Public Disclosure Authorized

WPS 4140
Corporate Governance and Regulation:
Can There Be Too Much of a Good Thing?

Valentina G. Bruno and Stijn Claessens

Public Disclosure Authorized

Abstract
For a large number of companies from different countries, we analyze how company
corporate governance practices and country regulatory regimes interact in terms of
company valuation. We confirm that company corporate governance practices play a
crucial role in efficient company functioning and shareholder protection, and
consequently positively impact valuation. We find little valuation impact from corporate
governance measures at the country level, and evidence of possible over-regulation.
Corporate governance appears more valuable for large companies and those that rely
more heavily on external financing, consistent with the hypothesis that the main role of
corporate governance is to protect external financiers.

Public Disclosure Authorized

Keywords: Corporate governance practices, Regulatory regimes, Company valuation

JEL Classifications: G34
World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4140, March 2007
The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the
exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if
the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited
accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the
authors. They do not necessarily represent the view of the World Bank, its Executive Directors, or the countries
they represent. Policy Research Working Papers are available online at http://econ.worldbank.org.
______________________________

Public Disclosure Authorized

We thank the Institutional Shareholder Services (ISS) