(22)
XXIV.
Sectoral Organizations (23)
Communication and
XXV.
XXVI.Information (24)
Local Autonomy (25)

Equal Access to
XXVII.
XXVIII.Opportunities (26)
See Tanada v. Angara. See Vicente Sinco, Philippine Political Law

(11th ed., 1962).
Bernas Primer at 7(2006 ed.)
See IV RECORD OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL COMMISSION
and 580.
See IV RECORD OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL COMMISSION

and 580.
Public Service (27)
12

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Territory as an element of a state means an area

Sectio 1. The Philippines is a
democratic and republican State.
Sovereignty resides in the people and
all government authority emanates
from them.
over which a state has effective cotrol.76

Read Provice of North Cotabato v.
Govermet of the Republic of the Philippies
3. Sovereity
Definition
Kinds
Characteristics
II. State as a Leal Cocept

Definition of a State
Elements of a State
Government
Acts of State
State Immunity
Effects of Belligerent
Occupation Effects of Change in
Sovereignty Dominium v.
Imperium Jurisdiction
Sovereignty resides in the people
A. Defiitio of a State
a. Sovereity
A state refers to a community of persons, more or
less numerous, permanently occupying a definite
portion of territory, independent of external control,
and possessing an organized government to which
the great body of inhabitants render habitual
obedience.69
The supreme and uncontrollable power inherent in

a State by which that State is governed.77
In auto-limitation terms: It is the property of a Stateforce due to which it has the exclusive capacity of
legal determination and restriction.
Elemets of a State
People
Territory
Sovereignty
Government
Kids:
Legal
Political
Internal
External
1. People
A community of persons sufficient in number and
capable of maintaining the continued existence of
the community and held together by a common
bond of law.70
Leal Sovereity.
Cruz: Legal sovereignty is the authority which
has the power to issue final commands. In our
country, the Congress is the legal sovereign. 78
Bernas: Legal sovereignty is the supreme

power to affect legal interests either by
legislative, executive or judicial action. This is
lodged in the people but is normally exercised
by state agencies79
Differet Meais of People as used i the

Costitutio:
Inhabitants71
Electors72
Citizens73
Sovereign.
The
people
organized
collectively as a legal association is the
state which sovereignty resides.74
(Bernas: Political writers distinguish between

legal sovereignty and political sovereignty. The
former is described as the supreme power to
make laws and the latter as the sum total of all
influences in a state, legal or non-legal,
Territory
Territory is the fixed portion of the surface of the
earth inhabited by the people of the state.75
Bernas Commentary, p 39 (2003 ed).
Article II, Section 15, 16; Article III, Section 2; Article XIII,
Section 1.
Article VII, Section 4; Article XVI, Section 2; Article XVIII,

Section 25)
Article II, Section 4; Article III, Section 7.
Preamble; Article II, Section 1.


Bernas, An Introduction to Public International Law, 97 (2002 ed).

Garner cited in Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 26 (1995 ed).
Bernas Primer at 8 (2006 ed.); Section 1 of Article II says:

Sovereignty resides in the people an all government authority
emanates from them. Sovereignty in this sentence therefore can be
understood as the source of ultimate legal authority. Since the
ultimate law in the Philippine system is the constitution, sovereignty,
understood as legal sovereignty, means the power to adapt or alter a
constitution. This power resides in the people understood as those
who have a direct hand in the formulation, adoption, and amendment
or alteration of the Constitution. (Bernas Commentary, p 55 (2003
ed).
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SCHOOL OF LAW
As for judicial decisios. As for judicial decisions

the same are valid during the occupation and even
beyond except those of a political complexion,
which are automatically annulled upon the
restoration of the legitimate authority.82
which determine the course of law. Sinco

prefers not to make the distinction and places
legal sovereignty in the state itself considered
as a juridical person.)
Political Sovereity
Sum total of all the influences of a State, legal
and non-legal which determine the course of
law.
e. Effects of Chae i Sovereity

As to political laws. Where there is a change in
sovereignty, the political laws of the former
sovereign are not merely suspended but
abrogated unless they are retained or re-enacted
by positive act of the new sovereign.
Iteral Sovereity
It refers to the power of the State to control its
domestic affairs. It is the supreme power over
everything within its territory.
As to o-political laws. Non-political laws,

continue in operation.
Exteral Sovereity
Also known as Independence, which is
freedom from external control. It is the power
of State to direct its relations with other
States.80
f. Imperium v. Domiium
Imperium. States authority to govern. Covers such
activities as passing laws, governing territory,
maintaining peace and order over it, and defending
against foreign invasion. This is the authority
possessed by the State embraced in the concept of
sovereignty.
c. Characteristics of Sovereity
It is permanent, exclusive, comprehensive,
absolute,
indivisible,
inalienable,
and
imprescriptible.81
Domiium. Capacity of the State to own property.

Covers such rights as title to land, exploitation and
use of it, and disposition or sale of the same.
But wait, in the case of Tanada v. Angara, it was

held that sovereignty of a state cannot be
absolute. It is subject to limitations imposed by
membership in the family of nations and limitations
imposed by treaties. The Constitution did not
envision a hermit-type isolation of the country from
the rest of the world. (2000 Bar Question)
. Jurisdictio
Jurisdiction is the manifestation of sovereignty. The
jurisdiction of the state is understood as both its
authority and the sphere of the exercise of that
authority.
(Read Province of Cotabato v. GRP. October 14,

2008)
Kids of Jurisdictio:
Territorial jurisdictio- authority of the
state to have all persons and things within
its territorial limits to be completely subject
to its control and protection.83
Persoal jurisdictio- authority of the
state over its nationals, their persons,
property, and acts whether within or
outside its territory (e.g. Art. 15,CC)
d. Effects of Bellieret Occupatio

As to political laws. No change of sovereignty
during a belligerent occupation, the political laws of
the occupied territory are merely suspended,
subject to revival under the jus postliminium upon
the end of the occupation.
Note that the rule suspending political laws affects
only the civilian inhabitants of the occupied
territory and is not intended to bind the enemies in
arms. Also, the rule does not apply to the law on
treason although decidedly political in character.
As to o-political laws. The non-political laws

are deemed continued unless changed by the
belligerent occupant since they are intended to
govern the relations of individuals as among
themselves and are not generally affected by
changes in regimes of rulers.
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 28 (1995 ed
Exempt are:

Laurel v. Misa, 77 Phil 856.

Foreign states, heads of state, diplomatic representatives,

and consuls to a certain degree;
Foreign state property, including embassies, consulates,
and public vessels engaged in non-commercial activities;
Acts of state;
Foreign merchant vessels exercising the rights of innocent
passage or involuntary entry, such as the arrival under
stress;
Foreign armies passing through or stationed in its territory
with its permission;
Such other persons or property, including organizations
like the United Nations, over which it may, by agreement,
waive jurisdiction.
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Extra-territorial jurisdictio- authority of

the State over persons, things, or acts,
outside its territorial limits by reason of
their effect to its territory.
Examples:
C Govermet
1. Govermet of the Republic of the
Philippies
The Government of the Republic of the Philippines
is a term which refers to the corporate
governmental entity through which the functions
of government are exercised throughout the
Philippine Islands, including, save as the contrary
appears from context, the various arms through
which political authority is made effective in said
Islands, whether pertaining to the central
Government or to the provincial or municipal
branches or other form of local government.
(Section 2 of the Revised Administrative Code
(1917).
On the national scale, the term government of the
Philippines refers to the three great departments.
On the local level, it means the regional provincial,
city municipal an barangay governments.
It does not include government entities which are
given a corporate personality separate and distinct
for the government and which are governed by the
corporation law.
Assertion of its personal jurisdiction over

its nationals abroad; or the exercise of its
rights to punish certain offenses
committed outside its territory against its
national interests even if the offenders are
non-resident aliens;
By virtue of its relations with other states
or territories, as when it establishers a
colonial protectorate, or a condominium,
or administers a trust territory, or occupies
enemy territory in the course of war;
When the local state waives its jurisdiction
over persons and things within its territory,
as when a foreign army stationed therein
remains under the jurisdiction of the
sending states;
by the principle of extra territoriality, as
illustrated by the immunities of the head of
state in a foreign country;
Through the enjoyment or easements or
servitudes, such as the easement of
innocent passage or arrival under stress;
The exercise of jurisdiction by the state in
the high seas over its vessels; over
pirates; in the exercise of the right to visit
and search; and under the doctrine of hot
pursuit;
The exercise of limited jurisdiction over
the contiguous zone and the patrimonial
sea, to prevent infringement of its
customs, fiscal, immigration or sanitary
regulations.
2. Govermet v. Admiistratio
Government is the institution through which the
state exercises power. Administration consists of
the set of people currently running the institution.87
3. Fuctios of Govermet
Govermetal
(Constituent)are
the
compulsory functions which constitute the very
bonds of society.
Proprietary (Ministerial)optional functions of

the government for achieving a better life for
the community. (Bacani v. NACOCO)
Juristic Theory of Sovereity

The legalistic and analytical view of sovereignty
considers the state as a corporate entity, a
juridical person.84 It takes the state purely as a
legal organism. It does not have anything to do at
all with its social and historical background.
Govermetal Fuctio
Implementation of the land reform may not strictly be
i. Sovereity resides i the PEOPLE
constituent in the sense of Bacani but the

compelling urgency with which the Constitution
speaks of social justice does not leave any doubt that
lad reform is not an optional but a compulsory
fuctio of sovereity. (ACCFA v. CUGCO)
The people in the sense in which it is used here

refers to the entire citizenry considered as a
unit.85
The
functions of the Veterans Federation of the

Philippines fall within the category of sovereign
functions. (Veterans Federation of the Phils. V. Reyes
483 SCRA 526)
4. Govermet
Govermet. That institution or aggregate of
institutions by which an independent society makes
and carries out those rules of action which are
necessary to enable men to live in a social state, or
which are impose upon the people forming that
society by those who possess the power or
authority of prescribing them.86
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 18 (1954ed).

The
Manila International Airport Authority is a

governmental instrumentality vested with corporate
powers to perform its governmental function. It
performs government functions essential to the
operation of an international airport. (MIAA v. CA)
Housing is a governmental function since housing is

considered an essential service. (PHHC v. CIR)
US v. Dorr, 2 Phil 332 cited in Bacani v. NACOCO, 100 Phil. 468

(1956).
15

SCHOOL OF LAW
government by the inhabitants of a

country who rise in insurrection against
the parent state (Such as the government
of the Southern Confederacy in revolt
against the Union during the war of
secession in the United States.)
3. Government of paramount force.
That which is established and maintained
by military forces who invade and occupy
a territory of enemy in the course of war. 92
(Such as the cases of Castine in Maine,
which was reduced to a British
possession in the war of 1812, and
Tampico, Mexico, occupied during the war
with Mexico by the troops of the US.) (Co
Kim Chan v. Valdez , 75 Phil 113)
The
NHA is tasked with implementing the

governmental program of providing mass housing to
meet the needs of Filipinos for decent housing. The
NHA is exempt from paying docket fees in suits in
relation to its governmental functions. (Badillo v.
Tayag)
The
(RCA) Rice and Corn Administration is a

government machinery to carry out declared
government policy to stabilize the price of palay, rice,
and corn and making it within the reach of average
consumers. Its activity of buying and selling corn is
only an incident to its overmet fuctio. Hence,
it is exempt from posting an appeal bond. (Republic v.
CFI)
The
AFP Retirement and Benefits System is a

government entity and its funds are in the nature of
public funds (People v. Sandiganbayan)
Proprietary Fuctio
Undertaking to supply water for a price is considered
Note:
The government under Cory Aquino and the
Freedom Constitution is a de jure government.
It was established by authority of the legitimate
sovereign, the people. It was a revolutionary
government established in defiance of the
1973 Constitution. (In Re Letter of Associate
Justice Puno, 210 SCRA 589 (1992).
a trade and not a governmental activity. (Spouses

Fontanilla v. Maliaman)
Civil
Aeronautics Administration is in charge of the

administration of MIA, it is performing proprietary
functions, hence it can be sued even when the claim
is based on a quasi-delict. (CAA v. CA)
4. Doctrie of Pares Patriae

Literally, parent of the people. One of the
important tasks of the government is to act for the
State as parens patriae, or guardian of the rights of
the people.88
The government under President Gloria

Macapagal Arroyo established after the ouster
of President Estrada is de jure government.93
Sinco o Revolutio or Direct State Actio:
It sometimes happens that the people rise in
revolt against the existing administration
[government] and through force or threats
succeed in altering the constituted organs of
the government. From the point of view of the
5. Classificatio of Govermet o the Basis of

Leitimacy
De Jure Government
De Facto Government
De
Jure
Govermet.
One
established
authority of the legitimate sovereign.
by
89
De Facto Govermet. One established in

defiance of the legitimate sovereign.90 It actually
exercises power or control without legal title.91
3 Kids of De Facto Govermet:
1. The government that gets
possession and control or, or usurps,
by force or by the voice of majority, the
rightful legal government and maintains
itself against the will of the latter. (Such as
the government of England under the
Commonwealth, first by Parliament and
later by Cromwell as Protector.)
2. Established and maintained by
invading
military
forces.
That
established as an independent


92
It has been held that the Second Republic of the Philippines was
a de facto government of paramount force, having been established
by the Japanese belligerent during the occupation of the Philippines
in World War II.
The characteristics of this kind of de facto government are:
Its existence is maintained by active military power
within the territories, and against the rightful authority of
an established and lawful government.
During its existence, it must necessarily be obeyed in civil
matters by private citizens who, by acts of obedience
rendered in submission to such force, do not become
responsible, as wrongdoers, for those acts, though not
warranted by the laws of the rightful government. Actual
governments of this sort are established over districts
differing greatly in extent and conditions. They are
usually administered by military authority, supported
more or less directly by military force. (Co Kim Chan v.
Valdez , 75 Phil 113)
By contrast, the Supreme Court unanimously held in Lawyers
League for a Better Philippines v. Corazon Aquino that the
people have made the judgment; they have accepted the
government of President Corazon Aquino which is in effective
control of the entire country so that it is not merely a de facto
government but in fact and law a de jure government.
Moreover, the community of nations has recognized the
legitimacy of the present government.
93
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SCHOOL OF LAW
existing constitutional plan, that act is illegal;

but considered from the point of view of the
sate as a distinct entity not necessarily bound
to employ a particular government or
administration to carry out its will, it is the
direct act of the state itself because it is
successful. As such, it is legal, for whatever is
attributable to the state is lawful. This is the
legal and political basis of the doctrine of
revolution.94
5. Presidetial v. Parliametary form
overmet (2006 Bar Exam Question)
of
The presidetial form of governments identifying

feature is what is called the separation of
powers.95
The essential characteristics of a parliametary
form of government are:
The members of the government or
cabinet or the executive arm are, as a
rule, simultaneously members of the
legislature;
The government or cabinet consisting of
the political leaders of the majority party
or of a coalition who are also members of
the legislature, is in effect a committee of
the legislature;
The government or cabinet has a
pyramidal structure at the apex of which is
the Prime Minister or his equivalent;
The government or cabinet remains in
power only for so long as it enjoys the
support of the majority of the legislature;
Both government and legislature are
possessed of control devices which each
can demand of the other immediate
political responsibility. In the hands of the
legislature is the vote of non-confidence
(censure) whereby government may be
ousted. In the hands of the government is
the power to dissolve the legislature and
call for new elections.96
Q: What constitutional forms of government
have been experienced by the Philippines
since 1935?
A: Presidential and presidential only.97
An act of State is done by the sovereign power of a

country, or by its delegate, within the limits of the
power vested in him.98
Within particular reference to Political Law, an act
of State is an act done by the political departments
of the government and not subject to judicial
review. An illustration is the decision of the
President, in the exercise of his diplomatic power,
to extend recognition to a newly-established
foreign State or government.99
D. State Immuity
The State cannot be sued without its
consent. (Article XVI, Section 3)
(State immunity will be discussed under Article XVI,
Section 3)
PRINCIPLES
III. Republicaism
Sectio 1. The Philippines is a
democratic ad republica State.
Sovereignty resides in the people and
all government authority emanates
from them.
A. Republic
Republic is a representative government run by
the people and for the people.100
C. Acts of State


Republica state is a state wherein all

government authority emanates from the people
and is exercised by representatives chosen by the
people.101

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SCHOOL OF LAW
B. Essetial Features of Republicaism
A. Reuciatio of War
The essence of republicanism is representation

and renovation. The citizenry selects a corps of
public functionaries who derive their mandate from
the people and act on their behalf, serving for a
limited period only, after which they are replaced or
retained at the option of their principal.102
The Philippines renounces war as an instrument

of national policy
(Read along Preamble, Article II Secs. 7 &8; Article
XVIII Sec. 25)
1. Aressive War
The Philippines only renounces AGGRESSIVE war
as an instrument of national policy. It does not
renounce defensive war.
Maifestatios of Republicaism
Ours is a government of laws and not of men.

(Villavicencio v. Lukban, 39 Phil 778)
Rule of Majority (Plurality in elections)
Accountability of public officials
Bill of Rights
Legislature cannot pass irrepealable laws
Separation of powers
2. Philippies Reouces Not Oly War

As member of United Nations, the Philippines does
not merely renounce war but adheres to Article 2(4)
of the UN charter which says: All Members shall
refrai i their iteratioal relatios from the
threat or use of force against the territorial
integrity or political independence of any state, or
in any other manner inconsistent with Purposes of
the Untied Nations.
Democratic State
In the view of the new Constitution, the Philippines
is not only a representative or republican state but
also shares some aspects of direct democracy
such as initiative and referendum. The word
democratic is also a monument to the February
Revolution which re-won freedom through direct
action of the people.
3. Historical Developmet of the Policy

Codemi or Outlawi War i the
Iteratioal Scee:
Covenant of the League of Nationsprovided conditions for the right to go to war.

Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928- also
known as the General Treaty for the
Renunciation of War, ratified by 62 states,
which forbade war as an instrument of
national policy.
3. Charter of the United Nations- Prohibits
the threat or use of force against the territorial
integrity or political independence of a State.
E. Costitutioal Authoritariaism
Constitutional authoritarianism as understood and
practiced in the Marcos regime under the 1973
Constitution, was the assumption of extraordinary
powers by the President, including legislative and
judicial and even constituent powers.103
Q: Is constitutional authoritarianism compatible
with a republican state?
A: Yes if the Constitution upon which the Executive
bases his assumption of power is a legitimate
expression of the peoples will and if the Executive
who assumes power received his office through a
valid election by the people.104
B. Icorporatio Clause
The Philippinesadopts the generally accepted
principles of international law as part of law of the
land
1. Acceptace of Dualist View
Implicit in this provision is the acceptance of the
dualist view of legal systems, namely that
domestic law is distinct from international law.
Since dualism holds that international law and
municipal law belong to different spheres,
international law becomes part of municipal law
only if it is incorporated in to municipal law.105
IV. Reuciatio of War/ Icorporatio Clause/

Policy of PEJ-FCA with All Natios
Sectio 2. The Philippines renounces
war as an instrument of national policy,
adopts
the
generally
accepted
principles of international law as part of
law of the land and adheres to the
policy of peace, equality, justice,
freedom, cooperation, and amity with all
nations.
2 Doctrie of Icorporatio (1997 Bar Question)

Every state is, by reason of its membership in the
family of nations, bound by the generally
accepted principles of international law, which

105
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Still, it was felt advisable to expressly affirm this

principle in the Constitution to allay all fears of a
military take-over of our civilian government.111
are considered to be automatically part of its

own laws. This is the doctrine of incorporation.
106
3. Iteratioal Law
Iteratioal Law
Traditional definition: It is a body of rules and
principles of action which are binding upon civilized
states in their relation to one another.
Restatement: The law which deals with the conduct
of states and of international organizations and
with their relations inter se, as well as with some
other relations with persons, natural or juridical.
4. To What Elemets of Iteratioal Law does
the priciple of icorporatio apply?
Since treaties become part of Philippine law only
by ratification, the principle of incorporation applies
only to customary law and to treaties which
have become part of customary law. 107
It was also fittingly declared that the President, who

is a civilian official, shall be the commander-in-chief
of all the armed forces of the Philippines.112
Q: Does this mean that civilian officials are
superior to military officials?
A: Civilian officials are superior to military official
only when a law makes them so.113
B. Armed Forces of the Philippies
1. Reasos [i the costitutio] for the
existece of the armed forces
As protector of the people and the State
To secure the sovereignty of the State and the
integrity of the national territory.114
They may be called to prevent or suppress
lawless violence, invasion or rebellion.115
All Members of the armed forces shall take an
oath or affirmation to uphold and defend the
Constitution.116
5. Effect of Icorporatio Clause

International law therefore can be used by
Philippine courts to settle domestic disputes in
much the same way that they would use the Civil
Code or the Penal Code and other laws passed by
Congress.108
2. Compositio
The Armed Forces of the Philippines shall be
composed of a citizen armed force which shall
undergo military training and serve as may be
provided by law. (Article XVI, Section 4)
C. Policy of PEJ-FCA with All Natios

The Philippinesadheres to the policy of peace,
equality, justice, freedom, cooperation, and amity
with all nations.
3. O Politics
Q: Does the affirmation of amity will all nations

mean automatic diplomatic recognition of all
nations?
A: No. Amity with all nations is an ideal to be aimed
at. Diplomatic recognition, however, remains a
matter of executive discretion.109
The armed forces shall be insulated from partisan

politics. No member of the military shall engage
directly or indirectly in any partisan political activity,
except to vote. (Article XVI, Section 5)
Q: Is the provision an assertion of the political
role of the military?
A: No. The phrase protector of the people
was not meant to be an assertion of the
political role of the military. The intent of the
phrase protector of the people was rather to
make it as corrective to military abuses
experienced during martial rule.117
V. Supremacy of Civilia Authority

Sectio 3. Civilian Authority is, at all
times supreme over the military. The
Armed Forces of the Philippines is
the protector of the people and the
State. Its goal is to secure the
sovereignty of the State and integrity
of the national territory.
A. Civilia Authority
That civilian authority is at all times supreme over

the military is implicit in a republican system.110



Article VII, Section 18.
Article II, Section 3.
Article VII, Section 18. See IBP v. Zamora.
Article XVI, Seciton 5.
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Q: Does this mean that the military has no

political role?
A: Bernas: The military exercise of political
power can be justified as a last resortwhen
civilian authority has lost its legitimacy.118
(This is dangerous.)
4 . Bar Questio (2003)
Q: Is the PNP covered by the same mandate
under Article II, Section 3?
A: No. This provision is specifically addressed to
the AFP and not to the PNP, because the latter is
separate and distinct from the former. (Record of
the Constitutional Commission, Volume V, p. 296;
Manalo v. Sistoza, 312 SCRA 239)
VI. Defese of State
Sectio 4. The prime duty of the
government is to serve and protect
the people. The Government may call
upon the people to defend the state
and, in the fulfillment thereof, all
citizens may be required, under
conditions provided by law, to render
personal military or civil service.
VII. Peace ad Order
Sectio 5. The maintenance of peace
and order, the protection of life, liberty
and property, and the promotion of
general welfare are essential for the
enjoyment by all the people of the
blessings of democracy.
Section 5 is not a self-executing provision. It is

merely a guideline for legislation. (Kilosbayan v.
Morato)
Riht to bear arms. The right to bear arms is a
statutory, not a constitutional right. The license to
carry a firearm is neither a property nor a property
right. Neither does it create a vested right. Even if it
were a property right, it cannot be considered
absolute as to be placed beyond the reach of
police power. The maintenance of peace and order,
and the protection of the people against violence
are constitutional duties of the State, and the right
to bear arms is to be construed in connection and
in harmony with these constitutional duties.
(Chavez v. Romulo, 2004)
Sectio 6. The separation of Church

and State shall be inviolable.
A. Ratioale
Strong fences make good neighbors. The idea is to
delineate boundaries between the two institutions and
thus avoid encroachments by one against the other
because of a misunderstanding of the limits of their
respective exclusive jurisdictions.119
B. Who is Prohibited from Iterferi
Doctrie cuts both ways. It is not only the State that is
prohibited from interfering in purely ecclesiastical
affairs; the Church is likewise barred from meddling in
purely secular matters. 120(Cruz)
Separatio of Church ad State is Reiforced by:
Freedom of Religion Clause (Article III,
Section 5)
Religious sect cannot be registered as a
political party (Article IX-C, Section 2(5))
No sectoral representatives from the religious
sector. (Article VI, Section 5 (2))
Prohibition against appropriation against
sectarian benefit. (Article VI, 29(2)).
Exceptios
Churches, parsonages, etc. actually, directly
and exclusively used for religious purposes
shall be exempt from taxation. (Article VI,
Section 28(3)).
When priest, preacher, minister or dignitary is
assigned to the armed forces, or any penal
institution or government orphanage or
leprosarium, public money may be paid to
them. (Article VI, Section 29(2))
Optional religious instruction for public
elementary and high school students. (Article
XIV, Section 3(3)).
Filipino ownership requirement for education
institutions, except those established by
religious groups and mission boards. (Article
XIV, Section 4(2)).
STATE POLICIES
IX. Idepedet Forei Policy
Sectio 7. The State shall pursue an
independent foreign policy. In its
relations with other states the
paramount consideration shall be
national sovereignty, territorial
VIII. Separatio of Church ad State
118

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integrity, national interest, and the

right to self-determination.
XII. Social Justice

Sectio 10. The State shall promote
social justice in all phases of national
development
The word relations covers the whole gamut of

treaties and international agreements and other
kinds of intercourse.121
X. Freedom from Nuclear Weapos
A. Defiitio of Social Justice

Social Justice is neither communism, nor
despotism, nor atomism, nor anarchy, but the
humanization of the laws and the equalization
of the social and economic forces by the State
so that justice in its rational and objectively
secular
conception may at least be
approximated. (Calalang v. Williams)
Sectio 8. The Philippines consistent

with the national interest, adopts and
pursues a policy of freedom from
nuclear weapons in its territory.
A. Scope of Policy
Social justice simply means the equalization of

economic, political, and social opportunities with
special emphasis on the duty of the state to tilt the
balance of social forces by favoring the
disadvantaged in life.125
The policy includes the prohibition not only of the

possession, control, and manufacture of nuclear
weapons but also nuclear arms tests.
B. Exceptio to the Policy
Exception to this policy may be made by the
political department but it must be justified by the
demands of the national interest.122
XIII. Respect for Huma Diity

Sectio 11. The State values the
dignity of every human person and
guarantees full respect for human
rights.
The policy does not prohibit the peaceful use of

nuclear energy.123
C. Implicatio of the Policy for the Presece of
America Troops
The concretization of this provision is found

principally in the Bill of Rights and in the human
rights provision of Article XIII.126
Any new agreement on bases or the presence of

the troops, if ever there is one, must embody the
basic policy of freedom from nuclear weapons.
Moreover, it would be well within the power of
government to demand ocular inspection and
removal of nuclear arms.124
Facts: Petitioners questioned the constitutionality

of PD 1869, which created the PAGCOR and
authorized it to operate gambling casinos, on the
ground that it violated Sections 11, 12 and 13 of
Article II of the Constitution.
Held: These provisions are merely statements of
policies which are not self-executing. A law has to
be passed to implement them. (Basco v. PAGCOR,
197 DCRA 52)127
XI. Just ad Dyamic Social Order

Sectio 9. The State shall promote a
just and dynamic social order that will
ensure
the
prosperity
and
independence of the nation and free
the people from poverty through
policies that provide adequate social
services, promote full employment, a
raising standard of living, and an
improved quality of life for all.
XIV. Family; Reari the Youth

Sectio 12. The State recognizes the
sanctity of family life and shall protect
and strengthen the family as a basic
autonomous social institution. It shall
equally protect the life of the mother
and the life of the ubor from
coceptio. The natural and primary



Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium, 4 (2006 ed.)
21

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In the matter of education, the primary and natural

right belongs to the parents. The State has a
secondary and supportive role.
right and duty of parents in rearing of

the youth for civic efficiency and the
development of moral character shall
receive
the
support
of
the
government.
Forei Lauae. The State cannot prohibit the

teaching of foreign language to children before
they reach a certain age. Such restriction does
violence both to the letter and the spirit of the
Constitution. (Meyer v. Nebraska)

vital role of the youth in nationbuilding and shall promote and
protect their physical moral, spiritual,
intellectual, and social well-being. It
shall inculcate in the youth patriotism
and nationalism, and encourage their
involvement in public and civic affairs.
Public School. The State cannot require children

to attend only public schools before they reach a
certain age. The child is not a mere creature of the
State. Those who nurture him and direct his
destiny have the right to recognize and prepare
him. (Pierce v. Society of Sisters)
A. Family
Reliious Upbrii. The State cannot require

children to continue schooling beyond a certain
age in the honest and sincere claim of parents that
such schooling would be harmful to their religious
upbringing. Only those interests of the State of the
highest order and those not otherwise served can
overbalance the primary interest of parents in the
religious upbringing of their children. (Wisconsin v.
Yoder)
Family means a stable heterosexual relationship.

The family is not a creature of the State.128
B. Effect of the Declaratio of Family Autoomy
It accepts the principle that the family is anterior to
the State and not a creature of the State. It protects
the family from instrumentalization by the State.129
C. Purpose of Assertio of Protectio of the Ubor
Pares Patriae. However, as parens patriae, the

State has the authority and duty to step in where
parents fail to or are unable to cope with their
duties to their children.
The purpose of the assertion that the protection

begins from the time of conception is to prevet
the State form adopti the doctrie i Roe v.
Wade which liberalized abortion laws up to the
sixth month of pregnancy by allowing abortion any
time during the first six months of pregnancy
provided it can be done without danger to the
mother.
XV. Wome
role of women in nation-building, and
shall ensure the fundamental equality
before the law of women and men.
D. Leal Meai of the Protectio Guarateed for

the Ubor.
This is not an assertion that the unborn is
a legal person.
This is not an assertion that the life of the
unborn is placed exactly on the level of the life
of the mother. (When necessary to save the
life of the mother, the life of the unborn may be
sacrificed; but not when the purpose is merely
to save the mother from emotional suffering,
for which other remedies must be sought, or to
spare the child from a life of poverty, which can
be attended to by welfare institutions.)130
The provision is so worded as not to automatically

dislocate the Civil Code and the civil law
jurisprudence on the subject. What it does is to
give impetus to the removal, through statutes, of
existing inequalities. The general idea is for the law
to ignore sex where sex is not a relevant factor in
determining rights and duties. Nor is the provision
meant to ignore customs and traditions.131
In Philippine Telegraph and Telephone Co. v.
NLRC, 1997, the Supreme Court held that the
petitioners policy of not accepting or considering
as disqualified from work any woman worker who
contracts marriage , runs afoul of the test of, and
the right against discrimination, which is
guaranteed all women workers under the
Constitution. While a requirement that a woman
employee must remain unmarried may be justified
as a bona fide qualification where the particular
E. Educatio


131
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requirements of the job would demand the same,

discrimination against married women cannot be
adopted by the employer as a general principle.
XVI. Health
Sectio 15. The State shall protect
and promote the right to health of the
people
and
instill
health
consciousness among them.
The provisions which directly or indirectly pertain to
the duty of the State to protect and promote the
peoples right to health and well-being are not selfexecutory. They await implementation by Congress.132
XVII. Balaced ad Healthful Ecoloy
Sectio 16. The State shall protect and
advance the right of the people to a
balanced and healthful ecology in
accord with the rhythm and harmony of
nature.
Section 16 provides for enforceable rights. Hence,
appeal to it has been recognized as conferring
standing on minors to challenge logging policies
of the government. (Oposa v. Factoran)
While the riht to a balaced ad healthful
ecoloy is to be found under the Declaration of
Principles and State Policies and not under the Bill
of Rights, it does not follow that it is less important
than any of the civil and political rights enumerated
in the latter. Such a right belongs to a different
category of rights for it concerns nothing less than
self-preservation and self-perpetuation. These
basic rights need not even be written in the
Constitution for they are assumed to exist from the
inception of humankind. (Oposa v. Factoran,1993)
On this basis too, the SC upheld the empowerment
of the Laguna Lake Development Authority (LLDA)
to protect the inhabitants of the Laguna Lake Area
from the deleterious effects of pollutants coming
from garbage dumping and the discharge of
wastes in the area as against the local autonomy
claim of local governments in the area. (LLDA v.
CA, 1995)
See Rule of Procedure o Evirometal
Cases.
See Writ of Kalikasa uder Article VIII.
XVIII. Educatio, Sciece ad Techoloy
132
Tondo Medical Center Employees v. CA. G.R.

No. 167324, July 17, 2007.
Sectio 17. The State shall give

priority to education, science and
technology, arts, culture and sports to
foster
patriotism,
nationalism,
accelerate social progress, and
promote total human liberation and
development.
(See Article XIV, Section 2)
This does not mean that the government is not free
to balance the demands of education against other
competing and urgent demands. (Guingona v.
Carague)
In Philippine Merchant Marine School Inc. v. CA,
the Court said that the requirement that a school
must first obtain government authorization before
operating is based on the State policy that
educational programs and/or operations shall be of
good quality and, therefore, shall at least satisfy
minimum standards with respect to curricula,
teaching staff, physical plant and facilities and
administrative and management viability.
While it is true that the Court has upheld the
constitutional right of every citizen to select a
profession or course of study subject to fair,
reasonable and equitable admission and academic
requirements, the exercise of this right may be
regulated pursuant to the police power of the State
to safeguard health, morals, peace, education,
order, safety and general welfare.
Thus, persons who desire to engage in the learned
professions requiring scientific or technical
knowledge may be required to take an examination
as a prerequisite to engaging in their chosen
careers. This regulation assumes particular
pertinence in the field of medicine, in order to
protect the public from the potentially deadly
effects of incompetence and ignorance. (PRC v. De
Guzman, 2004)
XIX. Labor
Sectio 18. The State affirms labor
as a primary social economic force. It
shall protect the rights of workers and
promote their welfare.
A primary social economic force means that the
human factor has primacy over non-human factors
of production.
Protection to labor does not indicate promotion of
employment alone. Under the welfare and social
justice provisions of the Constitution, the promotion
of full employment, while desirable, cannot take a
backseat to the governments constitutional duty to
provide mechanisms for the protection of our
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workforce, local or overseas. (JMM Promotion and

Management v. CA, 260 SCRA 319)
Although the Constitution enshrines free enterprise

as a policy, it nevertheless reserves to the
Government the power to intervene whenever
necessary for the promotion of the general welfare,
as reflected in Sections 6 and 19 of Article XII.
What concerns the Constitution more paramountly

is employment be above all, decent, just and
humane. It is bad enough that the country has to
send its sons and daughters to strange lands,
because it cannot satisfy their employment needs
at home. Under these circumstances, the
Government is duty bound to provide them
adequate protection, personally and economically,
while away from home. (Philippine Association of
Service Exporters v. Drilon, 163 SCRA 386)
XXII. Comprehesive Rural Developmet

Sectio 21. The State shall promote
comprehensive rural development
and agrarian program.
(See Article XIII, Sections 4-10)
XX. Self-Reliat ad Idepedet Ecoomy
Comprehensive rural development includes not

only agrarian reform. It also encompasses a broad
spectrum of social, economic, human, cultural,
political and even industrial development.
Sectio 19. The State shall develop

a self-reliant and independent
national
economy
effectively
controlled by Filipinos.
XXIII. Idieous Cultural Commuities
This is a guide for interpreting provisions on

national economy and patrimony. Any doubt must
be resolved in favor of self-reliance and
independence and in favor of Filipinos.
A petrochemical industry is not an ordinary
investment opportunity, it is essential to national
interest. (The approval of the transfer of the plant
from Bataan to Batangas and authorization of the
change of feedstock from naptha only to naptha
and/or LPG do not prove to be advantageous to
the government. This is a repudiation of the
idepedet policy of the government to run its
own affairs the way it deems best for national
interest.) (Garcia v. BOI)
Sectio 22. The State recognizes

and promotes the rights of indigenous
cultural communities within the
framework of national unity and
development.
(See Article VI Section 5(2); Article XII, Section
5; Article XIV, Section 17; See Cruz v. DENR)
Read Province of North Cotabato v. GRP
XXIV. Idepedet Peoples Oraizatios;
Voluteerism
Sectio 23. The State shall
encourage
non-governmental,
community-bases,
or
sectoral
organizations that promote the
welfare of the nation.
(See Article XIII, Sections 15-16)
The WTO agreement does not violate Section 19

of Article II, nor Sections 10 and 12 of Article XII,
because said sections should be read and
understood in relation to Sections 1 and 3, Article
XII, which requires the pursuit of a trade policy that
serves the general welfare and utilizes all forms
and arrangements of exchange on the basis of
equality and reciprocity. (Tanada V. Angara)
The provision recognizes the principle that

volunteerism and participation of non-governmental
organizations in national development should be
encouraged.133
XXI. Private Sector ad Private Eterprise
XXV. Commuicatio ad Iformatio

indispensable role of the private
sector, encourages private enterprise,
and provides incentives to needed
investments.
Section 20 is an acknowledgment of the
importance of private initiative in building the
nation. However, it is not a call for official
abdication of duty to citizenry. (Marine Radio
Communications Association v. Reyes)


vital role of communication and
information in nation-building.
(See Article XVI, Sections 10-11; Article XVIII,
Section 23)
133
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The NTC is justified to require PLDT to enter

into an interconnection agreement with a
cellular mobile telephone system. The order
was issued in recognition of the vital role of
communications in nation-building and to
ensure that all users of the public
telecommunications service have access to all
other users of service within the Philippines.
(PLDT v. NTC)
XXVI. Local Autoomy
Sectio 25. The State shall ensure
the autonomy of local governments.
(See Article X)
Local autonomy under the 1987 Constitution simply
means decentralization and does not make the
local governments sovereign within the State or an
imperium in imperio. (Basco v. PAGCOR)
Sectio 27. The State shall maintain

honesty and integrity in public service
and take positive and effective
measures
against
graft
and
corruption.
(See Article IX-D; Article XI, Sections 4-15)
XXIV. Full Public Disclosure
(1989 and 2000 Bar Question)
Sectio 28. Subject to reasonable
conditions prescribed by law, the
State adopts and implements a policy
of full public disclosure of all its
transactions involving public interest.
(Article III, Section 7; Article VI Sections 12 and 20;
Article VII, Section 20; Article XI, Section 17; Article
XII, Section 21)
It is well established in jurisprudence that neither
the right to information nor the policy of full public
disclosure is absolute, there being matters which,
albeit of public concern or public interest, are
recognized as privileged in nature. (Akbayan v.
Aquino, 2008)
Decentralization of administration is merely a

delegation of administrative powers to the local
government unit in order to broaden the base of
governmental powers. Decentralization of power is
abdication by the national government of
governmental powers.
Even as we recognize that the Constitution
guarantees autonomy to local government units,
the exercise of local autonomy remains subject to
the power of control by Congress and the power of
general supervision by the President. (Judge
Dadole v. Commission on Audit, 2002)
XXVII. Equal Access to Opportuities
Sectio 26. The State shall
guarantee
equal
access
to
opportunities for public service, and
prohibit political dynasties as may be
defined by law.
(See Article VII, Section 13; Article XIII, Sections 12)
Purpose. The thrust of the provision is to impose
on the state the obligation of guaranteeing equal
access to public office.134
There is no constitutional right to run for or hold
public office. What is recognized is merely a
privilege subject to limitations imposed by law.
Section 26 of the Constitution neither bestows such
right nor elevates the privilege to the level of an
enforceable right. (Pamatong v. COMELEC)
XXVIII. Public Service
134

Section 28 is self executory. (Province of North

COtabato v. GRP)
Read JPEPA, NERI and NORTH COTABATO
cases.
xxx
(1996 Bar Question)
A law was passed dividi the Philippies ito
three reios (Luzo, Visayas ad Midaao)
each costituti a idepedet state except
o matters of forei relatios, atioal
defese ad atioal taxatio, which are vested
i the Cetral Govermet. Is the law valid?
The law dividing the Philippines into three regions
each constituting an independent state and vesting
in a central government matters of foreign
relations, national defense and national taxation is
unconstitutional.
It violates Article I, which guarantees the

integrity of the national territory of the
Philippines because it divided the
Philippines into three states.
It violates Sectio 1, Article II of the

Constitution which provides for the
establishment of democratic and republic
states by replacing it with three states
organized as a confederation.
It violates Sectio 22, Article II of the

Constitution, which, while recognizing and
promoting the rights of indigenous cultural
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communities, provides for national unity

and development.
It violates Sectio 15, Article X of the

Constitution,
which,
provides
for
autonomous regions in Muslim Mindanao
and in the cordilleras within the framework
of national sovereignty as well as
territorial integrity of the Republic of the
Philippines.
It violates the sovereity of the Republic
of the Philippines.
Province of North Cotabato v. Government of the

Republic of the Philippines
October 14, 2008, GR 183591
FACTS:
Peace negotiations between the GRP135 and MILF136
began in 1996. Formal peace talks between the parties
were held in Tripoli, Libya in 2001, the outcome of
which was the GRP-MILF Tripoli Agreement on Peace
(Tripoli Agreement 2001) containing the basic
principles and agenda on the following aspects of the
negotiation: Security Aspect, Rehabilitation Aspect,
and Ancestral Domain Aspect. In 2005, several
exploratory talks were held between the parties in
Kuala Lumpur, eventually leading to the crafting of the
draft MOA-AD137 in its final form, which was set to be
signed on August 5, 2008. Several petitions were filed
seeking, among others, to restrain the signing of the
MOA-AD. Petitions allege, among others, that the
provisions of the MOA-AD violate the Constitution.
The MOA-AD mentions the Bangsamoro Juridical
Entity (BJE) to which it grants the authority and
jurisdiction over the Ancestral Domain and Ancestral
Lands of the Bangsamoro. The territory of the
Bangsamoro homeland is described as the land mass
as well as the maritime, terrestrial, fluvial and alluvial
domains, including the aerial domain and the
atmospheric space above it, embracing the MindanaoSulu-Palawan geographic region.
The Parties to the MOA-AD stipulate that:
The BJE shall have jurisdiction over all natural
resources within its internal waters, defined
as extending fifteen (15) kilometers from the
coastline of the BJE area;
The BJE shall also have territorial waters,
which shall stretch beyond the BJE internal
waters up to the baselines of the Republic of
the Philippines (RP) south east and south
west of mainland Mindanao;
Government of the Republic of the Philippines
Moro Islamic Liberation Front: The MILF is a rebel group

which was established in March 1984 when, under the
leadership of the late Salamat Hashim, it splintered from the
Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) then headed by Nur
Misuari, on the ground, among others, of what Salamat
perceived to be the manipulation of the MNLF away from an
Islamic basis towards Marxist-Maoist orientations.
Memorandum of Agreement on Ancestral Domain


Within these territorial waters, the BJE and
the
Central
Government
(used
interchangeably with RP) shall exercise joint
jurisdiction, authority and management over
all natural resources.
The BJE is free to enter into any economic
cooperation and trade relations with foreign
countries and shall have the option to
establish trade missions in those countries.
Such
relationships
and
understandings,
however, are not to include aggression
against the GRP. The BJE may also enter into
environmental cooperation agreements.
The external defense of the BJE is to remain
the duty and obligation of the Central
Government. The Central Government is also
bound to take necessary steps to ensure the
BJEs participation in international meetings
and events like those of the ASEAN and the
specialized agencies of the UN.
The BJE is to be entitled to participate in
Philippine official missions and delegations for
the negotiation of border agreements or
protocols for environmental protection and
equitable sharing of incomes and revenues
involving the bodies of water adjacent to or
between the islands forming part of the
ancestral domain.
The MOA-AD further provides for the sharing of
minerals on the territorial waters between the Central
Government and the BJE, in favor of the latter,
through production sharing and economic cooperation
agreement. The activities which the Parties are allowed
to conduct on the territorial waters are enumerated,
among which are the exploration and utilization of
natural resources, regulation of shipping and fishing
activities, and the enforcement of police and safety
measures.
The MOA-AD describes the relationship of the Central
Government
and
the
BJE
as
associative,
characterized by shared authority and responsibility.
And it states that the structure of governance is to be
based on executive, legislative, judicial, and
administrative institutions with defined powers and
functions in the Comprehensive Compact. The BJE is
granted the power to build, develop and maintain its
own institutions inclusive of civil service, electoral,
financial and banking, education, legislation, legal,
economic, police and internal security force, judicial
system and correctional institutions, the details of
which shall be discussed in the negotiation of the
comprehensive compact.
Paragraph 1 on CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES of MOAAD states:
1. It is the birthright of all Moros and
all Indigenous peoples of Mindanao
to identify themselves and be
accepted as Bangsamoros. The
Bangsamoro people refers to those who
are natives or original inhabitants of
26

SCHOOL OF LAW
Mindanao and its adjacent islands

including
Palawan
and
the
Sulu
archipelago at the time of conquest or
colonization of its descendants whether
mixed or of full blood. Spouses and their
descendants
are
classified
as
Bangsamoro. The freedom of choice of
the
Indigenous
people
shall
be
respected.
the spirit animating it which has betrayed itself by its

use of the concept of association runs counter to the
national sovereignty and territorial integrity of the
Republic.
The defining concept underlying the relationship
between the national government and the BJE being
itself contrary to the present Constitution, it is not
surprising that many of the specific provisions of the
MOA-AD on the formation and powers of the BJE are in
conflict with the Constitution and the laws.
ISSUE :
Whether MOA-AD is constitutional.
HELD:
Main Opinion, J. Carpio-Morales:
No. The MOA-AD is inconsistent with the Constitution
and laws as presently worded:
1.
The concept
recognized
Constitution.
The MOA-AD would not comply with Article X

Section 20 of the Constitution
Article II, Section 22 of the Constitution

must also be amended if the scheme
envisioned in the MOA-AD is to be
effected.
The MOA-AD is also inconsistent with R.A. No.

9054 (The Organic Act of the ARMM)
The MOA-AD is also inconsistent with
IPRA
of association
under
the
is not
present
Even if the UN DRIP were considered as

part of the law of the land pursuant to
Article II, Section 2 of the Constitution, it
would not suffice to uphold the validity
of the MOA-AD so as to render its
compliance with other laws unnecessary.
The concept of association is not recognized

under the present Constitution.
No province, city, or municipality, not even the ARMM,
is recognized under our laws as having an
associative
relationship
with
the
national
government. Indeed, the concept implies powers that
go beyond anything ever granted by the Constitution
to any local or regional government. It also implies the
recognition of the associated entity as a state. The
Constitution, however, does not contemplate any state
in this jurisdiction other than the Philippine State,
much less does it provide for a transitory status that
aims to prepare any part of Philippine territory for
independence.
It is not merely an expanded version of the ARMM, the
status of its relationship with the national government
being fundamentally different from that of the ARMM.
Indeed, BJE is a state in all but name as it meets the
criteria of a state laid down in the Montevideo
Convention, namely, a permanent population, a
defined territory, a government, and a capacity to
enter into relations with other states.
Even assuming arguendo that the MOA-AD would not
necessarily sever any portion of Philippine territory,

Article X, Section 18 of the Constitution

provides that [t]he creation of the autonomous region
shall be effective when approved by a majority of the
votes cast by the constituent units in a plebiscite
called for the purpose, provided that only provinces,
cities, and geographic areas voting favorably in such
plebiscite shall be included in the autonomous region.
The BJE is more of a state than an autonomous
region. But even assuming that it is covered by the
term autonomous region in the constitutional
provision just quoted, the MOA-AD would still be in
conflict with it. Under paragraph 2(c) on TERRITORY in
relation to 2(d) and 2(e), the present geographic area
of the ARMM and, in addition, the municipalities of
Lanao del Norte which voted for inclusion in the ARMM
during the 2001 plebiscite Baloi, Munai, Nunungan,
Pantar, Tagoloan and Tangkal are automatically part
of the BJE without need of another plebiscite, in
contrast to the areas under Categories A and B
mentioned earlier in the overview. That the present
components of the ARMM and the above-mentioned
municipalities voted for inclusion therein in 2001,
however, does not render another plebiscite
unnecessary under the Constitution, precisely because
what these areas voted for then was their inclusion in
the ARMM, not the BJE .
Article II, Section 22 of the Constitution must
also be amended if the scheme envisioned in the
MOA-AD is to be effected.
That constitutional provision states: The State
recognizes and promotes the rights of indigenous
cultural communities within the framework of national
unity and development. (Underscoring supplied) An
associative arrangement does not uphold national
unity. While there may be a semblance of unity
because of the associative ties between the BJE and
the national government, the act of placing a portion
of Philippine territory in a status which, in international
practice, has generally been a preparation for
independence , is certainly not conducive to national
unity.
The MOA-AD is also inconsistent with IPRA.
IPRA,lays down the prevailing procedure for the
delineation and recognition of ancestral domains . The
MOA-ADs manner of delineating the ancestral domain
of the Bangsamoro people is a clear departure from
that procedure. By paragraph 1 of TERRITORY of the
MOA-AD, Parties simply agree that, subject to the
delimitations in the agreed Schedules, [t]he
27

SCHOOL OF LAW
Bangsamoro homeland and historic territory refer to

the land mass as well as the maritime, terrestrial,
fluvial and alluvial domains, and the aerial domain, the
atmospheric space above it, embracing the MindanaoSulu-Palawan geographic region.
International law has long recognized the right to selfdetermination of peoples, understood not merely as
the entire population of a State but also a portion
thereof. The peoples right to self-determination should
not, however, be understood as extending to a
unilateral right of secession.
In a historic development last September 13, 2007,
the UN General Assembly adopted the United Nations
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UN
DRIP) through General Assembly Resolution 61/295
the Philippines being included among those in favor,
The Declaration clearly recognized the right of
indigenous
peoples
to
self-determination,
encompassing the right to autonomy or selfgovernment. Self-government, as used in international
legal discourse pertaining to indigenous peoples, has
been understood as equivalent to internal selfdetermination.
Assuming that the UN DRIP, like the Universal
Declaration on Human Rights, must now be regarded
as embodying customary international law still, the
obligations enumerated therein do not strictly require
the Republic to grant the Bangsamoro people, through
the instrumentality of the BJE, the particular rights
and powers provided for in the MOA-AD. Even the
more specific provisions of the UN DRIP are general in
scope, allowing for flexibility in its application by the
different States.
There is, for instance, no requirement in the UN DRIP
that States now guarantee indigenous peoples their
own police and internal security force. Indeed, Article
8 presupposes that it is the State which will provide
protection for indigenous peoples against acts like the
forced dispossession of their lands a function that is
normally performed by police officers. If the protection
of a right so essential to indigenous peoples identity is
acknowledged to be the responsibility of the State,
then surely the protection of rights less significant to
them as such peoples would also be the duty of
States. Nor is there in the UN DRIP an
acknowledgement of the right of indigenous peoples to
the aerial domain and atmospheric space. What it
upholds, in Article 26 thereof, is the right of indigenous
peoples to the lands, territories and resources which
they have traditionally owned, occupied or otherwise
used or acquired. Moreover, the UN DRIP, while
upholding the right of indigenous peoples to autonomy,
does not obligate States to grant indigenous peoples
the near-independent status of an associated state.
Even if the UN DRIP were considered as part of the law
of the land pursuant to Article II, Section 2 of the
Constitution, it would not suffice to uphold the validity
of the MOA-AD so as to render its compliance with
other laws unnecessary.

Separate Opinion, J. Carpio:

The incorporation of the Lumads, and their ancestral
domains,
into
the
Bangsamoro
violates
the
Constitutional and legislative guarantees recognizing
and protecting the Lumads distinct cultural identities
as well as their ancestral domains. The violation of
these guarantees makes the MOA-AD patently
unconstitutional.
The incorporation of the Lumads, and their ancestral
domains, into the Bangsamoro without the Lumads
knowledge and consent also violates Article 8 of the
United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous
Peoples. The provisions of Article 8 were designed to
prevent cultural genocide of indigenous peoples.
This will happen if the Lumads are identified from birth
as Bangsamoros and their ancestral domains are
absorbed into the ancestral domain of the
Bangsamoros.
Issue :
Did respondents violate constitutional and statutory
provisions on public consultation and the right to
information when they negotiated and later initialed
the MOA-AD?
Held:
Main Opinon, J. Carpio-Morales: YES. As regards
this issue, the respondents violated the following legal
provisions:
-Article II, Section 28
-Article III Section 7
-Executive Order No. 3
-Local Government Code
-IPRA
The policy of full public disclosure enunciated in
above-quoted Section 28 complements the right of
access to information on matters of public concern
found in the Bill of Rights. The right to information
guarantees the right of the people to demand
information, while Section 28 recognizes the duty of
officialdom to give information even if nobody
demands. the effectivity of the policy of public
disclosure need not await the passing of a statute.
IPRA
The ICCs/IPs have, under the IPRA, the right to
participate fully at all levels of decision-making in
matters which may affect their rights, lives and
destinies. The MOA-AD, an instrument recognizing
ancestral domain, failed to justify its non-compliance
with the clear-cut mechanisms ordained in IPRA, which
entails, among other things, the observance of the
free and prior informed consent of the ICCs/IPs. The
IPRA does not grant the Executive Department or any
government agency the power to delineate and
recognize an ancestral domain claim by mere
agreement or compromise. In proceeding to make a
sweeping declaration on ancestral domain, without
complying with the IPRA, which is cited as one of the
TOR of the MOA-AD, respondents clearly
28

SCHOOL OF LAW
transcended the boundaries of their authority. (J.

Carpio-Morales)

29

SCHOOL OF LAW
A. Defiitio of Leislative Power

Legislative power is the authority to make laws and
to alter or repeal them.
LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT
B. Where Vested
OUTLINE OF ARTICLE VI
Legislative power is vested in Congress except to

the extent reserved to the people by the provision
on initiative and referendum.
Legislative Power (1)

II. Powers of Congress
III. Congress ( 2-10)
IV. Privileges of Members ( 11)
V. Duty to Disclose, Disqualifications
and Prohibitions ( 12-14)
VI. Internal Government of Congress
( 15-16)
VII. Electoral Tribunal, CA (17-19)
VIII. Records and Books of

Accounts ( 20)
IX. Inquiries/ Oversight function ( 21-
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
C. Classificatio of leislative power

Oriial legislative power- possessed by the
sovereign people.
Derivative legislative power- that which has
been delegated by the sovereign people to the
legislative bodies. (Kind of power vested in Congress)
Costituet- The power to amend or revise
the constitution
Ordiary- Power to pass ordinary laws.
Leislative power exercised by the people. The
people, through the amendatory process, exercise
constituent power, and through initiative and
referendum, ordinary legislative power.
22)
X. Emergency Powers ( 23)

XI. Bills/ Legislative Process (
24,26,27)
XII.
Power of the Purse/Fiscal

Powers ( 28,29,25)
XIII. Other Prohibited Measures
(30-31)
XIV. Initiative and Referendum ( 32)
I. LEGISLATIVE POWER
D. Scope of Leislative power.

Congress may legislate on any subject matter.
(Vera v. Avelino) In other words, the legislative
power of Congress is pleary.
E. Limitatios o leislative power:
Substantive limitations138
1.
2.
Definition of Legislative
Power Where Vested
Substative limitatios:
a. Express Limitations
Classification of Legislative Power

Scope of Legislative power Limitations
on Legislative Power Non-delegability
of Legislative power
Rationale of the Doctrine of Nondelegability Valid delegation of legislative

powers Delegation of rule-making power
Requisites for a valid delegation of rulemaking power
Sufficient Standards
Examples of Invalid of Delegation
Sectio 1. The Legislative power
shall be vested in the Congress of the
Philippines which shall consist of a
Senate
and
a
House
of
Representatives, except to the extent
reserved to the people by the
provision
on
initiative
and
referendum.

Procedural limitations139
Bill of Rights140
On Appropriations141
Refer to the subject matter of legislation. These are limitations on the

content of laws.
Formal limitations refer to the procedural requirements to be

complied with by Congress in the passage of the bills. (Sinco, Phil.
Political Law)
Bill of Rights
o
No law shall be passed abridging
freedom of speech, of expression etc (art. 3 4)
o
No law shall be made respecting an
establishment of religion (art. 3 5)
o
No law impairing the obligation of
contracts shall be passed. (art 3 10)
o
No ex
post facto law or bill of
attainder shall be enacted. (art. 3 22)
141
On Appropriations
o
Congress
cannot
increase
appropriations by the President (art. 6 25)
o
(art. 6 29(2)
30

SCHOOL OF LAW
On Taxation142
On
Constitutional
Appellate
jurisdiction of SC143
No law granting a title of royalty or
nobility shall be enacted (art. 6 31)
Implied limitations
Congress
cannot
legislate
irrepealable laws
Congress cannot delegate legislative
powers
Non-encroachment on powers of
other departments
Delegation of tariff power to the

President
Delegation of emergency powers to

the President
Delegation to LGUs
Note:
Some commentators include (a) delegation to
the people at large and (b) delegation to
administrative bodies to the exceptions.(See Cruz,
Philippine Political Law p 87, 1995 ed.) However, I
submit this is not accurate.
I submit that legislative power is not delegated
to the people because in the first place they are the
primary holder of the power; they only delegated
such power to the Congress through the
Constitution. (See Preamble and Article II Section
1) Note that Article VI Section 1 does not delegate
power to the people. It reserves legislative power
to the people. -asm
What is delegated to administrative bodies is
not legislative power but rule-making power or law
execution.
Procedural limitatios:
Only one subject
Three readings on separate days
Printed copies in its final form 3 days before
passage of the bill. (art 6 26)
F. No-deleability of Leislative power
Doctrie of No -deleatio of leislative
powers: The rule is delegata potestas non potest
delagari-what has been delegated cannot be
delegated. The doctrine rests on the ethical
principle that a delegated power constitutes not
only a right but duty to be performed by the
delegate by the instrumentality of his own judgment
and not through the intervening mind of another.
I. Deleatio of rule-maki powers

What is delegated to administrative bodies is not
legislative power but rule-making power or law
execution. Administrative agencies may be allowed
either to:
Fill up the details on otherwise
complete statue or
Ascertain the facts necessary to bring
a contingent law or provision into actual
operation.
Ratioale of the Doctrie of No-deleability:
Based on the separatio of powers.

(Why go to the trouble of separating the three
powers of government if they can straightaway
remerge on their own notion?)
Power of Subordiate Leislatio. It is the

authority of the administrative body tasked by the
legislature to implement laws to promulgate rules
and regulations to properly execute and implement
laws.
Based on due process of law. Such

precludes the transfer of regulatory functions
to private persons.
And, based on the maxim, deelata

potestas o potest deleari meaning what
has been delegated already cannot be further
delegated.
Cotiet Leislatio
The standby authority given to the President to
increase the value added tax rate in the VAT Law,
R.A. 9337 was upheld as an example of contingent
legislation where the effectivity of the law is made
to depend on the verification by the executive of
the existence of certain conditions.144
H. Valid deleatio of leislative powers

General Rule: Legislative power cannot be
delegated
Exceptions:
142
On Taxation
o
o
In Gerochi v. DENR145 the power delegated to the

Energy Regulator Board to fix and impose a
universal charge on electricity end-users was
challenged as an undue delegation of the power to
tax. The Court said that, since the purpose of the
law was not revenue generation but energy
(art. 6 28 and 29(3))

(art. 14 4(3))
143
No law shall be passed increasing the appellate jurisdiction of

the SC without its advice and concurrence (art. 6 30)

Abakada Guru Party List Officers v. Executive Secretary, G.R.

168056, September 1, 2005. Reconsidered October 18, 2005.
G.R. No. 159796, July 17, 2007
31

SCHOOL OF LAW
regulation, the power involved was more police

power than the power to tax. Moreover the Court
added that the power to tax can be used for
regulation. As to the validity of the delegation to an
executive agency, the Court was satisfied that the
delegating law was complete in itself and the
amount to be charged was made certain by the
parameters set by the law itself.
J. Requisites for a valid deleatio of rule-maki
power or executio: (2005 Bar Question)
The delegating law must be complete i itself

it must set therein the policy to be carried out
or implemented by the delegate.
The delegating law must fix a sufficiet

stadard- the limits of which are sufficiently
determinate or determinable, to which the
delegate must conform in the performance of
his functions.
Importace of Policy. Without a statutory

declaration of policy, the delegate would, in effect,
make or formulate such policy, which is the
essence of every law.
Importace of Stadard. Without standard, there
would be no means to determine with reasonable
certainty whether the delegate has acted within or
beyond the scope of his authority. Hence, he could
thereby arrogate upon himself the power, not only
to make law, but also to unmake it, by adopting
measures inconsistent with the end sought to be
attained by the Act of Congress. (Pelaez v. Auditor
General)
Stadards
Need not be explicit
May be found in various parts of the statute
May be embodied in other statutes of the
same statute
1. A legislative standard eed ot be explicit or
formulated in precise declaratory language. It can
be drawn from the declared policy of the law and
from the totality of the delegating statute. (Osmena
v. Orbos) It can be implied from the policy and
purpose of the law (Agustin v. Edu)
A legislative standard may be foud i various
parts of the statute. (Tablarin v. Guttierez)
A legislative standard need not be found in the
law challenged and may be embodied i other
statues o the same subject. (Chiongbayan v
Orbos)
Q: Petitioners questioned the grant of the
powers to mayors to issue permits for public
assemblies in the Public Assembly Act on

the ground that it constituted an undue

delegation of legislative power. There is
however a reference to imminent and grave
danger of a substantive evil: in Section 6(c).
Decide.
A: The law provides a precise and sufficient
standard, the clear and present danger test
in Section 6(a). The reference to imminent
and grave danger of a substantive evil in
Section 6(c) substantially means the same.
(Bayan v. Ermita)
4. Examples of sufficiet stadards
Necessary or advisable in the public interest as
a standard. Public interest in this case is sufficient
standard pertaining to the issuance or cancellation
of certificates or permits. And the term public
interest is not without a settled meaning. (People vs.
Rosenthal)
Necessary in the interest of law and

order as a standard. An exception to the general
rule, sanctioned by immemorial practice, permits the
central legislative body to delegate legislative
powers to local authorities. (Rubi vs. Provincial
Board of Mindoro)
To promote simplicity, economy and

efficiency as a standard. (Cervantes vs. Auditor
General)
Of a moral, educational, or amusing and

harmless character as a standard. (Mutual Film Co.
vs. Industrial Commission of Ohio)
To maintain monetary stability promote

a rising level of production, employment and real
income as a standard. (People vs. Jollife)
Adequate and efficient instruction as

standard. (Philippine Association of Colleges and
Universities vs. Sec. of Education.
o Justice and equity and substantial merits of the
case as a standard. The discretionary power thus
conferred is judicial in character and does not
infringe upon the principle of separation of powers
the prohibition against the delegation of legislative
function (International Hardwood and Veneer Co. vs.
Pangil Federation of Labor)
Fair
and
equitable
employment
practices as a standard. The power of the POEA in
requiring the model contract is not unlimited as there
is a sufficient standard guiding the delegate in the
exercise of the said authority. (Eastern Shipping
Lines Inc. vs. POEA)
As far as practicable, decline of crude

oil prices in the world market and stability of the
peso exchange rate to the US dollar as standards.
The dictionary meanings of these words are well
settled and cannot confuse men of reasonable
intelligence. (However, by considering another factor
to hasten full deregulation, the Executive
Department rewrote the standards set forth in the
statute. The Executive is bereft of any right to alter
either by subtraction or addition the standards set in
the statute.) (Tatad vs. Sec of Energy)
L. Examples of ivalid deleatio

o Where there is no standard that the officials
must observe in determining to whom to distribute
the confiscated carabaos and carabeef, there is thus
32

SCHOOL OF LAW
Power of Taxation (art. 6 28(3), art. 14 4(3),

art 6, 29(4))
Investigatory Power (art. 6 21)
Oversight function (art. 6 22)
Power to declare the existence of state of war
(art. 6 23(1))
Power to act as Board of Canvassers in
election of President149 (art 7 4)
Power to call a special election for President
and Vice-President. (art. 7 10)
Power to judge Presidents physical fitness to
discharge the functions of the Presidency (art.
711)
Power to revoke or extend suspension of the
privilege of the writ of habeas corpus or
declaration of martial law. (art. 7 18)
Power to concur in Presidential amnesties.
Concurrence of majority of all the members of
Congress. (art.7 19)
Power to concur in treaties or international
agreements. Concurrence of at least 2/3 of all
the members of the Senate.(art.7 21)
Power
to
confirm
certain
appointments/nominations made by the
President (art.7 9, art.716)
Power of Impeachment (art.112)
Power relative to natural resources150 (art. 12
2)
an invalid delegation of legislative power. (Ynot v.

IAC)
o Where a provision provides that the penalty
would be a fine or 100 pesos OR imprisonment in
the discretion of the court without prescribing the
minimum and maximum periods of imprisonment, a
penalty imposed based thereon is unconstitutional. It
is not for the courts to fix the term of imprisonment
where no points of reference have been provided by
the legislature. (People v. Dacuycuy)
Where the statute leaves to the sole discretion
of the Governor-General to say what was and what
was not any cause for enforcing it, the same is an
invalid delegation of power. The Governor-General
cannot by proclamation, determine what act shall
constitute a crime or not. That is essentially a
legislative task. (US vs. Ang Tang)
Where a statute requires every public utility to
furnish annually a detailed report of finances and
operations in such form and containing such matter
as the Board may, from time to time, by order,
prescribe, it seems that the legislature simply
authorized the Board to require what information the
Board wants. Such constitutes an unconstitutional
delegation of legislative power. (Compana General
de Tabacos de Filipinas vs. Board of Public Utility
Commissioners)
o Where the legislature has not made the
operation (execution) of a statute contingent upon
specified facts or conditions to be ascertained by the
provincial board but in reality leaves the entire
matter for the various provincial boards to
determine, such constitute an unconstitutional
delegation of legislative power. A law may not be
suspended as to certain individuals only, leaving the
law to be enjoyed by others. (People vs. Vera)
o The authority to CREATE municipal corporations
is essentially legislative in nature.
(16) Power of internal organization

Election of officers Promulgate
internal rules Disciplinary
powers (art.6 16)
Note: Members of Congress have immunity from

arrest and parliamentary immunity.151 (art 6
11&12)
II. POWERS OF CONGRESS

Iheret Powers
Express Powers
A. INHERENT POWERS
Police power
Power of eminent domain
Power of taxation
(4)Implied Powers (Contempt Power)146
EXPRESS POWERS
Legislative Power (art 6 sec1)
Ordinary- power to pass ordinary laws
Constituent147- power to amend and or
revise the Constitution
(2) Power of the Purse148 (art. 625)
Page 12 of 2008 UP Bar Ops Reviewer.
Propose amendment to or revision of the Constitution (art 17

1)Call for a constitutional convention (art 17 3)
No money shall be paid out of the Treasury except in pursuance
of an appropriation made by law. (art 6 29(1)) The form, content,

III. Coress
Composition of Congress
Bicameralism v. Unicameralism
Composition of Senate
Qualification of Senators
Senators Term of Office / Staggering of

Terms Composition of HR
Qualification of Members of
HR Domicile
Property Qualification
Term of Office of Representatives
Party-List System
Legislative Districts
and manner of preparation of budget shall be prescribed by law.
(art 6 25)
This function is non-legislative. (Pimentel v. Joint Committee on

Congress. June 22, 2004)
Antonio B. Nachura, Outline/Reviewer in Political Law (2006 ed.)
Privilege from attest is not given to Congress as a body, but rather one
that is granted particularly to each individual member of it. (Coffin v.
Coffin, 4 Mass 1)
33

SCHOOL OF LAW
Election
Salaries
A. Compositio of Coress
The Congress of the Philippines which shall consist
of a Senate and a House of Representatives. (art 6
1)
B. Bicameralism v. Uicameralism
The Congress of the Philippines is a bicameral
body composed of a Senate and House of
Representatives, the first being considered as the
upper house and the second the lower house.
Advantages of Unicameralism.
Simplicity of organization
resulting in economy and efficiency
Facility
in
pinpointing
responsibility for legislation
Avoidance of duplication.
Advantages of Bicameralism.
1. Allows for a body with a national
perspective to check the parochial
tendency of representatives elected by
district.
Allows for more careful study of
legislation
Makes the legislature less susceptible
to control by executive
4. Serves as training ground for national
leaders.152
C. Compositio of Seate
Sectio 2. The Senate shall be
composed of twenty-four senators
who shall be elected at large by the
qualified voters of the Philippines, as
may be provided by law.
Elected at lare, reaso. By providing for a
membership elected at large by the electorate, this
rule intends to make the Senate a training ground
for national leaders and possibly a springboard for
the Presidency. The feeling is that the senator,
having national rather than only a district
constituency, will have a broader outlook of the
problems of the country instead of being restricted
by parochial viewpoints and narrow interests. With
such a perspective, the Senate is likely to be more
circumspect and broad minded than the House of
Representatives.153
D. Qualificatios of a Seator
Bernas, Primer p 224, 2006 ed.

Cruz, Phlippine Political Law.

Sectio 3. No person shall be a

senator unless he is a natural-born
citizen of the Philippines, and, on the
day of the election, is at least thirtyfive years of age, able to read and
write, a registered voter, and a
resident of the Philippines for not less
than
two
years
immediately
preceding the day of election.
Qualificatios of a seator
Natural-born citizen of the Philippines
At least 35 years of age on the day of

the election
Able to read and write
Registered voter
Resident of the Philippines for not

less than 2 years immediately preceding the
day of election.
On the day of the election means on the day the
votes are cast. (Bernas Primer)
E. Seators Term of Office
Term
Commencement of Term
Limitation
Effect of Voluntary Renunciation
Staggering of Terms
Reason for Staggering
Sectio 4. The term of office of the
Senators shall be six years and shall
commence,
unless
otherwise
provided by law, at noon on the
thirtieth day of June next following
their election.
No Senator shall serve for more than
two consecutive terms. Voluntary
renunciation of the office for any
length of time shall not be considered
as an interruption in the continuity of
his service for the full term for which
he was elected.
Term. The term of office of the Senators shall be
6 years.
Commecemet of term. The term of office of
the Senators shall commence on 12:00 noon of
June 30 next following their election. (unless
otherwise provided by law)
3. Limitatio. A Senator may not serve for more
than two consecutive terms. However, they may
serve for more than two terms provided that the
terms are not consecutive.
4. Effect of Volutary Reuciatio. Voluntary
renunciation of office for any length of time shall
not be considered as an interruption in the
34

SCHOOL OF LAW
continuity of his service for the full term for which

he was elected. (art. 6 4)
5. Staeri of Terms. The Senate shall not at
any time be completely dissolved. One-half of the
membership is retained as the other half is
replaced or reelected every three years.
6. Reaso for Staeri. The continuity of the
life of the Senate is intended to encourage the
maintenance of Senate policies as well as
guarantee that there will be experienced members
who can help and train newcomers in the
discharge of their duties.154
F. Compositio of House of Represetatives
Sectio 5. (1) The House of
Representatives shall be composed
of not more than two hundred and
fifty members, unless otherwise fixed
by law, who shall be elected from
legislative
districts
apportioned
among the provinces, cities, and the
Metropolitan
Manila
area
in
accordance with the number of their
respective inhabitants, and on the
basis of a uniform and progressive
ratio, and those who, as provided by
law, shall be elected through a partylist system of registered national,
regional, and sectoral parties or
organizations.
Compositio. The composition of the House of
Representatives shall be composed of not more
than 250 members unless otherwise fixed by law.
Representatives shall be elected from legislative
districts and through party-list system.
a)
b)
c)
District representatives
Party-list representatives
Sectoral representatives
(these existed only until 1998)

G. Qualificatio of Represetatives
Sectio 6. No person shall be a
member
of
the
House
of
Representatives unless he is a
natural born citizen of the Philippines
and, on the day of the election, is at
least twenty-five years of age, able to
read and write, and except the partylist representatives, a registered voter
in the district in which he shall be
elected, and a resident thereof for a
154
period of not less than one year

immediately preceding the day of the
election.
Qualificatios of District Represetatives:
Natural-born citizen of the Philippines
At least 25 years of age on the day of

the election
A registered voter in the district in

which he shall be elected
A resident of the district in which he

shall be elected for a period not less than 1
year immediately preceding the day of the
election.
H. Domicile
Domicile
Residence as a qualification means domicile.
Normally a persons domicile is his domicile of
origin.
If a person never loses his or her domicile, the one
year requirement of Section 6 is not of relevance
because he or she is deemed never to have left the
place. (Romualdez-Marcos v. COMELEC)
A person may lose her domicile by voluntary
abandonment for a new one or by marriage to a
husband (who under the Civil Code dictates the
wifes domicile).
Chae of domicile
To successfully effect a change of domicile, there
must be:
Physical Presence-Residence or
bodily presence in the new locality (The
change of residence must be voluntary)
Animus manendi -Intention to remain

in the new locality (The purpose to remain in
or at the domicile of choice must be for an
indefinite period of time)
o Animus non revertendi-Intention to
abandon old domicile
A lease contract does not adequately support a

change of domicile. The lease does not constitute
a clear animus manendi. (Domino v. COMELEC)
However a lease contract coupled with affidavit of
the owner where a person lives, his marriage
certificate, birth certificate of his daughter and
various letter may prove that a person has
changed his residence. (Perez v. COMELEC)
I. Property Qualificatio
Property qualifications are contrary to the social
justice provision of the Constitution. Such will also
Cruz, Philippine Political Law.

35

SCHOOL OF LAW
be adding qualifications provided by the

Constitution.
J. Term of Office of Represetatives
Sectio 7. The members of the
House of Representatives shall be
elected for a term of three years
which shall begin, unless otherwise
provided by law, at noon on the
thirtieth day of June next following
their election.
No
member
of
the
House
Representatives shall serve for more
than three consecutive terms.
Voluntary renunciation of the office for
any length of time shall not be
considered as an interruption in the
continuity of his service for the full
term for which he was elected.
Term v. Teure. Term refers to the period during
which an official is entitled to hold office. Tenure
refers to the period during which the official actually
holds the office.
The term of office of Representatives shall be 3
years. The term of office of Representatives shall
commence on 12:00noon of June 30 next following
their election. (unless otherwise provided by law)
A Representative may not serve for more than 3
consecutive terms. However, he may serve for
more than 3 terms provided that the terms are not
consecutive. (1996 Bar Question)
Why three years? One purpose in reducing the
term for three years is to synchronize elections,
which in the case of the Senate are held at threeyear intervals (to elect one-half of the body) and in
the case of the President and Vice-President every
six years.155
Volutary reuciatio of office for any length of
time shall not be considered as an interruption in
the continuity of his service for the full term for
which he was elected.
Abadomet of Dimaporo. The case of
Dimaporo v. Mitra which held that filing of COC for
a different position is a voluntary renunciation has
been abandoned because of the Fair Elections Act.
Number of Party-list Representatives

Manner of Allocating seats for Party list
representatives Guidelines
Parties or organizations disqualified
Qualifications of a party-list nominee
Section 5.
(2) The party-list representatives shall
constitute twenty per centum of the
total number of representatives
including those under the party- list.
For three consecutive terms after the
ratification of this Constitution, onehalf of the seats allocated to party-list
representatives shall be filled, as may
be provided by law, by selection or
election from the labor, peasant,
urban poor, indigenous cultural
communities, women, youth, and
such other sectors as may be
provided by law, except the religious
sector.
1. Party-list System. (RA 7941) The party-list
system is a mechanism of proportional
representation in the election of representatives of
the House of Representatives from national,
regional, and sectoral parties or organizations or
coalitions thereof registered with the Commission
on Elections.
Reaso for party-list system. It is hoped that the
system will democratize political power by
encouraging the growth of a multi-party system.
2. Number of Party-list represetatives
Ceili. The party- list representatives shall
constitute 20% of the total number of
representatives. Section 5(2) of Article VI is not
mandatory. It merely provides a ceiling for party-list
seats in Congress. (Veterans Federation Party v.
COMELEC; BANAT v. COMELEC)
No. of seats
available to
legislative
district
.80
Number of seats
.
available to partyx 0.20 = list representatives
The filing of COC is not constitutive of voluntary

renunciation. (Farinas v. Executive Secretary;
Quinto v. COMELEC, December 1, 2009)
K. Party List System
Party-list system
155
3. Maer of Allocati Seats for Party List

Represetatives
Cruz, Philippine Political law.

36

SCHOOL OF LAW
The Constitution left to Congress the determination

of the manner of allocating the seats for party-list
representatives. Congress enacted R.A. 7491.
Procedure i Allocatio of Seats for Party-List
Represetatives Uder Sectio 11 of RA 7941:
1. The parties, organizations and coalitions
shall be ranked from highest to the lowest
based on the number of votes they garnered
during the elections.
2.
The parties, organizations, and
coalitions receiving at least two percent (2%)
of the total votes cast for the party-list system
shall be entitled to one guaranteed seat
each.156
3.
Those garnering more than two
percent (2%) of the sufficient number of
votes shall be entitled to additional seats in
proportion to their total number of votes until
all the additional seats are allocated.
(changed part was declared unconstitutional
by BANAT v. COMELEC)157
4. Each party, organization, or coalition shall
be entitled to not more than three (3) seats.
Veternas Doctrine (Old): The 2% threshold
requirement and the 3 seat-limit provided in RA
7941 are valid. Congress was vested with broad
power to define and prescribe the mechanics of the
party-list system of representation. Congress
wanted to ensure that only those parties,
organizations and coalitions having sufficient
number of constituents deserving of representation
are actually represented in Congress. (Veterans
Federation Party v. COMELEC)
BANAT Doctrine (2009): The 2% threshold in the
distribution of additional party-list seat is
unconstitutional. The 2% threshold in the
distribution of additional seats makes it
mathematically impossible to achieve the
maximum number of available party list seats when
the number of available party list seats exceeds 50.
The continued operation of the two percent
156
The percentage of votes garnered by each party-list

candidate is arrived at by dividing the number of votes of
each party by the total number of votes cast for party-list
candidates. (BANAT v. COMELEC)
157
There are two steps in the second round of seat allocation.
First, the percentage is multiplied by the remaining available
seats (which is the difference between the maximum seats
reserved under the party-list system and the guaranteed seats
of the two-percenters. The whole integer of the product of the
percentage and of the remaining available seats corresponds
to a partys share in the remaining available seats. Second, we
assign one seat to each of the parties next in rank until all
available seats are completely distributed. (BANAT v.
COMELEC)
threshold in the distribution of the additional seats

frustrates the attainment of the permissive ceiling
that 20% of the members of the House of
Representatives shall consist of party-list
representatives. (BANAT v. Comelec, G.R. No.
179295, April 21, 2009) In other words, the two
percent threshold in relation to the distribution of
the additional seats presents an unwarranted
obstacle to the full implementation of Section 5(2),
Article VI of the Constitution and prevents the
attainment of the broadest possible representation
of party, sectoral or group interst in the House of
Representatives. (BANAT v. Comelec, G.R. No.
179295, April 21, 2009)
3. Guidelies o what oraizatios may apply
i the party-list system:
(1) The parties or organizations must represent
the marginalized and underrepresented in
Section 5 of RA 7941;
Political parties who wish to participate must
comply with this policy;
The religious sector may not be represented;
The party or organization must not be
disqualified under Section 6 of RA 7941;
The party or organization must not be an
adjunct of or a project organized or an entity
funded or assisted by the government;
Its nominees must likewise comply with the
requirements of the law;
The nominee must likewise be able to
contribute to the formulation and enactment of
legislation that will benefit the nation. (Ang
Bagong Bayani v. COMELEC, June 26, 2001)
4. Parties or oraizatios disqualified
The COMELEC may motu propio or upon verified
complaint of any interested party, remove or cancel
after due notice and hearing the registration of any
national, regional or sectoral party, organization or
coalition on any of the following grounds:
It is a religious sect or denomination,

organization or association organized for
religious purposes;
It advocates violence or unlawful

means to seek its goal;
It is a foreign party or organization;
It is receiving support from any

foreign government, foreign political party,
foundation, organization, whether directly or
through any of its officers or members or
indirectly through third parties for partisan
election purposes;
It violates or fails to comply with laws,

rules or regulations relating to elections.
It declares untruthful statements in its

petition;
It has ceased to exist for at least one

(1) year;
It fails to participate in the last two (2)

preceding elections or fails to obtain at least
37

SCHOOL OF LAW
two per centum (2%) of the votes cast under

the party-list system in the two (2) preceding
elections for the constituency in which it has
registered.
Ang Ladlad v. COMELEC, April 8, 2010

Facts: Ang Ladlad is an organization
composed of men and women who
identify themselves as lesbians, gays,
bisexuals, or trans-gendered individuals
(LGBTs). Ang Ladlad argued that the
LGBT community is a marginalized and
under-represented
sector
that
is
particularly disadvantaged because of
their sexual orientation and negative
societal attitudes, LGBTs are constrained
to hide their sexual orientation. Ang
Ladlad applied for registration with
COMELEC, but the latter refused to
accredit the former as a party list
organization based on moral grounds.
According to the COMELEC Chairman,
the party list system is not a tool to
advocate tolerance and acceptance of
misunderstood persons or group of
persons.
Issue: Should Ang Ladlad be granted
accreditation?
Ruling: Yes.
Ang Ladlad complies with the requirement
of the Constitution and RA 7941. The
enumeration of marginalized and underrepresented sectors is not exclusive. Ang
Ladlad
sufficiently
demonstrated
its
compliance with the legal requirements for
accreditation. COMELEC has not identified
any specific over immoral act performed by
Ang Ladlad.
5. Qualificatios of a party-list omiee i RA
7941:
Natural-born citizen of the Philippines;
Registered Voter;
Resident of the Philippines for a period of not
less than 1 year immediately preceding the
day of election
A bona fide member of the party or organization
which he seeks to represent for at least 90
days preceding the day of election
At least 25 years of age. (Ang Bagong Bayani v.
COMELEC)

Political Parties. Political parties may participate

in the party-list system (as long as they comply
with the guidelines in Section 5 of RA 7941.) (Ang
Bagong Bayani v. COMELEC) Major political
parties are disallowed from participating in party-list
elections. (BANAT v. COMELEC, G.R. No. 179295,
April 21, 2009)
Section 10 of RA 7941 provides that the votes cast
for a party which is not entitled to be voted for the
party-list system should not be counted. The votes
they obtained should be deducted from the
canvass of the total number of votes cast for the
party-list system. (Ang Bagong Bayani v.
COMELEC)
Reliious sectors v. Reliious leaders. There is
a prohibition of religious sectors. However, there is
no prohibition from being elected or selected as
sectoral representatives.
L. Leislative Districts
Apportionment
Reason for the Rule
Reapportionment
Gerrymandering
Aquino v. COMELEC (April 7, 2010)
Section 5
(3) Each legislative district shall
comprise, as far as practicable,
contiguous, compact and adjacent
territory. Each city with a population
of at least two hundred fifty thousand,
or each province, shall have at least
one representative.
(4) Within three years following the
return of every census, the Congress
shall make a reapportionment of
legislative districts based on the
standards provided in this section.
1. Apportiomet
Legislative districts are apportioned among the
provinces, cities, and the Metropolitan Manila area.
Legislative districts are apportioned in accordance
with the number of their respect inhabitants and on
the basis of a uniform and progressive ratio. (art. 6
5)
Each city with a population of at least 250,000 shall
have at least one representative.
Each province
representative.
shall
have
at
least
one
The question of the validity of an apportionment

law is a justiciable question. (Macias v. Comelec)
38

SCHOOL OF LAW
2. Reaso for the rule. The underlying principle

behind the rule for apportionment (that
representative districts are apportioned among
provinces, cities, and municipalities in accordance
with the number of their respective inhabitants, and
on the basis of a uniform and progressive ration.)
is the cocept of equality of represetatio
which is a basic principle of republicanism. One
mans vote should carry as much weight as the
vote of every other man.
In short, the constitutional standards in the

apportionment of legislative districts under Section
5 of Article VI, as far as population is concerned,
are: (1) proportional representation; (2) a minimum
population of at least two hundred fifty thousand
per legislative district; (3) progressive ratio in the
increase of legislative districts as the population
base increases; and (4) uniformity in the
apportionment of legislative districts in provinces,
cities, and the Metropolitan Manila area.
Section 5 provides that the House shall be

composed of not more than 250 members unless
otherwise provided by law. Thus, Congress itself
may by law increase the composition of the HR.
(Tobias v. Abalos)
The directive in Section 5(3) of Article VI that each

province, shall have at least one representative
means only that when a province is created, a
legislative district must also be created with it. Can
this district have a population below 250,000? To
answer in the affirmative is to ignore the
constitutional mandate that districts in provinces be
apportioned in accordance with the number of
their respective inhabitants, and on the basis of a
uniform and progressive ratio. (Aquino v.
COMELEC, GR No. 189793; April 7, 2010)
When one of the municipalities of a congressional

district is converted to a city large enough to entitle
it to one legislative district, the incidental effect is
the splitting of district into two. The incidental
arising of a new district in this manner need not be
preceded by a census. (Tobias v. Abalos)
3. Reapportiomet
Reapportionment can be made thru a special law.
(Mariano v. COMELEC)
Correction of imbalance as a result of the increase
in number of legislative districts must await the
enactment of reapportionment law. (Montejo v.
COMELEC)
M. Electio
Regular Election
Special Election
Sectio 8. Unless otherwise provided
by law, the regular election of the
Senators and the Members of the
House of Representatives shall be
held on the second Monday of May.
4. Gerrymaderi
Gerrymandering is the formation of one legislative
district out of separate territories for the purpose of
favoring a candidate or a party.
Reular electio
A person holding office in the House must yield his
or her seat to the person declared by the
COMELEC to be the winner. The Speaker shall
administer the oath to the winner. (Codilla v. De
Venecia)
Gerrymandering is not allowed. The Constitution

provides that each district shall comprise, as far as
practicable, contiguous, compact and adjacent
territory.
Disqualified wier
The Court has also clarified the rule on who should
assume the position should the candidate who
received the highest number of votes is
disqualified. The second in rank does not take his
place. The reason is simple: It is of no moment
that there is only a margin of 768 votes between
protestant and protestee. Whether the margin is
ten or ten thousand, it still remains that protestant
did not receive the mandate of the majority during
the elections. Thus, to proclaim him as the duly
elected representative in the stead of protestee
would be anathema to the most basic precepts of
republicanism and democracy as enshrined within
our Constitution.158
5. Aquio v. COMELEC (2010)

Mai Opiio, J. Perez: A population of 250,000 is
not an indispensable constitutional requirement for
the creation of a new legislative district in a
province. (Aquino v. COMELEC, GR No. 189793;
April 7, 2010)
Disseti Opiio, J. Carpio: Although textually
relating to cities, this minimum population
requirement applies equally to legislative districts
apportioned in provinces and the Metropolitan
Manila area because of the constitutional
command that legislative districts [shall be]
apportioned among the provinces, cities, and the
Metropolitan Manila area in accordance with the
number of their respective inhabitants, and on the
basis of a uniform and progressive ratio.
158

Ocampo v. HRET, G.R. No. 158466. June 15, 2004.
39

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Sectio 9. In case of vacancy in the

Senate or in the House of
Representatives, a special election
may be called to fill such vacancy in
the manner prescribed by law, but the
Senator or Member of the House of
Representatives thus elected shall
serve only for the unexpired term.
Special electio
A special election to fill in a vacancy is not
mandatory.
the House of Representatives

approving such increase.
1. Whe icrease may take effect. No increase in
the salaries of Senators and Representatives shall
take effect until after the expiration of the full term
of all the members of the Senate and House of
Representatives.
2. Reaso for the delayed effect of icreased
salary. Its purpose is to place a legal bar to the
legislators yielding to the natural temptation to
increase their salaries. (PHILCONSA v. Mathay)
In a special election to fill a vacancy, the rule is that

a statute that expressly provides that an election to
fill a vacancy shall be held at the next general
elections, fixes the date at which the special
election is to be held and operates as the call for
that election. Consequently, an election held at the
time thus prescribed is not invalidated by the fact
that the body charged by law with the duty of
calling the election failed to do so. This is because
the right and duty to hold the election emanate
from the statue and not from any call for election by
some authority and the law thus charges voters
with knowledge of the time and place of the
election. (Tolentino v. COMELEC)
3. Emolumets. Bernas submits that, by appealing

to the spirit of the prohibition, the provision may be
read as an absolute ban on any form of direct or
indirect increase of salary (like emoluments).
4. Allowaces. A member of the Congress may
receive office and necessary travel allowances
since allowances take effect immediately. Nor is
there a legal limit on the amount that may be
appropriated. The only limit is moral, because,
according to Section 20, the books of Congress are
audited by the Commission on Audit which shall
publish annually an itemized list of amounts paid
and expenses incurred for each Member.159
Special Electio (R.A. 6645)
No special election will be called if

vacancy occurs:
at least eighteen (18) months before the
next regular election for the members of
the Senate;
at least one (1) year before the next
regular election members of Congress
The particular House of Congress

where vacancy occurs must pass either a
resolution if Congress is in session or the
Senate President or the Speaker must sign a
certification, if Congress is not in session,
declaring the existence of vacancy;
calling for a special election to be held
within 45 to 90 days from the date of
the resolution or certification.
IV. PRIVILEGES OF MEMBERS
Privilee from Arrest
Parliametary freedom of speech

ad debate
Sectio 11. A Senator or Member of
the House of Representatives shall,
in all offenses punishable by not more
than six years imprisonment, be
privileged from arrest while the
Congress is in session. No member
shall be questioned nor be held liable
in any other place for any speech or
debate in the Congress or in any
committee thereof.
The Senator or representative elected
shall serve only for the unexpired term.

N. Salaries
When increase may take effect
Reason fro the delayed effect of increased
salary Emoluments
Allowances
Sectio 10. The salaries of Senators
and Members of the House of
Representatives shall be determined
by law. No increase in said
compensation shall take effect until
after the expiration of the full term of
all the members of the Senate and
A. Privilee from Arrest (Parliametary Immuity of

Arrest)
Privilege
Purpose
Scope
Limitations
Privilege is Personal
Trillanes Case
1. Privilee. A member of Congress is privileged
from arrest while Coress is i sessio in all
offeses (criminal or civil) not punishable by more
than 6 years imprisonment.
159
Bernas Commentary, p700.
40

SCHOOL OF LAW
2. Purpose. Privilege is intended to ensure

representation of the constituents of the member of
Congress by preventing attempts to keep him from
attending sessions.160
Scope. Parliamentary immunity only includes
the immunity from arrest, and not of being filed suit.
Limitatios o Parliametary Immuity
Crime has a maximum penalty of not more
than 6 years;
Congress is in session, whether regular or
special;
Prosecution will continue independent of
arrest;
Will be subject to arrest immediately when

Congress adjourns.
While i sessio. The privilege is available while

the Congress is in session, whether regular or
special and whether or not the legislator is actually
attending a session. Session as here used does
not refer to the day-to-day meetings of the
legislature but to the entire period from its initial
convening until its final adjournment.161 Hence the
privilege is not available while Congress is in
recess.
Why ot available duri recess. Since the
purpose of the privilege is to protect the legislator
against harassment which will keep him away from
legislative sessions, there is no point in extending
the privilege to the period when the Congress is
not in session.
5. Privilee is persoal. Privilege is personal to
each member of the legislature, and in order that
its benefits may be availed of, it must be asserted
at the proper time and place; otherwise it will be
considered waived.162
Privilee ot rated to Coress but to its
members. Privilege from arrest is not given to
Congress as a body, but rather one that is granted
particularly to each individual member of it. (Coffin
v. Coffin, 4 Mass 1)163
Privilege is reinforced by Article 145 of the Revised
Penal Code-Violation of Parliamentary Immunity.
Note: The provision says privilee from arrest; it
does not say privilege from detention.

Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p. 187, 10th ed.
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p. 187, 10th ed.

Q: Congressman Jalosjos was convicted for

rape and detained in prison, asks that he be
allowed to attend sessions of the House.
A: Members of Congress are not exempt
from detention for crime. They may be
arrested, even when the House in session,
for crimes punishable by a penalty of more
than six months.
Q: Congressman X was convicted for a
crime with a punishment of less than 6
years. He asks that he be allowed to attend
sessions of the House contending that the
punishment for the crime for which he was
convicted is less than 6 years.
A: I submit that Congressman X can be
detained even if the punishment imposed is
less than 6 years. The provision only speaks
of privilege from arrest. It does not speak of
exemption from serving sentence after
conviction. Members of Congress are not
exempt from detention for crime.-asm
Q: Can the Sandiganbayan order the
preventive suspension of a Member of the
House of Representatives being prosecuted
criminally for violation of the Anti-Graft and
Corrupt Practices Act?
A: Yes. In Paredes v. Sandiganbayan, the
Court held that the accused cannot validly
argue that only his peers in the House of
Representatives can suspend him because
the court-ordered suspension is a preventive
measure that is different and distinct from
the suspension ordered by his peers for
disorderly behavior which is a penalty.
6. Trillaes Case (June 27, 2008)
In a unanimous decision penned by Justice Carpio
Morales, the SC en banc junked Senator Antonio Trillanes
petition seeking that he be allowed to perform his duties as a
Senator while still under detention. SC barred Trillanes from
attending Senate hearings while has pending cases, affirming
the decision of Makati Judge Oscar Pimentel.
The SC reminded Trillanes that election to office does
not obliterate a criminal charge, and that his electoral victory
only signifies that when voters elected him, they were already
fully aware of his limitations.
The SC did not find merit in Trillanes position that his
case is different from former representative Romeo Jalosjos,
who also sought similar privileges before when he served as
Zamboanga del Norte congressman even while in detention.
Quoting parts of the decision on Jalosjos, SC said that
allowing accused-appellant to attend congressional sessions
and committee meetings five days or more a week will virtually
make him a free man Such an aberrant situation not only
elevates accused appellants status to that of a special class, it
would be a mockery of the purposes of the correction system.
The SC also did not buy Trillanes argument that he be
given the same liberal treatment accorded to certain detention
prisoners charged with non-bailable offenses, like former
President Joseph Estrada and former Autonomous Region in
41

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Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) governor Nur Misuari, saying these

emergency or temporary leaves are under the discretion of the
authorities or the courts handling them.
The SC reminded Trillanes that he also benefited from
these temporary leaves given by the courts when he was
allowed to file his candidacy and attend his oath-taking as a
senator before.
The SC also believes that there is a slight risk that
Trillanes would escape once he is given the privileges he is
asking, citing the Peninsula Manila incident last November.
To enable and encourage a representative of the

public to discharge his public trust with firmness
and success" for "it is indispensably necessary that
he should enjoy the fullest liberty of speech and
that he should be protected from resentment of
every one, however, powerful, to whom the
exercise of that liberty may occasion offense.
(Osmena V. Pendatun cited in Pobre v. DefensorSantiago, 2009)
B. Privilee of Speech ad Debate

Requirements
Purpose
Scope
Privilege Not Absolute
3. Scope:169
(1) The privilege is a protection only against
forums other than the Congress itself.
(Osmena v. Pendatun)
(2) Speech or debate includes utterances
made in the performance of official functions,
such as speeches delivered, statements
made, votes cast, as well as bills introduced
and other acts done in the performance of
official duties. (Jimenez v. Cabangbang)
(3) To come under the privilege, it is not
essential that the Congress be in session
when the utterance is made. What is essential
is that the utterance must constitute
leislative actio, that is, it must be part of
the deliberative and communicative process
by which legislators participate in committee or
congressional
proceedings
in
the
consideration of proposed legislation or of
other matters which the Constitution has
placed within the jurisdiction of Congress.
(Gravel v. US)
(4) The privilege extends to agents of
assemblymen provided that the agency
consists precisely in assisting the legislator in
the performance of legislative action (Gravel
US)
1. Isagani Cruz: 2 Requiremets for the

privilee to be availed of:
1. That the remarks must be made while the
legislature or the legislative committee is
functioning, that is in session;164 (See Jimenez v.
Cabangbang)
2. That they must be made in connection with
the discharge of official duties.165
But wait! As regards Requirement #1 provided
by Cruz, Bernas Primer provides: to come
under the privilege, it is not essential that the
Congress be in session when the utterance is
made. What is essential is that the utterance
must constitute legislative action.166
Libelous remarks not in exercise of legislative
function shall not be under privilege of speech.
To invoke the privilege of speech, the matter must
be oral and must be proven to be indeed
privileged.
Privilee ot absolute. The rule provides that

the legislator may not be questioned in any other
place, which means that he may be called to
account for his remarks by his own colleagues in
the Congress itself and, when warranted, punished
for disorderly behavior.170
2. Purpose. It is intended to leave legislator

unimpeded in the performance of his duties and
free form harassment outside.167
Privilege of speech and debate enables the
legislator to express views bearing upon the public
interest without fear of accountability outside the
halls of the legislature for his inability to support his
statements with the usual evidence required in the
court of justice. In other words, he is given more
leeway than the ordinary citizen in the ventilation of
matters that ought to be divulged for the public
good.168
5. Parliametary Freedom of Speech v SCs

Power to Disciplie
Facts: Senator Miriam Defensor-Santiago made
this speech on the Senate floor. x x x I am not
angry. I am irate. I am foaming in the mouth. I am
homicidal. I am suicidal. I am humiliated, debased,
degraded. And I am not only that, I feel like
throwing up to be living my middle years in a
country of this nature. I am nauseated. I spit on the
face of Chief Justice Artemio Panganiban and his
cohorts in the Supreme Court, I am no longer
interested in the position [of Chief Justice] if I was
to be surrounded by idiots. I would rather be in
Cruz, Philippine Political Law p. 116 (1995 ed.); See Jimenez v.
Cabangbang.
Cruz, Philippine Political Law p. 116 (1995 ed.).

Bernas Primer, p. 245 (2006 ed.)
Bernas Primer, p. 245 (2006).


Cruz, Philippine Political Law; See Osmena v. Pendatun.
42

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another environment but not in the Supreme Court

of idiots x x x. Pobre asks that disbarment
proceedings or other disciplinary actions be taken
against the lady senator.
Issue: May Senator Santiago be disbarred or be
imposed with disciplinary sanction for her
intemperate and highly improper speech made on
the senate floor?
Held: No. A lawyer-senator who has crossed the
limits of decency and good professional conduct by
giving statements which were intemperate and
highly improper in substance may not be disbarred
or be imposed with disciplinary sanctions by the
Supreme Court.
It is true that parliamentary immunity must not be
allowed to be used as a vehicle to ridicule,
demean, and destroy the reputation of the Court
and its magistrates, nor as armor for personal
wrath and disgust. However, courts do not interfere
with the legislature or its members in the manner
they perform their functions in the legislative floor
or in committee rooms. Any claim of an unworthy
purpose or of the falsity and mala fides of the
statement uttered by the member of the Congress
does not destroy the privilege. The disciplinary
authority of the assembly and the voters, not the
courts, can properly discourage or correct such
abuses committed in the name of parliamentary
immunity. (Pobre v. Defensor-Santiago, 2009)
V. DUTY TO DISCLOSE; PROHIBITIONS
Duty to Disclose
Prohibitions
A. Duty to disclose
Sectio 12. All members of the
Senate
and
the
House
of
Representative
shall,
upon
assumption of office, make a full
disclosure of their financial and
business interests. They shall notify
the House concerned of a potential
conflict of interest that may arise from
the filing of a proposed legislation of
which they are authors.
This provision speaks of duty to disclose the
following:
Fiacial ad busiess iterest upon

assumption of office
Potetial coflict of iterest that may arise
from filing of a proposed legislation of which
they are authors.

B. Prohibitios (Disqualificatios ad Ihibitios)

Prohibitions
Disqualifications
Prohibitions on lawyer-legislators
Conflict of interests
Disqualifications
Sectio 13. No Senator or Member
of the House of Representatives may
hold any other office or employment
in
the
government,
or
any
subdivision,
agency,
or
instrumentality thereof, including
government- owned or controlled
corporation or their subsidiaries,
during his term without forfeiting his
seat. Neither shall he be appointed to
any office which may have been
created or the emoluments thereof
increased during the term for which
he was elected.
Sectio 14. No Senator or Member
of the House of Representatives may
personally appear as counsel before
any court of justice or before the
Electoral Tribunals, or quasi-judicial
and other administrative bodies.
Neither shall he, directly or indirectly,
be interested financially in any
contract with, or in any franchise or
special privilege granted by the
Government, or any subdivision,
agency or instrumentality thereof,
including any government-owned or
controlled
corporation,
or
its
subsidiary, during his term of office.
He shall not intervene in any matter
before any office of the Government
for his pecuniary benefit or where he
may be called upon to act on account
of his office.
1. Prohibitios:
Disqualifications
(1) To hold ay other office or
employmet in the government, or any
subdivision, agency, or instrumentality
thereof, including government-owned or
controlled corporation or their subsidiaries
duri his term without forfeiting his
seat. (Incompatible office)
(2) To be appoited to ay office which
may have been created or the
emoluments thereof increased during the
term for which he was elected. (Forbidden
office)
Prohibitions on lawyer-legislators
43

SCHOOL OF LAW
from office who have been concerned in creating

them or increasing the emoluments are to take
away as far as possible, any improper bias in the
vote of the representative and to secure to the
constituents some solemn pledge of his
disinterestedness.175
(3) To persoally appear as cousel

before any court of justice or before the
Electoral Tribunals, or quasi-judicial and
other administrative bodies.
Conflict of Interests
(4) To be iterested fiacially, directly
or indirectly, in any cotract with, or in
any frachise or special privilee
granted by the Government, or any
subdivision, agency or instrumentality
thereof, including any government-owned
or controlled corporation, or its subsidiary,
duri his term of office.
(5) To itervee i ay matter before
any office of the Government for his
pecuiary beefit or itervee i ay
matter before any office of the
Government where he may be called
upon to act on account of his office.
See Section 10
Scope of prohibitio. The provision does not

apply to elective offices, which are filled by the
voters themselves.
The appointment of the member of the Congress to
the forbidden office is not allowed oly during the
term for which he was elected, when such office
was created or its emoluments were increased.
After such term, and even if the legislator is reelected, the disqualification no longer applies and
he may therefore be appointed to the office.176
3. Prohibition on lawyer legislators.
Purpose. The purpose is to prevent the legislator
from exerting undue influence, deliberately or not,
upon the body where he is appearing.177
Disqualifications
Incompatible Office
Purpose. The purpose of prohibition of
incompatible offices is to prevent him from owing
loyalty to another branch of the government, to the
detriment of the independence of the legislature
and the doctrine of separation of powers.
2 Kids of Office uder Article 13
Incompatible office (1st sentence of article 13)
Forbidden office (2nd sentence of article 13)
Not a euie party to a case. A congressman

may not buy a nominal account of shares in a
corporation which is party to a suit before the SEC
and then appear in intervention. That which the
Constitution directly prohibits may not be done by
indirection. (Puyat v. De Guzman)
Prohibitio is persoal. It does not apply to law
firm where a lawyer-Congressman may be a
member.178 The lawyer-legislator may still engage
in the practice of his profession except that when it
come to trials and hearings before the bodies
abovementioned, appearance may be made not
by him but by some member of his law office.179
Prohibitio ot absolute. The prohibition against

the holding of an incompatible office is not
absolute; what is not allowed is the simultaneous
holding of that office and the seat in Congress. 171
Hence, a member of Congress may resign in order
to accept an appointment in the government before
the expiration of his term.172
Pleadis. A congressman cannot sign pleadings

[as counsel for a client] (Villegas case)
Whe office ot icompatible. Not every other

office or employment is to be regarded as
incompatible with the legislative position. For,
example, membership in the Electroral Tribunals is
permitted by the Constitution itself. Moreover, if it
can be shown that the second office is an
extension of the legislative position or is in aid of
legislative duties, the holding thereof will not result
in the loss of the legislators seat in the
Congress.173
4. Conflict of Interests
Financial Interest
Purpose. This is because of the influence they can
easily exercise in obtaining these concessions. The
idea is to prevent abuses from being committed by
the members of Congress to the prejudice of the
public welfare and particularly of legitimate
contractors with the government who otherwise
might be placed at a disadvantageous position vis-vis the legislator.
Forbidden Office.
Purpose. The purpose is to prevent trafficking in
public office.174 The reasons for excluding persons

Bernas Primer, p.246 (2006).

Mr. Justice Story quoted in Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p.

(1954).

Bernas Primer, p.247 (2006).
Cruz. Philippine Political Law.
44

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Madatory recess. A mandatory recess is

prescribed for the thirty-day period before the
opening of the next regular session, excluding
Saturdays, Sundays and legal holidays. This is the
minimum period of recess and may be lengthened
by the Congress in its discretion. It may however,
be called in special session at any time by the
President.
Cotract. The contracts referred to here are those

involving financial interest, that is, contracts from
which the legislator expects to derive some profit at
the expense of the government.180
Pecuiary Beefit. The prohibited pecuniary
benefit could be direct or indirect and this would
cover pecuniary benefit for relatives. (Bernas
Commentary, p. 710, 10th ed.)
The Presidents call is not necessary in some

instances:
When the Congress meets to

canvass the presidential elections
To call a special election when both

the Presidency and Vice-Presidency are
vacated
3.
When it decides to exercise the
VI. INTERNAL GOVERNMENT OF CONGRESS
Sessions
Adjournment
Officers
Quorum
Internal Rules
Disciplinary Powers
Legislative Journal and Congressional Record
Enrolled Bill Doctrine
power of impeachment where the respondent

is the President himself.181
Q: May the President limit the subjects which
may be considered during a special election
called by him?
A: No. The President is given the power to
call a session and to specify subjects he
wants considered, but it does not empower
him to prohibit consideration of other
subjects. After all, Congress, if it so wishers,
may stay in regular session almost all year
round.182
A. Sessios
Regular
Special
Joint Sessions
Sectio 15. The Congress shall
convene once every year on the
fourth Monday of July for its regular
session, unless a different date is
fixed by law, and shall continue to be
in session for such number of days
as it may determine until thirty days
before the opening of its next regular
session, exclusive of Saturdays,
Sundays, and legal holidays. The
President may call a special session
at any time.
Joit Sessios
Voting Separately
Choosing the President (art. 7 4)

Determine Presidents disability (art. 7 11)
Confirming nomination of the Vice-President
(art. 7 9)
Declaring the existence of a state of war (art. 6
23)
Proposing constitutional amendments (art. 12
1)
Voting Jointly
To revoke or extend proclamation suspending
the privilege of the writ of habeas corps or
placing the Philippines under martial law. (art 7
18)
Reular sessio
Congress shall convene once every year for its
regular session.
Congress shall convene on the 4 th Monday of July
(unless a different date is fixed by law) until 30
days (exclusive of Saturdays, Sundays and legal
holidays) before the opening of the next regular
session.
Istaces whe Coress votes other tha

majority.
To suspend or expel a member in
accordance with its rules and proceedings: 2/3
of all its members (Sec. 16, Art. VI).
Yeas and nays entered in the Journal: 1/5
of the members present (Sec. 16(4), Art. VI)
Declare the existence of a state of war:
2/3 of both houses in joint session voting
separately (Sec. 23, Art. VI)
Special sessio
A special session is one called by the President
while the legislature is in recess.
180
Cruz, Philippine Political Law. Legislators cannot be members of

the board of corporations with contract with the government. Such
would be at least indirect financial interest. (Bernas Commentary, p.
710, 10th ed.)

Cruz, Philippine Political Law,

Bernas Commentary, p.711, (2003 ed.)
45

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d. Re-passing of a bill after Presidential veto:

2/3 of the Members of the House where it
originated followed by 2/3 of the Members of
the other House.
e. Determining Presidents disability after
submissions by both the Cabinet and the
President: 2/3 of both Houses voting
separately (Sec. 11, Art. VII)
B. Adjourmet
Section 16
(5) Neither House during the session
of the Congress shall, without the
consent of the other, adjourn for more
than three days, nor to any other
place than that in which the two
Houses shall be sitting.
Either House may adjourn even without the
consent of the other provided that it will not be
more than three days.
If one House should adjourn for more than three
days, it will need the consent of the other.
Neither house can adjourn to any other place than
that in which the two Houses shall be sitting
without the consent of the other.
Reaso. These rules prevent each house from
holding up the work of legislation. 183 This
coordinative rule is necessary because the two
houses form only one legislative body.184
C. Officers
Sectio 16. (1) The Senate shall
elect its President and the House of
Representatives its Speaker, by a
majority vote of all its respective
Members.
Each House shall choose such other
officers as it may deem necessary.
Officers of the Coress:
Senate President
House Speaker
Such other officers as each House may deem
necessary.
It is well within the power and jurisdiction of the
Court to inquire whether the Senate or its officials
committed a violation of the Constitution or gravely
abused their discretion in the exercise of their
functions and prerogatives. (Santiago v. Guingona)
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 170 (1954).


The method of choosing who will be the other

officers must be prescribed by Senate itself. In the
absence of constitutional and statutory guidelines
or specific rules, this Court is devoid of any basis
upon which to determine the legality of the acts of
the Senate relative thereto. On grounds of respect
for the basic concept of separation of powers,
courts may not intervene in the internal affairs of
the legislature; it is not within the province of courts
to direct Congress how to do its work. (Santiago v.
Guingona)
D. Quorum
Section 16
(2) A majority of each House shall
constitute a quorum to do business,
but a smaller number may adjourn
from day to day and may compel the
attendance of absent Members in
such manner and under such
penalties, as such House may
provide.
Quorum to do busiess. A majority of each
House shall constitute a quorum to do business.
Quorum is based on the proportion between those
physically present and the total membership of
the body.
A smaller number may adjourn from day to day.
A smaller number may compel the attendance of
absent members in such manner and under such
penalties as the House may provide.
The members of the Congress cannot compel
absent members to attend sessions if the reason of
absence is a legitimate one. The confinement of a
Congressman charged with a non-bailable offense
(more than 6 years) is certainly authorized by law
and has constitutional foundations. (People v.
Jalosjos)
The question of quorum cannot be raised
repeatedly, especially when a quorum is obviously
present, for the purpose of delaying the business of
the House. (Arroyo v. De Venecia, June 26, 1998)
E. Iteral Rules
Power to determine rules
Nature of the rules
Role of courts
Section 18
(3) Each House may determine the
rules of its proceedings, punish its
Members for disorderly behavior, and
with the concurrence of two-thirds of
all its Members, suspend or expel a
46

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Not subject to judicial review. Disciplinary action

taken by Congress against a member is not subject
to judicial review because each House is the sole
judge of what disorderly behavior is. (Osmena v.
Pendatun)
Member. A penalty of suspension,

when imposed, shall not exceed sixty
days.
Power to determie iteral rules. Each
House may determine the rules of its proceedings.
Nature of the Rules. The rules adopted by
deliberative bodies (such as the House) are subject
to revocation, modification, or waiver by the body
adopting them. (Arroyo v. De Venecia)
The power to make rules is not one, once
exercised is exhausted. It is a continuous power,
always subject to be exercised by the House, and
within the limitations suggested and absolutely
beyond the challenge of any other body. (Arroyo v.
De Venecia)
G. Leislative Joural ad Coressioal Record

Requirement
Journal
Purpose of Journal
What may be excluded
Matters to be entered to the journal
Journal v. Extraneous Evidence
Record
Section 18
(4) Each House shall keep a Journal of
its proceedings, and from time to time
publish the same, excepting such parts
as may, in its judgment, affect national
security; and the yeas and nays on any
question shall, at the request of onefifth of the Members present, be
entered in the Journal.
3. Role of Courts. The Court may not intervene in

the implementation of the rules of either House
except if the rule affects private rights. On matters
affecting only internal operation of the legislature,
the legislatures formulation and implementation of
its rules is beyond the reach of the courts. When,
however, the legislative rule affects private rights,
the courts cannot altogether be excluded. (US v.
Smith)
Each House shall also keep a Record

of its Proceedings.
Requiremet. Each House shall keep a Journal
of its proceedings, and from time to time publish
the same.
F. Discipliary powers (suspesio/expulsio)
What is a joural? The journal is usually an

abbreviated account of the daily proceedings.185 A
legislative journal is defined as the official record
of what is done and past in a legislative [body]. It
is so called because the proceedings are entered
therein, in chronological order as they occur from
day to day.186
Basis for puishmet. Each House may punish

its Members for disorderly behavior.
Prevetive Suspesio v. Puitive Suspesio.
A congressman may be suspended as a preventive
measure by the Sandiganbayan. The order of
suspension prescribed by the Anti-Graft and
Corrupt Practices Act is distinct from the power of
congress to police its own ranks under the
Constitution. The suspension contemplated in the
constitutional provisions is a punitive measure that
is imposed upon determination by a House upon
an erring member. The suspension spoken in
AGCPA is not a penalty but a preventive measure.
The doctrine of separation of powers by itself may
not be deemed to have excluded members of
Congress from AGCPA. The law did not exclude
from its coverage the members of the Congress
and therefore the Sandiganbayan may decree a
preventive suspension order. (Santiago v.
Sandiganbayan) (2002 Bar Question)
3. Purpose of the requiremet that a joural be

kept:
To insure publicity to the proceedings of the
legislature, and a correspondent responsibility
of the members of their respective
constituents; and
To provide proof of what actually transpired in
the legislature. (Field v. Clark)
4. What may be excluded. The Constitution
exempts from publication parts which in the
judgment of the House affect national security.
5. Matters which, uder the Costitutio, are to
be etered i the joural:
1. Yeas and nays on third and final reading of
a bill.
2/3 Requiremet. Each House may with the

concurrence of two-thirds of all its Members,
suspend or expel a Member.
Period of suspesio. A penalty of suspension,
when imposed, shall not exceed sixty days.


Sinco, Philippine Political Law 191, (1954).
47

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2.
Veto message of the
President
3.
Yeas and nays on the
repassing of a bill vetoed by the President
4.
Yeas and nays on
any question at the request of 1/5 of members
present
enrolled bill theory is based mainly on the respect

due to a co-equal department. When such co-equal
department itself repudiates the enrolled bill, then
the journal must be accepted as conclusive.
5. Erolled bill v. Matters required to be etered
i the jourals. The Supreme Court has explicitly
left this matter an open question in Morales v.
Subido.188
Joural vs. Extraeous evidece. The Journal

is conclusive upon the Courts (US v. Pons)
6. Remedy for Mistakes. If a mistake was made in

printing of the bill before it was certified by
Congress and approved by the President, the
remedy is amendment or corrective legislation, not
judicial decree. (Casco (Phil) Chemical Co.
Gimenez)
What is a Record? The Record contains a word

for word transcript of the deliberation of
Congress.187
H. Erolled bill doctrie
Enrolled Bill Enrolled
Bill Doctrine
Underlying Principle
Enrolled Bill v. Journal Entry

Enrolled bill v. matters required to be entered in the
journals
Remedy for Mistakes
1. Erolled Bill. One which has been duly
introduced, finally passed by both houses, signed
by the proper officers of each, approved by the
[president]. (Black Law Dictionary)
2. Erolled bill doctrie: The signing of a bill by
the Speaker of the House and the Senate
President and the certification by the secretaries of
both Houses of Congress that such bill was passed
are conclusive of its due enactment. (Arroyo v. De
Venecia)
VII. Electoral Tribuals, CA

Electoral Tribunal
CA
Constitution of ET and CA
A. Electoral Tribual
Electoral Tribunals
Composition
Rationale
Independence
Security of Tenure
Power
Jurisdiction of ET
Jurisdiction of COMELEC
Judicial Review
Sectio 17. The Senate and the
House of Representatives shall each
have an Electoral Tribunal which shall
be the sole judge of all contests
relating to the election, returns, and
qualifications of their respective
Members. Each electoral tribunal
shall be composed of nine members,
three of whom shall be Justices of the
Supreme Court to be designated by
the Chief Justice, and the remaining
six shall be members of the Senate
or the House of Representatives, as
the case may be, who shall be
chosen on the basis of proportional
representation from the political
parties
and
the
parties
or
organizations registered under the
party-list system represented therein.
The senior justice in the Electoral
tribunal shall be its Chairman.
Where the conference committee report was

approved by the Senate and the HR and the bill is
enrolled, the SC may not inquire beyond the
certification and approval of the bill, and the
enrolled bill is conclusive upon the judiciary (Phil.
Judges Association v. Prado)
3. Uderlyi Priciple of the Doctrie. Court is
bound under the doctrie of separatio of
powers by the contents of a duly authenticated
measure of the legislature. (Mabanag v. Lopez
Vito, Arroyo v. De Venecia)
4. Erolled bill vs. Joural Etry: The enrolled
bill is the official copy of approved legislation and
bears the certification of the presiding officers of
the legislative body. The respect due to a co-equal
department requires the courts to accept the
certification of the presiding officer as conclusive
assurance that the bill so certified is authentic.
(Casco Philippine Chemical Co. v. Gimenez)
However, If the presiding officer should repudiate
his signature in the enrolled bill, the enrolled will
not prevail over the Journal. This is because the
187

188
Bernas Primer, p. 251 (2006 ed.); Cruz in his book says: But
except only where the matters are required to be entered in the
journals, the contents of the enrolled bill shall prevail over those of
the journal in case of conflict. (Page 129 Philippine Political Law
(1995 ed).
48

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1. Two Electoral Tribuals. The Senate and the

House of Representatives shall each have an
Electoral Tribunal
Electoral Tribunal has incidental power to

promulgate its rules and regulations for the proper
exercise of its function (Angara v. Electoral
Commission)
2. Compositio of ET
Each electoral tribunal shall be composed of 9
members. 3 from the SC (to be designated by the
CJ) and 6 from the respective House.
7. Jurisdictio of Electoral Tribual

The Electoral Tribunal shall be the sole judge of all
contests relating to the electio, returs, ad
qualificatios of their respective members.
3. Why create a electoral tribual idepedet

from Coress. It is believed that this system
tends to secure decisions rendered with a greater
degree of impartiality and fairness to all parties. It
also enables Congress to devote its full time to the
performance of its proper function, which is
legislation, rather than spend part of its time acting
as judge of election contests.189
The jurisdiction of HRET is not limited to

constitutional
qualifications.
The
word
qualifications cannot be read to be qualified by
the term constitutional. Where the law does not
distinguish, the courts should likewise not. The
filing of a certificate of candidacy is a statutory
qualification.(Guerrero v. COMELEC)
Where a person is contesting the proclamation of a
candidate as senator, it is SET which has exclusive
jurisdiction to act. (Rasul v. COMELEC)
Proportioal Represetatio. The congressmen

who will compose the electoral tribunal shall be
chosen on the basis of proportional representation
from the political and party-list parties.
Contest after proclamatio is the jurisdiction of

HRET (Lazatin v. COMELEC)
Reaso for Mixed Membership. The presence of

justices of the Supreme Court in the Electoral
Tribunal neutralizes the effects of partisan
influences in its deliberations and invests its action
with that measure of judicial temper which is
greatly responsible for the respect and confidence
people have in courts.190
When there is an electio cotest (when a

defeated candidate challenge the qualification and
claims the seat of a proclaimed winner), the
Electoral Tribunal is the sole judge.
Errors that may be verified only by the opening of
ballot boxes must be recoursed to the electoral
tribunal.
Chairma. The senior Justice in the electoral

tribunal shall be its Chairman.
Once a winning candidate has been proclaimed,

taken his oath and assumed office as a member of
the House, COMELECs jurisdiction over election
contest relating to his election, returns and
qualifications ends, and the HRETs own
jurisdiction begins. (Aggabao v. COMELEC)
SET cannot legally function absent its entire

membership of senators, and no amendment of its
rules can confer on the 3 remaining justicemembers alone, the power of valid adjudication of
senatorial election contest. (Abbas v. SET)
4. Idepedece. The Congress may not regulate
the actions of the electoral tribunals even in
procedural matters. The tribunal is an independent
constitutional
body.
(Angara
v.
Electoral
Commission)
Nature of electio cotests. An election is not

like an ordinary action in court. Public interests
rather than purely private ones are involved in its
determination.191 It is therefore not permissible that
such a contest be settled by stipulation between
the parties, nor can judgment be taken by default;
but the case must be decided after thorough
investigation of the evidence.192
5. Security of Teure. Members of ET have

security of tenure. Disloyalty to the party is not a
ground for termination. (Bondoc v. Pineda) (2002
Bar Question)
Absece of electio cotest. In the absence of

an election contest, however, the electoral tribunals
are without jurisdiction. Thus, the power of each
House to defer oath-taking of members until final
determination of election contests filed against
them has been retained by each House. (Angara v.
Electoral Commission)
6. Power. The Electoral Tribunal shall be the sole

judge of all contests relating to the election,
returns, and qualifications of their respective
members.
The tribunal has the power to promulgate rules
relating to matters within its jurisdiction, including
period for filing election protests. (Lazatin v. HET)
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p.158 (1954).



Reinsch,, American Legislature, p 216.
49

SCHOOL OF LAW
Ivalidity of Proclamatio. An allegation of

invalidity of a proclamation is a matter that is
addressed to the sound discretion of the Electoral
Tribunal. (Lazatin v. COMELEC)
Motio to Withdraw. The motion to withdraw does
not divest the HRET the jurisdiction on the case.
(Robles v. HRET)
8. Jurisdictio of COMELEC
Pre-proclamation controversies include:
Incomplete returns (omission of name or
votes)
Returns with material defects
Returns which appeared to be tampered with,
falsified or prepared under duress or
containing discrepancies in the votes (with
significant effect on the result of election)
Where a petitioner has seasonably filed a motion
for reconsideration of the order of the Second
Division suspending his proclamation and
disqualifying him, the COMELEC was not divested
of its jurisdiction to review the validity of the order
of the Second Division. The order of the Second
division is unenforceable as it had not attained
finality. It cannot be used as the basis for the
assumption to office of respondent. The issue of
the validity of the order of second division is still
within the exclusive jurisdiction of the COMELEC
en banc. (Codilla v. De Venecia)
It is the COMELEC which decides who the winner
is in an election. A person holding office in the
House must yield his or her seat to the person
declared by the COMELEC to be the winner and
the Speaker is duty bound to administer the
oath193. The Speaker shall administer the oath on
the winner.
In election contests, however, the jurisdiction of the
COMELEC ends once a candidate has been
proclaimed and has taken his oath of office as a
Member of Congress. Jurisdiction then passes to
the Electoral Tribunal of either the House or the
Senate.194
9. Judicial Review
SC may intervene in the creation of the electoral
tribunal. SC may overturn the decisions of HRET
when there is GADLJ. (Lerias v. HRET)
Judicial review of decisions or final resolutions of
the electoral tribunals is possible only in the
exercise of the Courts so called extra-ordinary
jurisdiction upon a determination that the tribunals
decision or resolution was rendered without or in
Codilla v. de Venecia, G.R. No. 150605. December 10, 2002.
excess of jurisdiction or with rave abuse of

discretio constituting deial of due process.
(Robles v. HET)
Q: Are the decisions rendered by the
Electoral Tribunals in the contests of which
they are the sole judge appealable to the
Supreme Court?
A: No. The decisions rendered by the
Electoral Tribunals in the contests of which
they are the sole judge are not appealable to
the Supreme Court except i cases of a
clear showi of a rave abuse of
discretio.
B. Commissio o Appoitmets
Function of CA
Composition
Proportional Representation
Fractional Seats
Voting
Action on Appointments
Ad Interim Appointments not acted upon
Ruling
Sectio 18. There shall be a
Commission
on
Appointments
consisting of the President of the
Senate, as ex-officio Chairman,
twelve Senators and twelve Members
of the House of Representatives,
elected by each House on the basis
of proportional representation from
the political parties and parties or
organizations registered under the
party-list system represented therein.
The Chairman of the Commission
shall not vote, except in the case of a
tie. The Commission shall act on all
appointments submitted to it within
thirty session days of the Congress
from
the
submission.
The
Commission shall rule by a majority
vote of all its Members.
1. Fuctio of CA. It acts as a legislative check on
the appointing authority of the President. For the
effectivity of the appointment of certain key
officials, the consent of CA is needed.
2. Compositio (25 members)
Senate President as chairman
12 senators
12 members of HR
3. Proportioal Represetatio. The members of
the Commission shall be elected by each House on
the basis of proportional representation from the
political party and party list.
Aggabao v. Comelec, G.R. No. 163756. January 26, 2005;
Vinzons-Chato v. Comelec, GR 172131, April 2, 2007.

50

SCHOOL OF LAW
The sense of the Constitution is that the

membership in the Commission on Appointment
must always reflect political alignments in
Congress and must therefore adjust to changes. It
is understood that such changes in party affiliation
must be permanent and not merely temporary
alliances (Daza v. Singson)
2. Reaso for Early oraizatio of ETs. In the

case of Electoral Tribunals, the need for their early
organization is obvious, considering the rash of
election contests already waiting to be filed after,
even before, the proclamation of the winners. This
is also the reason why, unlike the Commission of
Appointments, the Electoral Tribunals are
supposed to continue functioning even during the
recess.195
Endorsement is not sufficient to get a seat in COA.

(Coseteng v. Mitra)
4. Fractioal Seats. Fractional seats cannot be
rounded off. The seats should be vacant.
(Coseteng v. Mitra) A full complement of 12
members from the Senate is not mandatory
(Guingona v. Gonzales) Holders of .5 proportion
belonging to distinct parties may not form a unity
for purposes of obtaining a seat in the
Commission. (Guingona v. Gonzales)
3. Reaso, provisio o COA. The provision is

based on the need to enable the President to
exercise his appointing power with dispatch in
coordination
with
the
Commission
on
Appointments.
The rule that the Commission on Appointments can
meet only during the session of the Congress is the
reason why ad interim appointments are permitted
under the Constitution. These appointments are
made during the recess, subject to consideration
later by the Commission, for confirmation or
rejection.
Voti. The Chairman shall not vote except in

the case of a tie.
Actio o appoitmets. The Commission
shall act on all appointments submitted to it within
sessio days of the Congress from the
submission.
But where the Congress is in session, the

President must first clear his nominations with the
Commission on Appointments, which is why it must
be constituted as soon as possible. Unless it is
organized, no appointment can be made by the
President in the meantime.196
Ad iterim appoitmets ot acted upo. Ad

interim appointments not acted upon at the time of
the adjournment of the Congress, even if the thirtyday period has not yet expired, are deemed bypassed under Article VII, Section 16.
4. COA meeti
The Commission on Appointments shall meet only
while the Congress is in session to discharge its
powers and functions.
8. Ruli. The Commission shall rule by a majority

vote of all its Members.
The Commission on Appointments shall meet at

the call of its Chairman or a majority of all its
members
C. Costitutio of ET ad CA
Organization
Reason for early organization of ETs
Reason of provision on CA
CA Meeting
VIII. RECORDS AND BOOKS OF ACCOUNTS
Sectio 19. The Electoral Tribunals and

the Commission on Appointments shall
be constituted within thirty days after
the Senate and the House of
Representatives shall have been
organized with the election of the
President and the Speaker. The
Commission on Appointments shall
meet only while the Congress is in
session, at the call of its Chairman or a
majority of all its members, to discharge
such powers and functions as are
herein conferred upon it.
1. Oraizatio. The ET and COA shall be

constituted within 30 days after the Senate and the
House shall have been organized with the election
of the President and the Speaker.

Sectio 20. The records and books

of accounts of the Congress shall be
preserved and be open to the public
in accordance with law, and such
books shall be audited by the
Commission on Audit which shall
publish annually an itemized list of
amounts paid to and expenses
incurred for by each Member.
Records ad books of accouts
The records and books of accounts of the
Congress shall be preserved and be open to the
public in accordance with law.

51

SCHOOL OF LAW
The records and books of accounts of the

Congress shall be audited by the Commission on
Audit.
The Senate or the House of Representatives or

any of its respective committees may conduct
inquiries in aid of legislation.
The Commission on Audit shall publish annually an

itemized list of amounts paid to and expenses
incurred for by each Member.
2. Nature
The power of inquiry is an essetial and
appropriate auxiliary to the legislative action.
(Arnault v. Nazareno) It has been remarked that
the power of legislative investigation may be
implied from the express power of legislation and
does not itself have to be expressly granted.197
IX. LEGISLATIVE HEARINGS

(INQUIRIES AND OVERSIGHT FUNCTIONS)
Iquiries i Aid of Leislatio

Oversiht Fuctios
Limitatios198:
It must be in aid of legislation199
It must be in accordance with its duly

published rules of procedure200
The rights of persons appearing in or

affected by such inquiries shall be respected.
4.
Power of Congress to commit a
There are two provisions on legislative hearing,

Sections 21 and 22. Section 21 is about legislative
investigations in aid of legislation.
Sectio
21. Leislative Sectio 22.
Oversiht
Ivestiatio
Fuctio
Who may appear
Any person
Department heads
and
others
Who may be summoed
Anyone
except
the Each house
may
only
President
and
SC request the appearance of
members
(Senate
v. department heads.
Ermita)
Subject Matter
Any mattes for purpose of
Matters related to
the
legislation
department only
Obliatory force of appearace
Mandatory
Discretionary
witness for contempt terminates when the

legislative body ceases to exist upon its final
adjournment.201
(Note: 1-3 are explicit limitations while 4 is an
implicit limitation.)
4. Reaso for the limitatios
The reason is in the past, this power was much
abused by some legislators who used it for
illegitimate ends to browbeat or intimidate
witnesses usually for grandstanding purposes only.
There were also times when the subject of inquiry
was purely private in nature and therefore outside
the scope of the powers of Congress.202
5. Scope of questios
It is not necessary that every question propounded
to a witness must be material to a proposed
legislation. (Arnault v. Nazareno) This is because
the legislative action is determined by the
information gathered as a whole. (Arnault v.
Nazareno)
A. Iquiries i Aid of Leislatio

Who has the power
Nature
Limitation of Power
Reason for Limitation
Scope of Questions
Who may be summoned
Power to Punish
Rights of Persons
Courts and Committee
Power of Inquiry v. Executive Privilege
Neri v. Senate Committee
6. Who may be summoed uder Sectio 21
Sectio 21. The Senate or the House

of Representatives or any of its
respective committees may conduct
inquiries in aid of legislation in
accordance with its duly published
rules of procedure. The rights of
persons appearing in or affected by
such inquiries shall be respected.
Power of Iquiry
1. Who has the power
See Concurring Opinion of Justice Corona in Neri v. Senate

Committee; See also Bernas Commentary, p737 (2003 ed).
This requirement is an essential element for establishing

jurisdiction of the legislative body.
Section 21 may be read as requiring that Congress must have

duly published rules of procedure for legislative investigations.
Violation of these rules would be an offense against due process.
(Bernas Commentary p. 740 (2003 ed).
This must be so inasmuch as the basis of the power to impose

such a penalty is the right which the Legislature has to selfpreservation, and which right is enforceable during the existence of
the legislative body. (CJ Avancena in Lopez v De los Reyes)
52

SCHOOL OF LAW
Senate v. Ermita203 specified who may and who

may not be summoned to Section 21 hearings.
Thus, under this rule, even a Department Head
who is an alter ego of the President may be
summoned. Thus, too, the Chairman and members
of the Presidential Commission on Good
Government (PCGG) are not except from
summons in spite of the exemption given to them
by President Cory Aquino during her executive
rule.204 The Court ruled that ayoe, except the
Presidet ad Justices of the Supreme Court
may be summoed.
7. Power to puish
Leislative Cotempt. The power of investigation
necessarily includes the power to punish a
contumacious witness for contempt. (Arnault v.
Nazareno)
Acts puished as leislative cotempt. The US
Supreme Court in the case of Marshall v.
Gordon205 mentions:
Physical obstruction of the legislative body in
the discharge of its duties.
Physical assault upon its members for action
taken or words spoken in the body;
Obstruction of its officers in the performance of
their official duties
Prevention of members from attending so that
their duties might be performed
Cotumacy i refusi to obey orders to
produce documets or ive testimoy
which was a riht to compel.206
Power to puish for cotempt ad local
leislative bodies. The power to punish may ot
be claimed by local legislative bodies (Negros
Oriental Electric Cooperative v. Sangguniang
Panglunsod)
Power to puish is sui eeris. The exercise of
the legislature of contempt power is a matter of
preservation and independent of the judicial
branch. Such power is sui generis. (Sabio v.
Gordon)
Q: When may a witness in an investigation
be punished for contempt?
A: When a contumacious witness testimony
is required in a matter into which the
legislature or any of its committees has
jurisdiction to. (In short, the investigation
must be in aid of legislation.) (Arnault v.
Nazareno)
G.R. No. 169777, April 20, 2006.

Sabio v. Gordon, G.R. No. 174318, October 17, 2006.
243 US 521.

Q: For how long may a private individual be

imprisoned by the legislature for contempt?
A: For HR: Until final adjournment of the
body. For Senate: Offender could be
imprisoned indefinitely by the body provided
that punishment did not become so long as
to violate due process. (Arnault v. Nazareno)
8. Rihts of persos
PhilComStat has no reasonable expectation of
privacy over matters involving their offices in a
corporation where the government has interest.
(Sabio v. Gordon)
9. Courts ad the Committee
A court cannot enjoin the appearance of a witness
in a legislative investigation. (Senate Blue Ribbon
Committee v. Judge Majaducon)
Bernas: The general rule of fairness, (which is what
due process is about) could justify exclusion of
persons from appearance before the Committee.
Q: Section 1 of EO 464 provides that all
heads of departments of the Executive
Branch shall secure the consent of the
President prior to appearing before House
of Congress. Does this contravene the
power of inquiry vested in the Congress?
Is Section 1 valid?
A: Valid. The SC read Section 1 of EO
464 to mean that department heads need
the consent of the president only in
questio hour contemplated in Section
22 of Article VI. (The reading is dictated
by the basic rule of construction that
issuances must be interpreted,as much as
possible, in a way that will render it
constitutional.)
Section 1 of EO 464 cannot be applied to
appearances of department heads i
iquiries i aid of leislatio. Congress
is not bound in such instances to respect
the refusal of the department head in such
inquiry, unless a valid claim of privilee
is subsequently made, either by the
President or by the Executive Secretary.
(Senate v. Ermita; EO 464 case)
10. Power of Iquiry v. Executive Privilee
Seate v. Ermita: Congress has undoubtedly has
a right to information from the executive branch
whenever it is sought in aid of legislation. If the
executive branch withholds such information on the
ground that it is privileged, it must so assert it
ad state the reaso therefore ad why it must
be respected. (Justice Carpio Morales in Senate
v. Ermita)
53

SCHOOL OF LAW
d.
Neri v. Seate: Was the claim of executive

privilege properly invoked in this case? Yes
according to the Justice Leonardo-De Castros
ponencia. For the claim to be properly invoked,
there must be a formal claim by the President
stating the precise and certain reason for
preserving confidentiality. The grounds relied upon
by Executive Secretary Ermita are specific enough,
since what is required is only that an allegation be
made whether the information demanded involves
military or diplomatic secrets, closed-door Cabinet
meetings, etc. The particular ground must only be
specified, and the following statement of grounds
by Executive Secretary Ermita satisfies the
requirement: The context in which executive
privilege is being invoked is that the information
sought to be disclosed might impair our diplomatic
as well as economic relations with the Peoples
Republic of China.207
b.
Senate
Committees did not comply with the

requirement laid down in Senate v. Ermita
that the invitations should contain the
possible needed statute which prompted the
need for the inquiry along with usual
indication of the subject of inquiry and the
questios relative to and in furtherance
thereof.
c.
A reading of the
transcript of the Committees proceeding
reveals that only a minority of the member of
the Senate Blue Ribbon Committee was
present during the deliberations Thus, there
is a cloud of doubt as to the validity of the
contempt order
207
Primer on Neri v. Senate made by Atty. Carlos Medina.
Seate
Rules of Procedure i aid of leislatio

were ot duly published i accordace to
Sectio 21 of Article VI.
e.
The
contempt
order is arbitrary and precipitate because the

Senate did not first rule on the claim of
executive privilege and instead dismissed
Neris explanation as unsatisfactory. This is
despite the fact that Neri is not an unwilling
witness.
Hence, the Senate order citing Neri in contempt and
ordering his arrest was not valid.
12. Power of Iquiry v. Commader i Chief

power of the Presidet
Since the President is commander-in-chief of the
Armed Forces she can demand obedience from
military officers. Military officers who disobey or
ignore her command can be subjected to court
martial proceeding. Thus, for instance, the
President as Commander in Chief may prevent a
member of the armed forces from testifying before
a legislative inquiry. A military officer who disobeys
the Presidents directive may be made to answer
before a court martial. Since, however, Congress
has the power to conduct legislative hearings,
Congress may make use of remedies under the
law to compel attendance. Any military official
whom Congress summons to testify before it may
be compelled to do so by the President. If the
President is not so inclined, the President may be
commanded by judicial order to compel the
attendance of the military officer. Final judicial
orders have the force of the law of the land which
the President has the duty to faithfully execute.208
11. Neri v. Seate Committee

Backroud:
This case is about the Senate investigation of
anomalies concerning the NBN-ZTE project. During
the hearings, former NEDA head Romulo Neri
refused to answer certain questions involving his
conversations with President Arroyo on the ground
they are covered by executive privilege. When the
Senate cited him in contempt and ordered his arrest,
Neri filed a case against the Senate with the
Supreme Court. On March 25, 2008, the Supreme
Court ruled in favor of Neri and upheld the claim of
executive privilege.
Issues:
xxx
Did the Senate Committees commit grave
abuse of discretion in citing Neri in contempt and
ordering his arrest?
Ruli:
xxx
Yes. The Supreme Court said that the Senate
Committees committed grave abuse of discretion
in citing Neri in contempt. The following were the
reasons given by the Supreme Court:
a.
There was a
legitimate claim of executive privilege.
The
B. Oversiht Fuctio
Purpose of Section 22
Oversight Function
Appearance of Heads of Department
Why Permission of President Needed
Exemption from Summons
Appearance at the Request of Congress
Written Questions
Scope of Interpellations
Executive Session
Congress may refuse the initiative
Sectio
22.
The
Heads
of
Departments may upon their own
initiative, with the consent of the
President, or upon the request of
either House as the rules of each
House shall provide, appear before
and be heard by such House on any
matter
pertaining
to
their
departments. Written questions shall
be submitted to the President of
208
Gudani v. Senga, G.R. No. 170165, April 15. 2006.
54

SCHOOL OF LAW
Q: Does Sectio 22 provide for a

questio hour?
A:
Senate or the Speaker of the House

of Representatives at least three
days
before
their
scheduled
appearance. Interpellations shall not
be limited to written questions, but
may cover matters related thereto.
When the security of the State or the
public interest so requires and the
President so states in writing, the
appearance shall be conducted in
executive session.
Bernas Primer: No. the question hour is

proper to parliamentary system where there
is no separation between the legislative and
executive department. Section 22, unlike in
the question hour under the 1973
Constitution, has made the appearance of
department heads voluntary.
But wait! The SC in Senate v. Ermita,
adopting
the
characterization
of
constitutional commissioner Hilario Davide,
calls Section 22 as the provisio o
Questio Hour:[Section 22] pertains to
the power to conduct a question hour, the
objective of which is to obtain information in
pursuit of Congress oversight function.
1. Purpose of Sectio 22
The provision formalizes the oversight function of
Congress. Section 22 establishes the rule for the
exercise of what is called the oversight function of
Congress. Such function is intended to enable
Congress to determine how laws it has passed are
being implemented.
2. Oversiht fuctio
Broadly defined, congressional oversight
embraces all activities undertaken by Congress to
enhance its understanding of and influence over
the implementation of legislation it has enacted. 209
The acts done by Congress in the exercise of its
oversight powers may be divided into three
categories, to wit: scrutiny, investigation, and
supervision.210
Recocile: Although the Court decision calls

this exercise a question hour, it does so
only by analogy with its counterpart in
parliamentary practice.
6. Appearace at the request of Coress
The Heads of Departments may upon their own
initiative, with the consent of the President, or
upo the request of either House as the rules of
each House shall provide, appear before and be
heard by such House on any matter pertaining to
their departments.
3. Appearace of Heads of Departmets by

their ow iitiative
The Heads of Departments may upon their own
initiative, with the coset of the Presidet
appear before and be heard by either House on
any matter pertaining to their departments.
7. Writte Questios
Written questions shall be submitted to the Senate
President or the House Speaker at least 3 days
before their scheduled appearance.
4. Why permissio of the Presidet eeded

In deference to separation of powers, and because
Department Heads are alter egos of the President,
they may not appear without the permission of the
President.211
8. Scope of Iterpellatios
Interpellations shall not be limited to written
questions, but may cover matters related thereto.
5. Exemptio from summos applies oly to

Departmet Heads
It should be noted, that the exemption from
summons applies only to Department Heads and
not to everyone who has Cabinet rank.
9. Executive Sessio
The appearance shall be conducted in executive
sessio when:
The public interest so requires and
The President so states in writing.
10. Coress may refuse the iitiative
Because of separation of powers, department
secretaries may not impose their appearance upon
either House.212 Hence, the Congress may refuse
the initiative taken by the department secretary.213
209
Macalintal v. Commission on Elections, 405 SCRA 614

(2003), at 705.
Macalintal v. Commission on Elections, 405 SCRA 614 (2003),

at 3.
This was explicitly mentioned in the deliberations of the 1935
Constitutional Convention where some Delegates had doubts about
the propriety or constitutionality of Department Heads appearing in
Congress. Such deference is not found, by the Courts interpretation,
in Section 21.

X. Emerecy Powers

55

SCHOOL OF LAW
as it may prescribe, to exercise powers

necessary and proper to carry out a
declared national policy. Unless sooner
withdrawn by resolution of the
Congress, such power shall cease upon
the next adjournment thereof.
Declaratio of the existece of a state of

war
Deleatio
of
emerecy
power A. War power
of war
Power to declare existence of a state
1. Requisites for the deleatio: (1997 Bar Q)
Rewording of the provision
Sectio 23. (1) The Congress, by a

vote of two-thirds of both Houses in
joint session assembled, voting
separately, shall have the sole power
to declare the existence of a state of
war.
2. Duratio of the deleatio:

Until withdrawn by resolution of Congress
Until the next adjournment of Congress
1. Power to declare existece of a state of

war214
The Congress, by a vote of 2/3 of both Houses in
joit sessio assembled, voti separately, shall
have the sole power to declare the existence of a
state of war.
3. Powers that may be deleated

Congress may authorize the President, to exercise
powers necessary and proper to carry out a
declared national policy Note that the nature of
delegable power is not specified. It is submitted
that the President may be given emergency
leislative powers if Congress so desires.219
2. Rewordi of the provisio

From 1935 Constitutions power to declare war215
to power to declare the existence of a state of war
under 1987.
Bernas: The difference between the two
phraseologies is not substantial but merely in
emphasis. The two phrase were interchangeable,
but the second phrase emphasizes more the fact
that the Philippines, according to Article II, Section
2, renounces aggressive war as an instrument of
national policy.216
Q: May a country engage in war in the
absence of declaration of war?
A: Yes. The actual power to make war is
lodged in the Executive. The executive when
necessary may make war even in the
absence of a declaration of war.217
Deleatio of emerecy powers
Requisites for Delegation
Duration of delegation
Powers that may be delegated
Withdrawal of powers
Sectio 23
(2) In times of war or other national
emergency, the Congress may by law
authorize the President, for a limited
period and subject to such restrictions
There must be a war 218 or other national

emergency
Law authorizing the president for a limited
period and subject to such restrictions as
Congress may prescribe
Power to be exercised must be necessary and
proper to carry out a declared national policy.
4. Withdrawal of powers
Congress may do it by a mere resolution. 220 And
such resolution does not need presidential
approval.221
XI. BILLS/ LEGISLATIVE PROCESS
Origination Clause
One bill-one subject
rule Passage of a bill
Presidential Approval, Veto or Inaction; Legislative
Reconsideration
Item Veto
Doctrine of inappropriate
provisions Executive Impoundment
Legislative Veto
A. Oriiatio Clause
Exclusive Origination Clause
Bills that must exclusively originate from
HR Origination from the House, Meaning
Reason for exclusive origination
Senate may propose amendments
Scope of Senates power to introduce amendments
War is defined as armed hostilities between the two states. (II

RECORD 169)
Wording of the 1935 Constitution.

War is defined as armed hostilities between the two states. (II

RECORD 169)
See concurring opinion of Justice Padilla in Rodriguez v. Gella,
Off. Gaz. 465, 472.
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the benefits that they need.228 It is more numerous

in membership and therefore also more
representative of the people.229
Sectio
24.
All
appropriation,
revenue or tariff bills, bills authorizing
increase of the public debt, bills of
local application and private bills shall
originate exclusively in the House of
Representatives, but the Senate may
propose or concur with amendments.
5. Seate may propose amedmets

The addition of the word exclusively in the
Constitution is not intended to limit the power of the
Senate to propose amendments to revenue bills.
(Tolentino v. Sec. of Finance)
1. Orii of moey bills, private bills ad bills of

local applicatio
All appropriation222, revenue223 or tariff bills224, bills
authorizing increase of the public debt225 , bills of
local application226 and private bills227 shall
originate
exclusively
in
the
House
of
Representatives, but the Senate may propose or
concur with amendments.
2. Bills that must exclusively oriiate from the
HR:
Appropriation bills
Revenue bills
Tariff bills
Bills authorizing increase of the public debt
Bills of local application
Private bills
3. Oriiatio from the House
The exclusivity of the prerogative of the House of
Representatives means simply that the House
alone can initiate the passage of revenue bill, such
that, if the House does not initiate one, no revenue
law will be passed. (Tolentino v. Secretary of
Finance)
6. Scope of the Seates power to itroduce

amedmets
Once the House has approved a revenue bill and
passed it on to the Senate, the Senate can
completely overhaul it, by amendment of parts or
by amedmet by substitutio , and come out
with oe completely differet from what the
House approved. Textually, it is the bill which
must exclusively originate from the House; but the
law itself which is the product of the total
bicameral legislative process originates not just
from the House but from both Senate and House.
(Tolentino v. Secretary of Finance)
(Discussion of Section 25 can be found after Section
29(3))
B. Oe bill-oe subject rule
Mandatory Nature of the Rule
Purpose of the Rule
Liberal Interpretation of the Rule
Germane
Not Germane
Sectio 26. (1) Every bill passed by
the Congress shall embrace only one
subject shall be expressed in the title
thereof.
4. Reaso for exclusive oriiatio

The district representatives are closer to the pulse
of the people than senators are and are therefore
in a better position to determine both the extent of
the legal burden they are capable of bearing and
1. Madatory ature of the rule

Every bill passed by the Congress shall embrace
only one subject. The subject shall be expressed in
the title of the bill. This rule is madatory.
An appropriation bill is one whose purpose is to set aside a sum

of money for public use. Only appropriation bills in the strict sense
of the word are comprehended by the provision; bills for other
purposes which incidentally set aside money for that purpose are not
included. Bernas Commentary, p 748 (2003 ed).
A revenue bull is one that levies taxes and raises funds for the
government. Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 144 (1995 ed).
A tariff bill specifies the rates of duties to be imposed on

imported articles. Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 144 (1995 ed).
A bill increasing public debt is illustrated by one floating bonds

for public subscription redeemable after a certain period. Cruz,
Philippine Political Law, p. 144 (1995 ed).
Bills of local application are those which is limited to specific

localities, such for instance as the creation of a town. Bernas
Commentary, p 748 (2003 ed).
Private bills are those which affect private persons, such for
instance as a bill granting citizenship to a specific foreigner. Bernas
Commentary, p 748 (2003 ed). Private bills are illustrated by a bill
granting honorary citizenship to a distinguished foreigner. Cruz,
Philippine Political Law, p. 155 (1995 ed).
The requirement is satisfied when:
All parts of the law relate to the

subject expressed in the title
It is not necessary that the title be a

complete index of the content (PHILCONSA v.
Gimenez)
2. Purpose of the Rule:
To prevent hodge-podge or log-rolling
legislation
To prevent surprise or fraud upon the
legislature
(3) To fairly appraise the people. (Central Capiz v.
Ramirez)

. Bernas Commentary, p 748 (2003 ed).

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days, and printed copies whereof in

its final form have been distributed to
its Members three days before its
passage, except when the President
certifies to the necessity of its
immediate enactment to meet a
public calamity or emergency. Upon
the last reading of a bill, no
amendment thereto shall be allowed,
and the vote thereon shall be taken
immediately thereafter, and the yeas
and the nays entered in the Journal.
3. Liberal iterpretatio of the rule

The rule should be given a practical rather than a
strict construction. It should be sufficient
compliance with such requirement if the title
expresses the general subject and all the
provisions of the statute are germane to that
general subject. (Sumulong v. COMELEC)
4. Germae
A partial exemption from the increase of tax imposed is
not a deviation from the general subject of the law.
(Insular Lumber Co. v. CTA)
1. Rules
No bill passed by either House shall become a
law unless it has passed three readings on
separate days.
Printed copies of the bill in its final form should
be distributed to the Members 3 days before
its passage (except when the President
certifies to the necessity of its immediate
enactment to meet a public calamity or
emergency).
Upon the last reading of a bill, no amendment
thereto shall be allowed.
The vote on the bill shall be taken immediately
after the last reading of a bill.
The yeas and the nays shall be entered in the
Journal.
Exceptio. The certification of the President
dispenses with the reading on separate days and
the printing of the bill in the final form before its
final approval. (Tolentino v. Secretary of Fincance)
Operative. All decrees which are not inconsistent
with the Constitution remain operative until they are
amended or repealed. (Guingona v. Carague)
A tax may be germane and reasonably necessary for the

accomplishment of the general object of the decree for
regulation. (Tio v. VRB)
A repealing clause does not have to be expressly
included in the title of the law. (Phil. Judges Assoc. v.
Prado)
The creation of a new legislative district is germane to
the conversion of a municipality to an urbanized city.
(Tobias v. Abalos)
The reorganization of the remaining administrative
regions is germane to the general subject of establishing
the ARMM. (Chiongbayan v. Orbos)
The expasio in the jurisdiction of the Sandiganbayan
does not have to be expressly stated in the title of the law
(An Act Further Defii the Jurisdiction of the
Sandiganbayan) because such is the necessary
consequence of the amendment. (Lacson v. Executive
Secretary)
A provision that states that no election officer shall hold
office for more than four years is relevant to the title An
Act Providing for a General Registration of voters,
Adopting a System of Continuing Registration,
Prescribing Procedures Thereof and Authorizing the
Appropriation of Funds Therefor as it seeks to ensure the
integrity of the registration process by providing
guidelines for the COMELEC to follow in the
reassignment of election officers. (De Guzman v.
COMELEC)
2. Procedure:230
1.
A bill is itroduced by
any member of the House of Representatives
or Senate except for some measures that
must originate only in the former chamber.
2.
The first readi involves
only a reading of the number and title of the
measure and its referral by the Senate
President or the Speaker to the proper
committee for study.
3.
The bill may be killed in
the committee or it may be recommeded for
approval, with or without amendments,
sometimes after public hearings are first held
thereon. (If there are other bills of the same
nature or purpose, they may all be
consolidated into one bill under common
authorship or as a committee bill.)
4. Once reported out, the bill shall be
calendared for secod readi. It is at this
stage that the bill is read in its entirety,
The abolitio of 2 municipalities is but a logical

consequence of its merer to create a city.
5. Not Germae
Prohibitio of places of amusement should be included
in the title of the law which only provides for the
reulatio of places of amusement. (De la Cruz v. Paras)
C. Passae of a bill
Rules
Procedure
Reason for three readings
Sectio 26
(2) No bill passed by either House
shall become a law unless it has
passed three readings on separate
230
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scrutinized, debated upon and amended when

desired. The second reading is the most
important stage in the passage of the bill.
5.
The bill as approved in
second reading is printed in its final form and
copies thereof are distributed at least three
days before the third reading. On third
readi, the members merely register their
votes and explain them if they are allowed by
the rules. No further debate is allowed.
6.
Once the bill passes third
reading, it is set to the other chamber,
where it will also undergo the three readings.
7.
If also approved by the
second House, it will then be submitted to
the Presidet for his consideration.
8.
The bill is erolled when
printed as finally approved by the Congress,
thereafter authenticated with the signatures of
the Senate President, the Speaker, and the
Secretaries of their respective chambers, and
approved by the President.
3. Reaso for three readis
To address the tendency of legislators, (on the last
day of the legislative year when legislators were
eager to go home), to rush bills through and insert
matters which would not otherwise stand scrutiny
in leisurely debate.231
Q: If the version approved by the Senate
is different from that approved by the
House of Representatives, how are the
differences reconciled?
A: In a bicameral system bills are
independently processed by both Houses
of Congress. It is not unusual that the final
version approved by one House differs
from what has been approved by the
other. The conference committee,
consisting of members nominated from
both Houses, is an extra-constitutional
creation of Congress whose function is to
propose to Congress ways of reconciling
conflicting provisions found in the Senate
version and in the House version of a bill.
D. Presidetial Approval, Veto or Iactio;
Leislative Recosideratio
Three Methods
Presidential Approval
Presidential Veto
Legislative Approval of the bill
Presidential Inaction
Sectio 27. (1)Every bill passed by the
Congress shall, before it becomes
231
a law, be presented to the President.

If he approves the same, he shall
sign it; otherwise, he shall veto it and
return the same with his objections to
the House where it originated, which
shall enter the objections at large in
its Journal, and proceed to consider
it. If, after such reconsideration, twothirds of all the Members of such
House shall agree to pass the bill, it
shall be sent, together with the
objections to the other House by
which
it
shall
likewise
be
reconsidered, and if approved by twothirds of all the Members of that
House, it shall become a law. In all
such cases, the votes of each House
shall be determined by yeas or nays,
and the names of the Members
voting for or against shall be entered
in its Journal. The President shall
communicate his veto of any bill to
the House where it originated within
thirty days after the date of receipt
thereof; otherwise, it shall become a
law as if he had signed it.
1. Three methods by which a bill may become a
law: (1988 Bar Question)
1. When the President signs it;
2. When the President vetoes it but the veto is
overridden by two-thirds vote of all the
members of each House; 3. When the
President does not act upon the measure
within 30 days after it shall have been
presented to him.
2. Presidetial approval
Passed bill is presented to the President
President signs the bill if he approves the same
The bill becomes a law.
3. Presidetial veto
President vetoes the bill if he does not approve
of it.
He returns the passed bill with his objections to
the House where it originated. (Veto Mesasge)
Geeral rule: If the president
disapproves the bill approved by
Congress, he should veto the entire
bill. He is not allowed to veto
separate items of a bill.
Exceptios:
(1) President may veto an item
in cases of appropriation,
revenue and tariff bills.
See Bernas Commentary, p 760 (2003 ed).

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SCHOOL OF LAW
(2)
President
may
veto
inappropriate provisions or
riders.
4. Leislative recosideratio of the bill (1993
Bar Question)
The House where the bill originated enters the
objections of the President at large in its Journal.
Said House reconsiders the bill.
2/3 of all the Members of such House agree to
pass the bill.
The bill together with the objections is sent to
the other House by which it is also reconsidered.
The other House approves the bill by 2/3 of all
the members of that House.
The bill becomes a law.
In all such cases, the votes of each House shall be
determined by yeas or nays.
The names of the Members voting for or against
shall be entered in its Journal.
Q: When does the Constitution require that
the yeas and nays of the Members be taken
every time a House has to vote?
A:
Upon the last and third readings of a bill
(art. 6 sec26(2))
At the request of 1/5 of the members
present (art 6 sec 16(4))
In repassing a bill over the veto of the
President (art 6 sec 27(1))
Presidetial Iactio
President does not approve nor communicate
his veto to the House where the bill originated
within 30 days.
(3) The bill becomes a law.

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E. Item veto
Sectio 27
(2) The President shall have the
power to veto any particular item or
items in an appropriation, revenue, or
tariff bill, but the veto shall not affect
the item or items to which he does
not object.
Again, the Geeral rule is: If the president
disapproves the bill approved by Congress, he
should veto the entire bill. He is not allowed to veto
separate items of a bill.
Exceptios:
President may veto an item in cases of

appropriation, revenue and tariff bills.
President may veto iappropriate
provisios or riders.
Item. An item is an indivisible [sum] of money
dedicated to a stated purpose.232 (Item = Purpose,
Amount)
In a tax measure, an item refers to the subject of
the tax and the tax rate. It does not refer to the
entire section imposing a particular kind of tax.
(CIR v. CTA)
The president may not veto the method or maer
of using an appropriated amount. (Bengzon v.
Drillon)
F. Doctrie of iappropriate provisios
Doctrine
Reason for the Doctrine
Inappropriate Provisions
Appropriate Provisions
1. Doctrie
A provision that is constitutionally inappropriate for
an appropriation bill may be singled out for veto
even if it is not an appropriation or revenue item.
(Gonzales v. Macaraig)
2. Reaso for the Doctrie
The intent behind the doctrine is to prevent the
legislature from forcing the government to veto an
entire appropriation law thereby paralyzing
government.
3. Iappropriate Provisios
Repeal of laws. Repeal of laws should not be
done in appropriation act but in a separate law
(PHILCONSA v. Enriquez) (use this doctrine
carefully)
The requirement of congressional approval for the
release of funds for the modernization of the AFP
232
must be incorporated in a separate bill. Being an

inappropriate provision, it was properly vetoed.
(PHILCONSA v. Enriquez)
The proviso on power of augmentation from
savings can by no means be considered a specific
appropriation of money. (Gonzales v. Macaraig)
4. Appropriate Provisios
The special provision providing that the maximum
amount of the appropriation for the DPWH to be
contracted for the maintenance of national roads
and bridges should not exceed 30% is germane to
the appropriation for road maintenance. It specifies
how the item shall be spent. It cannot be vetoed
separately from the item. (PHILCONSA v.
Enriquez)
The special provision that all purchases of
medicines by the AFP should comply with Generics
Act is a mere advertence to an existing law. It is
directly related to the appropriation and cannot be
vetoed separately from the item. (PHILCONSA v.
Enriquez)
G. Executive Impoudmet:
Refusal of the President to spend funds already
allocated by Congress for a specific purpose. (See
PHILCONSA v. Enriquez)
H. Leislative veto
A Congressional veto is a means whereby the
legislature can block or modify administrative
action taken under a statute. It is a form of
legislative control in the implementation of
particular executive actions.
XII. FISCAL POWERS/ POWER OF THE PURSE
Taxation
Nature
Limitations
Delegation of power to tax
Exempted from taxation

Spending Power
Spending Power
Appropriation
Non-establishment provision
Special Fund
Appropriation
Power of the Purse. Congress is the guardian of
the public treasury. It wields the tremendous power
of the purse. The power of the purse comprehends
both the power to generate money for the

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government by taxation and the power to spend

it.233
martial rule product, which imposed a ten peso

capital contribution for the sale of each bag of
fertilizer until adequate capital is raised to make
PPI viable. PPI was private corporation. Clearly,
therefore, the imposition was for private benefit and
not for a public purpose.
TAXATION
Sectio 28. (1) The rule of taxation
shall be uniform and equitable. The
Congress shall evolve a progressive
system of taxation.
A. Nature
Definition
Scope
Purposes
Tax
Public Purpose
1. Defiitio
Taxation refers to the inherent power of the state to
demand enforced contributions for public purposes.
2. Scope
Taxation is so pervasive that it reaches even the
citizen abroad and his income earned from source
outside the State.
Geeral Limit: For a public purpose; Due process
and equal protection clauses (Sison v. Ancheta)
Specific Limit: Uniform and equitable (Section 28)
(See 29(2))
Exercise of the power: Primarily vested in the
national legislature.
Limitatios o Power of Taxatio

Rule of taxation shall be uiform and equitable.
Congress shall evolve a proressive system
of taxation.
Charitable institutions, etc. and all lands, building
and improvements actually, directly and
exclusively used for religious, charitable or
educational purposes shall be exempt from
taxation. (art. 6 28(3))
3. All revenues and assets of non-stock, non-profit
educational institutions used actually, directly
and exclusively for educational purposes shall
be exempt from taxes and duties. (art. 14
4(3))
4. Law granting tax exemption shall be passed only
with the concurrence of the majority of all the
members of Congress. (art. 6 29(4)
UNIFORM
Uiformity. Uniformity signifies geographical
uniformity . A tax is uniform when it operates with
the same force and effect in every place where the
subject is found.
Uiformity i taxatio v. Equality i taxatio.
Uniformity in taxation means that persons or things
belonging to the same class shall be taxed at the
same rate. It is distinguished from equality in
taxation in that the latter requires the tax imposed
to be determined on the basis of the value of the
property.237
3. Purposes:
To raise revenue
Instrument of national economic and social
policy
Tool for regulation
The power to keep alive234
4. Tax
Taxes are enforced proportional contributions from
persons and property levied by the law making
body of the state by virtue of its sovereignty for the
support of the government and all public needs.
Justice Holmes said: Taxes are what we pay for
civilized society.
Tan v. del Rosario:

Uniformity means:
the standards that are used therefor

are substantial and not arbitrary;
the categorization is germane to

achieve the legislative purpose;
the law applies, all things being

equal, to both present and future conditions;
and
the classification applies equally well

to all those belonging to the same class.
5. Public Purpose
It is fundamental in democratic governments that
taxes may be levied for public purpose only.
Without this element, a tax violates the due
process clause and is invalid.235 In Planters
Products, Inc. (PPI) v. Fertiphil Corp. 236 the Court
had occasion to review the validity of LOI 1465, a
There is a difference between the homeless people

and the middle class. The two social classes are
differently situated in life. (Tolentino v. Sec. of
Finance)
EQUITABLE

G.R. No. 166006, March 14, 2008.
237

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The present constitution adds that the rule of

taxation shall also be equitable, which means that
the tax burden must be imposed according to the
taxpayers capacity to pay.238
Proressive system of taxatio. The Congress
shall evolve a progressive system of taxation. Tax
system is progressive when the rate increases as
the tax base increases.239
Reaso for proressive system. The explicit
mention of progressive taxation in the Constitution
reflects the wish of the Commission that the
legislature should use the power of taxation as an
instrument for a more equitable distribution of
wealth.
Directive ot a judicially eforceable riht. The
directive to evolve a progressive system of taxation
is addressed to Congress and not a judicially
enforceable right. (Tolentino v. Sec. of Finance)
Idirect taxes. The Constitution does not prohibit
the imposition of indirect taxes, which are
regressive. The provision simply means that direct
taxes are to be preferred and indirect taxes should
be minimized as much as possible. It does not
require Congress to avoid entirely indirect taxes.
Otherwise, sales taxes, which are the oldest form
of indirect taxes, will be prohibited. The mandate to
Congress is not to prescribe but to evolve a
progressive system of taxation. (Tolentino v. Sec. of
Finance)
C. Deleatio of power to tax
Conditions
Tariffs and Customs Code
Limitation imposed regarding the Flexible Tariff Clause
Section 28
(2) The Congress may by law,
authorize the President to fix within
specified limits, and subject to such
limitations and restrictions as it may
impose, tariff rates, import and export
quotas, tonnage and wharfage dues,
and other duties or imposts within the
framework
of
the
national
development
program
of
the
Government.
1. Coditios i the deleatio of the power to
tax:
Delegation must be made by law
The power granted is to fix tariff rates, import
and export quotas, tonnage and wharfage dues,
and other duties and impost.

The said power is to be exercised within

specified limits and subject to such limitations and
restrictions as the Congress may impose.
The authorization of such power must be within
the framework of the national development
program of the Government.
2. Tariff ad Customs Code, Flexible Tariff
Clause
The President is given by the Tariff and Customs
Code ample powers to adjust tariff rates.
Flexible Tariff Clause
The President may fix tariff rates, import and export
quotas, etc. under TCC:
1) To increase, reduce or remove existing
protective rates of import duty (including any
necessary change in classification)
the existing rates may be increased or
decreased to any level on one or several
stages but in no case shall be higher than a
maximum of 100% ad valorem
2)To establish import quota or to ban imports of
any commodity, as may be necessary
3)To impose an additional duty on all imports not
exceeding 10% ad valorem whenever necessary
3. Limitatio Imposed Reardi the Flexible
Tariff Clause
1) Conduct by the Tariff Commission of an
investigation in a public hearing
The Commissioner shall also hear the
views and recommendations of any
government
office,
agency
or
instrumentality concerned
The NEDA thereafter shall submits its
recommendation to the President
2) The power of the President to increase or
decrease the rates of import duty within the
abovementioned limits fixed in the Code shall
include the modification in the form of duty.
In such a case the corresponding ad
valorem or specific equivalents of the duty
with respect to the imports from the
principal competing country for the most
recent representative period shall be used
as bases. (Sec 401 TCC)
D. Exempted from taxatio
Exempted from taxation
Kind of tax exemption
Exclusively, Meaning
Elements in determining a charitable institution
Reason for Requirement of Absolute Majority
Section 28
(3) Charitable institutions, churches
and parsonages or convents
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SCHOOL OF LAW
appurtenant thereto, mosques, nonprofit cemeteries and all lands,

buildings, and improvement actually,
directly, and exclusively used for
religious, charitable, or educational
purposes shall be exempt from
taxation.
1. Exempted:
Charitable institutions
Churches
Parsonages or convents appurtenant to
churches
Mosques
Non-profit cemeteries
All lands, buildings, and improvement actually,
directly and exclusively used for religious,
charitable, or educational purpose shall be exempt
from taxation.
power to tax and consequent loss of revenue to the

government.
POWER OF APPROPRIATION/ SPENDING POWER
Spedi Power
Spending Power
Reason
By Law
Sectio 29. (1) No money shall be
paid out of the Treasury except in
pursuance of an appropriation made
by law.
1. Spedi Power
The spending power of Congress is stated in
Section 29(1): No money shall be paid out of the
Treasury except in pursuance of an appropriation
made by law. (1988, 1992 Bar Question)
2. Kid of tax exemptio uder 28(3)

The exemption created by Section 28 is only for
taxes assessed as property taxes and not excise
tax. (CIR v. CA)
2. Reaso
Behind the provision stands the principle that the
peoples treasure that the peoples treasure may be
sent only with their consent. That consent is to be
expressed either in the Constitution itself or in valid
acts of the legislature as the direct representative
of the people.240
3. Exclusively
The phrase exclusively used for educational
purposes extends to facilities which are incidental
to
and
reasonably
necessary
for
the
accomplishment of the main purpose. (Abra Valley
College v. Aquino)
3. By law
The provision does not say appropriation by
Congress but rather by law, a term which covers
both statutes and the Constitution.241
PCGG has no power to grant tax exemptions

(Chavez v. PCGG)
4. Elemets to be cosidered i determii
whether a eterprise is a charitable
istitutio/etity:
Statute creating the enterprise
Its corporate purposes
Its constitution and by-laws
Method of administration
Nature of actual work performed
Character of services rendered
Indefiniteness of the beneficiaries
Use and occupation of the properties (Lung
Center v. QC)
B. Appropriatio
Appropriation
Classification
CDF
1. Appropriatio
An appropriation measure may be defined as a
statute the primary and specific purpose of which is
to authorize the release of public funds from the
treasury.242 A law creating an office and providing
funds therefore is not an appropriation law since
the main purpose is not to appropriate funds but to
create the office.243
Section 28
(4) No law granting any tax
exemption shall be passed without
the concurrence of a majority of all
the Members of the Congress.
5. Reaso for absolute majority
Bills ordinarily passed with support of only a simple
majority, or a majority of those present and voting.
The above provision requires an absolute majority
of the entire membership of the Congress because
a tax exemption represents a withholding of the
Classificatio of Appropriatio Measures:
Geeral- The general appropriations

law passed annually is intended to provide for
the financial operations of the entire
government during one fiscal period.
See Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 208 (1954ed).

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(5)
Special- designed
Prohibition against transfer of appropriations. (art 6

sec 25(5))
Rule on automatic reappropriation. (art 6 sec
25(7))
7. Prohibition against appropriations for sectarian
benefit. (art 6 sec 29(2))
for a specific
purpose such as the creation of a fund for the

relief of typhoon victims.
CDF
A law creating CDF was upheld by the SC saying
that the Congress itself has specified the uses of
the fund and that the power given to Congressmen
and Vice-President was merely recommendatory to
the President who could approve or disapprove the
recommendation. (PHILCONSA v. Enriquez)
D. No-establishmet provisio
Section 29
(2) No public money or property shall
be appropriated, applied, paid, or
employed, directly or indirectly, for the
use, benefit, or support of any sect,
church,
denomination,
sectarian
institution, or system of religion, or of
any priest, preacher, minister, or
other religious teacher or dignitary as
such, except when such priest,
preacher, minister, or dignitary is
assigned to the armed forces, or to
any penal institution, or government
orphanage or leprosarium.
C. Limitatios o Appropriatios
Extra-Constitutional Limitations
Constitutional Limitations
1. Implied Limitations
Appropriation must be devoted to a public
purpose
The sum authorized must be determinate or at
least determinable.244
2. Constitutional Limitations
No public money or property shall be appropriated,

applied, paid, or employed, directly or indirectly, for
the use, benefit, or support of any sect, church,
denomination, sectarian institution, or system of
religion, or of any priest, preacher, minister, or
other religious teacher or dignitary as such.
Specific Limitatios o the power of

appropriatio245 [Sec 24, Sec 25(6)]
Appropriation bills should originate in the House
of Representatives. (art. 6 sec 24)
Discretionary funds appropriated for particular
officials shall be disbursed only for public
purposes to be supported by appropriate
vouchers and subject to such guidelines as
may be prescribed by law. (art. 6 sec 25(6)
Public money may be paid to a priest, preacher,

minister, or dignitary if he is assigned to the armed
forces, or to any penal institution, or government
orphanage or leprosarium.
Costitutioal limitatios o special

appropriatio measures [Sec 25(4), Sec 29(2)]
Must specify the public purpose for which the
sum is intended. (art 6 sec 25 (4))
Must be supported by funds actually available as
certified to by National Treasurer, or to be
raised by a corresponding revenue proposal
included therein. (art 6 sec 25(4))
3. Prohibition against appropriations for sectarian
Geeral or specific appropriatio. Whether the

appropriation be general or specific, it must
conform to the prohibition against the use of public
funds or property for sectarian purposes.247
Purpose of the provisio. This provision must be
read with Article III, Section 5 on religious freedom
and Article II, Section 6 on the separation of
Church and State. Its purpose is to further bolster
this principle and emphasize the neutrality of the
State in ecclesiastical matters.
benefit. (art 6 sec 29(2))246

Costitutioal rules o eeral appropriatios
law [Sec 25 (1)(2)(3)(5)(7), Sec 29(2)]
1. Congress may not increase the appropriations
recommended by the President. (art 6 sec
25(1))
The form, content, and manner of preparation for
the budget shall be prescribed by law. (art 6
sec 25(1))
Rule on riders. (art 6 sec 25(2))
Procedure for approving appropriations for
Congress. (art 6 sec 25(3))
E. Special Fud
Section 29
(3) All money collected on any tax
levied for a special purpose shall be
treated as a special fund and paid out
for such purpose only. If the purpose
for which a special fund was created
has been fulfilled or abandoned, the
balance, if any, shall be transferred to
the general funds of the Government.

See Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 164 (1995 ed).

247
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 164 (1995 ed.)
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2. Rule o riders
Tax levied for a special purpose. All money
collected on any tax levied for a special purpose
shall be treated as a special fund.
For such purpose oly. All money collected on
any tax levied for a special purpose shall be paid
out for such purpose only.
Balace to the eeral fuds. If the purpose for
which a special fund was created has been fulfilled
or abandoned, the balance, if any, shall be
transferred to the general funds of the
Government.
Section 25
(2) No provision or enactment shall
be embraced in the general
appropriations bill unless it relates
specifically
to
some
particular
appropriation therein. Any such
provision or enactment shall be
limited in its operation to the
appropriation to which it relates.
(2001 Bar Question)
Every provision or enactment in the general
appropriations bill must relate specifically to some
particular appropriation therein.
F. Geeral Appropriatio
Budget and Appropriation
Rule on Riders
Special Appropriations Bill
No Transfer of Appropriations
Discretionary Funds
Automatic Re-enactment
Every such provision or enactment shall be limited

in its operation to the appropriation to which it
relates
Purpose. To prevent riders or irrelevant provisions
that are included in the general appropriations bill
to ensure their approval.251
1. Budet ad Appropriatio
Procedure i approvi appropriatios for the

Coress
(3) The procedure in approving
appropriations for the Congress shall
strictly follow the procedure for
approving appropriations for other
departments and agencies.
Sectio 25. (1) The Congress may not

increase
the
appropriations
recommended by the President for the
operation of the Government as
specified in the budget. The form,
content, and manner of preparation of
the budget shall be prescribed by law.
Budet. The budget is only a proposal, a set of

recommendations on the appropriations to be
made for the operations of the government. It is
used as a basis for the enactment of the general
appropriations law.248
Same Procedure. The procedure in approving

appropriations for the Congress shall strictly follow
the procedure for approving appropriations for
other departments and agencies.
Reaso. To prevent the adoption of appropriations
sub rosa by the Congress.
The budet as a restrictio o appropriatios.

The Congress may not increase the appropriations
recommended by the President for the operation of
the Government as specified in the budget.
3. Special Appropriatios bill

(4) A special appropriations bill shall
specify the purpose for which it is
intended, and shall be supported by
funds actually available as certified
by the National Treasurer, or to be
raised by a corresponding revenue
proposal therein.
A special appropriations bill shall:
Specify the purpose for which it is intended;
Be supported by funds actually available as
certified by the National Treasurer; or
Be supported by funds to be raised by a
corresponding revenue proposal therein.
Reaso. The reason for the above provision is the

theory that the President knows more about the
needed appropriations than the legislature.249
Being responsible for the proper administration of
the executive department, the President is
ordinarily the party best qualified to know the
maximum amount that the operation of his
department requires.250
Preparatio of Budet. The form, content, and
manner of preparation of the budget shall be
prescribed by law.

4. No trasfer of appropriatios
251
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(5) No law shall be passed

authorizing
any
transfer
of
appropriations;
however,
the
President, the President of the
Senate, the Speaker of the House of
Representatives, the Chief Justice of
the Supreme Court, and the heads of
Constitutional Commissions may, by
law, be authorized to augment any
item in the general appropriations law
for their respective offices from
savings in other items of their
respective appropriations.
(1998 Bar Question)
Prohibitio of trasfer. No law shall be passed
authorizing any transfer of appropriations.
Reaso. This provision prohibits one department
from transferring some of its funds to another
department and thereby make it beholden to the
former to the detriment of the doctrine of
separation of powers. Such transfers are also
unsystematic, besides in effect disregarding the will
of the legislature that enacted the appropriation
measure.252
Aumetatio of item from savis. The
President, the Senate President, the House
Speaker, the Chief Justice, and the heads of
Constitutional Commission may, by law, be
authorized to augment any item in the general
appropriations law for their respective offices from
savings in other items of their respective
appropriations. In this case, there is no danger to
the doctrine of separation of powers because the
transfer is made within a department and not from
one department to another.253
Exclusive list. The list of those who may be
authorized to transfer funds under this provision is
exclusive. However, members of the Congress
may determine the necessity of realignment of the
savings. (PHILCONSA v. Enriquez)
Discretioary fuds
Discretionary funds appropriated
for particular officials shall be
disbursed only for public purposes to
be
supported
by
appropriate
vouchers and subject to such
guidelines as may be prescribed by
law.
Public Purpose. Discretionary funds appropriated
for particular officials shall be disbursed only for

public purposes to be supported by appropriate

vouchers and subject to such guidelines as may be
prescribed by law.
Reaso. This was thought necessary in view of the
many abuses committed in the past in the use of
discretionary funds. In many cases, these funds
were spent for personal purposes, to the prejudice
and often even without the knowledge of the
public.254
6. Automatic Reeactmet
(1998 Bar Question)
(7) If, by the end of any fiscal year,
the Congress shall have failed to
pass the general appropriations bill
for the ensuing fiscal year, the
general appropriations law for
preceding fiscal year shall be
deemed reenacted and shall remain
in force and effect until the general
appropriations bill is passed by the
Congress.
Reaso. This is to address a situation where
Congress fails to enact a new general
appropriations act for the incoming fiscal year.
XIII. OTHER PROHIBITED MEASURES
Appellate Jurisdiction of Supreme Court
Title of Royalty and Nobility
A. Appellate Jurisdictio of Supreme Court
Sectio 30. No law shall be passed
increasing the appellate jurisdiction of
the Supreme Court as provided in
this Constitution without its advice
and concurrence.
Limitatio o power of Coress. No law shall
be passed increasing the appellate jurisdiction of
the Supreme Court as provided in this Constitution
without its advice and concurrence.
SCs Advice ad Cocurrece Needed. The
Congress may increase the appellate jurisdiction of
the SC but only with its advice and concurrence.
Reaso. To prevent further additions to the present
tremendous case load of the Supreme Court which
includes the backlog of the past decades.255
B. Titles of Royalty ad Nobility
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3.
Sectio 31. No law granting a title of
royalty or nobility shall be enacted.
Reaso. To preserve the republican and
democratic nature of our society by prohibiting the
creation of privileged classes with special
perquisites not available to the rest of the citizenry.
XIV. INITIATIVE AND REFERENDUM
Initiative and
Referendum initiative
Referendum
Sectio 32. The Congress shall as
early as possible, provide for a
system of initiative and referendum,
and the exceptions therefrom,
whereby the people can directly
propose and enact laws or approve
or reject any act or law or part thereof
passed by the Congress or local
legislative body after the registration
of a petition therefor signed by at
least ten per centum of the total
number of registered voters, of which
every legislative district must be
represented by at least three per
centum of the registered voters
thereof.
1. Iitiative ad referedum
The Congress shall as early as possible, provide
for a system of initiative and referendum, and the
exceptions therefrom.
Petitio. A petition must be signed by at least 10%
of the total number of registered voters, of which
every legislative district must be represented by at
least 3% of the registered voters thereof. The
petition must then be registered.
RA 6735. The current implementing law is RA
6735, an Act Providing for System of Initiative and
Referendum.
2. Iitiative.
The power of the people to propose amedmets
to the Constitution or to propose and enact
legislation.
Three systems of Iitiative:
Initiative on the Constitution which refers to a
petition proposing amendments to the
Constitution;
Initiative on statutes which refers to a petition
proposing to enact a national legislation.

Initiative on local legislation
which refers to a petition proposing to enact a

regional, provincial, city, municipal or barangay
law, resolution or ordinance.
Local Iitiative. Not less than 2,000 registered
voters in case of autonomous regions, 1,000 in
case of provinces and cities, 100 in case of
municipalities, and 50 in case of barangays, may
file a petition with the Regional Assembly or local
legislative body, respectively, proposing the
adoption, enactment, repeal, or amendment, of any
law, ordinance or resolution. (Sec. 13 RA 6735)
Limitatios o local iitiative:
The power of local initiative shall not be exercised
more than once a year;
Initiative shall extend only to subjects or matters
which are within the legal matters which are
within the legal powers of the local legislative
bodies to enact;
If any time before the initiative is held, the local
legislative body shall adopt in toto the
proposition presented, the initiative shall be
cancelled. However, those against such action
may if they so desire, apply for intitiative.
Q: Petitioners filed a petition with COMELEC
to hold a plebiscite on their petition for an
initiative to amend the Constitution by
adopting a unicameral-parliamentary form of
government and by providing for transitory
provisions.
A: An initiative to change the Constitution
applies only to an amendment and not
revision. Revision broadly implies a change
that alters basic principle in the Constitution
like altering the principle of separation of
powers or the system of checks and
balance. The initiative of the petitioners is a
revision and not merely an amendment.
(Lambino v. COMELEC)
3. Referedum
Power of the electorate to approve or reject
legislation through an election called for the
purpose.
Two Classes of Referedum
Referendum on statutes which refers to a petition
to approve or reject an act or la, or part
thereof, passed by Congress;
Referendum on local laws which refers to a petition to
approve or reject a law, resolution or ordinance
enacted by regional assemblies and local
legislative bodies. (Sec. 2(c) RA 6735)
Prohibited Measures. The following cannot be

subject of an initiative or referendum:
Petition embracing more than one subject shall be
submitted to the electorate.
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Statutes involving emergency measures, the

enactment of which is specifically vested in
Congress by the Constitution, cannot be
subject to referendum until ninety(90) days
after their effectivity. (Sec. 10 RA 6735)
Q: Is the People Power recognized in the
Constitution? (1987, 2000 and 2003 Bar
Examinations)
A: People power is recognized in the
Constitution, Article III, Section 4 of the 1987
Constitution guarantees the right of the people
peaceable to assemble and petition the
government for redress of grievances. Article VI,
Section 32 of the 1987 Constitution requires
Congress to pass a law allowing the people to
directly propose or reject any act or law or part of it
passed by congress or a local legislative body.
Article XIII, Section 16 of the 1987 Constitution
provides that the right of the people and their
organizations to participate in all levels of social,
political, and economic decision-making shall not
be abridged and that the State shall, by law,
facilitate
the
establishment
of
adequate
consultation mechanisms. Article XVII, Section 2 of
the 1987 Constitution provides that subject to the
enactment of an implementing law, the people may
directly propose amendments to the Constitution
through initiative.

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Executive Power, Scope
EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT
The scope of power is set forth in the

Constitution specifically in Article VII.
I. Executive Power ( 1)
II. The President ( 2-13)
III. The Vice-President
IV. Powers of the President
V. Power of Appointment ( 14-16)
VI. Power of Control ( 17)
VII. Military Powers ( 18)
VIII. Power of Executive Clemency
However, Executive power is more than the

sum of specific powers enumerated in the
Constitution. It includes residual powers257
not specifically mentioned in the Constitution.
(Marcos v. Manglapus (1989)
( 19)
IX. Borrowing Power ( 20)
X. Foreign Affairs Power ( 21)
XI. Budgetary Power ( 22)
XII. Informing Power ( 23)
XIII.Other Powers
BUT the President cannot dispose of State

property unless authorized by law.259
Enforcement and administration of election
laws is the authority of the COMELEC.260
I. EXECUTIVE POWER
Executive Power, (Definition)
Scope
Where Vested
Ceremonial Functions
Executive Immunity
Executive Privilege
Cabinet
Sectio 1. The Executive power shall
be vested in the President of the
Philippines
A. Executive Power (Defiitio)
The executive power is the power to enforce and
administer the laws.256 (NEA v. CA, 2002)
256
Justice Irene Cortes in the case of Marcos v. Manglapus (1989)

opines: It would be inaccurate to state that executive power is
the power to enforce laws, for the President is head of State as well
as head of government and whatever power inhere in such positions
pertain to the office unless the Constitution itself withholds it.
M.T., in his attempt to provide a comprehensive interpretation of
executive power provides:
Executive power refers to the power of the President:
(a) to execute and administer laws (b) power enumerated in the
Constitution (c) those powers that inhere to the President as head of
state and head of government, and (d) residual powers.
Executive power refers to the totality of the Presidents power.
The prosecution of crimes appertains to

the
Executive
Department,
whose
responsibility is to see the laws are
faithfully executed. (Webb v. De Leon)258
Executive Power, Where Vested

The Executive power shall be vested in the
Presidet of the Philippines.
D. Ceremoial Fuctios (Head of State)
In a presidential system, the presidency includes
many other functions than just being executive.
The president is the [symbolic and] ceremonial
head of the government of the [Philippines].261
E. Executive Immuity from suit
Rules on Immunity during tenure
1. The President is immune from suit during
his tenure.262
Residual Powers are those which are implicit in and correlative to the
paramount duty residing in that office to safeguard and protect general
welfare.
See Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium p.306 (2005 ed.)
See Laurel v. Garcia (Roponggi Case)
The incumbent President is immune from suit or from being brought

to court during the period of their incumbency and tenure. (In re
Saturnino Bermudez,1986)
The President during his tenure of office or actual incumbency, may
not be sued in ANY civil or criminal case. It will degrade the dignity
of the high office of the President, the Head of State, if he can be
dragged into court litigations while serving as such. (David v.
[Ermita])
Article VII, Section 17 (1 st Sentence) of the 1973 Constitution provides:
The President shall be immune from suit during his tenure. The
immunity granted by the 1st sentence while the President was in office
was absolute. The intent was to give the President absolute immunity
even for wrongdoing committed during his
According to Sinco, Executive power refers to the legal and

political functions of the President involving the exercise of
discretion. (Philippine Political Law, p.242 (1954 ed.)

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2. He may be filed impeachment complaint

during his tenure. (Article XI)
3. The President may not be prevented from
Types of Executive Privilege (Neri v. Senate) Variety

of Executive Privilege (Senate v. Ermita) Kinds of
Executive Privilege (Neri v. Senate) Elements of
Presidential Communications Privilege
instituting suit (Soliven v. Makasiar)
Presidential Communications are Presumptively

Privileged
4. There is nothing in our laws that would
Executive Privilege v. Public Interest

Power of Inquiry v. Executive Privilege
Case Digest of Neri v. Senate
prevent the President from waiving the

privilege. The President may shed the
protection afforded by the privilege. (Soliven v.
Makasiar)
5. Heads of departments cannot invoke the
presidents immunity (Gloria v. CA)
Rules on Immunity after tenure
6. Once out of office, even before the end of
the six year term, immunity for non-official acts
is lost. Such was the case of Joseph Estrada.
(See Bernas Commentary, p 804 (2003 ed.) It
could not be used to shield a non-sitting
President from prosecution for alleged criminal
acts done while sitting in office. (Estrada v.
Disierto; See Romualdez v. Sandiganbayan)
Note: In David v. Arroyo, the Court held that it is
improper to implead President Arroyo as
respondent. However, it is well to note that in
Rubrico v. Arroyo, Min. Res., GR No, 180054,
October 31, 2007, the Supreme Court ordered the
respondents, including President Arroyo, to make a
return of the writ: You, respondents President
Macapagal Arroyo.are hereby required to make
a return of the writ before the Court of Appeals
Reasos for the Privilee:
1. Separatio of powers. The separation of
powers principle is viewed as demanding the
executives independence from the judiciary, so
that the President should not be subject to the
judiciarys whim.263
2. Public coveiece. By reason of public
convenience, the grant is to assure the exercise of
presidential duties and functions free from any
hindrance or distraction, considering that the Chief
Executive is a job that, aside from requiring all of
the office-holders time, also demands undivided
attention (Soliven v. Makasiar)
F. Executive Privilee
Definition
How Invoked
Who may invoke
Privilege Not Absolute
tenure. (Bernas, Philippine Political Law, 1984) Although the new
Constitution has not reproduced the explicit guarantee of presidential
immunity from suit under the 1973 Constitution, presidential
immunity during tenure remains as part of the law.
(See Bernas Commentary, p 804 (2003 ed.)
263
See Almonte v. Vasquez

1) Defiitio
Briefly and in simplest terms, it is the power of the
President to withhold certain types of information
from the public, from the courts, and from
Congress.
2) How ivoked
Invoked in relation to specific categories of
information. Executive privilege is properly
invoked in relation to specific categories of
information and not to categories of persons.
(While executive privilege is a constitutional
concept, a claim thereof may be valid or not
depending on the ground invoked to justify it and
the context in which it is made. Noticeably absent
is any recognition that executive officials are
exempt from the duty to disclose information by the
mere fact of being executive officials. (Senate v.
Ermita)
3) Who ca ivoke
In light of this highly exceptional nature of the
privilege, the Court finds it essential to limit to the
Presidet the power to invoke the privilege. She
may of course authorize the Executive Secretary
to invoke the privilege on her behalf, in which case
the Executive Secretary must state that the
authority is "By order of the President," which
means that he personally consulted with her. The
privilege being an extraordinary power, it must be
wielded only by the highest official in the executive
hierarchy. In other words, the President may not
authorize her subordinates to exercise such power.
(Senate v. Ermita) (It follows, therefore, that when an
official is being summoned by Congress on a matter
which, in his own judgment, might be covered by
executive privilege, he must be afforded reasoable time
to iform the Presidet or the Executive Secretary of
the possible need for invoking the privilege. This is
necessary in order to provide the President or the
Executive Secretary with fair opportunity to consider
whether the matter indeed calls for a claim of executive
privilege. If, after the lapse of that reasonable time,
neither the President nor the Executive Secretary invokes
the privilege, Congress is no longer bound to respect the
failure of the official to appear before Congress and may
then opt to avail of the necessary legal means to compel
his appearance.) (Senate v. Ermita)
4) Privilee Not Absolute

Claim of executive privilege is subject to balaci
aaist other iterest. In other words,
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SCHOOL OF LAW
confidentiality in executive privilege is not

absolutely protected by the Constitution. Neither
the doctrine of separation of powers, nor the need
for confidentiality of high-level communications,
without more, can sustain an absolute, unqualified
Presidential privilege of immunity from judicial
process under all circumstances. (Neri v. Senate)
A claim of executive privilege does not guard
against a possible disclosure of a crime or
wrongdoing (Neri v. Senate)
5) Types of Executive Privilee264
State secrets (regarding military, diplomatic and
other security matters)
Identity of government informers
Information related to pending investigations
Presidential communications
Deliberative process
6) Variety of Executive Privilee accordi to
Tribe (Tribe cited i Seate v. Ermita)
1.State Secrets Privilege. that the information is
of such nature that its disclosure would subvert
crucial military or diplomatic objectives;
(2)Informers
privilege.
Privilege
of
the
Government not to disclose the identity of
persons who furnish information of violations of
law to officers charged with the enforcement of
that law.
(3) General Privilege. For internal deliberations.
Said to attach to intragovernmental documents
reflecting advisory opinions, recommnendations
and deliberations comprising part of a process
by which governmental decisions and policies
formulated.
7) Two Kids of Privilee uder In re: Sealed
Case (Neri v. Senate)
Presidential Communications Privilege
Deliberative Process Privilege
Presidetial
Commuicatios
Privilee
Pertains
to
communications,
documents or
other
materials that
reflect
presidential
decision
making
and
deliberations
that the
President
believes
should
remain
confidential
Applies to
decision
making of the President
Deliberative
Process Privilee
Includes
advisory
opinions,
recommendations
and deliberations
comprising part of a
process
by which
governmental
decisions
and
policies
are
formulated
Applies to decision
making of executive
officials
Rooted
in
the Rooted on common
constitutional
principle law privileges
264
Primer on Neri v. Senate made by Atty. Carlos Medina.

of separation of powers
and the Presidents
unique
constitutional
role
Applies to documents in
their entirety and covers
final and post decisional
materials as well as
pre-deliberative ones
8) Elemets of presidetial commuicatios
privilee (Neri v. Senate)
The protected communication must relate to a
quintessential and non-delegable presidential
power.
The communication must be authored or solicited
and received by a close advisor of the
President or the President himself. The judicial test
is that an advisor must be in operational proximity
with the President.
3) The presidential communications privilege
remains a qualified privilege that may be overcome
by a showing of adequate need, such that the
information sought likely contains important
evidence and by the unavailability of the
information elsewhere
by an appropriate
investigating authority.
9)
Presidetial
Commuicatios
are
Presumptively Privileed
The presumption is based on the Presidents
generalized interest in confidentiality. The privilege
is necessary to guarantee the candor of
presidential advisors and to provide the
Presidet ad those who assist him with
freedom to explore alternatives in the process of
shaping policies and making decisions and to do
so in a way many would be unwilling to express
except privately.
The presumptio ca be overcome oly by
mere showi of public eed by the brach
seeki access to coversatios. The courts are
enjoined to resolve the competing interests of the
political branches of the government in the
manner that preserves the essential functions of
each Branch.
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
10) Executive Privilee ad the Public
The Court held that this jurisdiction recognizes the
common law holding that there is a governmental
privilege against public disclosure with respect to
state secrets regarding military, diplomatic and
other national security matters and cabinet closed
door meetings. (Chavez v. PCGG)
11) Power of Iquiry v. Executive Privilee
Requiremet i ivoki the privilee: formal
claim of privilee. Congress has undoubtedly
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SCHOOL OF LAW
has a right to information from the executive

branch whenever it is sought in aid of legislation. If
the executive branch withholds such information on
the ground that it is privileged, it must so assert it
ad state the reaso therefore ad why it must
be respected. (Justice Carpio Morales in Senate
v. Ermita)
A formal and proper claim of executive privilege
requires a specific desiatio ad descriptio
of the documets withi its scope as well as
precise ad certai reasos for preservi their
cofidetiality. Without this specificity, it is
impossible for a court to analyze the claim short of
disclosure of the very thing sought to be protected.
Upon the other hand, Congress must not require
the executive to state the reasons for the claim with
such particularity as to compel disclosure of the
information which the privilege is meant to protect.
(Senate v. Ermita)
12) Neri v. Seate Committee
Backroud:
This case is about the Senate investigation of
anomalies concerning the NBN-ZTE project. During
the hearings, former NEDA head Romulo Neri
refused to answer certain questions involving his
conversations with President Arroyo on the ground
they are covered by executive privilege. When the
Senate cited him in contempt and ordered his arrest,
Neri filed a case against the Senate with the
Supreme Court. On March 25, 2008, the Supreme
Court ruled in favor of Neri and upheld the claim of
executive privilege.
Issues:
. Are the communications sought to be elicited by the
three questions covered by executive privilege?
Did the Senate Committees commit grave abuse of
discretion in citing Neri in contempt and ordering his
arrest?
Ruli:
The SC said that the communications sought to be
elicited by the three questions are covered by the
presidential communications privilege, which is one
type of executive privilege.
Using the elements of presidential communications
privilege, the SC is convinced that the communications
elicited by the three (3) questions are covered by the
presidetial commuicatios privilee.
First, the communications relate to a quintessential
and non-delegable power of the President, i.e. the
power to enter into an executive agreement with other
countries. This authority of the President to enter into
executive agreements without the concurrence of the
Legislature has traditionally been recognized in
Philippine jurisprudence.
Second, the communications are received by a close
advisor of the President. Under the operational
proximity test, petitioner can be considered a close
advisor, being a member of President Arroyos cabinet.
Third, there is no adequate showing of a compelling
need that would justify the limitation of the privilege
and of the uavailability of the information elsewhere
by an appropriate investigating authority. The record is
bereft of any categorical explanation from respondent
Committees to show a compelling or critical need for

the answers to the three (3) questions in the enactment
of a law.
(2) Yes. The Supreme Court said that the Senate
Committees committed grave abuse of discretion in
citing Neri in contempt. The following reason among
others was given by the Supreme Court:
a. There was a leitimate claim of
executive privilee.
For the claim to be properly invoked, there must be
a formal claim by the President stating the precise
and certain reason for preserving confidentiality.
The grounds relied upon by Executive Secretary
Ermita are specific enough, since what is required is
only that an allegation be made whether the
information demanded involves military or diplomatic
secrets, closed-door Cabinet meetings, etc. The
particular ground must only be specified, and the
following statement of grounds by Executive
Secretary Ermita satisfies the requirement: The
context in which executive privilege is being invoked
is that the information sought to be disclosed might
impair our diplomatic as well as economic relations
with the Peoples Republic of China.
Commets o Neri v. Senate

Atty Medina: The ruling expands the area of
information that is not accessible to the public.
Executive privilege can now be invoked in
communications between his close advisors. (See
the second element in the presidential
communications privilege)
Bernas: The problem with the doctrine is, anytime
the President says Thats covered, thats it.
Nobody can ask anymore questions.
ASM: I think when the President says, Its
covered, the Court can still make an inquiry under
the Grave Abuse Clause. This inquiry can be done
in an executive session.
G. Cabiet
Extra-constitutional creation
Composition
Prohibitions
Vice-President
Ex-officio Capacity
Prohibited Employment
Prohibited Compensation
1. Extra-costitutioal creatio
Although the Constitution mentions the Cabinet a
number of times, the Cabinet itself as an institution
is extra-constitutionally created. 265
2. Compositio
It is essentially consist of the heads of departments
who through usage have formed a body of
presidential adviser who meet regularly with the
President.266
3. Prohibitios (1987, 1996 Bar Question)
Bernas Commentary, p 808 (2003 ed).; See art.7 secs. 3, 11 and

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(Applies to Members of Cabinet, their deputies or

assistants.)
Unless otherwise provided in the Constitution,
shall not hold any other employment during
their tenure.
Shall not directly or indirectly practice any
other profession, participate in
any business, or be financially interested in
any contract with, or in any franchise or
special privilege granted by the government or
any subdivision, agency, or instrumentality
controlled corporations or their subsidiaries
during their tenure.
3. Strictly avoid conflict of interest in the
conduct of their office during their tenure.
(Section 13)
4. Vice-Presidet
Note that the VP may be appointed to the Cabinet,
without need of confirmation by the Commission on
Appointments; and the Secretary of Justice is an
ex officio member of the Judicial and Bar Council.
5. Ex-officio267 capacity (2002 Bar Question)
The prohibition must not be construed as applying
to posts occupied by the Executive officials without
additional compensation in an ex-officio capacity
as provided by law and as required by the primary
functions of the said officials office. The reason is
that the posts do not comprise any other office
within the contemplation of the constitutional
prohibition, but properly an imposition of additional
duties and functions on said officials.
To illustrate, the Secretary of Transportation and
Communications is the ex officio Chirman of the
Board of Philippine Ports Authority. The ex officio
position being actually and in legal contemplation
part of the principal office, it follows that the official
concerned has no right to receive additional
compensation for his services in said position. The
reason is that these services are already paid for
and covered by the compensation attached to the
principal office. (National Amnesty Commission v.
COA, 2004)
6. Prohibited Employmet
Since the Chief Presidential Legal Counsel has the
duty of giving independent and impartial legal
advice on the actions of the heads of various
executive departments and agencies and to review
investigations
involving
other
presidential
appointees, he may not occupy a position in any of
the offices whose performance he must review. It
would involve occupying incompatible positions.
Thus he cannot be Chairman at the same time of
267
An ex- oficio position is one which an official holds but is

germane to the nature of the original position. It is by virtue of the
original position that he holds the latter, therefore such is
constitutional.

the PCGG since the PCGG answers to the

President.268
7. Prohibited Compesatio
When an Undersecretary sits for a Secretary in a
function from which the Secretary may not receive
additional compensation, the prohibition on the
Secretary also applies t the Undersecretary.269
II. The Presidet
Who is he?
Qualifications
Election
Term of Office
Oath of Office
Privileges
Prohibitions/Inhibitions
Vacancy Situations
Rules of Succession
Temporary Disability
Serious Illness
Removal from Office
A. Who is the Presidet
The President is the Head of State and the Chief
Executive. 270 (He is the executive) He is the
repository of all executive power.271
B. Qualificatios
Qualifications
Reason for Qualifications
Qualifications are exclusive
Natural Born
Registered Voter
Age
Registered Qualification
Sectio 2. No person may be elected
President unless he is a natural-born
citizen of the Philippines, a registered
voter, able to read and write, at least
forty years of age on the day of the
election, and a resident of the
Philippines for at least ten years
immediately preceding such election.
Qualificatios
Natural born citizen of the Phils.
Registered voter
Able to read write
268
Public Interest Group v Elma, G. R. No. 138965,
June 30,
2006.
Bitonio v. COA, G.R. No. 147392, March 12, 2004.
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p.240 (1954 ed.)
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At least 40 years of age o the day of the

election
A resident of the Philippines for at
least 10 years immediately preceding the
election.
2. Reaso for Qualificatios
Qualifications are prescribed for public office to
ensure the proper performance of powers and
duties.272
3. Qualificatios are exclusive
The above qualifications are exclusive and may not
be reduced or increased by Congress. The
applicable rule of interpretation is expression unius
est exclusio alterius.273
4. Natural Bor
One who is a citizen of the Philippines from birth
without having to perform any act to acquire or
perfect his Philippine citizenship. (Article IV,
Section 2)
An illegitimate child of an American mother and a
Filipino father is a natural born Filipino citizen if
paternity is clearly proved. Hence such person
would be qualified to run for President. This was
the case of Fernando Poe, Jr. (Tecson v. COMELEC)
5. Reistered Voter
Possession of the qualifications for suffrage as
enumerated in Article V, Section 1.
6. Ae
The age qualification must be possessed on the
day of the election for President that is, on the day
set by law on which the votes are cast.274
7. Residece Qualificatio
The object being to ensure close touch by the
President with the country of which he is to be the
highest official and familiarity with its conditions
and problems, the better for him to discharge his
duties effectively.275
C. Electio
Regular Election
Special Election
Congress as Canvassing Board
Who will be Proclaimed
Presidential Electoral Tribunal
Sectio 4. The President and the VicePresident shall be elected by direct vote of the
people for a term of six years which shall begin

at noon on the thirtieth day of June next

following the day of the election and shall end
at noon of the same date six years thereafter.
The President shall not be eligible for any
reelection. No person who has succeeded as
President and has served as such for more
than four years shall be qualified for election to
the same office at any time.
No Vice-President shall serve for more than two
successive terms. Voluntary renunciation of the office
for any length of time shall not be considered as an
interruption in the continuity of the service for the full
term for which he was elected.
Unless otherwise provided by law, the regular

election for President and Vice-President shall
be held on the second Monday of May.
The returns of every election for President and
Vice-President, duly certified by the board of
canvassers of each province or city, shall be
transmitted to the Congress, directed to the
President of the Senate. Upon receipt of the
certificates of canvass, the President of the
Senate shall, not later than thirty days after the
day of the election, open all the certificates in
the presence of the Senate and the House of
Representatives in joint public session, and the
Congress, upon determination of the
authenticity and due execution thereof in the
manner provided by law, canvass the votes.
The person having the highest number of votes
shall be proclaimed elected, but in case two or
more shall have an equal and highest number
of votes, one of them shall forthwith be chosen
by the vote of a majority of all the Members of
both Houses of the Congress, voting
separately.
The Congress shall promulgate its rules for the
canvassing of the certificates.
The Supreme Court, sitting en banc, shall be
the sole judge of all contests relating to the
election, returns, and qualifications of the
President or Vice-President, and may
promulgate its rules for the purpose.
1. Reular Electio
The President (and Vice-President) shall be
elected by direct vote of the people. Unless
otherwise provided by law, the regular election for
President (and Vice-President) shall be held on the
secod Moday of May.
Special Electio (Discussed under Section 10)
Coress as Cavassi Board
The returns of every election for President and
Vice-President, duly certified by the board of
canvassers of each province or city, shall be
transmitted to the Congress, directed to the
President of the Senate. Upon receipt of the
certificates of canvass, the President of the Senate
shall, not later than thirty days after the day of the
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election, open all the certificates in the presence of

the Senate and the House of Representatives in
joit public sessio, and the Coress, upo
determiatio of the autheticity ad due
executio thereof i the maer provided by
law, canvass the votes. The Congress shall
promulgate its rules for the canvassing of the
certificates.
Congress may continue the canvass even after

the final adjournment of its session. The final
adjournment of Congress does not terminate an
unfinished presidential canvass. Adjournment
terminates legislation but not the o-leislative
fuctios of Coress such as cavassi of
votes. (Pimentel v. Joint Committee of
Congress, 2004)
Is the fuctio of Coress merely

miisterial?
Bernas: The function of Congress is not merely
ministerial. It has authority to examine the
certificates of canvass for authenticity and due
execution. For this purpose, Congress must pass
a law governing their canvassing of votes.276
Cruz: As the canvass is regarded merely as a
ministerial function, the Congress shall not have
the power to inquire into or decide questions of
alleged irregularities in the conduct of the
election contest. Normally, as long as the
election returns are duly certified and appear to
be authentic, the Congress shall have no duty
but to canvass the same and to proclaim as
elected the person receiving the highest number
of votes.277
Justice Carpio Morales: This duty has been
characterized
as
being
ministerial
and
278
executive.
4. Who will be proclaimed

The person having the highest number of votes
shall be proclaimed elected, but in case two or
more shall have an equal and highest number of
votes, one of them shall forthwith be chosen by the
vote of a majority of all the Members of both
Houses of the Congress, voting separately.
5. Presidetial Electoral Tribual
The Supreme Court, sitting en banc, shall be

the sole jude of all contests relating to the
election, returns, and qualifications of the
President or Vice-President, and may
promulgate its rules for the purpose.
Q: Can Susan Roces, widow of Fernando Poe.
Jr, intervene and/or substitute for him, assuming
arguendo that the protest could survive his
death?
A: No. The fundamental rule applicable in a
presidential election protest is Rule 14 of the
PET Rules. It provides that only the 2nd and 3rd
placer may contest the election. The Rule
effectively excludes the widow of a losing
candidate.279 (Fernando Poe v. Arroyo)
Validity of Joit Coressioal Committee.

Congress may validly delegate the initial
determination of the authenticity and due
execution of the certificates of canvass to a Joint
Congressional Committee so long as the
decisions and final report of the said Committee
shall be subject to the approval of the joint
session of Both Houses of Congress voting
separately. (Lopez v. Senate, 2004)
The validity, authenticity and correctness of the

SOVs and COCs are under the Tribunals
jurisdiction. The constitutional function as well as
the power and the duty to be the sole judge of all
contests relating to election, returns and
qualification of President and Vice-President is
expressly vested in the PET in Section 4 Article
VII of the Constitution. Included therein is the
duty to correct manifest errors in the SOVs and
COCs. (Legarda v. De Castro, 2005)
COMELEC. There is no constitutional or

statutory basis for COMELEC to undertake a
separate and unofficial tabulation of result
whether manually or electronically. If Comelec is
proscribed from conducting an official canvass of
the votes cast for the President and VicePresident, the Comelec is, with more reason,
prohibited from making an unofficial canvass of
said votes. (Brilantes v. Comelec, 2004)
Q: After Fidel Ramos was declared President,

defeated candidate Miriam Defensor Santiago
filed an election protest with the SC.
Subsequently, while the case is pending, she ran
for the office of Senator and, having been
declared elected, assumed office as Senator.
What happens to her election protest?
A: Her protest is deemed abandoned with her
election and assumption of office as Senator.
(Defensor Santiago v. Ramos)
The proclamation of presidential and vicepresidential winners is a function of Congress

and not of Comelec (Macalintal v. COMELEC)

Separate Opinion of Justice Carpio Morales in Pimentel v. Joint

Committee (June 22, 2004) citing Lopez v. Roxas, 17 SCRA 756,
(1966)

D. Term of Office
279
Fernando Poe, Jr. v. Arroyo, P.E.T. CASE No. 002.

March 29, 2005.
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6 years. The President (and the Vice-President)

shall be elected by direct vote of the people for a
term of six years.
Noo of Jue 30.Term hall begin at noon on the
thirtieth day of June next following the day of the
election and shall end at noon of the same date six
years thereafter.
No re-electio. The President shall not be eligible
for any reelection. No person who has succeeded
as President and has served as such for more than
four years shall be qualified for election to the
same office at any time.
Reaso for prohibitio o ay reelectio for
Presidecy. It was thought that the elimination of
the prospect of reelection would make for a more
independent President capable of making correct
even unpopular decisions.280 He is expected to
devote his attention during his lone term to the
proper discharge of his office instead of using its
perquisites to ensure his remaining therein for
another term.281
E. Oath of Office
Sectio 5. Before they enter on the
execution of their office, the President,
the Vice-President, or the Acting
President shall take the following oath
or affirmation:
I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I
will faithfully and conscientiously fulfill
my duties as President (or VicePresident or Acting President) of the
Philippines, preserve and defend its
Constitution, execute its laws, do
justice to every man, and consecrate
myself to the service of the Nation.
So help me God.
(In case of affirmation, last sentence
will be omitted.)
Oath. The oath is not a source of substantive
power but is merely intended to deepen the sense
of responsibility of the President and ensure a
more conscientious discharge of his office.282
F. Privilees
Official Residence
Salary
Immunity from suit


Sectio 6. The President shall have

an official residence. The salaries of
the President and Vice-President shall
be determined by law and shall not be
decreased during their tenure. No
increase in said compensation shall
take effect until after the expiration of
the term of the incumbent during
which such increase was approved.
They shall not receive during their
tenure any other emolument from the
Government or any other source.
1. Official Residece
The President shall have an official residence.
2. Salary
The salaries of the President and Vice-President
shall be determined by law and shall not be
decreased during their tenure.
The initial salary of the President is 300,00 per
year. (Article XVIII Section 17)
No icrease duri their term. No increase in
said compensation shall take effect until after the
expiration of the term of the incumbent during
which such increase was approved.
No additioal emolumet duri their tenure.
They shall not receive during their tenure any other
emolument from the Government or any other
source.
3. Immuity from Suit
(Discussed under Section 1 [I(E)])
G. Prohibitios/Ihibitios
Sectio 13. The President, Vice-President, the
Members of the Cabinet, and their deputies or
assistants shall not, unless otherwise provided in this
Constitution, hold any other office or employment
during their tenure. They shall not, during said tenure,
directly or indirectly, practice any other profession,
participate in any business, or be financially interested
in any contract with, or in any franchise, or special
privilege granted by the Government or any subdivision,
agency,
or
instrumentality
thereof,
including
government- owned or controlled corporations or their
subsidiaries. They shall strictly avoid conflict of interest
in the conduct of their office.
The spouse and relatives by consanguinity or affinity
within the fourth civil degree of the President shall not
during his tenure be appointed as Members of the
Constitutional Commissions, or the Office of the
Ombudsman, or a Secretaries, Undersecretaries,
chairmen or heads of bureaus or offices, including
government-owned or controlled corporations and their
subsidiaries.
Prohibitios:
Shall not receive increase
compensation during the
term
of
the
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incumbent during which such increase was

approved. (sec 6)
Shall not receive any other emoluments from
the government or any other source during
their tenure. (sec 6)
practice of Cabinet members occupying seats in

the boards of directors of affluent corporations
owned or controlled by the government from which
they derived substantial income in addition to their
regular salaries. The second paragraph of Section
13 is intended as a guarantee against nepotism.285
Unless otherwise provided in
the Constitution, shall not hold any other

employment during their tenure.
4.
Shall not directly or indirectly
practice any other profession, participate in
any business, or be financially interested in
any contract with, or in any franchise or
special privilege granted by the government or
any subdivision, agency, or instrumentality
controlled corporations or their subsidiaries
during their tenure.
Strictly avoid conflict of interest in the conduct
of their office during their tenure.
May not appoint spouse or relatives by
consanguinity or affinity within the
fourth civil degree as Member of Constitutional
Commissions
or
the
Office
of
the
Ombudsman, or as Secretaries, Under
Secretaries, chairmen or heads of bureaus or
offices, including government-owned or
controlled corporations and their subsidiaries.
Note: Nos. 1-6 above applies to the President. 1-5
applies to the Vice-President. 3-5 applies to
Members of Cabinet, their deputies or assistants.
H. Vacacy
Sectio 7. The President-elect and the Vice-Presidentelect shall assume office at the beginning of their
terms.
If the President-elect fails to qualify, the Vice-Presidentelect shall act as President until the President-elect
shall have qualified.
If a President shall not have been chosen, the VicePresident- elect shall act as President until a President
shall have been chosen and qualified.
If at the beginning of the term of the President, the
President-elect shall have died or shall have become
permanently disabled, the Vice-President-elect shall
become President.
Where no President and Vice-President shall have
been chosen or shall have qualified, or where both
shall have died or become permanently disabled, the
President of the Senate or, in case of his inability, the
Speaker of the House of Representatives shall act as
President until a President or a Vice-President shall
have been chosen and qualified.
The Congress shall, by law, provide for the manner in
which one who is to act as President shall be selected
until a President or a Vice-President shall have
qualified, in case of death, permanent disability, or
inability of the officials mentioned in the next preceding
paragraph.
Prohibitio aaist icrease of compesatio

duri teure. The prohibition against the change
of their salary either by reduction or increase
during their term is meant to prevent the legislature
from weakening the fortitude by appealing to their
avarice or corrupting their integrity by operating on
their necessities. 283
Sectio 8. In case of death, permanent disability,

removal from office, or resignation of the President, the
Vice-President shall become the President to serve the
unexpired term. In case of death, permanent disability,
removal from office, or resignation of both the
President and Vice-President, the President of the
Senate or, in case of his inability, the Speaker of the
House of Representatives, shall then act as President
until the President or Vice-President shall have been
elected and qualified.
The Congress shall, by law, provide who shall serve as
President in case of death, permanent disability, or
resignation of the Acting President. He shall serve until
the President or the Vice-President shall have been
elected and qualified, and be subject to the same
restrictions of powers and disqualifications as the
Acting President.
Emolumets. The emoluments which they may

not receive during their tenure from the
government or any other source (that is, private)
refers to any compensation received for services
rendered or form possession of an office. This
means that the President cannot accept other
employment elsewhere, whether in the government
or in the private sector, and must confine himself to
the duties of his office.284
Reaso for Ihibitios uder Sectio 13. The
inhibitions are in line with the principle that a public
office is a public trust and should not be abused for
personal advantage. Officers mention under
Section 13 (except the VP who may be appointed
to the Cabinet) are inhibited from holding any other
office or employment in the government during
their tenure. This will discontinue the lucrative
Sectio 10. The Congress shall, at ten oclock in the

morning of the third day after the vacancy in the offices
of the President and Vice-President occurs, convene in
accordance with its rules without need of a call and
within seven days enact a law calling for a special
election to elect a President and a Vice- President to
be held not earlier than forty-five days nor later than
sixty days from the time of such call. The bill calling
such special election shall be deemed certified under
paragraph 2, Section 26, Article VI of this Constitution
and shall become law upon its approval on third

285

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reading by the Congress. Appropriations for the special

election shall be charged against any current
appropriations and shall be exempt from the
requirements of paragraph 4, Section 25, Article VI of
this Constitution. The convening of the Congress
cannot be suspended nor the special election
postponed. No special election shall be called if the
vacancy occurs within eighteen months before the date
of the next presidential election.
Vacacy Situatios:
Vacancy that occurs at the start of the term
(Sec 7)
Vacancy that occurs in mid-term (Sec
8)
3. Vacancy in both the presidency and vicepresidency. (Section 10)
Vacacy Situatios uder Sectio 7:
(The vacancy situations here occur after the office
has been initially filled.)
When a President has been chosen but fails to
qualify at the beginning of his term
When no President has yet been chosen
at the time he is supposed to assume office.
When the President-elect dies or is permanently
incapacitated before the beginning of his term
When both the President and Vice-President
have not yet been chosen or have
failed to qualify
When both shall have died or become
permanently incapacitated at the start of the
term.
When the Senate President and the
Speaker of the House shall have died or shall
have become permanently incapacitated, or
are unable to assume office.
Vacacy Situatio uder Sectio 8
(Vacancy that occurs in mid-term)
When the incumbent President dies or is permanently
disabled, is removed or resigns.
When both the President and the Vice-President die, or
are permanently disabled, are
removed, or resign.
3. When the Acting President dies, or is permanently
incapacitated, is removed or resigns.
I. Rules of Successio
Sectio 7
Reaso for Vacacy
1. When a President has
been chosen but fails to
qualify at the beginning of his
term
2. When no President has yet
been chosen at the time he is
supposed to assume office.
3. When the President-elect
Successio
The
Vice-President
becomes acting President
until a President qualifies
Vice-President

elect
dies or is
permanently
incapacitated
before the
beginning of his term
4. When both the President
and Vice-President have not
yet been chosen or have
failed to qualify
5. When both shall have died
becomes President
The Senate
President or
the Speaker- in that orderacts as President
until a
President
or
VicePresident qualifies.
or
become
permanently
incapacitated at the start of
the term.
When the Senate Congress will decide by
President and the Speaker of
law who will act as
the House shall have died or
President until a President
shall
have
become or Vice-President
shall
permanently incapacitated, or
have
been
elected
and
are unable to assume office.
qualified.
Sectio 8
Reaso for Vacacy
Successio
The vacancy
created is
thus permanent. The VicePresident
becomes
President.
2. When both the President
The Senate President or
and the Vice-President die, or the Speaker-in that orderare permanently disabled, are shall act as President until
removed, or resign.
a President of VicePresident shall have been
qualified.
3. When the Acting President
Congress will
determine
dies, or
is
permanently by law who will act as
incapacitated, is removed or President until a
new
resigns.
President
or
VicePresident
shall
have
qualified.
1. When
the
incumbent
President
dies
or
is
permanently disabled,
is
removed or resigns.
Resiatio. In Estrada v. Macapagal-Arroyo, the

SC through Justice Puno (mai opiio) declared
that the resignation of President Estrada could not
be doubted as confirmed by his leaving
Malacanang. The SC declared that the elements of
a valid resignation are (1) intent to resign; and (2)
act of relinquishment. Both were present when
President Estrada left the Palace. Justice Puno
anchored his opinion mainly on the letter of
Estrada and on the diary of ES Edgardo Angara.
Permaet Disability. In Estrada v. MacapagalArroyo, Justice Bellosillo anchored his concurrence
on permanent disability. He opined that permanent
disability as contemplated by the Constitution does
not refer only to physical or mental incapacity, but
must likewise cover other forms of incapacities of a
permanent nature, e.g. functional disability.
He views Estradas disability in (a) objective and
(b) subjective perspectives.
Objective Approach. Without people, an effectively
functioning cabinet, the military and the police, with
no recognition from Congress and the international
community, [Estrada] had absolutely no support
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from and control of the bureaucracy from within

and from without. In fact he had no more
functioning government to speak of. It is in this
context that [Estrada] was deemed absolutely
unable to exercise or discharge the powers, duties
and prerogatives of the Presidency.
Subjective Approach. [Estradas] contemporaneous
acts and statements during and after the critical
episode are eloquent proofs of his implied-but
nevertheless unequivocal-acknowledgment of the
permanence of his disability.
Commet o Estrada v. Macapaal-Arroyo
Bernas: In sum, 3 justices (Puno, Vitug and Pardo)
accepted some form of resignation; 2 jsutices
(Mendoza and Bellosillo) saw permanent disability;
3 justices (Kapuna, Yners Santiago and SandovalGutierrez) accepted the presidency of Arroyo as an
irreversible fact. 5 justices (Quisumbing, Melo,
Buena, De Leon and gonzaga-Reyes) signed the
decision without expressing any opinion. Davide
and Panganiban abstained. In the light of all this, it
is ot clear what doctrie was established by
the decisio.286
When the Senate President or Speaker becomes
Acting President, he does not lose the Senate
presidency or the speakership.287
Sectio 10
Call ot eeded. The Congress shall, at ten
oclock in the morning of the third day after the
vacancy in the offices of the President and VicePresident occurs, convene in accordance with its
rules without need of a call and within seven days
enact a law calling for a special election to elect a
President and a Vice-President to be held not
earlier than forty-five days nor later than sixty days
from the time of such call.
Bill deemed certified. The bill calling such special
election shall be deemed certified under paragraph
2, Section 26, Article V1 of this Constitution and
shall become law upon its approval on third
reading by the Congress.
Appropriatios. Appropriations for the special
election shall be charged against any current
appropriations and shall be exempt from the
requirements of paragraph 4, Section 25, Article V1
of this Constitution.
No suspesio or postpoemet. The convening
of the Congress cannot be suspended nor the
special election postponed.


No special electios. No special election shall be

called if the vacancy occurs within eighteen months
before the date of the next presidential election.
J. Temporary Disability
Sectio 11. Whenever the President transmits to the
President of the Senate and the Speaker of the House
of Representatives his written declaration that he is
unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office,
and until he transmits to them a written declaration to
the contrary, such powers and duties shall be
discharged by the Vice-President as Acting President.
Whenever a majority of all the Members of the Cabinet
transmit to the President of the Senate and to the
Speaker of the House of Representatives their written
declaration that the President is unable to discharge
the powers and duties of his office, the Vice-President
shall immediately assume the powers and duties of the
office as Acting President.
Thereafter, when the President transmits to the
President of the Senate and to the Speaker of the
House of Representatives his written declaration that
no inability exists, he shall reassume the powers and
duties of his office. Meanwhile, should a majority of all
the Members of the Cabinet transmit within five days to
the President of the Senate and to the Speaker of the
House of Representatives their written declaration that
the President is unable to discharge the powers and
duties of his office, the Congress shall decide the
issue. For that purpose, the Congress shall convene, if
it is not in session, within forty-eight hours, in
accordance with its rules and without need of call.
If the Congress, within ten days after receipt of the last
written declaration, or, if not in session, within twelve
days after it is required to assemble, determines by a
two-thirds vote of both Houses, voting separately, that
the President is unable to discharge the powers and
duties of his office, the Vice- President shall act as
President; otherwise, the President shall continue
exercising the powers and duties of his office.
K. Serious Illess
Section 12. In case of serious illness of the President,
the public shall be informed of the state of his health.
The members of the Cabinet in charge of national
security and foreign relations and the Chief of Staff of
the Armed Forces of the Philippines, shall not be
denied access to the President during such illness.
Section 12 envisions not just illness which

incapacitates but also any serious illness which
can be a matter of national concern.288
Reaso for iformi the public. To guarantee
the peoples right to know about the state of
Presidents health, contrary to secretive practice in
totalitarian regimes.289
Who has the duty to iform? The section does
not specify the officer on whom the duty devolves.
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It is understood that the Office of the President

would be responsible for making the disclosure.
Prohibitios ad Ihibitios
Reaso of the access. To allow the President to

make the important decisions in those areas of
government.290
Shall not receive increase

compensation during the term of the
incumbent during which such increase was
approved. (sec 6)
Shall not receive any other emoluments from
the government or any other source during
their tenure. (sec 6)
Unless otherwise provided in the Constitution,
shall not hold any other
employment during their tenure.
4. Shall not directly or indirectly practice any
other profession, participate in any business,
or be financially interested in any contract with,
or in any franchise or special privilege granted
by the government or any subdivision, agency,
or
instrumentality
thereof,
including
government-owned or controlled corporations
or their subsidiaries during their tenure.
L. Removal from Office

Ways of removal from office:
By Impeachment
By People Power
By Killing the President (e.g.
Assassination)291
(Number 2 is extra constitutional and Number 3 is illegal. asm).

(But for purposes of examinations, answer number 1 only)
(Impeachment will be discussed under Article XI)

III. The Vice- Presidet
Who is the Vice-President
Qualifications, Election, Term of Office
Oath of Office
Prohibitions/Inhibitions
Vacancy
Removal from Office
Appointment to Cabinet
5. Strictly avoid conflict of interest in the

conduct of their office during their tenure.
(Section 13)
E. Vacacy i the Vice-Presidecy
Sectio 9. Whenever there is a vacancy in the Office
of the Vice-President during the term for which he was
elected, the President shall nominate a Vice -President
from among the Members of the Senate and the House
of Representatives who shall assume office upon
confirmation by a majority vote of all the Members of
both Houses of the Congress, voting separately.
A. Who is the Vice-Presidet

His function is to be on hand to act as President
when needed or to succeed to the presidency in
case of a permanent vacancy in the office. The
President may also appoint him as a Member of
the Cabinet. Such appointment does not need the
consent of the Commission on Appointments.292
F. Removal from Office
B. Qualificatios, Electio, Term of Office

Sectio 3. There shall be a Vice-President who
shall have the same qualifications and term of
office and be elected with and in the same
manner as the President. xxx
He may be removed from office in the same

manner as the President. (Section 3)
F. Appoitmet to Cabiet
The Vice-President may be appointed as a
Member of the Cabinet. Such appointment requires
no confirmation. (Section 3)
No Vice-President shall serve for more than two

successive terms. Voluntary renunciation of the
office for any length of time shall not be considered
as an interruption in the continuity of the service for
the full term for which he was elected. (Section 4)
Justice Cruz submits that the Vice-President may

not receive additional compensation as member of
Cabinet because of the absolute prohibition in
Section 3 of Article VII.293
C. Oath of Office
Same as the President. See Section 5.
IV. POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT

Number 2 is extra constitutional and Number 3 is illegal. -asm
Costitutioal Powers of the Presidet

Executive Power
Power of Appointment
Power of Control
293

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Military Powers
Pardoning Power
Borrowing Power
Diplomatic Power
Budgetary Power
Informing Power
Other Powers
Call Congress to a Special Session (art 6, sec
15)
Power to approve or veto bills (art 6 sec 27)
To consent to deputation of government
personnel by the Commission
on Elections (art 19-C sec 2(4))
To discipline such deputies (art 19-C sec 2(8))
Emergency powers by delegation
from Congress (art 6 sec 23(2))
Tariff Powers by delegation from Congress (art
6 sec 28(2))
General Supervision over local
governments and autonomous regional
governments (art 10)
V. Power of Appoitmet
Definition of Appointment Nature of
Power of Appointment
Classification of Appointment Kinds
of Presidential Appointment Scope
of Appointing Power
Appointments needing Confirmation of CA

Officials Who are to be Appointed by the
President Steps in the Appointing Process
Appointment of Officers Lower in Rank
Limitations on the Presidents Appointing
power Power of Removal
Sectio 16 . The President shall nominate and, with
the consent of the Commission on Appointments,
appoint the heads of the executive departments,
ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, or
officers of the armed forces from the rank of colonel or
naval captain, and other officers whose appointments
are vested in him in this Constitution. He shall also
appoint all other officers of the Government whose
appointments are not otherwise provided for by law,
and those whom he may be authorized by law to
appoint. The Congress may, by law, vest the
appointment of other officers lower in rank in the
President alone, in the courts, or in the heads of
departments, agencies, commissions, or boards.
The President shall have the power to make
appointments during the recess of the Congress,
whether voluntary or compulsory, but such
appointments shall be effective only until disapproval
by the Commission on Appointments or until the next
adjournment of the Congress.
A. Defiitio of Appoitmet
Defiitio of Appoitmet. Appointment is the
selection, by the authority vested with the power, of

an individual who is to exercise the functions of a

given office.294
It is distinguished from designation in that the
latter simply means the imposition of additional
duties, usually by law, on a person already in the
public service.
It is also different from the commission in that the
latter is the written evidence of the appointment.
B. Nature of Power of Appoitmet
Executive in Nature
Non-delegability
Necessity of Discretion
1. Executive i Nature
Appointing power is executive in nature.
(Government v. Springer) Indeed, the filling up of
an office created by law is the implementation or
execution of law.295
Although, intrinsically executive and therefore
pertaining mainly to the President, the appointing
power may be exercised by the legislature and by
the judiciary, as well as the Constitutional
Commissions, over their own respective personnel
(See art 6 sec 16 (last sentence), Article VIII etc.)
Implicatio. Since appointment to office is an
executive function, the clear implication is that the
legislature may not usurp such function.
The legislature may create an office and prescribe the
qualifications of the person who may hold the office,
but it may neither specify who shall be appointed to
such office nor actually appoint him.296
2. No-deleability.
Facts: The Minister of Tourism designate petitioner as
general manager of the Philippine Tourism Authority.
When a new Secretary of Tourism was appointed, the
President designated [him] as a general manager of
the PTA on the ground that the designation of petitioner
was invalid since it is not made by the President as
provided for in PD 564. Petitioner claimed that his
removal was without just cause.
Held: The appointment or designation of petitioner by
the Minister of Tourism is invalid. It involves the
exercise of discretion, which cannot be delegated.
Even if it be assumed that the power could be
exercised by the Minister of Tourism, it could be
recalled by the President, for the designation was
provisional.297 (Binamira v. Garrucho)
3. Necessity of Discretio
Discretion is an indispensable part in the exercise
of power of appointment. Congress may not,
therefore, enact a statute which would deprive the
President of the full use of his discretion in the
nomination and appointment of persons to any
public office. Thus it has been held that a statute
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium, p.313 (2006 ed.)
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unlawfully
limits
executive
discretion
in
appointments when it provides for the drawing of
lots as a means to determine the districts to which
judges of first instance should be assigned by the
Chief Executive.298 Congress may not limit the
Presidents choice to one because it will be an
encroachment on the Prerogative of the
President.299
Appointment is essentially a discretionary power
and must be performed by the officer in which it is
vested according to his best lights, the only
condition being that the appointee, if issued a
permanent appointment, should possess the
minimum qualification requirements, including the
Civil Service eligibility prescribed by law for the
position. This discretion also includes the
determination of the nature or character of the
appointment, i.e., whether the appointment is
temporary or permanent.300
The power to appoint includes the power to decide
who among various choices is best qualified
provided that the person chosen has the
qualification provided by law.301 Even the next-inrank rule of the Civil Service Code cannot be read
as binding the appointing authority to choose the
first in the order of rank when two or more possess
the requisite qualifications.302
Q: The Revised Administrative Code of 1987
provides, All provincial and city prosecutors
and their assistants shall be appointed by the
President upon the recommendation of the
Secretary. Is the absence of recommendation
of the Secretary of Justice to the President
fatal to the appointment of a prosecutor?
A: Appointment calls for discretion on the part
of the appointing authority. The power to
appoint prosecutors is given to the President.
The Secretary of Justice is under the control of
the President. Hence, the law must be read
simply as allowing the Secretary of Justice to
advice the President. (Bermudez v. Secretary,
1999)
C. Classificatio of Appoitmet (1994 Bar Question)
Permanent
Temporary
Regular
Ad Interim
Permaet (2003 Bar Question)
Flores v. Drilon, 223 SCRA 568.
Antonio B. Nachura, Outline/Reviewer in Political Law 274 (2006

ed.)
Permanent appointments are those extended to

persons possessing eligibility and are thus
protected by the constitutional guarantee of
security of tenure. 303
2. Temporary (2003 Bar Question)
Temporary appointments are given to persons
without such eligibility, revocable at will and without
the necessity of just cause or a valid
investigation304; made on the understanding that
the appointing power has not yet decided on a
permanent appointee and that the temporary
appointee may be replaced at any time a
permanent choice is made.
Not subject to CA cofirmatio. A temporary
appointment and a designation are not subject
to confirmation by the Commission on
Appointments. Such confirmation, if given
erroneously, will not make the incumbent a
permanent appointee. (Valencia v. Peralta)
3. Reular
A regular appointment is one made by the
President while Congress is in session; takes effect
only after confirmation by the Commission on
Appointments, and once approved, continues until
the end of the term of the appointee.
4. Ad Iterim (1991, 1994 Bar Question)
An ad interim appointment is one made by the
President while Congress is not in session; takes
effect immediately, but ceases to be valid if
disapproved by the Commission on Appointments
or upon the next adjournment of Congress. In the
latter case, the ad interim appointment is deemed
by-passed through inaction.
The ad interim appointment is intended to prevent
interruptions in vital government services that
would otherwise result form prolonged vacancies in
government offices.
Ad iterim appoitmet is a permaet
appoitmet. It is a permanent appointment
because it takes effect immediately and can no
longer be withdrawn by the President once the
appointee qualified into office. The fact that it is
subject to confirmation by the Commission on
Appointments does not alter its permanent
character. (Matibag v. Benipayo, 2002)
Ad iterim appoited, how termiated.

Disapproval of the appointment by the
Commission on Appointments;
Adjournment by Congress without the CA
acting on the appointment.

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There is no dispute that when the

Commission
on
Appointments
disapproves an ad interim appointment,
the appointee can no longer be extended
a new appointment, inasmuch as the
approval is a final decision of the
Commission in the exercise of its
checking power on the appointing
authority of the President. Such
disapproval is final and binding on both
the appointee and appointing power.
But when an ad interim appointment is bypassed because of lack of time or failure
of the Commission on Appointments to
organize, there is no final decision by the
Commission to give or withhold its
consent to the appointment. Absent such
decision, the President is free to renew
the ad interim appointment. (Matibag v.
Benipayo)
abused, they can also be a way of circumventing

the need for confirmation by the Commission on
Appointments.
However, we find no abuse in the present case.
The absence of abuse is apparent from President
Arroyos issuance of ad interim appointments to
respondents immediately upon the recess of
Congress, way before the lapse of one year.
(Pimentel v. Ermita, 2005)
Kids of Presidetial Appoitmet
Appointments made by an Acting President
(Section 14)
Appointments made by the President within two
months before the next presidential elections
and up to the end of his term. (Section 15)
Regular Appointments (Section 16)
Recess or Ad interim Appointments (Section 13)
Scope of the Power to Appoit
Q: What happens if a special session is called

and that session continues until the day before
the start of the regular session? Do
appointments given prior to the start of the
special session lapse upon the end of the
special session or may they continue into the
regular session?
A: Guevara v. Inocente again says that there
must be a constructive recess between the
sessions and thus appointments not acted
upon during the special session lapse before
the start of the regular session.305
Officials to be Appoited by the Presidet

Those officials whose appointments are vested in
him by the Constitution. (See Section 16, 1st
sentence)
Heads of executive departments
Ambassadors, other public ministers
and consuls
Officers of the armed forces from
rank of colonel or naval captain
Article VIII, Section 9 provides that the
President appoints member of the SC
and judges of lower courts
The President also appoints members of
JBC, chairmen and members of the
constitutional commissions (art 9,B,
Sec 1(2); C, Section 1(2)), the
Ombudsman and his deputies (art 11,
sec 9).
Appointment of Sectoral Representatives
(art 18 sec 7) (Quintos-Deles v.
Commission on Appointments)
Those whom he may be authorized by law
(Section 16, 2nd sentence)
Any other officers of the government whose
appointments are not otherwise provided by
law (Constitution or statutes). (Section 16, 2nd
sentence)
Differece betwee a ad iterim appoitmet

ad a appoitmet i a acti capacity.
The former refers only to positions which need
confirmation by the CA while the latter is also
given to those which do not need confirmation.
The former may be given only when Congress is
not in session whereas the latter may be given
even when Congress is in session.
Acti Capacity. The essence of an appointment
in an acting capacity is its temporary nature. In
case of a vacancy in an office occupied by an alter
ego of the President, such as the Office of
Department Secretary, the President must
necessarily appoint the alter ego of her choice as
Acting Secretary before the permanent appointee
of her choice could assume office.
Congress, through law, cannot impose on the
President the obligation to appoint automatically
the undersecretary as her temporary alter ego. An
alter ego, whether temporary or permanent, holds
a position of great trust and confidence. Congress,
in the guise of prescribing qualifications to an
office, cannot impose on the President who her
alter ego should be.Acting appointments are a
way of temporarily filling important offices, but if
Siificace of eumeratio i Sectio 16, 1 st

setece. The enumeration means that Congress
may not give to any other officer the power to
appoint the above enumerated officers.306
306
305

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F. Appoitmets eedi the Cofirmatio of CA

CA Confirmation
Exclusive List
1. What appoitmets eed cofirmatio by the
Commissio o Appoitmets? (1999 Bar Q)
Those enumerated in the 1st sentence of Section
16:
Heads of executive departments
Ambassadors, other public ministers
and consuls
Officers of the armed forces from rank of
colonel or naval captain
Those other officers whose appointments
are vested in him in the
Constitution. (Sarmieto v. Miso)
(Note: Although the power to appoint
Justices, judges, Ombudsman and his
deputies is vested in the President, such
appointments do not need confirmation
by the Commission on Appointments)
Why from rak of coloel. The provision
hopefully will have the effect of strengthening
civilian supremacy over the military307 To some
extent, the decision of the Commission was
influenced by the observation that coups are
generally led by colonels.308
Military officers. The clause officers of the
armed forces from the rank of colonel or naval
captain refers to military officers alone.
Hence, promotion and appointment of officers
of Philippine Coast Guard which is under the
DOTC (and not under the AFP), do not need
the
confirmation
of
Commission
on
Appointments. (Soriano v. Lista, 2003) Also,
promotion of senior officers of the PNP is not
subject to confirmation of CA. PNP are not
members of the AFP. (Manalo v. Sistoza,
1999)
Chairma of CHR. The appointment of the
Chairman of the Commission on Human
Rights is not provided for in the Constitution or
in the law. Thus, there is no necessity for such
appointment to be passed upon by the
Commission on Appointments. (Bautista v.
Salonga)
2. Exclusive list
The Congress cannot by law require the
confirmation of appointments of government
officials other than those enumerated in the first
sentence of Section 16 of Article VII. (Calderon v.
Carale)
II RECORD 394-395.

G. Steps i the Appoiti Process (where COA

cofirmatio is eeded)
Nomination by the President
Confirmation of the Commission on Appointments
Issuance of the Commission
Acceptace. An appointment is deemed complete
only upon its acceptance. Pending such
acceptance, the appointment may still be
withdrawn. (Lacson v. Romero)
Appointment to a public office cannot be forced
upon any citizen except for purposes of defense of
the State under Article II Section 4.
H. Appoitmet of Officers Lower i Rak
Section 16 (3rd sentence of first paragraph)
The Congress may, by law, vest the appointment of
other officers lower in rank in the Presidet aloe, in
the courts, or in the heads of departments, agencies,
commissions, or boards.
Siificace of the phrase the Presidet

aloe. Alone means to the exclusion of the
courts, the heads of departments, agencies,
commissions or boards. 309
Appointing authority may also be given to other
officials. Thus Section 16 says: The Congress
may, by law, vest the appointment of other officers
lower in rank in the President alone, in the courts,
or in the heads of departments, agencies,
commissions, or boards. In Rufino v Endriga310
interpreted this to mean that, when the authority is
given to collegial bodies, it is to the chairman that
the authority is given. But he can appoint only
officers lower in rank, and not officers equal in
rank to him. Thus a Chairman may not appoint a
fellow member of a Board.
I. Limitatios o the Presidets Appoiti Power
Sectio 14. Appointments extended by an Acting
President shall remain effective, unless revoked by the
elected President within ninety days from his
assumption or reassumption of office.
Sectio 15. Two months immediately before the next
presidential elections and up to the end of his term, a
President or Acting President shall not make
appointments, except temporary appointments to
executive positions when continued vacancies therein
will prejudice public service or endanger public safety.
Special Limitatios
Bernas Commentary, p 847 (2003 ed).; The earlier view of Fr. Bernas
confirmed by Sarmiento v. Mison, was that the retention of the
phrase President alone was an oversight.
G.R. No. 139554, July 21, 2006.
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(Anti-Nepotism Provision) The President may not

appoint his spouse and relatives by
consanguinity or affinity within the fourth civil
degree as Members of the Constitutional
Commission, as Ombudsman, or as
Secretaries, Undersecretaries, chairmen or
heads of Bureaus or offices, including
government owned-or-controlled corporations.
(Section 13)
Appointments extended by an acting President
shall remain effective unless revoked by the
elected President within 90 days form his
assumption of office. (Section 14)
(Midnight Appointments)Two months immediately
before the next presidential elections and up to
the end of his term, a President or acting
President shall not make appointments except
for temporary appointments to executive
positions when continued vacancies therein
will prejudice public service or endanger public
safety.
(Section 15)
The President shall have the power to make
appointments during the recess of the
Congress, whether voluntary or compulsory,
but such appointments shall be effective only
until disapproval by the CA or until the next
adjournment of Congress. (Section 16 par. 2)
Provisio applies oly to presidetial
appoitmets. The provision applies only
to presidential appointments. There is no
law that prohibits local executive officials
from making appointments during the last
days of their tenure. (De Rama v. CA)
Old Doctrine: [Sectio 15] applies i the
appoitmets i the Judiciary. Two
months immediately before the next
presidential elections and up to the end of
his term, a President or Acting President
shall not make appointments, except
temporary appointments to executive
will prejudice public service or endanger
public safety. Since the exception applies
only to executive positions, the prohibition
covers appointments to the judiciary.311
During this period [2 months immediately
before the next presidential elections], the
President is neither required to make
appointments to the courts nor allowed to do
so.
Section 4(1) and 9 of Article VIII simply
mean that the President is required by law
to fill up vacancies in the courts within the
311
In re: Appointment of Valenzuela, AM 98-0501 SC, November

9, 1998.

same time frames provided therein unless

prohibited by Section 15 of Article VII.
While the filing up of vacancies in the
judiciary is undoubtedly in the public
interest, there is no showing in this case of
any compelling reason to justify the making
of the appointments during the period of the
ban. (In Re Appointment of Mateo
Valenzuela, 1998)
New Doctrine: The prohibition under Article
VII, Section 15 of the Constitution against
presidential
appointments
immediately
before the next presidential elections and up
to the end of the term of the President does
ot apply to vacacies i the Supreme
Court. (De Castro v. JBC, March 17, 2010)
Other Limitatios:
The presidential power of appointment may also be
limited by Congress through its power to
prescribe qualifications for public office.
The judiciary may annul an appointment made by
the President if the appointee is not qualified
or has not been validly confirmed.312
Power of Removal
The President possesses the power of removal by
implication from other powers expressly vested in
him.
It is implied from his power to appoint
Being executive in nature, it is implied from the
constitutional provision vesting the
executive power in the President.
It may be implied from his function to take care
that laws be properly executed; for without
it, his orders for law enforcement might
not be effectively carried out.
The power may be implied fro the Presidents
control
over
the
administrative
departments, bureaus, and offices of the
government. Without the power to
remove, it would not be always possible
for the President to exercise his power of
control.313
As a general rule, the power of removal may be
implied from the power of appointment.314 However,
the President cannot remove officials appointed by
him where the Constitution prescribes certain
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 275 (1954ed).; But See AngAngco v. Castillo, The power of control is not the source of
the Executives disciplinary power over the person of his
subordinates. Rather, his disciplinary power flows from his
power to appoint. Bernas Primer at 313 (2006 ed).
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methods for separation of such officers from public

service, e.g., Chairmen and Commissioners of
Constitutional Commissions who can be removed
only by impeachment, or judges who are subject to
the disciplinary authority of the Supreme Court. In
the cases where the power of removal is lodged in
the President, the same may be exercised only for
cause as may be provided by law, and in
accordance with the prescribed administrative
procedure.
Members of the career service. Members of the
career service of the Civil Service who are
appointed by the President may be directly
disciplined by him. (Villaluz v. Zaldivar) provided
that the same is for cause and in accordance with
the procedure prescribed by law.
Members of the Cabiet. Members of the Cabinet
and such officers whose continuity in office
depends upon the President may be replaced at
any time. (Legally speaking, their separation is
effected not by removal but by expiration of
term.315) (See Alajar v. CA)
VI. Power of Cotrol
Control
Control v. Supervision
The President and Power of Control
Alter ego Principle; Doctrine of Qualified Political
Agency
Supervision over LGUs
The Take-Care Clause
Sectio 17. The President shall have control of all the
executive departments, bureaus, and offices. He shall
ensure that the laws be faithfully executed.
A. Cotrol
Control is the power of an officer to alter or modify
or nullify or set aside what a subordinate officer
had done in the performance of his duties and to
substitute the judgment of the former for that of the
latter.316
It includes the authority to order the doing of an act
by a subordinate or to undo such act or to assume
a power directly vested in him by law.317 The power
of control necessarily includes the power of
supervision.318
B. Cotrol v. Supervisio

Mondano v. Silvosa

Control
is
supervision.
stronger
power
than
mere
319
Supervisio. Supervision means overseeing or

the power or authority of an officer to see that
subordinate officer performs their duties. If the
latter fail or neglect to fulfill them, then the former
may take such action or steps as prescribed by law
to make them perform these duties.320
Bernas Primer: Power of Supervision is the power
of a superior officer to ensure that the laws are
faithfully executed by inferiors. The power of
supervision does not include the power of control;
but the power of control necessarily includes the
power of supervision.321
Control
Supervision
An officer in control Supervision
does not
lays down the rules in cover the authority to
the doing of an act.
lay down the rules.
Supervisor
or
superintendent
merely
sees to it that the rules
are followed.
If rules
are not If the rules are not
followed, he may, in observed, he may order
his discretion, order the work done or rethe act undone, redone but
only
to
done
by
his conform
to
the
subordinate or
he prescribed
rules. He
may decide to do it
may not prescribe
his
himself.
own manner
for the
doing of the act. He has
no judgment
on this
matter except to see to
it that the rules are
followed. (Drilon v. Lim)
C. The Presidet ad Power of Cotrol
Power of Control of the President
Scope
Section 17 is self-executing
Not a Source of Disciplinary Powers
1. Power of Cotrol of the Presidet
[Power of Control] has been given to the President
over all executive officers from Cabinet members
to the lowliest clerk. This is an element of the
presidential system where the President is the
Executive of the government.322
The power of control vested in the President by the
Constitution makes for a strongly centralized
administrative system. It reinforces further his
Mondano v. Silvosa
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SCHOOL OF LAW
position as the executive of the government,

enabling him to comply more effectively with his
constitutional duty to enforce laws. The power to
prepare the budget of the government strengthens
the Presidents position as administrative head.323
2. Scope
a. The President shall have control of all the
executive departments, bureaus, and offices.
(Section 17)
b. The President has control over officers of
GOCCs. (NAMARCO v. Arca) (Bernas: It is
submitted that such power over governmentowned corporation comes not from the
Constitution but from statute. Hence, it may also
be taken away by statute.)
c. Cotrol over what? The power of control is
exercisable by the President over the acts of his
subordinates and not necessarily over the
subordinate himself. (Ang-angco v. Castillo) It
can be said that the while the Executive has
control over the judgment or discretion of his
subordinates, it is the legislature which has
control over their person.324
d. Theoretically, the President has full control of
all the members of the Cabinet. He may appoint
them as he sees fit, shuffle them at pleasure,
and replace them in his discretion without any
legal inhibition whatever.325
e. The President may exercise powers conferred
by law upon Cabinet members or other
subordinate executive officers. (City of Iligan v.
Director of Lands) Even where the law provides
that the decision of the Director of Lands on
questions of fact shall be conclusive when
affirmed by the Sec of DENR, the same may, on
appeal to the President, be reviewed and
reversed by the Executive Secretary. (LacsonMagallanes v. Pano)
f. It has been held, moreover, that the express
grant of the power of control to the President
justifies an executive action to carry out the
reorganization of an executive office under a
broad authority of law.326 A reorganization can
involve the reduction of personnel, consolidation
of offices, or even abolition of positions by
reason of economy or redundancy of functions.
While the power to abolish an office is generally
lodged with the legislature, the authority of the
Anak Mindanao v. Executive Sec, G.R. No. 166052 , August 29, 2007;
Tondo Medical Center Employees v. CA. G.R. No. 167324, July 17,
2007;

President to reorganize the executive branch,

which may include such abolition, is permissible
under present laws.327
3. Sectio 17 is a self-executi provisio
The President derives power of control directly
from the Constitution and not from any
implementing legislation. Such a law is in fact
unnecessary and will even be invalid if it limits the
exercise of his power or withdraws it altogether
from the President.328
4. Power of Cotrol is ot the source of the
Executives discipliary power
The power of control is not the source of the
Executives disciplinary power over the person of
his subordinates. Rather, his disciplinary power
flows from his power to appoint. (Ang-Angco v.
Castillo)329
D. Alter Eo Priciple; Doctrie of Qualified Political
Aecy
Doctrine
When Doctrine not Applicable
Reason for the Doctrine
Power of Control exercised by Department

Heads Power of Control exercised by ES
Abakada Case
1. Doctrie
The doctrine recognizes the establishment of a
single executive. The doctrine postulates that, All
executive and administrative organizations are
adjuncts of the Executive Department, the heads of
the various executive departments are assistants
and agents of the Chief Executive, and, (except in
cases where the Chief Executive is required by the
Constitution or law to act in person or the
exigencies of the situation demand that he act
personally,) the multifarious executive and
administrative functions of the Chief Executive are
performed by and through the executive
departments, and the acts of the secretaries of
such departments, performed and promulgated
in the regular course of business, are, unless
disapproved or reprobated by the Chief
Executive presumptively, the acts of the Chief
Executive (Villena v. Sec. of Interior)
Put simply, when a department secretary makes a
decision in the course of performing his or her
official duties, the decision, whether honorable or
disgraceful, is presumptively the decision of the
President, unless he quickly and clearly disowns
it.330
Malaria Employees v. Executive Secretary, G.R. No. 160093, July
31, 2007.
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SCHOOL OF LAW
2. Whe Doctrie ot Applicable

Qualified political agency does NOT apply if the
President is required to act in person by law or by
the Constitution. Example: The power to grant
pardons must be exercised personally by the
President.
President cannot alter or modify or nullify, or set

aside the findings of the Secretary of Finance and
to substitute the judgment of the former to the
latter.334 (Abakada Guro v. ES, 2005)
E. Power of Supervisio over LGUs
3. Reaso for the Doctrie

Since the executive is a busy man, he is not
expected to exercise the totality of his power of
control all the time. He is not expected to exercise
all his powers in person. He is expected to
delegate some of them to men of his confidence,
particularly to members of his Cabinet. Thus, out of
this practical ecessity has risen what has come
to be referred to as doctrine of qualified political
agency.331
4. Power of Cotrol exercised by Departmet
Heads i the Presidets Behalf
The Presidents power of control means his power
to reverse the judgment of an inferior officer. It may
also be exercised in his behalf by Department
Heads. Thus the Secretary of Justice may reverse
the judgment of a prosecutor and direct him to
withdraw an information already filed. Such action
is not directly reviewable by a court. One who
disagrees, however, may should appeal to the
Office of the President in order to exhaust
administrative remedies prior to bring it to court.332
The power of the President over local governments

is only one of general supervision.335 (See Article
X, Sections 4 and 16)
The President can only interfere in the affairs and
activities of a local government unit if he finds that
the latter had acted contrary to law. (Judge Dadole
v. COA)
A law (RA 7160 Sec 187) which authorizes the
Secretary of Justice to review the constitutionality
of legality of a tax ordinanceand if warranted, to
revoke it on either or both groundsis valid, and
does not confer the power of control over local
government units in the Secretary of Justice, as
even if the latter can set aside a tax ordinance, he
cannot substitute his own judgment for that of the
local government unit. (Drilon v. Lim)
F. Faithful Executio Clause; Take Care Clause
The power to take care that the laws be faithfully
executed makes the President a dominant figure in
the administration of the government.336
5. Power of Cotrol exercised by the ES

The Executive Secretary when acting by authority
of the President may reverse the decision of
another department secretary. (Lacson-Magallanes
v. Pano) 333
The President shall ensure that the laws be

faithfully executed. (Section 17 2nd sentence) The
law he is supposed to enforce includes the
Constitution,
statutes,
judicial
decisions,
administrative rules and regulations and municipal
ordinances, as well as treaties entered into by
government.337
6. Abakada Case
Petitioners argue that the EVAT law is
unconstitutional, as it constitutes abandonment by
Congress of its exclusive authority to fix the rate of
taxes and nullififed the Presidents power of control
by mandating the fixing of the tax rate by the
President upon the recommendation of the
Secretary of Finance. The SC ruled that the
Secretary of Finance can act as agent of the
Legislative Department to determine and declare
the event upon which its expressed will is to take
effect. His personality in such instance is in reality
but a projection of that of Congress. Thus, being
the agent of Congress and not of the President, the
Fr. Bernas in his Inquirer column, A Golden Opportunity for GMA.
http://opinion.inquirer.net/inquireropinion/columns/view_article.php
?article_id=107245
Orosa v. Roa, GR 14047, July 14, 2006; DENR v. DENR Employees,

G.R. No. 149724. August 19, 2003
See the case of Neri v. Senate Committee on the authority of ES to
invoke Executive Immunity. -asm

This power of the President is not limited to the

enforcement of acts of Congress according to their
express terms. The Presidents power includes the
rights and obligations growing out of the
Constitution itself, international relations, and all
the protection implied by the nature of the
government under the Constitution.338
The reverse side of the power to execute the law is
the duty to carry it out. The President cannot refuse
to carry out a law for the simple reason that in his
334
San Beda College of Law, 2008 Centralized Bar Operations,

Political Law Reviewer, p. 29.

In Re Neagle, 135 US 1 (1890). Bernas Commentary, p 863 (2003

ed).
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SCHOOL OF LAW
judgment it will not be beneficial to the people. 339

As the Supreme Court pointed out, after all we still
live under a rule of law.
It has been suggested that the President is not
under obligation to enforce a law which in his belief
is unconstitutional because it would create no
rights and confer no duties being totally null and
void. The better view is that it is not for him to
determine the validity of a law since this is a
question exclusively addressed to the judiciary.
Hence, until and unless a law is declared
unconstitutional, the President has a duty to
execute it regardless of his doubts on its validity. A
contrary opinion would allow him not only to negate
the will of legislature but also to encroach upon the
prerogatives of the judiciary.340
VII. Military Power/Emerecy Powers
The Military Power Limitations
on Military Power
Commander-in-Chief Clause/ Calling Out

Power Suspension of the Privilege
Martial Law
Sectio 18. The President shall be the Commander-inChief of all armed forces of the Philippines and
whenever it becomes necessary, he may call out such
armed forces to prevent or suppress lawless violence,
invasion or rebellion. In case of invasion or rebellion,
when the public safety requires it, he may, for a period
not exceeding sixty days, suspend the privilege of the
writ of habeas corpus or place the Philippines or any
part thereof under martial law. Within forty-eight hours
from the proclamation of martial law or the suspension
of the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus, the
President shall submit a report in person or in writing to
the Congress. The Congress, voting jointly, by a vote of
at least a majority of all its Members in regular or
special session, may revoke such proclamation or
suspension, which revocation shall not be set aside by
the President. Upon the initiative of the President, the
Congress may, in the same manner, extend such
proclamation or suspension for a period to be
determined by the Congress, if the invasion or rebellion
shall persist and public safety requires it.
The Congress, if not in session, shall, within twentyfour hours following such proclamation or suspension,
convene in accordance with its rules without need of a
call.
The Supreme Court may review, in an appropriate
proceeding filed by any citizen, the sufficiency of the
factual basis of the proclamation of martial law or the
suspension of the privilege of the writ or the extension
thereof, and must promulgate its decision thereon
within thirty days from its filing.
A state of martial law does not suspend the operation
of the Constitution, nor supplant the functioning of the
civil courts or legislative assemblies, nor authorize the
conferment of jurisdiction on military courts and

agencies over where civil courts are able to function,
nor automatically suspend the privilege of the writ.
The suspension of the privilege of the writ shall apply
only to persons judicially charged for rebellion or
offenses inherent in or directly connected with invasion.
During the suspension of the privilege of the writ, any
person thus arrested or detained shall be judicially
charged within three days, otherwise he shall be
released.
A. The Military Power (1987 Bar Question)

Section 18 bolsters the principle announced in
Article II, Section 3 that civilian authority is at all
times, supreme over the military. By making the
President the commander-in-chief of all the armed
forces, the Constitution lessens the danger of a
military take-over of the government in violation of
its republican nature.341
Section 18 grants the President, as Commanderin-Chief, a sequence of graduated powers. From
the most to the least benign, these are: the calling
out power, the power to suspend the privilege of
the writ of habeas corpus, and the power to declare
martial law. (Sanlakas v. Executive Secretary)
The power of the sword makes the President the
most important figure in the country in times of war
or other similar emergency.342 It is because the
sword must be wielded with courage and resolution
that the President is given vast powers in the
making and carrying out of military decisions.343
The military power enables the President to:
Command all the armed forces of the
Philippines;
Suspend the privilege of the writ of habeas
corpus
Declare martial law
B. Limitatios o Military Power344 (1987, 2000 Bar
Question)
He may call out the armed forces to prevent or
suppress lawless violence, invasion or rebellion
only.
The grounds for the suspension of the privilege of
the writ of habeas corpus and the proclamation of
martial law are now limited only to invasion or
rebellion.
The duration of such suspension or proclamation
shall not exceed sixty days, following which it shall
be automatically lifted.
Within forty-eight hours after such suspension or
proclamation, the President shall personally or in
Bernas Commentary, p 863 (2003 ed)


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writing report his action to the Congress. If not in

session, Congress must convene within 24 hours.
The Congress may then, by majority votes of all its
members voting jointly, revoke his action. The
revocation may not set aside by the President.
By the same vote and in the same manner, the
Congress may, upon initiative of the President,
extend his suspension or proclamation for a period
to be determined by the Congress if the invasion or
rebellion shall continue and the public safety
requires extension.
7. The action of the President and the Congress
shall be subject to review by the Supreme Court
which shall have the authority to determine the
sufficiency of the factual basis of such action. This
matter is no longer considered a political question
and may be raised in an appropriate proceeding by
any citizen. Moreover, the Supreme Court must
decide the challenge within thirty days from the
time it is filed.
8. Martial law does not automatically suspend the
privilege of the writ of habeas corpus or the
operation of the Constitution. The civil courts and
the legislative bodies shall remain open. Military
courts and agencies are not conferred jurisdiction
over civilians where the civil courts are functioning.
The suspension of the privilege of the writ of
habeas corpus shall apply only to persons facing
charges of rebellion or offenses inherent in or
directly connected with invasion.
Any person arrested for such offenses must be
judicially charged therewith within three days.
Otherwise shall be released.
C. Commader-i-Chief Clause; Calli Out Power
Power over the military
Civilian Supremacy
Calling-out Power
The President shall be the Commander-in-Chief of all
armed forces of the Philippines and wheever it
becomes ecessary, he may call out such armed
forces to prevent or suppress lawless violence, invasion
or rebellion. (Section 18, 1st sentence)
1. Power over the Military.

The President has absolute authority over all
members of the armed forces. (Gudani v. Senga,
2006) He has control and direction over them. As
Commander-in-chief, he is authorized to direct the
movements of the naval and the military forces
placed by law at his command, and to employ them
in manner he may deem most effectual to harass
and conquer and subdue the enemy.345
Since the President is commander-in-chief of the
Armed Forces she can demand obedience from
military officers. Military officers who disobey or
345
Bernas Commentary, p 866 (2003 ed) citing Fleming v. Page.

ignore her command can be subjected to court

martial proceeding. Thus, for instance, the
President as Commander in Chief may prevent a
member of the armed forces from testifying before
a legislative inquiry. A military officer who disobeys
the Presidents directive may be made to answer
before a court martial. Since, however, Congress
has the power to conduct legislative hearings,
Congress may make use of remedies under the
law to compel attendance. Any military official
whom Congress summons to testify before it may
be compelled to do so by the President. If the
President is not so inclined, the President may be
commanded by judicial order to compel the
attendance of the military officer. Final judicial
orders have the force of the law of the land which
the President has the duty to faithfully execute.346
2. Civilia Supremacy (Berasia view)
Is the President a member of the armed
forces?
Dichotomy of views:
Sinco: The President is not only a civil official.
As commander-in-chief of all armed forces, the
President is also a military officer. This dual role
given by the Constitution to the President is
intended to insure that the civilian controls the
military.347
Bernas: The weight of authority favors the
position that the President is not a member of
the armed forces but remains a civilian.
The Presidents duties as Commander-in-Chief
represent only a part of the organic duties
imposed upon him. All his other functions are
clearly civil in nature.
He is elected as the highest civilian officer
His compensation is received for his
services rendered as President of the
nation, not for the individual part of his
duties; no portion of its is paid from sums
appropriated for the military or naval forces.
He is not subject to court martial or other
military discipline
The Constitution does not require that the
President must be possessed of military
training and talents.
This position in fact, is the only one compatible
with Article II, Section 3, which says Civilian
authority is at all times, supreme over the
military. The net effect thus of Article II, Section3
when read with Article VII, Section 18 is that a
civilian President holds supreme military
authority and is the ceremonial, legal, and
administrative head of the armed forces.348
Gudani v. Senga, G.R. No. 170165, April 15. 2006.

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3. Calli Out Power uder Sectio 18 (2006 Bar

Question)
Most Benign power of Section 18
Use of Calling Out Power Vests No Constitutional
or Statutory Powers
Reproving statements of the communist leaders

Minutes of the Intelligence Report and Security
Group of the Philippine Army
showing the growing alliance between the
NPA and the military.
Did PGMA ravely abuse her discretio i
calling out the AFP?
NO. Section 18 grants the President the calling
out power. The only criterion for the exercise is
that whenever it becomes necessary, the
President may call the armed forces to prevent or
suppress lawless violence, invasion or rebellion
These conditions are present in this case.
Considering the circumstances then prevailing
PGMA found it necessary to issue PP1017. Owing
to her Offices vast intelligence network, she is in
the best position to determine the actual condition
in her country. PP1017 is constitutional insofar
as it constitutes a call by PGMA on the AFP to
prevent or suppress lawless violence.
Declaration of State of Rebellion Declaration

of State of National Emergency Calling out
Power and Judicial Review
a. Most Bei power of Sectio 18. The

diminution of any constitutional rights through the
suspension of the privilege of the writ or the
declaration of martial law is deemed as strong
medicine to be used sparingly and only as a last
resort, and for as long as only truly necessary.
Thus, the invocation of the calling out power
stands as a balanced means of enabling a
heightened alertness in dealing with the armed
threat, but without having to suspend any
constitutional or statutory rights or cause the
creation of any new obligations.
e. Presidets actio i calli out the armed

forces, ad judicial review. It may be gathered
from the broad grant of power that the actual use to
which the President puts the armed forces, is
unlike the suspension of the privilege of writ of
habeas corpus, not subject to judicial review.349
b. Vests o ew costitutioal or statutory

powers. For the utilization of the calling out
power alone cannot vest unto the President any
new constitutional or statutory powers, such as the
enactment of new laws. At most, it can only renew
emphasis on the duty of the President to execute
already existing laws without extending a
corresponding mandate to proceed extraconstitutionally or extra-legally. Indeed, the calling
out power does not authorize the President or the
members of the Armed Forces to break the law.
But, wait! While the Court considered the

Presidents calling-out power as a discretionary
power solely vested in his wisdom and that it
cannot be called upon to overrule the Presidents
wisdom or substitute its own, it stressed that this
does not prevent an examination of whether such
power
was
exercised
within
permissible
constitutional limits or whether it was exercised in a
manner constituting grave abuse of discretion. (IBP
v. Zamora) Judicial inquiry can go no further than
to satisfy the Court not that the Presidents decision
is correct, but that the President did not act
arbitrarily. Thus, the standard is not correctness,
but arbitrariness. It is incumbent upon the petitioner
to show that the Presidents decision is totally
bereft of factual basis and that if he fails, by way of
proof, to support his assertion, then this Court
cannot undertake an independent investigation
beyond the pleadings. (IBP v. Zamora cited in
David v. Arroyo)
c. Declaratio of State of Rebellio. Declaration

of the state of rebellion is within the calling-out
power of the President. When the President
declares a state of emergency or a state of
rebellion her action is merely a description of the
situation as she sees it but it does not give her new
powers. The declaration cannot diminish or violate
constitutionally protected rights. (Sanlakas v.
Executive Secretary, G.R. No. 159085, February 3,
2004.)
d. Declaratio of a state of atioal
emerecy. The President can validly declare a
state of national emergency even in the absence of
congressional enactment. (David v. Ermita) (2006
Bar Question)
f. QUESTION:
What is the extent of the Presidents power to
conduct peace negotiations?
ANSWER:
Mai
Opiio,
J.
Carpio-Morales:
The
Presidents power to conduct peace negotiations is
implicitly included in her powers as Chief Executive
and Commander-in-Chief. The President in the
course of conducting peace negotiations may
validly consider implementing even those policies
that require changes to the Constitution, but she
PP 1017 case
Facts: On February 24, 2006, President Arroyo
issued Presidential Proclamation 1017 declaring a
state of national emergency. The Solicitor General
enumerated the following events that lead to the
issuance of PP1017:
1. Escape of Magdalo group and their

audacious threat of the Magdalo D-day
The defecations in the Military, particularly in
the Phil. Marines

349
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SCHOOL OF LAW
may ot unilaterally implement them without the

itervetio of Coress, or act i ay way as if
the asset of that body were assumed as a
certaity.
Given the limited nature of the Presidents authority
to propose constitutional amendments, she caot
uaratee to any third party that the required
amendments will eventually be put in place, nor
even be submitted to a plebiscite. (Province of
North Cotabato v. GRP)
D. Suspesio of the Privilee
Writ of Habeas Corpus
Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus
Suspension of the Privilege, Meaning
General Limitations on the power to
Suspend To whom Applicable
Effect on Applicable
Persons Grounds
Duration
Four Ways to Lift the Suspension
Duty of the President
Role of Congress
Role of the Supreme Court
1. Writ of HC
The writ. The writ of habeas corpus is a writ
directed to the person detaining another,
commanding him to produce the body of the
prisoner at a designated time and place, with the
day and cause of his caption and detention, to do,
to submit to, and receive whatever the court or
judge awarding the writ shall consider in his behalf.
(Bouviers Law Dictionary) (Hence, an essential
requisite for the availability of the writ is actual
deprivation of personal liberty) (Simply put, a writ
of habeas corpus is a writ of liberty)
Purpose. The great object of which is the liberation
of those who may be in prison without sufficient
cause.350
To what Habeas Corpus exteds. Except as
otherwise provided by law, the writ of habeas
corpus shall extend to all cases of illegal
confinement or detention by which any person is
deprived of his liberty, or by which the rightful
custody of any person is withheld from the person
entitled thereto. (Rule 102, Section 1 or Rules of
COurtt)
2. Privilee of the writ of HC
Privilee. It is the right to have an immediate
determination of the legality of the deprivation of
physical liberty.
3. Suspesio of the privilee.

In case of invasion or rebellion, when the public
safety requires it, [the Presidet] may, for a period
not exceeding sixty days, suspend the privilege of
the writ of habeas corpus.
Suspesio of
the
Privilee, Meai.
Suspension of the privilege does not suspend the
writ itself, but only its privilege. This means that
when the court receives an application for the writ,
and it finds the petition in proper form, it will issue
the writ as a matter of course, i.e., the court will
issue an order commanding the production before
the court of the person allegedly detained, at a time
and place stated in the order, and requiring the true
cause of his detention to be shown to the court. If
the return to the writ shows that the person in
custody was apprehended and detained in areas
where the privilege of the writ has been suspended
or for crimes mentioned in the executive
proclamation, the court will suspend further
proceedings in the action.351 (1997 Bar Question)
Facts: Claiming they were illegally arrested without
any warrant of arrest, petitioners sued several
officers of the AFP for damages. The officers of the
AFP argued that the action was barred since the
suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas
corpus precluded judicial inquiry into the legality of
their detention.
Held: The contention of AFP officers has not merit.
The suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas
corpus does not render valid an otherwise illegal
arrest or detention. What is suspeded is merely
the riht of idividual to seek release from
detetio throuh the writ of habeas corpus.352
(Aberca v. Ver, 160 SCRA 590)
4. Geeral Limitatios o the power to susped

the privilee
Time limit of 60 days
Review and possible revocation by Congress
Review and possible nullification by SC353
5. To whom Applicable
The suspension of the privilege of the writ shall
apply only to persons judicially charged for
rebellion or offenses inherent in or directly
connected with invasion.
6. Effect o Applicable Persos
During the suspension of the privilege of the writ,
any person thus arrested or detained shall be
judicially charged within three days, otherwise he
shall be released. (Article VI Section 18)
350
Moran, Rules of Court, Vol. II, 499.

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The suspension of the privilege of the writ does not

impair the right to bail. (Article III Section 13)
7. (Grouds) Factual Bases for Suspedi the
Privilee (1997 Bar Question)
In case of invasion or rebellion
When the public safety requires it
8. Duratio.
Martial Law, Definition (Under the 1987

Constitution) Martial Law, Nature
Proclamation of Martial Law
General Limits on the Power to
Proclaim Effects of Proclamation of
Martial Law Grounds
Duration
Four Ways to Lift the Suspension
Duty of the President
Role of Congress
Role of the Supreme Court (Open Court Doctrine)
Not to exceed sixty days, following which it shall be

lifted, unless extended by Congress.
1. Martial Law, Defiitio.

Martial law in its strict sense refers to that law
which has application when civil authority calls
upon the military arm to aid it in its civil function.
Military arm does not supersede civil authority.
Four Ways to Lift the Suspesio

Lifting by the President himself
Revocation by Congress
Nullification by the Supreme Court
By operation of law after 60 days
Duty of the Presidet
Martial law in the Philippines is imposed by the

Executive as specifically authorized and within the
limits set by the Constitution.354
Within forty-eight hours from the proclamation of

martial law or the suspension of the privilege of the
writ of habeas corpus, the President shall submit a
report i perso or i writi to the Coress.
2. Martial Law, Nature

Essentially police power
Scope of Martial Law: Flexible Concept
11. Role of Coress

Congress convenes
Congress may either revoke or (with Presidents
initiative) extend
Martial law is essetially police power. This is

borne out of the constitutional text which sets down
public safety as the object of the exercise of
martial law. Public safety is the concern of police
power.
Coress covees. The Congress, if not in

session, shall, within twenty-four hours following
such proclamation or suspension, convene in
accordance with its rules without need of a call.
What is peculiar, however, about martial law as

police power is that, whereas police power is
normally a function of the legislature executed by
the civilian executive arm, under martial law, police
power is exercised by the executive with the aid of
the military.
Coress may revoke. The Congress, voting

jointly, by a vote of at least a majority of all its
Members in regular or special session, may revoke
such proclamation or suspension, which revocation
shall not be set aside by the President.
Martial law is a flexible concept. Martial law

depends on two factual bases: (1) the existence of
invasion or rebellion; and (2) the requirements of
public safety.
Necessity creates the conditions for martial law
and at the same time limits the scope of martial
law. Certainly, the necessities created by a state of
invasion would be different from those created by
rebellion. Necessarily, therefore the degree and
kind of vigorous executive action needed to meet
the varying kinds and degrees of emergency could
not be identical under all conditions. (The common
denominator of all exercise by an executive officer
of the discretion and judgment normally exercised
by a legislative or judicial body.)
Coress may exted. Upon the initiative of the

President, the Congress may, in the same manner,
extend such proclamation or suspension for a
period to be determined by the Congress, if the
invasion or rebellion shall persist and public safety
requires it.
12. Role of Supreme Court
proceeding filed by any citizen, the sufficiecy of
the factual basis of the proclamation of martial
law or the suspension of the privilege of the writ or
the extension thereof, and must promulgate its
decision thereon within thirty days from its filing.
E. Martial Law

3. Proclamatio of Martial Law
354
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In case of invasion or rebellion, when the public

safety requires it, [the Presidet] may, for a period
not exceeding sixty days, suspend the privilege of
the writ of habeas corpus or place the Philippines
or any part thereof under martial law.
Q: Is PP 1017 actually a declaration of Martial
law?
A: No. It is merely an exercise of PGMAs
calling-out power for the armed forces to assist
her in preventing or suppressing lawless
violence. It cannot be used to justify act that
only under a valid of declaration of Martial Law
can be done. (David v. [Ermita])
Geeral Limitatios o the power to proclaim
Time limit of 60 days
Review and possible revocation by Congress
Review and possible nullification by SC355
Effects of Proclamatio of Martial Law
A State of martial law does ot:
Suspend the operation of the Constitution
Supplant the functioning of the civil courts or
legislative assemblies
Authorize the conferment of jurisdiction on military
courts and agencies over where civil courts
are able to function
Automatically suspend the privilege of the writ.
(Section 18)
Ope Court Doctrie. Civilians cannot be
tried by military courts if the civil courts are
open and functioning. (Olaguer v. Military
Commission)
The Presidet ca: (This is based on UP and Beda
2008 Bar Reviewers; But see excerpt from Bernas
Commentary)
Legislate
Order the arrest of people who obstruct the war
effort.
Bernas Commentary: The statement that martial law does
not supplant the functioning of legislative assemblies
means that ordinary legislation continues to belong to the
legislative bodies even during martial law. Does this
mean that the martial law administrator is without
power to legislate?
A: In actual theater of war, the martial law administrators
word is law, within the limits of the Bill of Rights. But
outside the theater of war, the operative law is ordinary
law.
6. Grouds; Factual Bases for the Proclamatio

In case of invasion or rebellion
When the public safety requires it
7. Duratio
355
Not to exceed sixty days, following which it shall be

lifted, unless extended by Congress.
8. Four Ways to Lift the Proclamatio
Lifting by the President himself
Revocation by Congress
Nullification by the Supreme Court
By operation of law after 60 days
9. Duty of the Presidet
Within forty-eight hours from the proclamation of
martial law or the suspension of the privilege of the
writ of habeas corpus, the President shall submit a
report i perso or i writi to the Coress.
10. Role of Coress
Congress convenes
Congress may either revoke or (with Presidents
initiative) extend
Coress covees. The Congress, if not in
session, shall, within twenty-four hours following
such proclamation or suspension, convene in
accordance with its rules without need of a call.
Coress may revoke. The Congress, voting
jointly, by a vote of at least a majority of all its
Members in regular or special session, may revoke
such proclamation or suspension, which revocation
shall not be set aside by the President.
Coress may exted. Upon the initiative of the
President, the Congress may, in the same manner,
extend such proclamation or suspension for a
period to be determined by the Congress, if the
invasion or rebellion shall persist and public safety
requires it.
11. Role of Supreme Court (2006 Bar Question)
proceeding filed by any citizen, the sufficiecy of
the factual basis of the proclamation of martial
law or the suspension of the privilege of the writ or
the extension thereof, and must promulgate its
decision thereon within thirty days from its filing.
VIII. Power of Executive Clemecy
Power of Executive Clemency
Purpose for the Grant of Power
Forms of Executive Clemency
Constitutional Limits on Executive

Clemency Pardon
Amnesty Administrative
Penalties
Other forms of Executive Clemency

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Sectio 19. Except in cases of impeachment, or as

otherwise provided in this Constitution, the President
may grant reprieves, commutations, and pardons, and
remit fines and forfeitures, after conviction by final
judgment.
He shall also have the power to grant amnesty with the
concurrence of a majority of all the Members of the
Congress.
A. Power of Executive Clemecy

No-deleable. The power of executive clemency is a
non-delegable power and must be exercised by the
President personally.356
Clemency is not a function of the judiciary; it is an
executive function.357 The exercise of the pardoning
power is discretionary in the President and may not be
controlled by the legislature or reversed by the courts,
save only when it contravenes its limitations.358
D. Limits o Executive Clemecy

Costitutioal Limits o Executive Clemecy:
It cannot be exercised in cases of impeachmet
Reprieves, commutations, and pardons, and
remission of fines and forfeitures can be given
only after covictio by fial judmet;
A grant of amnesty must be with the concurrence of
a majority of all the Members of Congress
No pardon, amnesty, parole, or suspension of
sentence for violatio of electio laws, rules,
and regulations shall be granted by the
President without the favorable
recommendation of COMELEC.360
Other Limitatios:
A pardon cannot be extended to a person
convicted of legislative contempt or civil
contempt.
Pardon cannot also be extended for the purpose of
absolving the pardonee of civil liability,
including judicial costs.
Pardon will not restore offices forfeited.361
B. Purpose for the Grat of Power of Executive

Clemecy
Ratio: Human fallibility
Purpose. That Section 19 gives to the President the
power of executive clemency is a tacit admission that
human institutions are imperfect and that there are
infirmities in the administration of justice. The power
therefore exists as an instrument for correcti these
ifirmities and for mitiati whatever harshess
might be generated by a too strict application of the
law.359 In recent years, it has also been used as a
bargaining chip in efforts to unify various political
forces.
Forms of Executive Clemecy (1988 Bar Question)

Reprieves- a postponement of a sentence to a
date certain, or a stay in the execution.
Commutatios- reduction or mitigation of the
penalty.
Pardos- act of grace which exempts the
individual on whom it is bestowed form the
punishment which the law inflicts for the crime he
has committed.
Remissio of fies
Forfeitures
Amesty- commonly denotes the general pardon
to rebels for their treason and other high political
offenses.
E. Pardo
Definition of Pardon
Classification of Pardon
Scope of Pardon
Limitations on Exercise
When Completed
Effect of Pardon
Pardon v. Parole
1. Pardo
What is Pardon?
Pardon as an act of grace
What does pardon imply?
a. Act of grace which exempts the individual on
whom it is bestowed form the punishment which
the law inflicts for the crime he has committed.
b. Because pardon is an act of grace, no legal
power can compel the executive to give it. It is an
act of pure generosity of the executive and it is his
to give or to withdraw before it is completed. 362
Congress has no authority to limit the effects of the
Presidents pardon, or to exclude from its scope
any class of offenders. Courts may not inquire in to
the wisdom or reasonableness of any pardon
granted by the President.363

Bernas Primer at 320 (2006 ed.) Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 215
(1995 ed).


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c. Pardon implies guilt. A pardon looks to the

future.
Classificatio of Pardo
Pleary- Extinguishes all the penalties
imposed upon the offender, including
accessory disabilities.
Partial-Does not extinguish all the penalties.
Absolute- One extended without any strings
attached.
Coditioal- One under which the convict is
required to comply with certain requirements.
Pardoee may reject coditioal
pardo. Where the pardon is conditional,
the offender has the right to reject the
same since he may feel that the condition
imposed is more onerous than the penalty
sought to be remitted364
Coditio, lawful. It is necessary that the
condition should not be contrary to any
provision of law.365
Coditio,co-extesive.The
condition of the pardon shall be coextensive with the penalty remitted.
Hence, if the condition is violated after the
expiration of the remitted penalty, there
can no longer be violation of the
conditional pardon.
d. When the condition is that the
recipient of the pardon should not violate
any of the penal laws, who determines
whether penal laws have been violated?
Must the recipient of pardon undergo trial
and be convicted for the new offenses?
The rule that is followed is that the
acceptance of the conditions of the
pardon imports the acceptance of the
condition that the President will also
determine whether the condition has been
violated. (Torres v. Gonzales, 152 SCRA
272 (1987)) (1997, 2005 Bar Question)
A convict who has already served his prison term

may still be extended a pardon for the purpose of
relieving him of whatever accessory liabilities have
attached to his offense.367
4. Limitatios o Exercise of
Pardo Costitutioal Limitatios
It
cannot be exercised in cases of

impeachmet
Reprieves, commutations, and pardons, and
remission of fines and forfeitures can be
given only after covictio by fial
judmet;
No pardon, amnesty, parole, or suspension of
sentence for violatio of electio laws,
rules, and regulations shall be granted by
the President without the
favorable recommendation of
COMELEC.368
Other Limitatios:
A pardon cannot be extended to a person
convicted of legislative contempt or civil
contempt.
Pardon cannot also be extended for the
purpose of absolving the pardonee of civil
liability, including judicial costs.
Pardon will not restore offices forfeited369 or
property or interests vested in others in
consequence of the conviction and
judgment.370
Whe Act of Pardo Completed
Conditional: A pardon must be delivered to and
accepted by the offender before it takes effect.
Reason: The reason for requiring
acceptance of a pardon is the need for
protecting the welfare of its recipient.
The condition may be less acceptable to
him than the original punishment, and
may in fact be more onerous.371
3. Scope of Pardo366
In granting the President the power of executive
clemency, the Constitution does not distinguish
between criminal and administrative cases.
(Llamas v. Orbos)
Absolute: Bernas submits that acceptance by the

condemned is required only when the offer of
clemency is not without encumbrance.372 (1995 Bar
Question)
Pardon is only granted after conviction of final

judgment.
Note: A pardon obtained by fraud upon the

pardoning power, whether by misrepresentation or

Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium 323 (2006 ed.)


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by suppression of the truth or by any other

imposition, is absolutely void.
Tax Amnesty
373
6. Effects of Pardo
Relieves criminal liability374
Does not absolve civil liabilities
Does not restore public offices already forfeited,
although eligibility for the same may be restored.
a. As to puitive cosequeces ad fies i
favor of overmet. Pardon relieves a party
from all punitive consequences of his criminal act.
Pardon will have the effect of remitting fines and
forfeitures which otherwise will inure to the
interests of the government itself.
b. As to civil liabilities pertaii to private
litiats. Pardon will not relieve the pardonee of
the civil liability and such other claims, as may
pertain to private litigants.
As Reards Reistatemet:
i. One who is given pardon has no demandable
right to reinstatement. He may however be
reappointed. (Monsanto v. Factoran, 1989)
(Once reinstated, he may be given his former
rank. See Sabello v. Dept. of Education, 1989,
Bernas Primer at 322)
ii. However, if a pardon is given because he was
acquitted on the ground that he did not commit
the crime, then reinstatement and backwages
would be due. (Garcia v. COA, 1993)
In order that a pardon may be utilized as a defense
in subsequent judicial proceedings, it is necessary
that it must be pleaded.375
7. Pardo v. Parole
Parole involves only a release of the convict from
imprisonment but not a restoration of his liberty.
The parolee is still in the custody of the law
although no longer under confinement, unlike the
pardonee whose sentence is condoned, subject
only to reinstatement in case of violation of the
condition that may have been attached to the
pardon.376
F. Amesty
Definition
Nature
Time of Application
Effect of Application
Effects of Grant of Amnesty
Requirements
Pardon v. Amnesty

1. Defiitio of Amesty
Grant of general pardon to a class of political
offenders either after conviction or even before the
charges are filed. It is the form of executive
clemency which under the Constitution may be
granted by the executive only with the concurrence
of the legislature.377
2. Nature
It is essentially an executive act and not a
legislative act.378 (Though concurrence of
Congress is needed)
(According to Sinco citing Brown v. Walker, 161 US
591, Congress is not prohibited from passing acts
of general amnesty to be extended to persons
before conviction.)379
3. Time of Applicatio 380 (1995 Bar Question)
Amnesty may be granted before or after the
institution of criminal prosecution and sometimes
even after conviction. (People v. Casido, 268
SCRA 360)
4. Effect of Applicatio
By applying for amnesty, the accused must be
deemed to have admitted the accusation against
him. (People v. Salig, 133 SCRA 59)
5. Effects of the Grat of Amesty
Criminal liability is totally extinguished by amnesty;
the penalty and all its effects are thus extinguished.
(See Article 89 of RPC)
It has also been held that when a detained convict
claims to be covered by a general amnesty, his
proper remedy is not habeas corpus petition.
Instead, he should submit his case to the proper
amnesty board.381
6. Requisites (1993 Bar Question)
Concurrence of a majority of all the members of
Congress (Section 19)
There must be a previous admission of guilt.
(Vera v. People)
7. Pardo v. Amesty
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Pardo
Amesty
Addressed to
ODINARY Addressed to POLITICAL
offenses
offenses
Granted to INDIVIDUALS
Granted to a CLASS of
persons
Conditional pardon
must Need not be Accepted
be accepted
No need for congressional Requires
congressional
concurrence
concurrence
Private
act
of
the A public act, subject to
President
judicial notice
Pardon looks forward.
Amnesty looks backward
Only
penalties
are Extinguishes
the offense
extinguished.
Civil indemnity is
extinguished.
Only
granted
conviction
of
judgment
itself382
not
after Maybe granted before or
final after conviction
Tax Amesty a.
Legal Nature
b. Needs Concurrence of Congress
a. Leal Nature. Tax amnesty is a general pardon
or intentional overlooking of its authority to impose
penalties on persons otherwise guilty of evasion or
violation of revenue or tax law, [and as such]
partakes of an absolute forgiveness or waiver by
the Government of its right to collect what
otherwise would be due it. (Republic v. IAC,
1991)383
b. Needs Cocurrece of Coress. Bernas
submits that the President cannot grant tax
amnesty without the concurrence of Congress.384
G. Other Forms of Executive Clemecy
Grant of reprieves, commutations and remission of
fines and forfeitures are explicit in the Constitution.
1. Reprieve
A reprieve is a postponement of a sentence to a
date certain, or a stay in the execution.
2. Commutatio
Commutation is a remission of a part of the
punishment; a substitution of a less penalty for the
one originally imposed. Commutation does not
have to be in any form. Thus, the fact that a convict
was released after six years and placed under

house arrest, which is not a penalty, already leads

to the conclusion that the penalty have been
shortened. (Drilon v. CA)
Commutation is a pardon in form but not in
substance, because it does not affect his guilt; it
merely reduces the penalty for reasons of public
interest rather than for the sole benefit of the
offender. In short, while a pardon reaches both
punishment prescribed for the offense and guilt of
the offender, a commutation merely reduces the
punishment.385
3. Remissio
Remission of fines and forfeitures merely prevents
the collection of fines or the confiscation of forfeited
property; it cannot have the effect of returning
property which has been vested in third parties or
money already in the public treasury.386
The power of the Chief Executive to remit fines and
forfeitures may not be limited by any act of
Congress.387 But a statute may validly authorize
other officers, such as department heads or bureau
chiefs, to remit administrative fines and
forfeitures.388
IX. Borrowi Power
Power to contract or guarantee foreign
loans Duty of the Monetary Board
Sectio 20. The President may contract or guarantee
foreign loans on behalf of the Republic of the Philippines
with the prior concurrence of the Monetary Board, and
subject to such limitations as may be provided by law. The
Monetary Board shall, within thirty days from the end of
every quarter of the calendar year, submit to the Congress
a complete report of its decision on applications for loans
to be contracted or guaranteed by the Government or
government-owned and controlled corporations which
would have the effect of increasing the foreign debt, and
containing other matters as may be provided by law.
A. Power to cotract or uaratee forei loas

Requirements
Reason for Concurrence
Why the Monetary Board
Spouses Constantino v. Cuisia
1. Requiremets (1994 Bar Question)
The President may contract or guarantee foreign
loans on behalf of the Republic of the Philippines:
With the prior concurrence of the Monetary
Board, and
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Subject to such limitations as may be provided

by law
Reaso for Cocurrece
A President may be tempted to contract or
guarantee loans to subsidize his program of
government and leave it to succeeding
administration to pay. Also, it will enable foreign
lending institutions to impose conditions on loans
that might impair our economic and even political
independence.389
3. Why the Moetary Board.
Because the Monetary Board has expertise and
consistency to perform the mandate since such
expertise or consistency may be absent among the
Members of Congress.390
4. Spouses Costatio v. Cuisia (2005)
Q: The fiaci proram for foreign loans
instituted by the President extinguished portions of
the countrys pre-existing loans through either debt
buyback or bond-conversion. The buy-back
approach essentially pre-terminated portions of
public debts while the bond conversion scheme
extinguished public debts through the obtention of
a new loan by virtue of a sovereign bond issuance,
the proceeds of which in turn were used for
terminating the original loan. Petitioners contend
that buyback or bond conversion are not
authorized by Article VII, Section 20.
A: The language of the Constitution is simple and
clear as it is broad. It allows the President to
contract and guarantee foreign loans. It makes no
prohibition on the issuance of certain kinds of loans
or distinctions as to which kinds of debt
instruments are more onerous than others. This
Court may not ascribe to the Constitution the
meanings and restrictions that would unduly
burden the powers of the President. The plai,
clear ad uambiuous lauae of the
Costitutio should be costrued i a sese
that will allow the full exercise of the power
provided therei. It would be the worst kind of
judicial legislation if the courts were to construe
and change the meaning of the organic act.391
B. Duty of the Moetary Board
Duty of MB
Reason for Reporting
1. Duty

The Monetary Board shall, within thirty days from

the end of every quarter of the calendar year,
submit to the Coress a complete report of its
decision on applications for loans to be contracted
or guaranteed by the Government or governmentowned and controlled corporations which would
have the effect of increasing the foreign debt, and
containing other matters as may be provided by
law.
2. Reaso for Reporti
In order to allow Congress to act on whatever
legislation may be needed to protect public
interest.392
X. Forei Affairs Power/Diplomatic Power
The President and Foreign Affairs Power
Foreign Relations Powers of the
President Source of Power
Concurrence by the Senate
Treaties v. Executive
Agreements Power to Deport
Judicial Review
A. The Presidet ad Forei Affairs Powers
As head of State, the President is supposed to the
spokesman of the nation on external affairs.393 The
conduct of external affairs is executive
altogether.394 He is the sole organ authorized to
speak or listen for the nation in the broad field of
external affairs.395
Forei Relatios Powers of the Presidet
The power to negotiate treaties and international
agreements;
The power to appoint ambassadors and other
public ministers, and consuls;
The power to receive ambassadors and other
public ministers accredited to the Philippines;
The power to contract and guarantee foreign loans
on behalf of the Republic;
The power to deport aliens.396
The power to decide that a diplomatic officer who
has become persona non grata be recalled.397
The power to recognize governments and withdraw
recognition398
Bernas Commentary, p 910 (2003 ed); Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p

306 (1954ed).
Spouses Constantino v. Cuisia, G.R. 106064, October 13, 2005; See


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via a writ of mandamus. (Pimentel v. Executive

Secretary, 2005)
C. Source of Power
The extensive authority of the President in foreign
relations in a government patterned after that of the
US proceeds from two general sources:
The Constitution
The status of sovereignty and
independence of a state.
In other words, the President derives his powers
over the foreign affairs of the country not only from
specific provisions of the Constitution but also from
customs and positive rules followed by
independent states in accordance with international
law and practice.399
The power of the Senate to give its concurrence

carries with it the right to introduce amendments to
a treaty. 402 If the President does not agree to any
amendments or reservations added to a treaty by
the Senate, his only recourse is to drop the treaty
entirely. But if he agrees to the changes, he may
persuade the other nation to accept and adopt the
modifications.
4. Treaty
Definition
Two General Steps
Effects of Treaties
Termination of Treaties
D. Cocurrece of Seate
When Concurrence of Senate Needed
When Concurrence of Senate Not
Needed Scope of Power to Concur
Treaty
a. Defiitio. Treaty is an international agreement

concluded between States in written form and
governed by international law, whether embodied
in a single instrument or in two or more related
instruments and whatever designation. (1969
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties)
Sectio 21. No treaty or international agreement shall

be valid and effective unless concurred in by at least
two-thirds of all the Members of the Senate.
Two Geeral Steps

Negotiation- Here the President alone has
authority
Treaty Approval403
1. Whe Cocurrece of Seate Needed

Concurrence of at leas 2/3 of all the members of
Senate is need for the validity and effectivity of:
Treaties of whatever kind, whether bilateral or
multilateral.400
International Agreements (that which are
permanent and original)
Whe Cocurrece of Seate Not Needed
(2003 Bar Question)
Less formal types of international agreements;
Agreements which are temporary or are mere
implementations of treaties or statutes do not need
concurrence.401
3. Scope of Power to Cocur
The power to ratify is vested in the President
subject to the concurrence of Senate. The role of
the Senate, however, is limited only to giving or
withholding its consent or concurrence, to the
ratification. Hence, it is within the authority of the
President to refuse to submit a treaty to the
Senate. Although the refusal of a state to ratify a
treaty which has been signed in his behalf is a
serious step that should not be taken lightly, such
decision is within the competence of the President
alone, which cannot be encroached by the Court
399
Effect of Treaties
Contract between states as parties
It is a law for the people of each state to
observe (municipal law)404
E. Treaties v. Executive Areemets
International agreements which involve
political issues or changes of national policy
and those involving international arrangements
of a permanent character take the form or a
treaty;
while
international
agreements
involving adjustment of details carrying out
well established national policies and traditions
and involving arrangements of a more or less
temporary nature take the form of executive
agreements
2. In treaties, formal documents require
ratification, while executive agreements
become binding through executive action.
(Commissioner of Customs v. Eastern Sea
Trading 3 SCRA 351)
F. Power to Deport
The power to deport aliens is lodged in the
President. It is subject to the regulations prescribed
400

Note that a treaty which has become customary law may become
part of Philippine law by incorporation through Article 2 Section.
-asm
401

402
. Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 299 (1954ed).

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in Section 69 of the Administrative Code or to such

future legislation as may be promulgated. (In re
McClloch Dick, 38 Phil. 41)
The adjudication of facts upon which the
deportation is predicated also devolves on the
Chief Executive whose decisions is final and
executory. (Tan Tong v. Deportation Board, 96 Phil
934, 936 (1955))
G. Judicial Review
Treaties and other international agreements
concluded by the President are also subject to
check by the Supreme Court, which has the power
to declare them unconstitutional. (Art. VIII, Section
4)
XI. Budetary Power
Budgetary Power
The Budget
Government Budgetary Process
Congress May Not Increase Appropriations
Sectio 22. The President shall submit to the
Congress within thirty days from the opening of every
regular session, as the basis of the general
appropriations bill, a budget of expenditures and
sources of financing, including receipts from existing
and proposed revenue measures.
A. Budetary Power
Legislative Authorization
Budget Execution
Budget Accountability408
D. Coress May Not Icrease Appropriatios
The Congress may not increase the appropriations
recommended by the President for the operation of
the Government as specified in the budget. (Article
VI Section 25(1))
XII. Iformi Powers
Not Mandatory
State of the Nation Address
Sectio 23. The President shall address the Congress
at the opening of its regular session. He may also
appear before it at any other time.
A. Not Madatory
Although couched in mandatory language, the first
sentence of this provision does not as a rule
impose a compellable duty on the President.409
B. State of the Natio Address
The President usually discharges the informing
power through the state-of-the-nation address,
which is delivered at the opening of the regular
session of the legislature.410
This power is properly entrusted to the executive

department, as it is the President who, as chief
administrator and enforcer of laws, is in best
position to determine the needs of the government
and propose the corresponding appropriations
therefor on the basis of existing or expected
sources of revenue.405
B. The Budet
The budet of receipts ad expeditures
prepared by the President is the basis for the
general appropriation bill passed by the
Congress.406
The phrase sources of financing has reference to
sources other than taxation.407
C. Govermet Budetary Process
The complete government budgetary process has
been graphically described as consisting of four
major phases:
Budget Preparation

Guingona v. Carague, 196 SCRA 221 (1991); Bernas

Commentary, p 912 (2003 ed).
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The appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme

Court may not be increased by law without its
advice or concurrence. (art. 6 30)
Appointees to the judiciary are now nominated
by the Judicial and Bar Council and
no longer subject to confirmation by
Commission on Appointments. (art. 8 9)
The Supreme Court now has administrative
supervision over all lower courts and their
personnel. (art. 8 6)
The Supreme Court has exclusive power to
discipline judges of lower courts. (art 8 11)
The members of the Supreme Court and all
lower courts have security of tenure, which
cannot be undermined by a law reorganizing
the judiciary. (art. 8 11)
9. They shall not be designated to any agency
performing quasi-judicial or administrative
functions. (art. 8 12)
The salaries of judges may not be reduced
during their continuance in office. (art. 8 10)
The judiciary shall enjoy fiscal autonomy
(art 83)
Only the Supreme Court may order the
temporary detail of judges (art 8 5(3))
The Supreme Court can appoint all
officials and employees of the judiciary. (art. 8
5(6))
JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT
I. JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT
II. JUDICIAL POWER(Section 1)
III. JURISDICTION (Section 2)
IV. THE SUPREME COURT(Sections 4, 7-12)
V. POWERS OF THE SUPREME COURT
(Sections 5,6, 11, 16)
VI. JUDICIAL REVIEW
VII. DECIDING A CASE (Sections 4,13-15)
VIII. OTHER COURTS
I. Judicial Departmet
Composition
Common Provisions
Independence of Judiciary
A. Compositio
The Supreme Court and all lower courts make up the
judicial department of our government.411
B. Commo Provisios
1.
Independence
of
Judiciary (See Section 3)
2.
Congressional
Oversight (Section 2)
3.
Separation
of
Sectio 3. The Judiciary shall enjoy fiscal autonomy.

Appropriations for the Judiciary may not be reduced by
the legislature below the amount appropriated for the
previous year and, after approval, shall be
automatically and regularly released.
Powers (Section 12)
4.
General
Rules
(Section 14)
5.
Period to
Decide
Case (Section 15)

C. Idepedece of Judiciary (2000 Bar Question)
To maintain the independence of the judiciary, the
following safeuards have been embodied in the
Constitution:412
The Supreme Court is a constitutional body. It
cannot be abolished nor may its membership
or the manner of its meeting be changed by
mere legislation. (art 8 2)
The members of the Supreme Court may not
be removed except by impeachment. (art.
9 2)
3. The SC may not be deprived of its minimum
original
and
appellate
jurisdiction
as
prescribed in Article X, Section 5. (art. 8 2)
(1999 Bar Question)

Fiscal autoomy means freedom from outside
control.As envisioned in the Constitution, fiscal
autonomy enjoyed by the Judiciarycontemplates
a guarantee of full flexibility to allocate and
utilize their resources with the wisdom and
dispatch that their needs, require.
Fiscal autonomy recognizes the power and
authority to (a) levy, assess and collect fees, (b) fix
rates of compensation not exceeding the highest
rates authorized by law for compensation, and (c)
pay plans of the government and allocate or
disburse such sums as may be provided by law or
prescribed by them in the course of the discharge
of their functions.
The imposition of restrictions and constraints on
the manner the [Supreme Court] allocate and
utilize the funds appropriated for their operations is
anathema to fiscal autonomy and violative of the
express mandate of the Constitution and of the
independence and separation of powers. (Bengzon
v. Drilon)

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Reaso. Fiscal autonomy is granted to the

Supreme Court to strengthen its autonomy.413 The
provision is intended to remove courts from the
mercy and caprice, not to say vindictiveness, of the
legislature when it considers the general
appropriations bill.414
II. Judicial Power
Where Vested
Definition
Scope
Intrinsic Limit on Judicial Power
Grave Abuse of Discretion
Role of Legislature in Judicial Process
Sectio 1. The judicial power shall be vested in one
Supreme Court and in such lower courts as may be
established by law.
Judicial power includes the duty of the courts of justice to
settle actual controversies involving rights which are legally
demandable and enforceable, and to determine whether or
not there has been a grave abuse of discretion amounting to
lack or excess of jurisdiction on the part of any branch or
instrumentality of the Government.
A. Judicial Power Where Vested (1989 Bar Question)

Judicial power shall be vested in one Supreme
Court and in such lower courts as may be
established by law. (Section 1 par. 1)
B. Defiitio of Judicial Power (1994 Bar Question)
Traditioal Cocept: Judicial power includes the
duty of the courts of justice to settle actual
controversies involving rights which are legally
demandable and enforceable. (Section 1, 2nd
sentence)
Broadeed Cocept: Duty to determine whether
[or not] there has been a grave abuse of discretion
amounting to lack or excess of jurisdiction on the
party of any branch or instrumentality of the
Government. (Section 1, 2nd sentence)
C. Scope of Judicial Power (1989 Bar Question)
Judicial power is the measure of the allowable
scope of judicial action.415 The use of the word
includes in Section 1 connotes that the provision
is not intended to be an exhaustive list of what
judicial power is.416


An accused who has been convicted by final

judgment still possesses collateral rights and these
rights can be claimed in the appropriate courts [e.g.
death convict who becomes insane after his final
conviction cannot be executed while in a state of
insanity] The suspension of death sentence is an
exercise of judicial power. It is not usurpation of the
presidential power of reprieve though the effect is
the same- the temporary suspension of the
execution of the death convict. (Echegaray v. Sec.
of Justice, 1999)
Limit o Judicial Power
Courts may not assume to perform non-judicial
functions.
It is not the function of the judiciary to give
advisory opinion
Judicial power must sometimes yield
separation of powers, political questions and
to
enrolled bill rule.

1. By the principle of separation of powers, courts
may either attempt to assume or be
compelled to perform o-judicial fuctios.417
Thus, a court may not be required to act as a board
of arbitrators (Manila Electric Co. v. Pasay
Transportation (1932). Nor may it be charged with
administrative functions except when reasonably
incidental to the fulfillment of official duties.
(Noblejas v. Tehankee) Neither is its the function of
the judiciary to give advisory opinions.
2. Advisory Opiios.
An advisory opiio is an opinion issued by a
court that does not have the effect of resolving a
specific legal case, but merely advises on the
constitutionality or interpretation of a law.
The nature of judicial power is also the foundation
of the principle that it is not the function of the
judiciary to give advisory opinion.418 If the courts
will concern itself with the making of advisory
opinions, there will be loss of judicial prestige.
There may be less than full respect for court
decisions.
Declaratory
Opiios.
Judmet
v.
Advisory
Declaratory
Advisory
Judmet
Opiios
Involves real parties Response to
a legal
with real
conflicting issue posed in
the
interests
abstract in advance of
any actual case
in
which
it may
be
presented
Judgment is
a final Binds no one
one forever binding
on the parties.
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A judicial act

Not a judicial act419
3. The broadened concept of judicial power is not

meant to do away with the political questions
doctrine itself. The concept must sometimes yield
to separatio of powers, to the doctrine on
political questios or to the erolled bill
rule.420
such proceeding. (Channie Tan v. Republic, 107

Phil 632 (1960)) An award of honors to a student
by a board of teachers may not be reversed by a
court where the awards are governed by no
applicable law. (Santiago Jr. v. Bautista) Nor may
courts reverse the award of a board of judges in an
oratorical contest. (Felipe v. Leuterio, 91 Phil 482
(1952)).425
E. Grave Abuse Clause

To determine whether or not there has been a grave abuse of
discretion amounting to lack or excess of jurisdiction on the
part of any branch or instrumentality of the Government
Not every abuse of discretion can be the occasion

for the Court to come in by virtue of the second
sentence of Section 1. It must be grave abuse of
discretion amounting to lack or excess of
jurisdiction.421
There is grave abuse of discretion:
when an act done contrary to the
Constitution, the law, or jurisprudence, or
it is executed whimsically,
capriciously, arbitrarily out of malice, ill will
or personal bias. (Infotech v. COMELEC,
2004)
Again, the broadened concept of judicial power is
not meant to do away with the political questions
to separation of powers, to the doctrine on political
questions or to the enrolled bill rule.422 (1995 Bar
Question)
Rule 65 embodies the Grave Abuse Clause.423
F. Role of Leislature i Judicial Process
Although judicial power is vested in the judiciary,
the proper exercise of such power requires prior
legislative action:
Defining such enforceable and demandable
rights; and
Determining the court with jurisdiction to hear
and decide controversies or disputes
arising from legal rights.424
Courts cannot exercise judicial power when there
is no applicable law. The Court has no authority to
entertain an action for judicial declaration of
citizenship because there was no law authorizing
III. Jurisdictio
Definition
Scope
Role of Congress
Sectio 2. The Congress shall have the power to define,
prescribe, and apportion the jurisdiction of the various courts
but may not deprive the Supreme Court of its jurisdiction
over cases enumerated in Section 5 hereof.
No law shall be passed reorganizing the Judiciary when it
under-mines the security of tenure of its Members.
A. Defiitio
Jurisdiction is the power and authority of the court
to hear, try and decide a case. (De La Cruz v. CA,
2006)
B. Scope
It is not only the (1) power to determie, but the
(2) power to eforce its determiatio.
The (3) power to cotrol the executio of its
decision is an essential aspect of jurisdiction
(Echegaray . Sec. of Justice, 301 SCRA 96)
C. Role of Coress
Power. The Congress shall have the power to
define, prescribe, and apportion the jurisdiction of
the various courts. (Section 2)
Limitatios:
Congress may not deprive the Supreme Court
of its jurisdiction over cases enumerated
in Section 5. ( art. 8 2)
No law shall be passed reorganizing the
Judiciary when it under-mines the security
of tenure of its Members. ( art. 8 2)
The appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme
Court may not be increased by law except
upon its advice and concurrence. (art. 6
30)
* Jurisdiction in Section 2 refers to jurisdiction over

See Bernas Commentary, p 919-920 (2003 ed).
Annotation to the Writ of Amparo.
cases [jurisdiction over the subject matter].426


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IV. The Supreme Court

Nature
Composition
Qualifications
Judicial and Bar Council
Appointment
Salaries
Tenure
Removal
Prohibition
A. Nature
The [Supreme] Court is a court of law. Its primary
task is to resolve and decide cases and issues
presented by litigants according to law. However, it
may apply equity where the court is unable to
arrive at a conclusion or judgment strictly on the
basis of law due to a gap, silence, obscurity or
vagueness of the law that the Court can still
legitimately remedy, and the special circumstances
of the case. (Rule 3, Section 1 of 2010 SC Internal
Rules)
Cocept of Precedece i the Supreme Court
The Chief Justice enjoys precedence over all the
other Members of the Court in all official functions.
The Associate Justices shall have precedence
according to the order of their appointments as
officially transmitted to the Supreme Court.
The rule on precedence shall be applied in the
following instances:
in the determination of the Chairpersonship of
the Division;
in the seating arrangement of the Justices in all
official functions; and
in the choice of office space, facilities,
equipment, transportation, and cottages.
B. Compositio
Sectio 4. (1) The Supreme Court shall be composed of
a Chief Justice and fourteen Associate Justices. It may sit
en banc or in its discretion, in division of three, five, or
seven Members. Any vacancy shall be filled within ninety
days from the occurrence thereof.
Compositio of the Supreme Court: Fifteen (15).

1 Chief Justice and 14 Associate Justices.
By so fixing the number of members of the
Supreme Court at [fifteen], it seems logical to infer
that no statute may validly increase or decrease
it.427
427
Colleiate Court. The primary purpose of a

collegiate court is precisely to provide for the most
exhaustive deliberation before a conclusion is
reached.428
C. Qualificatios
Sectio 7. (1) No person shall be appointed Member of
the Supreme Court or any lower collegiate court unless
he is a natural-born citizen of the Philippines. A Member
of the Supreme Court must be at least forty years of age,
and must have been for fifteen years or more a judge of a
lower court or engaged in the practice of law in the
Philippines.
The Congress shall prescribe the qualifications of judges
of lower courts, but no person may be appointed judge
thereof unless he is a citizen of the Philippines and a
member of the Philippine Bar.
A Member of the Judiciary must be a person of proven
competence, integrity, probity, and independence.
Qualificatios of a Member of the Supreme

Court:
Must be a natural born citizen of the Philippines
Must at least be 40 years of age;
Must have been for 15 years or more a judge of a
lower court or engaged in the practice of law in
the Philippines; and
A person of proven competence, integrity, probity,
and independence.
Congress may not alter the qualifications of
Members of the Supreme Court and the
constitutional qualifications of other members of
the Judiciary. But Congress may alter the statutory
qualifications of judges and justices of lower
courts.429
It behooves every prospective appointee to the
Judiciary to apprise the appointing authority of
every matter bearing on his fitness for judicial
office, including such circumstances as may reflect
on his integrity and probity. Thus the fact that a
prospective judge failed to disclose that he had
been administratively charged and dismissed from
the service for grave misconduct by a former
President of the Philippines was used against him.
It did not matter that he had resigned from office
and that the administrative case against him had
become moot and academic.430
Similary, before one who is offered an appointment
to the Supreme Court can accept it, he must
correct the entry in his birth certificate that he is an
alien.431
In re JBC v. Judge Quitain, JBC No. 013, August 22, 2007.
Kilosbayan v. Ermita, G.R. No. 177721, July 3, 2007. This was the
case of Justice Gregory Ong of the Sandiganbayanwho was being
promoted to the Supreme court. Ong, however, remains in the
Sandiganbayan.

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A Member of the Judiciary must be a perso of prove

competece, iterity, probity, ad idepedece.
Competece. In determining the competence of the

applicant or recommendee for appointment, the Judicial
and Bar Council shall consider his educational
preparation, experience, performance and other
accomplishments of the applicant. (Rule 3 Section 1 of
JBC Rules; See Canon 6 of 2004 New Code of Judicial
Conduct)
Secretary of Justice
Representative of Congress
Regular Members (Term of 4 years appointed
by President with the consent of CA)
Representative of IBP
Professor of Law
Retired Member of SC
Representative of private sector
The Clerk of the Supreme Court shall be the
Secretary ex officio of the JBC.
Iterity. The Judicial and Bar Council shall take every

possible step to verify the applicants record of and
reputation for honesty, integrity, incorruptibility,
irreproachable conduct and fidelity to sound moral and
ethical standards. (Rule 4, Section 1 of JBC Rules; See
Canon 2 of 2004 NCJC)
Represetative from Coress. Such

representative may come from either House.
In practice, the two houses now work out a
way of sharing representation.432 A member
from each comes from both Houses but each
have only half a vote.433
Probity ad Idepedece. Any evidence relevant to

the candidates probity and independence such as, but
not limited to, decision he has rendered if he is an
incumbent member of the judiciary or reflective of the
soundness of his judgment, courage, rectitude, cold
neutrality and strength of character shall be considered.
(Rule 5 Section of JBC Rules; See Canon 1 of 2004
NCJC)
Fuctio of JBC. JBCs principal function is to

recommend to the President appointees to the
Judiciary. It may exercise such other functions and
duties as the Supreme Court may assign to it.
D. Judicial ad
Question)
Ratioale for Creatio of JBC. The Council was

principally designed to eliminate politics from the
appointment and judges and justices. Thus,
appointments to the Judiciary do not have to go
through a political Commission on Appointments.434
Bar Coucil (1988, 1999 Bar
Composition
Function
Reason for Creation

Sectio 8.
A Judicial and Bar Council is hereby created under the
supervision of the Supreme Court composed of the Chief
Justice as ex officio Chairman, the Secretary of Justice,
and a representative of the Congress as ex officio
Members, a representative of the Integrated Bar, a
professor of law, a retired Member of the Supreme Court,
and a representative of the private sector.
The regular members of the Council shall be appointed
by the President for a term of four years with the consent
of the Commission on Appointments. Of the Members
first appointed, the representative of the Integrated Bar
shall serve for four years, the professor of law for three
years, the retired Justice for two years, and the
representative of the private sector for one year.
The Clerk of the Supreme Court shall be the Secretary ex
officio of the Council and shall keep a record of its
proceedings.
The regular Members of the Council shall receive such
emoluments as may be determined by the Supreme
Court. The Supreme Court shall provide in its annual
budget the appropriations for the Council.
The Council shall have the principal function of
recommending appointees to the Judiciary. It may
exercise such other functions and duties as the Supreme
Court may assign to it.
Compositio of JBC:
1. SC Chief Justice (ex officio Chairman)
Ex officio Members
JBC does not perform judicial or quasi-judicial

functions (J Brions Concurring and Dissenting
Opinion in De Castro v. JBC)
Relatioship of JBC ad SC
The Court cannot dictate on the JBC the results of
its assigned task, i.e., who to recommend or what
standards to use to determine who to recommend.
It cannot even direct the JBC on how and when to
do its duty, but it can, under its power of
supervision, direct the JBC to take such action or
step as prescribed by law to make them perform
their duties, if the duties are not being performed
because of JBCs fault or inaction, or because of
extraneous factors affecting performance. Note in
this regard that, constitutionally, the Court can also
assign the JBC other functions and duties a
power that suggests authority beyond what is
purely supervisory. (J Brions Concurring and
Dissenting Opinion in De Castro v. JBC)
The process of preparing and submitting a list of
nominees is an arduous and time-consuming task
that cannot be done overnight. It is a six-step
process lined with standards requiring the JBC to
attract the best available candidates, to examine
and investigate them, to exhibit transparency in all
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its actions while ensuring that these actions

conform to constitutional and statutory standards
(such as the election ban on appointments), to
submit the required list of nominees on time, and to
ensure as well that all these acts are politically
neutral. On the time element, the JBC list for the
Supreme Court has to be submitted on or before
the vacancy occurs given the 90-day deadline that
the appointing President is given in making the
appointment. The list will be submitted, not to
the President as an outgoing President, nor to
the election winner as an incoming President,
but to the President of the Philippines whoever
he or she may be. If the incumbent President
does not act on the JBC list within the time left in
her term, the same list shall be available to the
new President for him to act upon. In all these, the
Supreme Court bears the burden of overseeing
that the JBCs duty is done, unerringly and with
utmost dispatch; the Court cannot undertake this
supervision in a manner consistent with the
Constitutions expectation from the JBC unless it
adopts a pro-active stance within the limits of its
supervisory authority. (J Brions Concurring and
Dissenting Opinion in De Castro v. JBC)
E. Appoitmet
Sectio 9. The Members of the Supreme Court and
judges of lower courts shall be appointed by the
President from a list of at least three nominees prepared
by the Judicial and Bar Council for every vacancy. Such
appointments need no confirmation.
For the lower courts, the President shall issue the
appointments within ninety days from the submission of
the list.
For every vacancy, the Judicial and Bar Council

submits to the President a list of at least three
names. The President may not appoint anybody
who is not in the list. If the President is not satisfied
with the list, he may ask for another list.435
Why at least 3? The reason for requiring at least
three nominees for every vacancy is to give the
President enough leeway in the exercise of his
discretion when he makes his appointment. If the
nominee were limited to only one, the appointment
would in effect be made by the Judicial and Bar
Council, with the President performing only the
mathematical act of formalizing the commission.436
Judges may not be appointed in an acting capacity
or temporary capacity.437 It should be noted that
what the Constitution authorizes the President to
do is to appoint Justices and judges and ot the
authority merely to desiate a non-member of

the Supreme Court temporarily to sit as Justice of

Supreme Court.438
ASM: Do you know that when there is a vacancy in
the Supreme Court, the remaining members of the
Tribunal vote and make a recommendation to the
Judicial and Bar Council.
F. Salaries
Sectio 10. The salary of the Chief Justice and of the
Associate Justices of the Supreme Court, and of judges
of lower courts shall be fixed by law. During their
continuance in office, their salary shall not be decreased.
The prohibition of the diminution of the salary of

Justices and judges during their continuance in
office is intended as a protection for the
independence of the judiciary.439
The clear intent of the Constitutional Commission
was to subject the salary of the judges and justices
to income tax. (Nitafan v. CIR, 1987)
G. Teure
Sectio 11. The Members of the Supreme Court and
judges of lower courts shall hold office during good
behavior until they reach the age of sevety years or
become incapacitated to discharge the duties of their
office. The Supreme Court en banc shall have the power
of discipline judges of lower courts, or order their
dismissal by a vote of a majority of the Members who
actually took part in the deliberations on the issues in the
case and voted thereon.
Security of Tenure is essential to an independent

judiciary.
The Supreme Court may investigate or discipline its
own members. (See IN THE MATTER OF THE
CHARGES OF
PLAGIARISM,
ETC.,
AGAINST
ASSOCIATE JUSTICE MARIANO C.DEL CASTILLO.
A.M. No. 10-7-17-SC; See also IN RE: UNDATED
LETTER OF MR. LOUIS C. BIRAOGO A.M. No. 09-219-SC)
H. Removal
By Impeachmet. The Members of the Supreme
Court are removable only by impeachment. They
can be said to have failed to satisfy the
requirement of good behavior only if they are
guilty of the offenses which are constitutional
grounds of impeachment.

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The members of the Supreme Court may be

removed from office on impeachment for, and
conviction of:
Culpable violation of the Constitution;
Treason;
Bribery;
Graft and Corruption;
Other High Crimes
Betrayal of Public Trust(Article XI, Section 2)
A Supreme Court Justice cannot be charged in a
criminal case or a disbarment proceeding, because
the ultimate effect of either is to remove him from
office, and thus circumvent the provision on
removal by impeachment thus violating his security
of tenure (In Re: First Indorsement from Hon. Raul
Gonzalez, A.M. No. 88-4-5433)
H. Prohibitio
Sectio 12. The Members of the Supreme Court and of
other courts established by law shall not be designated to
any agency performing quasi-judicial or administrative
functions.
The provision merely makes explicit an application

of the principles of separate of powers.440
Take note of the other tasks given to SC or the
Members of SC by the Constitution:
SC en banc as Presidential Electoral Tribunal
(art 7 4)
Chief Justice as presiding officer of the
impeachment Court when the President is
in trial (art. 11 3(6)).
Chief Justice as ex officio chairman of the
JBC. (art. 8 8(1)).
Justices as members of Electoral Tribunals
(art. 6 17).
V. Powers of Supreme Court
General Power
Specific Powers
Original Jurisdiction
Appellate Jurisdiction
Temporary Assignment of Judges
Change of Venue or Place of Trial
Rule-Making Power
Appointment of Court Personnel
Administrative Supervision of Courts
Disciplinary/Dismissal Powers
Contempt Powers
Annual Report
Sectio 5. The Supreme Court shall have the following
powers:
440


Exercise original jurisdiction over cases affecting
ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and
over petitions for certiorari, prohibition, mandamus, quo
warranto, and habeas corpus.
Review, revise, reverse, modify, or affirm on appeal or
certiorari as the law or the Rules of Court may provide,
final judgments and orders of lower courts in:
All cases in which the constitutionality or validity of
any treaty, international or executive agreement, law,
presidential decree, proclamation, order, instruction,
ordinance,
or
regulation
is
in
question.
All cases involving the legality of any tax, impost,
assessment, or toll, or any penalty imposed in relation
thereto.
All cases in which the jurisdiction of any lower court
is in issue.
All criminal cases in which the penalty imposed is
reclusion perpetua or higher.
All cases in which only an error or question of law is
involved.
Assign temporarily judges of lower courts to other stations
as public interest may require. Such temporary
assignment shall not exceed six months without the
consent of the judge concerned.
Order a change of venue or place of trial to avoid a
miscarriage of justice.
Promulgate rules concerning the protection and
enforcement of constitutional rights, pleading, practice,
and procedure in all courts, the admission to the practice
of law, the Integrated Bar, and legal assistance to the
underprivileged. Such rules shall provide a simplified and
inexpensive procedure for the speedy disposition of
cases, shall be uniform for all courts of the same grade,
and shall not diminish, increase, modify substantive
rights. Rules of procedure of special courts and quasijudicial bodies shall remain effective unless disapproved
by the Supreme Court.
Appoint all officials and employees of the Judiciary in
accordance with the Civil Service Law.
Sectio 6. The Supreme Court shall have administrative
supervision over all courts and the personnel thereof.
Sectio 11
xxxThe Supreme Court en banc shall have the power of
discipline judges of lower courts, or order their dismissal
by a vote of a majority of the Members who actually took
part in the deliberations on the issues in the case and
voted thereon.
A. Geeral Power
Judicial Power (1)
B. Specific Powers
Specific Powers of the Supreme Court uder
Article VIII:
Original Jurisdiction
Appellate Jurisdiction
Temporary Assignment of Judges
Change of Venue or Place of Trial
Rule-Making Power
Appointment of Court Personnel (5)
Administrative Supervision of Courts (6)
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prohibition and mandamus against lower courts

and bodies and in petitions for quo warranto and
habeas corpus. (BP 129 9(1), 21(2))
8.
Dismissal/ Removal Powers (11)

(Section 5(1) and (2) refer to the irreducible
jurisdiction of the Supreme Court while Section 5
(3 -6) and Section 6 provide of auxiliary
administrative powers.)
Priciple of Judicial Hierarchy

Under a judicial policy recognizing hierarchy of
courts, a higher court will not entertain direct resort
to it unless the redress cannot be obtained in the
appropriate courts. (Santiago v. Vasquez, 217
SCRA 167) Thus, while it is true that the issuance
of a writ of prohibition under Rule 65 is within the
jurisdiction of the Supreme Court, a petitioner
cannot seek relief from the Supreme Court where
the issuance of such writ is also within the
competence of the Regional Trial Court or the
Court of Appeals.
A direct recourse of the Supreme Courts original
jurisdiction to issue writs should be allowed only
when there are special and important reasons
therefore, clearly and specifically set out in the
petition. (Mangahas v. Paredes, 2007)
Other Powers of SC:

Jurisdiction over proclamation of Martial law or
suspension of the writ of habeas corpus; (art.
7 18)
Jurisdiction over Presidential and VicePresidential election contests; (art. 7 4)
Jurisdiction over decision, order, or ruling of
the Constitutional Commissions. (art. 9 7)
Supervision over JBC (art. 8 8(1))
Power to Punish Contempt
C. Oriial Jurisdictio
Sectio 5(1). The Supreme Court has original
jurisdiction over:
Cases affecting ambassadors, other public
ministers and consuls.
Petitions for certiorari, prohibition, mandamus,
quo warranto, and habeas corpus.441
Note that under international law, diplomats and
even consuls to a lesser extent, are not subject to
jurisdiction of the courts of the receiving State,
save in certain cases, as when immunity is waived
either expressly or impliedly. In such instances, the
Supreme Court can and probably should take
cognizance of the litigation in view of possible
international repercussions.442
Q: What cases may be filed originally in the

Supreme Court?
A: Only petitions for certiorari, prohibition,
mandamus, quo warranto, habeas corpus,
disciplinary proceedings against members of the
judiciary
and
attorneys,
and
affecting
ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls
may be filed originally in the Supreme Court. (Rule
56, Sectio 1, Rules of Court)
D. Appellate Jurisdictio
Sectio 5(2). The Supreme Court has the power to
review, revise, reverse, modify, or affirm on appeal
or certiorari as the law or the Rules of Court may
provide, final judgments and orders of lower courts
in:
All cases in which the constitutionality or
validity of any treaty, international or
executive agreement, law, presidential
decree, proclamation, order, instruction,
ordinance, or regulation is in question.
All cases involving the legality of any tax,
impost, assessment, or toll, or any penalty
imposed in relation thereto.
All cases in which the jurisdiction of any lower
court is in issue.
All criminal cases in which the penalty
imposed is reclusion perpetua or higher.
All cases in which only an error or question of
law is involved.
The petitions for certiorari, mandamus, prohibition,

and quo warranto are special civil actions. The
questions raised in the first three petitions are
questions of jurisdiction or grave abuse of
discretion and, in fourth, the title of the respondent.
The petition for habeas corpus is a special
proceeding.443
Cocurret Jurisdictio.
The Supreme Court has concurrent original
jurisdiction with Regional Trial Courts in cases
affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and
consuls. (BP 129 21(2))
jurisdiction with the Court of Appeals in petitions for
certiorari, prohibition and mandamus against the
Regional Trial Courts. (BP 129 9(1))
jurisdiction with the Court of Appeals and the
Regional Trial Courts in petitions for certiorari,
Irreducible. This appellate jurisdiction of the

Supreme Court is irreducible and may not be
withdrawn from it by Congress.444
See Rule 65, 66 and 102, Rules of Court.

Fial Judmets of lower courts. It should be

noted that the appeals allowed in this section are
444

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from final judgments and decrees only of lower

courts or judicial tribunals. Administrative
decisions are not included.445
stations as public interest may require. Such

temporary assignment shall not exceed six months
without the consent of the judge concerned.
The lower courts have competece to decide

costitutioal
questios.
Section
5(2)(a)
provides that Supreme Court has appellate
jurisdiction over final judgments and orders all
cases in which the constitutionality or validity of
any treaty, international or executive agreement,
law, presidential decree, proclamation, order,
instruction, ordinance or regulation is in question.
Ratioale of the Provisio. The present rule

bolsters the independence of the judiciary in so far
as it vests the power to temporarily assign judges
of inferior courts directly in the Supreme Court and
no longer in the executive authorities and
conditions the validity of any such assignment in
excess of six months upon the consent of the
transferred judge. This will minimize if not
altogether eliminate the pernicious practice of the
rigodon de jeuces, or the transfer of judges at will
to suit the motivations of the chief executive.448
Review of Death Pealty. Section 5 requires a

mandatory review by the Supreme Court of cases
where the penalty imposed is reclusion perpetua,
life imprisonment, or death. However, the
Constitution has not proscribed an intermediate
review. To ensure utmost circumspection before
the penalty of death, reclusion perpetua or life
imprisonment is imposed, the Rule now is that
such cases must be reviewed by the Court of
Appeals before they are elevated to the Supreme
Court.446 Note, however, that the rule for the review
of decisions of lower courts imposing death or
reclusion perpetua or life imprisonment are not the
same. In case the sentence is death, there is
automatic review by the Court of Appeals and
ultimately by the Supreme Court. This is mandatory
and neither the accused nor the courts may waive
the right of appeal. In the case of the sentence of
reclusion perpetua or life imprisonment, however,
although the Supreme Court has jurisdiction to
review them, the review is not mandatory.
Therefore review in this later cases may be waived
and appeal may be withdrawn.447
In Republic v. Sandiganbayan, 2002, it was held
that the appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court
over decisions and final orders of the
Sandiganbayan is limited to questions of law. A
questio of law exists when the doubt or
controversy concerns the correct application of law
or jurisprudence to a certain set of facts; or when
the issue does not call for an examination of the
probative value of the evidence presented, the
truth or falsehood of facts being admitted.
Section 5(2), (a) and (b) explicitly grants judicial
review in the Supreme Court. (Judicial Review will
be discussed in the next chapter)
E. Temporary Assimet of Judes
assign temporarily judges of lower courts to other
People v. Mateo, G.R. No. 147678-87. July 7, 2004; People v. Lagua,

G.R. No. 170565, January 31, 2006.
Purpose of Trasfer. Temporary assignments may

be justified to arrange for judges with clogged
dockets to be assisted by their less busy
colleagues, or to provide for the replacement of the
regular judge who may not be expected to be
impartial in the decision of particular cases.449
Permaet Trasfer. Since transfer imports
removal from one office and since a judge enjoys
security of tenure, it cannot be effected without the
consent of the judge concerned.450
F. Chae of Veue or Place of Trial
order a change of venue or place of trial to avoid a
miscarriage of justice.
This power is deemed to be an incidental and
inherent power of the Court. (See People v.
Gutierrez, 36 SCRA 172 (1970))
G. Rule Maki Power
Power to Promulgate Rules Limits
on the Rule Making Power
Nature and Function of Rule Making Power Test

to Determin Whether Rules are Substantive
Rules Concerning Protection of Constitutional
Rights Admission to the Practice of Law
Integration of the Bar
Congress and the Rules of Court
1. Power to Promulate Rules
The Supreme Court has the power to promulgate
rules concerning:
The
protection
and
enforcement
of
constitutional rights;
Pleading, practice, and procedure in all courts;
The admission to the practice of law,
People v. Rocha and Ramos, G.R. No. 173797, August 31, 2007.

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The Integrated Bar;

Legal assistance to
(Section 5(5))
the
underprivileged.
Limits o SCs Rule Maki Power

Such rules shall provide a simplified and
inexpensive procedure for the speedy
disposition of cases.
They shall be uniform for all courts of the same
grade.
They shall not diminish, increase, modify
substative rihts.
Rules of procedure of special courts and
quasi-judicial bodies shall remain effective
unless disapproved by the Supreme Court.
3. Nature ad Fuctio of Rule Maki Power
For a more idepedet judiciary. The authority
to promulgate rules concerning pleading, practice
and admission to the practice of law is a traditional
power of the Supreme Court. The grant of this
authority, coupled with its authority to integrate the
Bar, to have administrative supervision over all
courts, in effect places in the hands of Supreme
Court the totality of the administration of justice and
thus makes for a more independent judiciary.
Ehaces the capacity to reder justice. It also
enhances the Courts capacity to render justice,
especially since, as the Supreme Court has had
occasion to say, it includes the inherent authority to
suspend rules when the requirement of justice
demand.
Moreover, since it is to the Supreme Court that rule
making authority has been given, rules
promulgated by special courts and quasi-judicial
bodies are effective unless disapproved by the
Supreme Court.
4. Test to Determie whether the rules dimiish,
icrease or modify substative rihts
If the rule takes away a vested right, it is a
substantive matter.
If the rule creates a right, it may be a
substantive matter.
3. If it operates as a means of implementing
an existing right, then the rule deals merely
with procedure. (Fabian v. Disierto)
Illustrative cases where the rule merely deals
with procedure:
Maiao v. CA, 1996
The rule that unless a reservation to file a
separate civil action is reserved, the civil case is
deemed filed with the criminal case is not about
substantive rights. Whether the two actions must
be tried in a single proceeding is a matter of
procedure.
Fabia v. Desierto, 1998

The transfer by the Supreme Court of pending
cases involving a review of decision of the Office
of the Ombudsman in administrative actions to
the Court of Appeals is merely procedural. This is
because, it is not the right to appeal of an
aggrieved party which is affected by law. The
right has been preserved. Only the procedure by
which the appeal is to be made or decided has
been changed.
People v. Lacso, 400 SCRA 267
(This is quite confusing because of the dates)
Facts: Respondent was charged with multiple
murder. He filed a motion with the trial court for
judicial determination of probable cause. On
March 29, 1999, the trial court dismissed the
cases provisionally. On December 1, 2000, the
Revised Rules on Criminal Procedure took
effect. Section 8 of Rule 117 allowed the revival
of the case which was provisionally dismissed
only within two years. On June 6, 2001, the
criminal cases against respondent were refilled.
Respondent argued that the refilling of the cases
was barred. The prosecution argued that under
Article 90 of the Revised Penal Code, it had
twenty years to prosecute respondent.
Held:
Is the rule merely procedural? Yes, the rule is
merely procedural. Section 8, Rule 117 is not a
statute of limitations. The two-year bar under the
rule does not reduce the periods under Article 90
of the Revised Penal Code. It is but a limitation
of the right of the State to revive a criminal case
against the accused after the case had been
filed but subsequently provisionally dismissed
with the express consent of the accused. Upon
the lapse of the period under the new rule, the
State is presumed to have abandoned or waived
its right to revive the case. The prescription
periods under the Revised Penal Code are not
diminished.
Is the refilling of cases barred in this case?
No. A procedural law may not be applied
retroactively if to do so would work injustice or
would involve intricate problems of due process.
The time-bar of two years under the new rule
should not be applied retroactively against the
State. If the time-bar were to be applied
retroactively so as to commence to run on March
31, 1999, when the prosecutor received his copy
of the resolution dismissing the cases, instead of
giving the State two years to revive the
provisionally dismissed cases, the State would
have considerably less than two years to do so.
The period before December 1, 2000 should be
excluded in the computation of the two-year
period, because the rule prescribing it was not
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yet in effect at that time and the State could not

be expected to comply with it.
451
Illustrative cases where the rule deals with

substative matter:
PNB v. Asucio, 80 SCRA 321
Facts: Petitioner filed a collection case against
several solidary debtors. One of them died
during the pendency of the case. The court
dismissed the case against all the defendants on
the ground that the petitioner should file a claim
in the estate proceedings. Petitioner argued that
the dismissal should be confined to the
defendant who died.
Held: Article 1216 of the Civil Code gives the
creditor the right to proceed against anyone of
the solidary debtors or some or all of them
simultaneously. Hence, in case of the death of
one of them, the creditor may proceed against
the surviving debtors. The Rules of Court cannot
be interpreted to mean that the creditor has no
choice but to file a claim in the estate of the
deceased. Such construction will result in the
diminution of the substantive rights granted by
the Civil Code.452
Satero v. CFI, 153 SCRA 728
Facts: During the pendency of the proceeding
for the settlement of the estate of the deceased,
respondents, who were children of the
deceased, filed a motion asking for an allowance
for their support. Petitioners, who were children
of the deceased with another woman, opposed
on the grounds that petitioners were already of
majority age and under Section 3 of Rule 83, the
allowance could be granted only to minor
children.
Held: Article 188 of the Civil Code grants
children the right to support even beyond the age
of majority. Hence, the respondent were entitled
to the allowance. Since, the right to support
granted by the Civil Code is substantive, it
cannot be impaired by Section 3, Rule 83 of the
Rules of Court.453
Damasco v. Laqui, 166 SCRA 214
Facts: Petitioner was charged with grave
threats. The trial court convicted him of light
threats. Petitioner moved for reconsideration
because the crime of which he was convicted
had already prescribed when the information
was filed.
Held: While an accused who fails to move to
quash is deemed to waive all objection which are
grounds to quash, this rule cannot apply to
prescription. Prescription extinguishes criminal

liability. To apply the said rule will contravene

Article 89 of the Revised Penal Code which is
substantive. The rules promulgated by the
Supreme Court must not diminish, increase or
modify substantive rights.454
Zaldivia v. Reyes, 211 SCRA 277
Facts:
On May 30, 1990, a complaint was filed with the
provincial prosecutor against petitioner for
violating an ordinance by quarrying without a
mayors permit. The information was filed in
court on October 2, 1990. Petitioner moved to
quash on the ground that under Act 3326,
violations of municipal ordinances prescribe in
two months and the prescriptive period is
suspended only upon the institution of judicial
proceedings. The prosecution argued that under
Section 1, Rule 110 of the Rules on Criminal
Procedure, the filing of a case for preliminary
investigation interrupts the prescriptive period.
Held: If there is a conflict between Act No. 3326
and Rule 110 of the Rules on Criminal Procedure,
the former must prevail. Prescriptio i crimial
cases is a substative riht.455
Illustrative case where retroactive applicatio

of a ruli will affect substative riht:
LBP v. De Leo, 399 SCRA 376
Facts: The Supreme Court ruled that in
accordance
with
Section
60
of
the
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law, appeals
from the Special Agrarian Courts should be
made by filing a petition for review instead of
merely filing a notice of appeal. Petitioner filed a
motion for reconsideration, in which it prayed
that the ruling be applied prospectively.
Held: Before the case reached the Supreme
Court, petitioner had no authoritative guideline
on how to appeal decision of Special Agrarian
Courts in the light of seemingly conflicting
provisions of Section 60 and 61 of the
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law, because
Section 61 provided that review shall be
governed by the Rules of Court. The Court of
Appeals had rendered conflicting decisions on
this precise issue. Hence, the decision of the
Supreme Court should be applied prospectively
because it affects substantive right. If the ruling
is given retroactive application, it will prejudice
the right of appeal of petitioner because its
pending appeals in the Court of Appeals will be
dismissed on a mere technicality thereby,
sacrificing their substantial merits.456

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5. Rules Coceri the protectio ad

eforcemet of costitutioal rihts; Rules
Coceri pleadi, practice ad procedure i
courts
Power to Make Rules; Writ of Amparo.
The Rules on the Writ of Amparo is promulgated by
the Court based on its power to promulgate rules
for the protection and enforcement of constitutional
rights. In light of the prevalence of extra legal killing
and enforced disappearances, the Supreme Court
resolved to exercise for the first time its power to
promulgate rules to protect our peoples
constitutional rights.
Writ of Amparo (1991 Bar Question)
Etymoloy. Amparo comes from Spanish
verb amparar meaning to protect.
Nature: A writ to protect right to life, liberty
and security of persons.
Section 1 of The Rule on the Writ of
Amparo: The petition for a writ of amparo is a
remedy available to any person whose right to
life, liberty and security is violated or
threatened with violation by unlawful act or
omission of a public official or employee, or of
a private individual or entity. The writ shall
cover extralegal killings and enforced
disappearances or threats thereof. (Note that
not all constitutional rights are covered by this
Rule; only right to life, liberty and security)
Writ of Habeas Data. The writ of habeas data is a
remedy available to any person whose right to
privacy in life, liberty or security is violated or
threatened by an unlawful act or omission of a
public official or employee, or of a private individual
or entity engaged in the gathering, collecting or
storing of data or information regarding the person,
family, home and correspondence of the aggrieved
party. (Section 1, The Rule on the Habeas Data)
Writ of Kalikasa. The writ is a remedy available
to a atural or juridical perso, entity authorized
by law, peoples organization, non-governmental
organization, or any public interest group
accredited by or registered with any government
agency,
on
behalf
of
persons
whose
costitutioal riht to a balaced ad healthful
ecoloy is violated, or threateed with violatio
by an unlawful act or omission of a public official or
employee, or private individual or entity, involving
environmental damage of such magnitude as to
prejudice the life, health or property of inhabitants
in two or more cities or provinces. (Rule 7, Rule of
Procedure in Environmental Cases)

See Internal Rules of the Surpeme Court A.M.

10-4-20-SC
In Re: Request for Creation of Special Division,
A.M. No. 02-1-07-SC (2002) : It was held that it is
within the competence of the Supreme Court, in the
exercise of its power to promulgate rules governing
the enforcement and protection of constitutional rights
and rules governing pleading, practice and procedure
in all courts, to create a Special Division in the
Sandiganbayan which will hear and decide the
plunder case of Joseph Estrada.
Reulatio of Demostratios
Facts: Petitioner applied for a permit to hold a rally
in from of the Justice Hall to protest the delay in the
disposition of the cases of his clients. The mayor
refused to issue the permit on the ground that it
was prohibited by the Resolution of the Supreme
Court dated July 7, 1998, which prohibited rallies
within two hundred meters of any court building.
Petitioners argued that the Resolution amended
the Public Assembly Act in violation of the
separation of powers.
Held: The existence of the Public Assembly Act
does not preclude the Supreme Court from
promulgating rules regulating the conduct of
demonstration in the vicinity of courts to assure the
people of an impartial and orderly administration of
justice as mandate by the Constitution. (In re
Valmonte, 296 SCRA xi)
Requiremet of Iteratioal Areemet
Facts: The Philippines signed the Agreement
establishing the World Trade Organization. The
Senate passed a resolution concurring in its
ratification by the President.
Petitioners argued that Article 34 of the General
Provisions and Basic Principles of the Agreement
on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property
Rights is unconstitutional. Article 34 requires
members to create a disputable presumption in
civil proceedings that a product shown to be
identical to one produced with the use of a
patented process shall be deemed to have been
obtained by illegal use of the patented process if
the product obtained by the patented process is
new or there is a substantial likelihood that the
identical product was made with the use of the
patented process but the owner of the patent could
not determine the exact process used in obtaining
the identical product. Petitioners argued that this
impaired the rule-making power of the Supreme
Court.
Held: Article 34 should present no problem.
Section 60 of the Patent Law provides a similar
presumption in cases of infringement of a patented
design or utility model. Article 34 does not contain
an unreasonable burden as it is consistent with due
process and the adversarial system. Since the
Philippines is signatory to most international
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conventions
on
patents,
trademarks
and
copyrights, the adjustmet i the rules of
procedure will ot be substatial. (Tanada v.
Angara, 272 SCRA 18)457
Issue: May Senator Santiago be disbarred or be

imposed with disciplinary sanction for her
intemperate and highly improper speech made on
the senate floor?
Power to Susped Its Ow Rules. Section 5(5) of

the Constitution gives this Court the power to
"[p]romulgate rules concerning the protection and
enforcement of constitutional rights, pleading,
practice and procedure in all courts." This includes
an inherent power to suspend its own rules in
particular cases in order to do justice.458
Held: No. A lawyer-senator who has crossed the

limits of decency and good professional conduct by
giving statements which were intemperate and
highly improper in substance may not be disbarred
or be imposed with disciplinary sanctions by the
Supreme Court.
6. Admissio to the Practice of Law

Rule o Coduct of Officials. Section 90 of the
Local Government Code which prohibits lawyers
who are members of a local legislative body to
practice law is not an infringement on the power of
the Court to provide for rules for the practice of law.
The law must be seen not as a rule on practice of
law but as a rule on the conduct of officials
intended to prevent conflict of interest. (Javellana v.
DILG, 1992)
Bar Flukers Act. After the Supreme Court has
declared candidates for the bar as having flunked
the examinations, Congress may not pass a law
lowering the passing mark and declaring the same
candidates as having passed. This would amount
to not just amending the rules but reversing the
Courts application of an existing rule. (In re
Cunanan , 94 phil 534 (1954))
Nullificatio of Bar Results. In 2003, the Court
nullified the results of the exams on Commercial
Law when it was discovered that the Bar questions
had been leaked. (Bar matter No. 1222, 2004)
Parliametary Freedom of Speech v SCs Power
to Disciplie
Facts: Senator Miriam Defensor-Santiago made
this speech on the Senate floor. x x x I am not
angry. I am irate. I am foaming in the mouth. I am
homicidal. I am suicidal. I am humiliated, debased,
degraded. And I am not only that, I feel like
throwing up to be living my middle years in a
country of this nature. I am nauseated. I spit on the
face of Chief Justice Artemio Panganiban and his
cohorts in the Supreme Court, I am no longer
interested in the position [of Chief Justice] if I was
to be surrounded by idiots. I would rather be in
another environment but not in the Supreme Court
of idiots x x x. Pobre asks that disbarment
proceedings or other disciplinary actions be taken
against the lady senator.
Lim et al v CA, G.R. No. 149748, November 16,
It is true that parliamentary immunity must not be

allowed to be used as a vehicle to ridicule,
demean, and destroy the reputation of the Court
and its magistrates, nor as armor for personal
wrath and disgust. However, courts do not interfere
with the legislature or its members in the manner
they perform their functions in the legislative floor
or in committee rooms. Any claim of an unworthy
purpose or of the falsity and mala fides of the
statement uttered by the member of the Congress
does not destroy the privilege. The disciplinary
authority of the assembly and the voters, not the
courts, can properly discourage or correct such
abuses committed in the name of parliamentary
immunity. (Pobre v. Defensor-Santiago, 2009)
(See Estrada v. Sandiganbayan, GR No. 159486:
Suspension of Atty. Allan Paguia)
7. Iteratio of the Bar
Bar - refers to the collectivity of all persons whose
names appear in the Roll of Attorneys.
Integration of the Philippine Bar - means the
official unification of the entire lawyer population of
the Philippines. This requires membership and
financial support (in reasonable amount) of every
attorney as conditions sine qua non to the practice
of law and the retention of his name in the Roll of
Attorneys of the Supreme Court. (In re Integration
of the Bar of the Philippines)
Purpose of an integrated Bar, in general are:
Assist in the administration of justice;
Foster and maintain, on the part of its members,
high ideals of integrity, learning, professional
competence, public service and conduct;
Safeguard the professional interests of its members;
Cultivate among its members a spirit of cordiality
and brotherhood;
Provide a forum for the discussion of law,
jurisprudence, law reform, pleading, practice,
and procedure, and the relation of the Bar to
the Bench and to the public, and public relation
relating thereto;
Encourage and foster legal education;
Promote a continuing program of legal research in
substantive and adjective law, and make
reports and recommendations thereon; and
2006.

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8.
Enable the Bar to discharge its public

responsibility effectively (In re Integration of the
Bar of the Philippines)
d. I re: Atty. Marcial Edillo. In this case, Atty.

Edillon objects to the requirement of membership
in the integrated bar as a pre-condition to the
practice of law. This gave the Court the opportunity
to ventilate some basic notions underlying bar
integration.
The practice of law is a privilege that is subject
to reasonable regulation by the State;
Bar integration is mandated by the
Constitution;
The lawyer is not being compelled to join the
association. Passing the bar examination
already made him a member of the bar.
The only compulsion to which he is
subjected is the paymet of aual
dues, and this is justified by the need for
elevating the quality of legal profession;
The Constitution vests in the SC plenary
powers regarding admission to the bar.
Letter of Atty Arevalo, 2005. Payment of dues
is a necessary consequence of membership in the
Integrated Bar of the Philippines, of which no one
is exempt. This means that the compulsory nature
of payment of dues subsists as long as ones
membership in the IBP remains regardless of the
lack of practice of, or the type of practice, the
member is engaged in.459
8. Coress ad the Rules of Court
Bernas Primer: Rules issued by the Supreme Court
may be repealed, altered, or supplemented by
Congress because Congress has plenary legislative
power. The silence of the Constitution on the subject
can only be interpreted as meaning that there is no
intention to diminish that plenary power. In fact, RA
8974 which requires full payment before the sate may
exercise proprietary rights, contrary to Rule 67 which
requires a deposit, was recognized by Court in
Republic v. Gingoyon , 2005 . (An earlier obiter dictum
in Echegaray v. Sec. of Justice, 1999, said that
Congress has no power to amend Rules. This was
repeated by Puno and Carpio in dissent in Republic v.
Gingoyon)460
Nachura (2006): Congress cannot amend the

Rules of Court. The 1987 Constitution took away
the power of Congress to repeal, alter or
supplement rules concerning pleading and
procedure. In fine, the power to promulgate rules of
pleading, practice and procedure is no longer
shared by this Court with Congress, more so with
Letter of Atty. Cecilio Y. Arevalo, Requesting Exemptions from

Payment of IBP Dues, May 9, 2005.

the Executive. Echagaray v. Secretary of Justice

(1999)
ASM: Follow Bernas view. Article XVIII, Section 10
provides: The provisions of the existing Rules of
Court, judiciary acts, and procedural laws not
inconsistent with this Constitution shall remain
operative unless amended or repealed by the
Supreme Court or the Congress
H. Appoitmet of Court Persoel
The authority of the Supreme Court to appoint its
own official and employees is another measure
intended to safeguard the independence of the
Judiciary. However, the Courts appointing authority
must be exercised in accordance with the Civil
Service Law.461
Note that Section 5(6) empowers the Supreme
Court not only to appoint its own officials and
employees but of the Judiciary itself.
It should also be recalled that courts may be given
authority by Congress to appoint officers lower in
rank. (art. 7 16)
I. Admiistrative Supervisio of Courts
Strethes Idepedece. Section 6 provides
that the Supreme Court shall have administrative
supervision by the Supreme Court over all lower
courts and the personnel thereof. It is a significant
innovation
towards
strengthening
the
independence of the judiciary. Before 1973
Constitution, there was no constitutional provision
on the subject and administrative supervision over
the lower courts and their personnel was exercised
by the Secretary of Justice.462 The previous set-up
impaired the independence of judges who tended
to defer to the pressures and suggestions of the
executive department in exchange for favorable
action on their requests and administrative
problems.463
Exclusive Supervisio. Article VIII, Section 6
exclusively vests in the Supreme Court
administrative supervision over all courts and court
personnel, from the Presiding Justice of the Court
of Appeals down to the lowest municipal trial court
clerk. By virtue of this power, it is only the Supreme
Court that can oversee the judges and court
personnels compliance with all laws, and take
proper administrative action against them if they
commit any violation thereof. No other branch of
government may intrude into this power, without
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running afoul to the doctrine of separation of

powers. (Maceda v. Vasquez)
Ombudsma ad SCs Power of Supervisio.
The Ombudsman may not initiate or investigate a
criminal or administrative complaint before his
office against a judge; the Ombudsman must first
indorse the case to the Supreme Court for
appropriate action. (Fuentes v. Office of
Ombudsman, 2001)
Admiistrative
Proceedi,
Cofidetial.
Administrative proceedings before the Supreme
Court are confidential in nature in order to protect
the respondent therein who may turn out to be
innocent of the charges. (Godinez v. Alano, 1999)
According to Bernas, the power of administrative
supervision of the Supreme Court, includes the
power [sitting en banc] to discipline judges of lower
courts, or order their dismissal.464
Other
actions
disciplinary
Decision of a division
is sufficient (People v.
Gacott)
4. SC Determies what ood behavior is.

Judges of lower courts shall hold office during ood
behavior until they reach the age of seventy years or
become icapacitated to discharge the duties of
their office.
It is submitted that the Supreme Court alone can

determine what good behavior is, since the SC
alone can order their dismissal.467
5. SC Determies whether a jude has become
icapacitated
The power to determine incapacity is part of the
overall administrative power which the Supreme
Court has over its members and over all the
members of the judiciary.468
K. Cotempt Powers
J. Discipliary Powers
Sectio 11
The Members of the Supreme Court and judges of lower
courts shall hold office during good behavior until they
reach the age of seventy years or become incapacitated
to discharge the duties of their office. The Supreme Court
en banc shall have the power of discipline judges of lower
courts, or order their dismissal by a vote of a majority of
the Members who actually took part in the deliberations
on the issues in the case and voted thereon.
1. Power to Disciplie
The power of the Supreme Court to discipline
judges of inferior courts or to order their dismissal
is exclusive. It may not be vested in any other
body. Nor may Congress pass a law that judges of
lower courts are removable by impeachment.465
2. Discipliary Actios
Besides removal, such other disciplinary measures
as suspension, fine and reprimand can be meted
out by the Supreme Court on erring judges.466
3. Requiremet for Discipliary Actios
Discipliary Actio
Decisio
Dismissal of judges, Decision en banc (by
Disbarment of
a a vote of a majority of
lawyer,
suspension the
members who
of either
for more actually took part in
than 1 year or a fine
the deliberations on
exceeding
10,000 the issues in the case
pesos (People
v. and voted thereon)
Gacott)]

One of the essential powers of every court under

our system of government is that of punishing for
contempt persons who are guilty of disobedience
to its orders or for disrespect to its authority. The
punishment is either imprisonment or fine.469
While it is sparingly to be used, yet the power of
courts to punish for contempts is a necessary and
integral part of the independence of judiciary, and
is absolutely essential to the performance of the
duties imposed on them by law. Without it they are
mere boards of arbitration, whose judgments and
decrees would only be advisory.470
L. Aual Report
Sectio 16. The Supreme Court shall,
from the opening of each regular
Congress, submit to the President and
annual report on the operations and
Judiciary
within thirty days

session of the
the Congress an
activities of the
The purpose of this provision is not to subject the

Court to the President and to the Congress but
simply to enable the judiciary to inform government
about its needs. (I RECORD 510-512)471
The annual report required under this provision can
be the basis of appropriate legislation and
government policies intended to improve the
administration of justice and strengthen the
independence of judiciary.472
Gompers v. Bucks Stove and Range co., 221 US 418.
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VI. Judicial Review

Definition of Judicial Review
Constitutional Supremacy
Functions of Judicial Review
Who May Exercise
Requisites of Judicial
Review Political Questions
Effect of Declaration of Unconstitutionality
Partial Unconstitutionality
Judicial Review by Lower Courts Modalities
of Constitutional Interpretation
A. Defiitio
Judicial review is the power of the courts to test the
validity of governmental acts in light of their
conformity to a higher norm (e.g. the constitution.)
asm
expressly recognizes judicial review in Section 5(2)

(a) and (b) of Article VIII of the Constitution.
B. Priciple of Costitutioal Supremacy
Judicial review is not an assertion of superiority by
the courts over the other departments, but merely
an expression of the supremacy of the
Constitution.477 Constitutional supremacy produced
judicial review, which in turn led to the accepted
role of the Court as the ultimate interpreter of the
Constitution.478
Fuctios of Judicial Review
Checking- invalidating a law or executive act
that is found to be contrary to the Constitution.
Legitimating- upholding the validity of the
law.
Rule o the Double Neative- Uses the
term not unconstitutional; the court
cannot declare a law constitutional
because it already enjoys a presumption of
constitutionality
The power of judicial review is the Supreme Courts

power to declare a law, treaty, international or
executive
agreement,
presidential
decree,
proclamation, order, instruction, ordinance, or
regulation unconstitutional. This power is explicitly
granted by Section 5(2), (a) and (b).473 Judicial
Review is an aspect of Judicial Power.474
Theory of Judicial Review. The Constitution is the
supreme law. It was ordained by the people, the
ultimate source of all political authority. It confers
limited powers on the national government. x x x If
the government consciously or unconsciously
oversteps these limitations there must be some
authority competent to hold it in control, to thwart
its unconstitutional attempt, and thus to vindicate
and preserve inviolate the will of the people as
expressed in the Constitution. This power the
courts exercise. This is the beginning and the end
of the theory of judicial review.475
Judicial Review i Philippie Costitutio.
Unlike the US Constitution476 which does not
provide for the exercise of judicial review by their
Supreme Court, the Philippine Constitution
Howard L. MacBain, "Some Aspects of Judicial Review," Bacon Lectures

on the Constitution of the United States (Boston: Boston University
Heffernan Press, 1939), pp. 376-77 cited in David v. Arroyo.
The case of Marbury v. Madison established the doctrine of judicial

review as a core legal principle in American constitutional system:
So if a law be in opposition to the constitution; of both the law and
the constitution apply to a particular case, so that the court must
either decide that case conformably to the law, disregarding the
constitution; or conformably to the constitution, disregarding the law;
the court must determine which of these conflicting rules governs the
case. This is the very essence of judicial duty.

Symbolic479- to educate the bench and the

bar as the controlling principles and concepts
on matters of great public importance.
In a Separate Opinion in Francisco v. HR, Mr.
Justice Adolf Azcuna remarked:
The function of the Court is a necessary element
not only of the system of checks and balances, but
also of a workable and living Constitution. For
absent an agency, or organ that can rule, with
finality, as to what the terms of the Constitution
mean, there will be uncertainty if not chaos in
governance... This is what Hart calls the need
for a Rule of Recognition in any legal system
Who May Exercise

Supreme Court
Inferior Courts
Requisites of Judicial Iquiry/Judicial Review
(1994 Bar Question)
Essential Requisites (APEN)
There must be an actual case or controversy;
The question involved must be ripe for
adjudication.
The question of constitutionality must be
raised by the proper party;
Angara v. Electoral Commission, 63 Phil 139.
See Cooper v. Aaron, 358 US 1 (1956)
The
Court also has the duty to formulate guiding and

controlling constitutional principles, precepts, doctrines, or
rules. It has the symbolic function of educating bench and bar
on the extent of protection given by constitutional guarantees.
(Salonga v. Pano, 134 SCRA 438, 1985)
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Auxiliary Rules
The constitutional question must be raised at
the earliest possible opportuity;
The decision of the constitutional question
must be ecessary to the determination of the
case itself.
(Read the case of Francisco v. HR and David v.
Arroyo in the original)
1. Actual Case
The requirement of actual controversy

encompasses concepts such as ripeness,
standing, and the prohibition against advisory
judicial rulings (BP Chemicals v. UCC, 4 F.3d
975)
Ripeess Doctrie. The requirement that a
case be ripe for judgment before a court will
decide the controversy. Ripeess refers to
readiness for adjudication,
Actual Case or controversy involves a coflict

of leal rihts, an assertion of opposite legal
claims susceptible of judicial determination.480
Ratioale. To prevent the courts, through

premature adjudication, from entangling
themselves in abstract disagreements.
The case must ot be:

Moot or academic or
Based on extra-legal or other similar
consideration not cognizable by
courts of justice.481
A request for advisory opinion.482
Hypothetical or feigned constitutional
problems
Friendly
suits
collusively
arranged
between parties without real adverse
interests483
Whe Not Ripe. A claim is not ripe for

adjudication if it rests upon contingent future
events that may not occur as anticipated, or
indeed may not occur at all.484
Moot Case. A moot case is one that ceases to

present a justiciable controversy by virtue of
supervening events, so that a declaration
thereon would be of no practical use or value.
Generally, courts decline jurisdiction over such
case or dismiss it on ground of mootness.
However, Courts will decide cases, otherwise
moot and academic, if:
There is a grave violation of the
Constitution;
The exceptional character of the situation
and the paramount public interest is
involved
When the constitutional issue raised
requires
formulation
of
controlling
principles to guide the bench, the bar, and
the public; and
4. The case is capable of repetition yet
evading review. (Province of Batangas vs.
Romulo, 429 SCRA 736; David v. Arroyo
(2006) Quizon v. Comelec, G.R. No.
177927, February 15, 2008; Province of
North Cotabato v GRP)
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 241 (1995 ed); See Cawaling v.

COMELEC, 368 SCRA 453)
Ripeness and Standing.

A simple description of the requirements of
standing and ripeness is found in the words of
Justice Stone in Nashville v. Wallace. In that
opinion he referred to: valuable legal rights
threatened with imminent invasion. The
valuable legal rights constitute the standing
and the threat of imminent ivasio
costitute the ripeess.485
2. Stadi/Proper Party (1992, 1995 Bar
Question)
Proper Party- A proper party is one who has
sustained or is in immediate danger of
sustaining an injury in result of the act
complained of.486
Locus Stadi refers to the right of
appearance in a court of justice on a given
question. (Black)
Geeral Rule:
Direct Interest Test: The persons who
impugn the validity of a statute must have a
personal and substantial interest in the case
such that he has sustained or will sustain,
direct injury as a result.
Exceptios:
Cases of transcendental importance or of
paramount public interest or involving
an issue of overarching significance.
Cases of Proclamation of martial law
and suspension of the privilege of the
writ of habeas corpus where any
citizen may challenge the
Texas v. United States, 523 U.S. 296, 300 (1998).
Jerre S. Williams, Constitutional Analysis 16, (1979).
Ex Parte Levitt, 303 US 633; People v. Vera 65 Phil 58, 89 (1937).

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proclamation of suspension. (art.7

18)
The right to information on matters of
public concern and the right to
access to public documents has been
recognized as accruing to mere
citizenship. (Legaspi v. CSC, 150
SCRA 530 (1987)
Facial Challenge (?)
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
REQUISITES of stadi:
A citizen can raise a constitutional question
only when:
Ijury: He can show that he has
personally suffered some actual or
threatened injury because of the
allegedly illegal conduct of the
government;
Causatio: The injury is fairly traceable to
the challenged action; and
Redressability: A favorable action will
likely redress the injury. (Francisco v.
Fernando GR 166501, 2006)
In a public suit, where the plaintiff asserts a
public right in assailing an allegedly illegal
official action, our Court adopted the direct
injury test in our jurisdiction. (David v. Arroyo)
Direct Ijury Test: The persons who impugn
the validity of a statute must have a persoal
ad substatial iterest i the case such
that he has sustaied or will sustai, direct
ijury as a result. (David v. Arroyo) (See
People v. Vera, 65 Phil 58, 89 (1937)).
By way of summary, the following rules may be
culled from the cases decided by the Supreme
Court. Taxpayers, voters, concerned citizens,
and legislators may be accorded standing to
sue, provided that the following requirements
are met:
the cases involve constitutional issues
for taxpayers, there must be a claim of illegal
disbursement of public funds or that the
tax measure is unconstitutional;
for voters, there must be a showing of obvious
interest in the validity of the election law in
question;
for cocered citizes, there must be a
showing that the issues raised are of
transcendental importance which must be
settled early;
for leislators, there must be a claim that the
official action complained of infringes
upon their prerogatives as legislators

[David v. Arroyo G.R. No. 171396
(2006)]
Illustrative Cases showi existece of
stadi:
Facts: Petitioners filed a case as taxpayers
questioning the validity of the contract between
DOTC and respondent by virtue of which respondent
agreed to build and lease to the DOTC a light
railway transit system. Respondent claimed that
petitioners had no standing to file the action.
Held: Taxpayers may file action questioning
contracts entered into by government on the ground
that the contract is in contravention of the law. (Tatad
v. Garcia, 243 SCRA 436)487
Facts: Petitioners who were Filipino citizes and
taxpayers, questioned the constitutionality of the
IPRA on the ground that it deprived the State of
ownership over lands of the public domain and the
natural resources in them in violation of Section 2,
Article XII of the Constitution.
Held: As, citizens, petitioners possess the public
right to ensure that the national patrimony is not
alienated and diminished in violation of the
Constitution. Since the government holds it for the
benefit of the Filipinos, a citizen had sufficient
interest to maintain a suit to ensure that any grant of
concession covering the national patrimony strictly
complies with the constitutional requirements.
In addition, the IPRA appropriate funds. Thus, it is a
valid subject of a taxpayers suit. (Cruz v. Secretary
of Environment and Natural Resources, 347 SCRA
128)488
Facts: Petitioner, a seator, questioned the
constitutionality of Administrative Order No. 308
which provided for the establishment of a national
computerized identification reference system.
Petitioner contends that the AO usurps legislative
power. The government questioned his standing to
file the case.
Held: As a senator, petitioner is possessed of the
requisite standing to bring suit raisin the issue that
the issuance of AO 308 is a usurpation of legislative
power. (Ople v. Torres, 293 SCRA 141)489
Facts: Petitioners, who are minors, filed a case to
compel the Secretary of Environment and Natural
Resources to cancel the timber license agreements
and to desist from issuing new ones on the ground
that deforestation has resulted in damage to the
environment. The Secretary of argued that
petitioners has no cause of action.
Held: SC said that Petitioners have a right to a
sound environment, this is incorporated in Section
16 of Article II.
SC also said that Petitioners have personality to sue
based on the concept of intergenerational
responsibility insofar as the right to a balanced and
healthful ecology is concerned. We find no difficulty

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in ruling that they can, for themselves, for others of

their generation and for the succeeding generation.
Their personality to sue in behalf of the succeeding
generations can only be based on the concept of
intergenerational responsibility insofar as the right to
a balanced ecology is concerned. (Oposa v.
Factoran, 1993)
Illustrative Cases showi absece of

stadi:
Facts: Upon authorization of the President, the
PCGG ordered the sale at public auction of paintings
by old masters and silverware alleged to be illgotten
wealth of former President Marcos, his relatives, and
friends. Petitioners, who were Filipino citizens,
taxpayers, and artist, filed a petition to restrain the
auction.
Held: Petitioners have no standing to restrain the
public auction. The paintings were donated by
private persons to the MMA who owns them. The
pieces of silverware were given to the Marcos
couple as gifts on their silver wedding anniversary.
Since the petitioners are not the owners of the
paintings and the silverware, they do not possess
any right to question their dispositions. (Joya v.
PCGG, 225 SCRA 586)490
Facts: Petitioner filed a petition in his capacity as a
taxpayer questioning the constitutionality of the
creation of 70 positions for presidential advisers on
the ground that the President did not have the power
to create these positions.
Held: Petitioner has not proven that he has
sustained any injury as a result of the appointment
of the presidential advisers. (Gonzales v. Narvasa,
337 SCRA 437)491
Facts: In view of the increase in violent crimes in
Metropolitan Manila, the President ordered the PNP
and the Philippine Marines to conduct joint visibility
patrols for the purpose of crime prevention and
suppression. Invoking its responsibility to uphold the
rule of law, the Integrated Bar of the Philippines
questioned the validity of the order.
Held: the mere invocation of the IBP of the
Philippines of its duty to preserve the rule of law is
not sufficient to clothe it with standing in this case.
This is too general an interest which is shared by the
whole citizenry. The IBP has not shown any specific
injury it has suffered or may suffer by virtue of the
questioned order. The IBP projects as injurious the
militarization of law enforcement which might
threaten democratic institutions. The presumed
injury is highly speculative. (IBP v. Zamora, 338
SCRA 81)492
Trascedetal Importace Being a mere
procedural technicality, the requirement of
locus standi may be waived by the Court in the
exercise of its discretion. Thus, the Court has
adopted a rule that even where the petitioners
have failed to show direct injury, they have

been allowed to sue under the principle of
"trascedetal importace." [David v.
Arroyo G.R. No. 171396 (2006)]
Whe
a
Issue
Cosidered
of
Trascedetal Importace:
An issue is of transcendental importance
because of the following:
the character of the funds or other assets
involved in the case;
the presence of a clear disregard of a
constitutional or statutory prohibition by an
instrumentality of the government; and
the lack of any other party with a
more direct and specific interest in raising
the question. (Francisco vs. House of
Representatives, 415 SCRA 44; Senate v.
Ermita G.R. No. 169777 (2006))
Facial Challee493.
The established rule is that a party can
question the validity of a statute only if, as
applied to him, it is unconstitutional. The
exception is the so-called facial challenge.
But the only time a facial challenge to a statute
is allowed is when it operates in the area of
freedom of expression. In such instance, the
overbreadth doctrine permits a party to
challenge to a statute even though, as applied
to him, it is not unconstitutional, but it might be
if applied to others not before the Court whose
activities are constitutionally protected.
Invalidation of the statute on its face, rather
than as applied, is permitted in the interest of
preventing a chilling effect on freedom of
expression (Justice Mendozas concurring
opinion in Cruz v. DENR, G.R. No. 135395,
December 06, 2000) A facial challenge to a
legislative act is the most difficult challenge to
mount successfully since the challenge must
establish that no set of circumstances exists
under which the act would be valid. (Estrada v.
Sandiganbayan, G.R. No. 148560, November
19, 2001)494
Bernas: In sum, it may be said that the
concept of locus standi as it exists in
Philippine jurisprudence now has departed
from the rigorous American concept.495
3. Earliest Opportuity
Facial Challenge is a manner of challenging a statute in court, in which
the plaintiff alleges that the statute is always, and under all circumstances,
unconstitutional, and therefore void.
Antonio B. Nachura, Outline/Reviewer in Political Law 23 (2006 ed.)


121

SCHOOL OF LAW
Geeral Rule: Constitutional question must be

raised at the earliest possible opportunity,
such that if it is not raised in the pleadings, it
cannot be considered at the trial, and, if not
considered in trial, cannot be considered on
appeal.
Exceptios:
In criminal cases, the constitutional
question can be raised at any time in
the discretion of the court.
In civil cases, the constitutional question
can be raised at any stage if it is
necessary to the determination of the
case itself.
In every case, except where there is
estoppel, the constitutional question
may be raised at any stage if it
involves jurisdiction of the court.496
Necessity/ Lis Mota
Rule: The Court will not touch the issue of
unconstitutionality
unless
it
really
is
uavoidable or is the very lis mota.497
Reaso: The reason why courts will as much
as possible avoid the decision of a
constitutional question can be traced to the
doctrine of separation of powers which enjoins
upon each department a proper respect for the
acts of the other departments. The theory is
that, as the joint act of the legislative and
executive authorities, a law is supposed to
have been carefully studied and determined to
be constitutional before it was finally enacted.
Hence, as long as there is some other basis
that can be used by the courts for its decision,
the constitutionality of the challenged law will
not be touched and the case will be decided
on other available grounds.498
Motu Propio Exercise of Judicial Review.
While courts will not ordinarily pass upon
constitutional questions which are not raised in
the pleadings, a court is not precluded from
inquiring into its own jurisdiction or be
compelled to enter a judgment that it lacks
jurisdiction to enter. Since a court may
determine whether or not it has jurisdiction, it
necessarily follows that it can inquire into the
constitutionality of a statute on which its
jurisdiction depends. (Fabian v. Desierto, 295
SCRA 470)499

Read Province of North Cotabato v. GRP for

mootness and ripeness.
F. Political Questios (1995 Bar Question)
Justiciable v. Political Question
Definition of Political Question
Guidelines (Baker v. Carr)
Justiciable v. Political
Suspension of Writ and Proclamation of
ML Calling Our Power of the President
Impeachment of a Supreme Court Justice
1. Justiciable v. Political Questios
The distinction between justiciable and political
questions can perhaps best be illustrated by the
suspension or expulsion of a member of Congress,
which must be based upon the ground of
disorderly behavior and concurred in by at least
2/3 of all his colleagues. The determination of what
constitutes disorderly behavior is a political
question and therefore not cognizable by the court;
but the disciplinary measure may nonetheless be
disauthorized if it was supported by less than the
required vote. The latter issue, dealing as it does
with a procedural rule the interpretation of which
calls only for mathematical computation, is a
justiciable question.500
2. Political Questios, Defiitio
Political questions are those questions which under
the Constitution are:
To be decided by the people in their sovereign
capacity, or
In regard to which full discretionary authority has
been delegated to the legislative or
executive branch of the government.501
(Tanada v. Cuenco, 1965)
Political questions connotes questions of policy.

It is concerned with issues dependent upon the
wisdom, not legality, of a particular measure.
(Tanada v. Cuenco)
3. Guidelies for determii
questio is political.
Textual Kind
whether
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 78(1995 ed).
Cruz: Where the matter falls under the discretion of another

department or especially the people themselves, the decision reached
is in the category of a political question and consequently may not be
the subject of judicial review.
Accordingly, considerations affecting the wisdom, efficacy or
practicability of a law should come under the exclusive jurisdiction
of Congress. So too, is the interpretation of certain provisions of the
Constitution, such as the phrase other high crimes as ground for
impeachment.
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SCHOOL OF LAW
A textually demostrable costitutioal

commitmet of the issue to a political
departmet;
Functional Kind
Lack of judicially discoverable ad
maaeable stadards for resolvi it;
Impossibility of decidi a case without a
iitial determiatio of a kid clearly
for o-judicial discretio;
(Baker v. Carr, 369 US 186 (1962))502
Prudential Type
Impossibility of a courts undertaking
independent resolution without expressing
lack of the respect due coordinate
branches of the government;
An unusual need for unquestioning adherence
to a political decision already
made;
Potentiality
of
embarrassment
from
multifarious pronouncements by various
departments. (Baker v. Carr, 369 US 186
(1962)
(Bernas submits that the Grave Abuse Clause
has eliminated the prudential type of political
questions from Philippine jurisprudence.503
Hence, the question is not political even there
is an unusual need for questioning adherence
to a political decision already made; or the
potentiality
of
embarrassment
from
multifarious pronouncements by various
departments on one question.504)
Examples of Textual Kid505:
1. Alejandrino v. Quezon 26 Phil 83 (1924)
: The SC through Justice Malcolm held,
Mandamus will not lie agasint the legislative
body, its members, or its officers, to compel
the performance of duties purely legislative in
their character which therefore pertain to their
legislative functions and over which they have
exclusive control.
2. Osmena v. Pendatun 109 Phil 863
(1960): The SC refused to interpose itself in
the matter of suspension of Osmena Jr., for a
speech delivered on the floor of Congress.
Whether he committed disorderly behavior
was something in regard to which full
discretionary authority had been given to the
legislature.
3.
Arroyo v. De Venecia, 1997: The issue in
this case was whether the Court could

intervene in a case where the House of
Representatives was said to have disregarded
its own rule. The Court said it could not
Bernas Commentary, p 959(2003 ed); Bernas Primer at 348 (2006 ed.)
See Bernas Commentary, p 959 (2003 ed)

because the matter of formulating rules have

been textually conferred by the Constitution on
Congress itself. Hence, provided that no
violation of a constitutional provisions or injury
to private rights was involved, the Court was
without authority to intervene.
4. Santiago v. Guingona, 1998: Disspute
involved is the selection of a Senate Minority
leader whose position is not created by the
Constitution but by Congressional rules.
Examples of Fuctioal Kid506:
1. Tobias v. Abalos, 1994; Mariano v.
COMELEC,
1995
Apportionment
of
representative districts is not a political
question because there acre constitutional
rules governing apportionment.
Daza v. Singson, 1989; Coseteng v. Mitra,
1990; Guingona v. Gonzales, 1992:
The Court intervened in the manner of forming
the Commission on Appointments.
Bondoc v. Pineda: The Court invalidated the
expulsion of a member of the House Electoral
Tribunal.
(All these were done by the Court because it found
applicable legal standards.)
4. Grave Abuse Clause ad Political Questios
Again, the broadened concept of judicial power is
not meant to do away with the political questions
to separation of powers, to the doctrine on political
questions or to the enrolled bill rule.507 (1995 Bar
Question)
5. Suspesio of the Writ of HC ad
Proclamatio of Martial Law
The action of the President and the Congress shall
be subject to review by the Supreme Court which
shall have the authority to determine the sufficiency
of the factual basis of such action. This matter is no
longer considered a political question.508
6. Presidets actio i calli out the armed
forces
It may be gathered from the broad grant of power
that the actual use to which the President puts the
armed forces, is unlike the suspension of the
privilege of writ of habeas corpus, not subject to
judicial review.509
But, while the Court considered the Presidents
calling-out power as a discretionary power solely
vested in his wisdom and that it cannot be called
upon to overrule the Presidents wisdom or
123

SCHOOL OF LAW
substitute its own, it stressed that this does not

prevent an examination of whether such power
was exercised withi permissible costitutioal
limits or whether it was exercised i a maer
costituti rave abuse of discretio. (IBP v.
Zamora) Judicial inquiry can go no further than to
satisfy the Court not that the Presidents decision is
correct, but that the President did not act
arbitrarily. Thus, the stadard is ot
correctess, but arbitrariess. It is incumbent
upon the petitioner to show that the Presidents
decision is totally bereft of factual basis and that if
he fails, by way of proof, to support his assertion,
then this Court cannot undertake an independent
investigation beyond the pleadings. (IBP v.
Zamora cited in David v. Arroyo)
6. Impeachmet Case aaist a Supreme Court
Justice.
Facts: On June 2, 2003, former President Joseph
Estrada filed an impeachment cases against the Chief
Justice and seven Associate Justices of the Supreme
Court . The complaint was endorsed by three
congressmen and referred to the Committee on Justice of
the House of Representatives. On October 22, 2003, the
Committee on Justice voted to dismiss the complaint for
being insufficient in substance. The Committee on Justice
had not yet submitted its report to the House of
Representatives.
On October 23, 2003, two congressmen filed a complaint
a complaint for impeachment against the Chief Justice in
connection with the disbursement against the Chief
Justice in connection with the disbursement of the
Judiciary Development Fund. The complaint was
accompanied
by
a
resolution
of
endorsement/impeachment was accompanied by a
resolution of endorsement/impeachment signed by at
least one-third of the congressmen.
Several petitions were filed to prevent further proceedings
tin the impeachment case on the ground that the
Constitution prohibits the initiation of an impeachment
proceeding against the same official more than once the
same period of one year. Petitioners plead for the SC
to exercise the power of judicial review to determine
the validity of the second impeachment complaint.
The House of Representatives contend that
impeachment is a political action and is beyond the
reach of judicial review. Respondents Speaker De
Venecia, et. al. and intervenor Senator Pimentel raise the
novel argument that the Constitution has excluded
impeachment proceedings from the coverage of judicial
review. Briefly stated, it is the position of respondents
Speaker De Venecia et. al. that impeachment is a political
action which cannot assume a judicial character. Hence,
any question, issue or incident arising at any stage of the
impeachment proceeding is beyond the reach of judicial
review. For his part, intervenor Senator Pimentel
contends that the Senate's "sole power to try"
impeachment cases (1) entirely excludes the application
of judicial review over it; and (2) necessarily includes the
Senate's power to determine constitutional questions
relative to impeachment proceedings. They contend that
the exercise of judicial review over impeachment
proceedings is inappropriate since it runs counter to the
framers' decision to allocate to different fora the powers


to try impeachments and to try crimes; it disturbs the
system of checks and balances, under which
impeachment is the only legislative check on the
judiciary; and it would create a lack of finality and difficulty
in fashioning relief
Held: That granted to the Philippine Supreme Court and
lower courts, as expressly provided for in the Constitution, is
not just a power but also a duty, and it was ive a
expaded defiitio to include the power to correct any
grave abuse of discretion on the part of any government
branch or instrumentality. that granted to the Philippine
Supreme Court and lower courts, as expressly provided for in
the Constitution , is not just a power but also a duty, and it
was ive a expaded defiitio to include the power to
correct any grave abuse of discretion on the part of any
government branch or instrumentality.
The Constitution provides for several limitations to the

exercise of the power of the House of Representatives
over impeachment proceedings. These limitations include
the one-year bar on the impeachment of the same official.
It is well within the power of the Supreme Court to inquire
whether Congress committed a violation of the
Constitution in the exercise of its functions. (Francisco v.
House of Representatives, 415 SCRA 44)
x-----x
Respondents are also of the view that judicial review of
impeachments undermines their finality and may also
lead to conflicts between Congress and the judiciary.
Thus, they call upon this Court to exercise judicial
statesmanship on the principle that "whenever possible,
the Court should defer to the judgment of the people
expressed legislatively, recognizing full well the perils of
judicial willfulness and pride
Held: Did not the people also express their will when they
instituted the safeguards in the Constitution? This shows that
the Constitution did not intend to leave the matter of
impeachment to the sole discretion of Congress. Instead, it
provided for certain well-defined limits, or in the language of
Baker v. Carr,57 "judicially discoverable standards" for
determining the validity of the exercise of such discretion,
through the power of judicial review.
G. Effect of Declaratio of Ucostitutioality

Orthodox View: An unconstitutional act is not a
law; it confers no rights; it imposes no duties; it
affords no protection; it creates no office; it is
inoperative, as if it had not been passed at all.510
When courts declare a law to inconsistent with the
Constitution, the former shall be void and the latter
shall govern. (Article 7 of the New Civil Code)
Modern View: Certain legal effects of the statute
prior to its declaration of unconstitutionality may be
recognized. The actual existence of a statute prior
to such a determination of constitutionality is an
operative fact and may have consequences which
cannot always be erased by a new judicial
declaration.511
H. Partial Ucostitutioality
See Norton v. Shelby County, 118 US 425.

Chicot County Drainage Dist. V. Baxter States Bank 308 US 371.
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Also in deference to the doctrine of separation of

powers, courts hesitate to declare a law totally
unconstitutional and as long as it is possible, will
salvage the valid portions thereof in order to give
effect to the legislative will.512
Requisites of Partial Ucostitutioality:
The Legislature513must be willing to retain the valid
portion(s).
The valid portion can stand independently as law.
Judicial Review by Lower Courts
Leal Bases of lower courts power of judicial
review:
Article VIII, Section 1. Since the power of
judicial review flows from judicial power
and since inferior courts are possessed of
judicial power, it may be fairly inferred that
the power of judicial review is not an
exclusive power of the Supreme Court.
Article VII, Section 5(2). This same
conclusion may be inferred from Article
VIII, Section 5(2), which confers on the
Supreme Court appellate jurisdiction over
judgments and decrees of lower courts in
certain cases.
Statutes
General Principles of Law (San Miguel Corp.
v. SOL)
Ethical- Seeks to interpret the Filipino moral

commitments that are embedded in the
constitutional document.
Prudential- Weighing and comparing the costs and
benefits that might be found in conflicting
rules.515
VII. Decidi a Case
Process of Decision Making
Cases Decided En Banc
Cases Decided in Division
A. Process of Decisio Maki
In Consulta
Certification of Consultation
Explanation on Abstention etc.
Statement of Facts and the Law
Denial of MR or Petition for Review
Decisions of the Court
Period for Decision
Certification and Explanation
Read Rule 13 of 2010 SC Iteral Rules
Sectio 13. The conclusions of the Supreme Court in any
case submitted to it for decision en banc or in division
shall be reached in consultation before the case is
assigned to a Member for the writing of the opinion of the
Court. A certification to this effect signed by the Chief
Justice shall be issued and a copy thereof attached to the
record of the case and served upon the parties. Any
Members who took no part, or dissented, or abstained
from a decision or resolution must state the reason
therefor. The same requirements shall be observed by all
lower collegiate courts.
Note: While a declaration of unconstitutionality

made by the Supreme Court constitutes a
precedent binding on all, a similar decision of an
inferior court binds only the parties in the case.514
Modalities of Costitutioal Iterpretatio
Sectio 14. No decision shall be rendered by any court

without expressing therein clearly and distinctly the facts
and the law on which it is based. No petition for review or
motion for reconsideration of a decision of the court shall
be refused due course or denied without stating the legal
basis therefor.
Historical- Analyzing the intention of the framers

and the Constitution and the circumstances of
its ratification.
Textual- Reading the language of the Constitution
as the man on the street would.
StructuralDrawing
inferences
from
the
architecture of the three-cornered power
relationships.
Doctrinal- Rely on established precedents
Sectio 15. (1) All cases or matters filed after the

effectivity of this Constitution must be decided or resolved
within twenty-four months from date of submission for the
Supreme Court, and, unless reduced by the Supreme
Court, twelve months for all lower collegiate courts, and
three months for all other lower courts.
A case or matter shall be deemed submitted for decision
or resolution upon the filing of the last pleading, brief, or
memorandum required by the Rules of Court or by the
court itself.
Upon the expiration of the corresponding period, a
certification to this effect signed by the Chief Justice or
the presiding judge shall forthwith be issued and a copy
thereof attached to the record of the case or matter, and
served upon the parties. The certification shall state why
a decision or resolution has not been rendered or issued
within said period.
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 251 (1995 ed); See Senate v. Ermita.
Usually shown by the presence of separability clause. But even

without such separability clause, it has been held that if the valid
portion is so far independent of the invalid portion, it may be fair to
presume that the legislature would have enacted it by itself if they
had supposed that they could constitutionally do so.
515

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(4) Despite the expiration of the applicable mandatory

period, the court, without prejudice to such responsibility
as may have been incurred in consequence thereof, shall
decide or resolve the case or matter submitted thereto for
Abstained
from a decision or resolution must state the reason
therefore (Section 13)
determination, without further delay.
The reason for the required explanation is to
1. I Cosulta516
The conclusions of the Supreme Court in any case
submitted to it for decision en banc or in division
shall be reached in consultation before the case is
assigned to a Member for the writing of the opinion
of the Court. (Section 13)
2. Certificatio of Cosultatio ad Assimet
A certification as regards consultation and
assignment signed by the Chief Justice shall be
issued and a copy thereof attached to the record of
the case and served upon the parties. (Section 13)
Purpose. The purpose of certification is to ensure
the
implementation
of
the
constitutional
requirement that decisions of the Supreme Court
are reached after consultation with members of the
court sitting en banc or in division before the case
is assigned to a member thereof for decisionwriting. (Consing v. CA, 1989)
The certification by the Chief Justice that he has
assigned the case to a Justice for writing the
opinion will not expose such Justice to pressure
since the certification will not identify the Justice.517
Effect of Absece of Certificatio. The absence
of the certification would not necessarily mean that
the case submitted for decision had not been
reached in consultation before being assigned to
one member for writing of the opinion of the Court
since the regular performance of duty is presumed.
The lack of certification at the end of the decision
would only serve as evidence of failure to observe
certification requirement and may be basis for
holding the official responsible for the omission to
account therefore. Such absence of certification
would not have the effect of invalidating the
decision.518
Miute Resolutio. Minute resolutions need not
be signed by the members of the Court who took
part in the deliberations of a case nor do they
require the certification of the Chief Justice.
(Borromeo v. CA, 1990)
3. Explaatio o Abstetio etc.
Any Member who:
Took no part, or
Dissented, or
encourage participation.519
4. Statemet of Facts ad the Law
Rule
Purpose of Requirement
Where Applicable
Where Not Applicable
Illustration of Sufficient Compliance
Illustration of Insufficient Compliance
Rule
No decision shall be rendered by any court
without expressing therein clearly and
distinctly the facts and the law on which it is
based. (Section 14)
A decision need not be a complete recital of
the evidence presented. So long as the factual
and legal basis are clearly and distinctly set
forth supporting the conclusions drawn
therefrom, the decision arrived at is valid.
However, it is imperative that the decision not
simply be limited to the dispositive portion but
must state the nature of the case, summarize
the facts with reference to the record, and
contain a statement of applicable laws and
jurisprudence and the tribunals statement and
conclusions on the case.520
Requiremet, ot jurisdictioal. Although
the 1st paragraph of Section 14 is worded in
mandatory language, it is nonetheless merely
directory. It has been held that the
requirement does not go to the jurisdiction of
the court521 (1989 Bar Question)
Purpose
To inform the person reading the decision, and
especially the parties, of how it was reached
by the court after consideration of the pertinent
facts and examination of applicable laws.
There are various reasons for this:
To assure the parties that the judge
studied the case;
To give the losing party opportunity to
analyze the decision and possibly
appeal or, alternatively, convince the
losing party to accept the decision in
good grace;
3. To enrich the body of case law,
especially if the decision is from the
After deliberations by the group.

Antonio B. Nachura, Outline/Reviewer in Political Law 295 (2006

ed.)

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SCHOOL OF LAW
Supreme Court. (Fransisco v. Permskul,

1989)
Where Applicable
The constitutional requirement (Section 14, 1 st
paragraph) that a decision must express
clearly and distinctly the facts and law on
which it is based as referri oly to
decisions522.
Resolutions disposing of petitions fall under
the constitutional provision (Section 14, 2 nd
paragraph) which states that no petition for
reviewshall be refused due course without
stating the legal basis therefore. (Borromeo v.
CA) 523
Where ot Applicable
It has been held that the provision is not
applicable to:
524
Decision of the COMELEC ;

Decision of military tribunals which are not
courts of justice.525
Mere orders are not covered since they
dispose of only incidents of the case,
such as postponements of the trial. The
only exception is an order of dismissal on
the merits526
This requirement does not apply to a minute
resolution dismissing a petition for
habeas corpus, certiorari and mandamus,
provided a legal basis is given therein.
(Mendoza v. CFI 66 SCRA 96)
Neither will it apply to administrative cases.
(Prudential Bank v. Castro, 158 SCRA
646)
Illustrative Cases of Sufficiet Compliace:
Facts: The Court of Appeals affirmed the conviction
of petitioner for estafa. Petitioner argued that the
decision did not comply with the Constitution
because instead of making its own finding of facts,
the Court of Appeals adopted the statement of facts
in the brief filed by the Solicitor General.
Held: There is no prohibition against courts
adoption of the narration of facts made in the brief
instead of rewriting them in its own words.
(Hernandez v. CA, 228 SCRA 429)527
Memoradum Decisios.
The rule remains that the constitutional mandate
saying that no decision shall be rendered by any
court without expressing therein clearly and distinctly
the facts and the law on which it is based, does not
522
Decision is described as a judgment rendered after the

presentation of proof or on the basis of stipulation of facts. (Cruz,
Philippine Political Law, p. 269 (1995 ed))
Nagca v. COMELEC, 112 SCRA 270 (1982).
preclude the validity of memorandum decisions,

which adopt by reference the findings of fact and
conclusions of law contained in the decisions of
inferior tribunals. This rule has been justified on the
grounds of expediency, practicality, convenience and
docket status of our courts.528 (Solid Homes v.
Laserna, 2008)
Memorandum decisions can also speed up the
judicial process, a desirable thing and a concern of
the Constitution itself. Where a memorandum
decision is used, the decision adopted by reference
must be attached to the Memorandum for easy
reference. Nonetheless, the Memorandum decision
should be used sparingly and used only where the
facts as in the main are accepted by both parties
and in simple litigations only. (Fransisco v. Permskul,
1989)
Illustrative Cases of Isufficiet Compliace

In Dizon v. Judge Lopez, 1997, the decision, which
consisted
only
of
the
dispositve
portion
(denominated a sin perjuicio529 judgment) was held
invalid.
Facts: Respondents sold the same property to two
different buyers. Petitioners, the first buyers, filed a
case to annul the title of the second buyer. The
lower court rendered a decision dismissing the
complaint. The decision stated that the plaintiffs
failed to prove their case and there was no sufficient
proof of bad faith on the part of the second buyer.
Held: The decision does not comply with the
requirement under the Constitution that it should
contain a clear and distinct statement of facts. It
contained conclusions without stating the facts
which served as their basis. (Valdez v. CA, 194
SCRA 360)
Facts: Petitioners filed an action to annul the
foreclosure sale of the property mortgaged in favor
of respondent. After petitioners had rested their
case, respondent filed a demurrer to the evidence.
The trial court issued an order dismissing the case
on the ground that the evidence showed that the
sale was in complete accord with the requirements
of Section 3 of Act No. 3135.
Held: The order violates the constitutional
requirement. The order did not discuss what the
evidence was or why the legal requirements had
been observed. (Nicos Industrial Corporation v. CA,
206 SCRA 122)
Facts: The RTC convicted the accused of murder.
The decision contained no findings of fact in regard
to the commission of the crime and simply
contained the conclusion that the prosecution had
sufficiently established the guilt of the accused of
the crime charged beyond reasonable doubt and
that the witnesses for the protection were more
credible.
Held: The decision did not contain any findings of
fact which are essential in decision-making. (People
v. Viernes, 262 SCRA 641)
G.R. No. 166051, April 8, 2008.

Sin Perjuicio judgment is a judgment without a
statement of facts in support of its conclusions.

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Facts: Petitioners sued respondents for damages

on the ground that they were not able to take their
flight although the travel agent who sold them the
plane tickets confirmed their reservations. The
decision of the trial court summarized the evidence
for the parties and then held that respondent, the
travel agent, and the sub-agent should be held
jointly and severally liable for damages on the basis
of the facts.
Held: The decision did not distinctly and clearly set
forth the factual and legal bases for holding
respondents jointly and severally liable. (Yee Eng
Chong v. Pan American World Airways Inc., 328
SCRA 717)
Facts: The MTC convicted petitioner of unfair
competition. Petitioner appealed to the RTC. The
RTC affirmed his conviction. The RTC stated in this
decision that it found no cogent reason to disturb the
findings of fact of MTC.
Held: The decision of the RTC fell short of the
constitutional requirement. The decision in question
should be struck down as a nullity. (Yao v. CA, 344
SCRA 202)
4. Statemet of Leal Basis for Deial of MR or

Petitio for Review
No petition for review or motion for reconsideration
of a decision of the court shall be refused due
course or denied without stating the legal basis
therefor. (Section 14)
Resolutions disposing of petitions fall under the
constitutional provision (Section 14, 2nd paragraph)
which states that no petition for reviewshall be
refused due course without stating the legal
basis therefore.
All cases or matters filed after the effectivity of

1987 Constitution must be decided or resolved
within twety-four moths from date of
submission for the Supreme Court. (Section 15).
Exceptio: When the Supreme Court review the
factual basis of the proclamation of martial law or
suspension of the privilege of the writ or the
extension thereof, it must promulgate its decision
thereon within 30 days from its filing. (Article VII,
Section 18).
Madatory. Decision within the maximum period is
mandatory. Failure to comply can subject a
Supreme Court Justice to impeachment for
culpable violation of the Constitution.530
The court, under the 1987 Constitution, is now
mandated to decide or resolve the case or matter
submitted to it for determination within specified
periods. Even when there is delay and no decision
or resolution is made within the prescribed period,
there is no automatic affirmance of the appealed
decision. This is different from the rule under Article
X, Section 11(2) of the 1973 Constitution which
said that, in case of delay, the decision appealed
from was deemed affirmed. (Sesbreo v. CA, 2008)
531
6. Whe a Case Deemed Submitted

A case or matter shall be deemed submitted for
decision or resolution upon the filing of the last
pleading, brief, or memorandum required by the
Rules of Court or by the court itself. (Section 15)
Illustrative Cases:
7. Certificatio of Periods Expiratio ad

Explaatio for Failure to Reder Decisio or
Resolutio
Upon the expiration of the corresponding period, a
certification to this effect signed by the Chief
Justice or the presiding judge shall forthwith be
issued and a copy thereof attached to the record of
the case or matter, and served upon the parties.
The certification shall state why a decision or
resolution has not been rendered or issued within
said period. (Section 15)
The Court of Appeals denied the petitioners motion for

reconsideration in this wise: Evidently, the motion poses
nothing new. The points and arguments raised by the
movants have been considered an passed upon in the
decision sought to be reconsidered. Thus, we find no
reason to disturb the same. The Supreme Court held that
there was adequate compliance with the constitutional
provision. (Martinez v. CA, 2001)
Despite the expiration of the applicable mandatory

period, the court, without prejudice to such
responsibility as may have been incurred in
consequence thereof, shall decide or resolve the
case or matter submitted thereto for determination,
without further delay. (Section 15)
When the Court, after deliberating on a petition and

any
subsequent
pleadings,
manifestations,
comments, or motion decides to deny due course
to the petition and states that the questions raised
are factual or no reversible error or if the
respondent courts decision is shown or for some
other legal basis stated in the resolution, there is
sufficient compliance with the constitutional
requirement. (Borromeo v. CA)
The Supreme Court ruled that lack of merit is sufficient

declaration of the legal basis for denial of petition for
review or motion for reconsideration. (Prudential Bank v.
Castro)
5. Period for Decisio

B. Cases Decided E Bac

Sectio 4
G.R. No. 161390, April 16, 2008.
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SCHOOL OF LAW
necessarily mean that he was not there during the

deliberations.
(2) All cases involving the constitutionality of a treaty,

international or executive agreement, or law, which shall
be heard by the Supreme Court en banc, and all other
cases which under the Rules of Court are required to be
heard en banc, including those involving the
constitutionality, application, or operation of presidential
decrees, proclamations, orders, instructions, ordinances,
and other regulations, shall be decided with the
concurrence of a majority of the Members who actually
took part in the deliberations on the issues in the case
and voted thereon.
(1999 Bar Question)

Cases that must be heard e bac:
All cases involving the constitutionality of a
treaty,
international
or
executive
agreement, or law.
All cases which under the Rules of Court are
required to be heard en banc
All cases involving the constitutionality,
application, or operation of presidential
decrees,
proclamations,
orders,
instructions, ordinances, and other
regulations
Cases heard by a division when the required
majority in the division is not obtained;
Cases where the Supreme Court modifies or
reverses a doctrine or principle of law
previously laid down either en banc or in
division.
Administrative cases involving the discipline or
dismissal of judges of lower courts
(Section 11) [Dismissal of judges,
Disbarment of a lawyer, suspension of
either for more than 1 year or a fine
exceeding 10,000 pesos (People v.
Gacott)]
Election contests for President or VicePresident.
Appeals from Sandiganbayan or Constitutional
Commissions. (Legal Basis?)
Q: How many justices are needed to constitute a

quorum when the Court sits en banc and there are
only fourteen justices in office?
A: In People v. Ebio, 2004, since it was a capital
criminal cases, the Court said that there should be
eight.533
Procedure if opiio is equally divided.
When the Court en banc is equally divided in
opinion, or the necessary majority cannot be had,
the case shall again be deliberated on, and if after
such deliberation no decision is reached, the
original action commenced in the court shall be
dismissed; in appealed cases, the judgment or
order appealed from shall stand affirmed; and on
all incidental matters, the petition or motion shall be
denied.(Rule 56, Sectio 7, Rules of Court)
C. Cases Decided i Divisio
Sectio 4
(3) Cases or matters heard by a division shall be decided
or resolved with the concurrence of a majority of the
Members who actually took part in the deliberations on
the issues in the case and voted thereon, and in no case,
without the concurrence of at least three of such
Members. When the required number is not obtained, the
case shall be decided en banc: Provided, that no doctrine
or principle of law laid down by the court in a decision
rendered en banc or in division may be modified or
reversed except by the court sitting en banc.
Divisios are ot separate ad distict courts.

Actions considered in any of the divisions and
decisions rendered therein are, in effect by the
same Tribunal. Decisions or resolutions of a
division of the court are not inferior to an en banc
decision. (People v. Dy, 2003)
(See Rule 2 Section3 of 2010 SC Internal Rules)
Decisios of a divisio, ot appealable to e

bac. Decisions or resolutions of a division of the
court, when concurred in by majority of its
members who actually took part in the
deliberations on the issues in a case and voted
thereon is a decision or resolution of the Supreme
Court. (Firestone Ceramics v. CA, 2000)
Number of Votes Needed to Decide a Case

Heard E Bac:
When the Supreme Court sits en banc cases are
decided by the concurrence of majority if the
members who actually took part in the deliberations
on the issues in the cases and voted thereon. Thus,
since a quorum of the Supreme Court is eight, the
votes of at least five are needed and are enough,
even if it is a question of constitutionality. (Those who
did not take part in the deliberation do not have the
right to vote)532 (1996 Bar Question)
Where the required umber caot be obtaied

i a divisio of three i decidi a case. Where
the required number of votes is not obtained, there
is no decision. The only way to dispose of the case
then is to refer it to the Court en banc. (Section
4(3))
ASM: In reality, when the decision says that a

particular Justice did not take part, it does not
Cases v. Matters.
532
Cases or matters heard by a division shall be

decided or resolved with the concurrence of a
majority of the
533
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SCHOOL OF LAW
particular decision that it determines, after reexamination, to call for a rectification. The
adherence to precedents is strict and rigid in a
common-law setting like the United Kingdom,
where judges make law as binding as an Act of
Parliament. But ours is not a common-law system;
hence, judicial precedents are not always strictly
and rigidly followed. A judicial pronouncement in an
earlier decision may be followed as a precedent in
a subsequent case only when its reasoning and
justification are relevant, and the court in the latter
case accepts such reasoning and justification to be
applicable to the case. The application of
precedent is for the sake of convenience and
stability.
Members who actually took part in the deliberations on

the issues in the case and voted thereon, and in no
case, without the concurrence of at least three of such
Members.
When the required number is not obtained, the case
shall be decided en banc.
A careful reading of the above constitutional

provision reveals the intention of the framers to
draw a distinction between cases on one hand and,
and matters on the other hand, such that cases are
decided while matters, including motions, are
resolved. Otherwise put, the word decided must
refer to cases; while the word resolved must refer
to matters.
Where the required umber caot be obtaied
i a divisio of three i motio for
recosideratio. If a case has already been
decided by the division and the losing party files a
motion for reconsideration, the failure of the
division to resolve the motion because of a tie in
the voting does not leave the case undecided.
Quite plainly, if the voting results in a tie, the
motion for reconsideration is lost. The assailed
decision is not reconsidered and must therefore be
deemed affirmed. (Fortich v. Corona, 1999)
Supreme Court ad Stare Decisis
Stare decisis derives its name from the Latin
maxim stare decisis et non quieta movere, i.e., to
adhere to precedent and not to unsettle things that
are settled. It simply means that a principle
underlying the decision in one case is deemed of
imperative authority, controlling the decisions of
like cases in the same court and in lower courts
within the same jurisdiction, unless and until the
decision in question is reversed or overruled by a
court of competent authority. The decisions relied
upon as precedents are commonly those of
appellate courts, because the decisions of the trial
courts may be appealed to higher courts and for
that reason are probably not the best evidence of
the rules of law laid down.
VIII. Other Courts

Composition
Judicial Power; Judicial Review
Jurisdiction
Qualifications
Appointment
Salaries
Tenure
Removal
Prohibition
Deciding a Case
A. Compositio
The composition of lower courts shall be provided
by law. The laws are Judiciary Act of 1948 and BP
129.
The different lower courts under the Judiciary
Reorganization Law are the:
Court of Appeals
regional trial courts
metropolitan trial courts
municipal trial courts
municipal circuit trial courts
Other Courts:
Court of Tax Appeals
Sandignabayan
Sharia Court
Judicial decisions assume the same authority as a

statute itself and, until authoritatively abandoned,
necessarily become, to the extent that they are
applicable, the criteria that must control the
actuations, not only of those called upon to abide
by them, but also of those duty-bound to enforce
obedience to them. In a hierarchical judicial system
like ours, the decisions of the higher courts bind
the lower courts, but the courts of co-ordinate
authority do not bind each other. The one highest
court does not bind itself, being invested with the
innate authority to rule according to its best lights.
The Court, as the hihest court of the lad, may
be uided but is ot cotrolled by precedet.
Thus, the Court, especially with a new
membership, is not obliged to follow blindly a

(Together with the Supreme Court , the

aforementioned tribunals make up the judicial
department of our government)534
Court of Appeals. The Court of Appeals is
composed of 68 Associate Justices and 1
Presiding Justice. (RA 52; RA 8246)
B. Judicial Power; Judicial Review i Lower Courts
534
130

SCHOOL OF LAW
Judicial power shall be vested in one Supreme

Court and i such lower courts as may be
established by law.
Judicial power includes the duty of the courts of
justice to settle actual controversies involving rights
which are legally demandable and enforceable,
and to determine whether or not there has been a
grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack or
excess of jurisdiction on the part of any branch or
instrumentality of the Government. (Section 1)

All cases in which the jurisdiction of any lower court
is in issue.
All criminal cases in which the penalty imposed is
reclusion perpetua or higher.
All cases in which only an error or question of law is
involved.
Cotempt Powers
(See Rule 71)
The power to punish for contempt is inherent in al
courts; its existence is essential to the preservation
of order in judicial proceedings and to the
enforcement of judgment, orders, and mandates of
the courts, and consequently, to the due
administration of justice.536
1996 Bar Questio
On the first day of the trial of a rape-murder case
where the victim was a popular TV star, over a
hundred of her fans rallied at his entrance of the
courthouse, each carrying a placard demanding
the conviction of the accused and the imposition of
the death penalty on him. The rally was peaceful
and did not disturb the proceedings of the case.
Q: Can the trial court order the dispersal of the
rallyists under the pain of being punished for
contempt of court?
Suggested Answer: Yes, the trial court can order
the dispersal of the rally under the pain of being
cited for contempt. The purpose of the rally is to
attempt to influence the administration of justice.
As stated in People v. Flores, 239 SCRA 83, any
conduct by any party which tends to directly or
indirectly impede or obstruct or degrade the
administration of justice is subject to the contempt
powers of the court.
Q: If instead of a rally, the fans of the victim wrote
letters to the newspaper editors demanding the
conviction of the accused, can the trial court
punish them for contempt?
Suggested Answer: No, the trial court cannot
punish for contempt the fans of the victim who
wrote letters to the newspaper editors. Since the
letters were not addressed to the judge and the
publication of the letters occurred outside the court,
the fans cannot be punished in the absence of a
clear and present danger to the administration of
justice.
Leal Bases of lower courts power of judicial

review:
Article VIII, Section 1. Since the power of
judicial review flows from judicial power
and since inferior courts are possessed of
judicial power, it may be fairly inferred that
the power of judicial review is not an
exclusive power of the Supreme Court.
Article VII, Section 5(2). This same
conclusion may be inferred from Article
VIII, Section 5(2), which confers on the
Supreme Court appellate jurisdiction over
judgments and decrees of lower courts in
certain cases.
Note: While a declaration of unconstitutionality
made by the Supreme Court constitutes a
precedent binding on all, a similar decision of an
inferior court binds only the parties in the case.535
C. Jurisdictio of Lower Courts
1 Statutory Cofermet of Jurisdictio
The Congress shall have the power to define,
prescribe, and apportion the jurisdiction of the
various courts. (Section 2)
2. Costitutioal Cofermet of Jurisdictio
J.M. Tuaso & Co. v. CA; Yot v. IAC: There is in
effect a constitutional conferment of original
jurisdiction on the lower courts in those five cases
for which the Supreme Court is granted appellate
jurisdiction in Section 5(2).
review, revise, reverse, modify, or affirm on appeal or
certiorari as the law or the Rules of Court may provide,
final judgments and orders of lower courts in:
All cases in which the constitutionality or validity of
any
treaty,
international
or
executive
agreement,
law,
presidential
decree,
proclamation, order, instruction, ordinance, or
regulation is in question.
All cases involving the legality of any tax, impost,
assessment, or toll, or any penalty imposed in
relation thereto.
535

Qualificatios
Qualificatios of Members of Court of Appeals
Must be a natural-born citizen of the
Philippines (Section 7(1))
Must be a member of the Philippine Bar
(Section 7(2))
536
Slade Perkins v. Director of Prisions, 58 Phil 271.
131

SCHOOL OF LAW
Must be a person of proven competence,

integrity, probity, and independence.
(Section 7(3))
Possessing other qualifications prescribed
by Congress (Section 7(2))
Section 7 of BP 129 provides that, The
Presiding Justice and the Associate Justice
shall have the same qualifications as those
provided in Constitution for Justice of the
Supreme Court. Hence, the members of the
CA must also be:
Must at least be 40 years of age;
Must have been for 15 years or
more a judge of a lower court or
engaged in the practice of law in the
Philippines
2. Costitutioal Qualificatios for Nocolleiate courts
Citizens of the Philippines (Section 7(2))
Members of the Philippine Bar (Section 7(2))
Possessing the other qualifications prescribed
Must be a person of proven competence,
integrity, probity and independence.
(Section 7(3))
Qualificatios of RTC Judes:
Citizen of the Philippines; (Section 7(2))
Member of the Philippine Bar (Section 7(2))
A person of proven competence, integrity,
probity and independence.
At least 35 years old (BP 129, Section
15)
Has been engaged for at least
[10] years in the practice of law
in the Philippines or has held
public office in the Philippines
requiring admission to the
practice
of
law
as
an
indispensable requisite. (BP 129,
Section 15)
Qualificatios of MTC, MeTC, MCTC Judes:
Citizen of the Philippines; (Section 7(2))
Member of the Philippine Bar (Section 7(2))
A person of proven competence, integrity,
probity and independence.
At least 35 years old (BP 129, Section
26)
Has been engaged for at least 5

years in the practice of law in the
Philippines or has held public
office in the Philippines requiring
admission to the practice of law
as an indispensable requisite.
(BP 129, Section 26)
Qualificatios of CTA Judes:
Judges of the CTA shall gave the same
qualifications as Members of the Supreme Court.
(RA No. 1125, Section 1 in relation to CA No. 102,
Section 1)
Qualificatios of Members of Sadiabaya:
No person shall be appointed as Member of the
Sandiganbayan unless he is at least forty years of
age and for at least 10 years has been a judge of a
court of record or has been engaged in the practice
of law in the Philippines or has held office requiring
admission to the bar as a prerequisite for a like
period. (PD No. 1606 as amended, Section 1)
Qualificatios of judes of Sharia Courts:
In addition to the qualifications for Members of
Regional Trial Courts, a judge of the Sharias
district court must be learned in the Islamic Law
and Jurisprudence. (PD No. 1083, Article 140)
No person shall be appointed judge of the Sharia
Circuit Court unless he is at least 25 years of age,
and has passed an examination in the Sharia and
Islamic jurisprudence to be given by the Supreme
Court for admission to special membership in the
Philippine Bar to practice in the Sharia courts. (PD
No. 1083, Article 152)
Note: Congress may not alter the constitutional
qualifications of members of the Judiciary. But
Congress may alter the statutory qualifications of
judges and justices of lower courts.537
It behooves every prospective appointee to the
Judiciary to apprise the appointing authority of
every matter bearing on his fitness for judicial
office, including such circumstances as may reflect
on his integrity and probity. Thus the fact that a
prospective judge failed to disclose that he had
been administratively charged and dismissed from
the service for grave misconduct by a former
President of the Philippines was used against him.
It did not matter that he had resigned from office
and that the administrative case against him had
become moot and academic.538
D. Appoitmet
The judges of lower courts shall be appointed by
the President from a list of at least three nominees
In re JBC v. Judge Quitain, JBC No. 013, August 22, 2007.

132

SCHOOL OF LAW
prepared by the Judicial and Bar Council for every

vacancy. Such appointments need no confirmation.
For the lower courts, the President shall issue the
appointments within ninety days from the
submission of the list. (Section 9)
Old Doctrine: [Sectio 15] applies i the
appoitmets i the Judiciary. Two
months immediately before the next
presidential elections and up to the end of
his term, a President or Acting President
shall not make appointments, except
temporary appointments to executive
will prejudice public service or endanger
public safety. Since the exception applies
only to executive positions, the prohibition
covers appointments to the judiciary.539
During this period [2 months immediately
before the next presidential elections], the
President is neither required to make
appointments to the courts nor allowed to do
so.
Section 4(1) and 9 of Article VIII simply
mean that the President is required by law
to fill up vacancies in the courts within the
same time frames provided therein unless
prohibited by Section 15 of Article VII.
While the filing up of vacancies in the
judiciary is undoubtedly in the public
interest, there is no showing in this case of
any compelling reason to justify the making
of the appointments during the period of the
ban. (In Re Appointment of Mateo
Valenzuela, 1998)
New Doctrine: The prohibition under Article
VII, Section 15 of the Constitution against
presidential
appointments
immediately
before the next presidential elections and up
to the end of the term of the President does
ot apply to vacacies i the Supreme
Court. (De Castro v. JBC, March 17, 2010)
E. Salaries
The salary of judges of lower courts shall be fixed
by law. During their continuance in office, their
salary shall not be decreased. (Section 10)
Imposition of income tax on salaries of judges does
not violate the constitutional prohibition against
decrease in salaries.(Nitafan v. Tan, 152 SCRA
284)
F. Teure
539
In re: Appointment of Valenzuela, AM 98-0501 SC, November

9, 1998.

The judges of lower courts shall hold office during

good behavior until they reach the age of sevety
years or become incapacitated to discharge the
duties of their office. (Section 11)
No law shall be passed reorganizing the Judiciary
when it undermines the security of tenure of
members. (Section 2)
In Vargas v. Villaroza, (80 Phil 297 (1982), the
Supreme Court held that the guarantee of security
of tenure is a guarantee not just against actual
removal but also of uninterrupted continuity in
tenure.
G. Disciplie/ Removal
The Supreme Court en banc shall have the power
of discipline judges of lower courts, or order their
dismissal by a vote of a majority of the Members
who actually took part in the deliberations on the
issues in the case and voted thereon.
According to People v. Gacott, (1995), only
dismissal of judges, disbarment of a lawyer,
suspension of either for more than 1 year or a fine
exceeding 10,000 pesos requires en banc
decision.
The grounds for the removal of a judicial officer
should be established beyond reasonable doubt,
particularly where the charges on which the
removal is sought are misconduct in office, willful
neglect, corruption and incompetence. (Office of
the Judicial Administrator v. Pascual, 1996)
H. Prohibitio
The members of courts established by law shall not
be designated to any agency performing quasijudicial or administrative functions. (Section 12)
Thus, where a judge was designated member of
the Ilocos Norte Provincial Committee on Justice
by the Provincial Governor where the function of
the Committee was to receive complaints and
make recommendations towards the speedy
disposition of cases of detainees, the desiatio
was ivalidated. (In re Manzano, 166 SCRA 246
(1988).
I. Decidi a Case
1. Cosultatio
The conclusions of the [lower collegiate courts] in
any case submitted to it for decision en banc or in
division shall be reached in consultation before the
case is assigned to a Member for the writing of the
opinion of the court.
A certification to this effect signed by the [Chief
Justice] shall be issued and a copy thereof
133

SCHOOL OF LAW
attached to the record of the case and served upon

the parties.
Any Members who took no part, or dissented, or
abstained from a decision or resolution must state
the reason therefor. (Section 13)
the Sandiganbayan is also clear with the 3 month

reglementary period. The Sandiganbayan, in a
sense, acts like a trial court, therefore a 3 month
and not a 12 month reglementary period.
Note: CA sits in divisions when it hears cases; the

only time to convenes as one body is to take up
matters of administration.
2. Statemet of Facts ad Law
No decision shall be rendered by any court without
expressing therein clearly and distinctly the facts
and the law on which it is based.
No petition for review or motion for reconsideration
of a decision of the court shall be refused due
course or denied without stating the legal basis
therefor. (Section 14)
3. Period i Decidi Case
Court
Period
Supreme Court
24 moths (Section 15)
Court of Appeals
Sandiganbayan
3 moths (Re Problem
of
Delays
in
Sandiganbayan)
All other lower courts
All cases or matters filed after the effectivity of
1987 Constitution must be decided or resolved
within, unless reduced by the Supreme Court,
twelve moths for all lower colleiate courts,
and three moths for all other lower courts.
A case or matter shall be deemed submitted for
decision or resolution upon the filing of the last
pleading, brief, or memorandum required by the
Rules of Court or by the court itself.
(4) Despite the expiration of the applicable
mandatory period, the court, without prejudice to
such responsibility as may have been incurred in
consequence thereof, shall decide or resolve the
case or matter submitted thereto for determination,
without further delay. (Section 15)
RE Problem of Delays i the Sadiabaya
The provision in Article VIII, Section 15 of the 1987
Constitution which says that cases or matters filed
must be decided by lower collegiate courts within
12 months, does not apply to the Sandiganbayan.
The provision refers to regular courts of lower
collegiate level, which is the Court of Appeals.
The Sandiganbayan is a special court on the same
level as the Court of Appeals, possessing all
inherent powers of a court of justice with the same
functions of a trial court. The Sandiganbayan,
being a special court, shall have the power to
promulgate its own rules. In fact, it promulgated its
own rules regarding the reglementary period of
undecided cases under its jurisdiction. In its own
rules it says that judgments on pending cases shall
be rendered within 3 months. Also, the law creating
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FRATERNAL ORDER OF UTOPIA

ATENEO DE MANILA UNIVERSITY

Atty. ARIS S. MANGUERA

MANGUERA OUTLINE 2010

Subdivisions of Political Law

Branch of public law1 which deals with the

Definition of Political Law

Comprehensive Definition: That body of rules

American sense: A constitution is a written

state with the inhabitants of its territory.2

Law of public corporations3

With particular reference to the Philippine

Basis of Philippie Political Law

I sweat, I bleed, I soar

As thus conceived public law consists of political law, criminal law

Vicente Sinco, Philippine Political Law 1, 10 th ed., 1954.

Vicente Sinco, Philippine Political Law 1, 10 ed., 1954.

This definition is comprehensive enough to cover written and

FRATERNAL ORDER OF UTOPIA

Atty. ARIS S. MANGUERA

departments for their safe and useful exercise for

Opinion in the case of Province of North Cotabato

To prescribe the permanent framework of a system

B. Philosophical View of the Costitutio

Why would a society eerally committed to

The Constitution as a political document may be

Costitutio as a Muicipal Law

According to Dean Baustista, the Constitution is a

According to Dean Bautista, the Constitution

See People v. Pomar, 46 Phil 440. Bernas Commentary

I sweat, I bleed, I soar

A constitution is a municipal law. As such, it is

Andres D. Bautista, Introduction to Constitutional Law 1, Slide

Bernas Commentary, p 5(2003 ed).

Rigid constitution is one that can be amended only by a

A written constitution is one whose precepts are embodied

An enacted or conventional constitution is enacted,

FRATERNAL ORDER OF UTOPIA

Atty. ARIS S. MANGUERA

The Constitution of the Philippines is written,

Essetial parts of a ood writte costitutio

It has been said that the term constitution implies

H. Iterpretatio/Costructio of the Costitutio21

Backroud of the 1987 Costitutio

I. Permaece ad Geerality of costitutios

Broad. Because it provides for the organization of the entire

Brief. It must confine itself to basic principles to be implemented

Definite. To prevent ambiguity in its provisions which could result

Constitution of Government. The series of provisions outlining

Constitution of Liberty. The series of proscriptions setting forth

Features of 1987 Costitutio26

Constitution of Sovereignty. The provisions pointing out the

Antonio B. Nachura, Outline/Reviewer in Political Law (2006 ed.)

Plain meaning rule. Whenever possible the words used in the

Interpretation according to spirit. The words of the Constitution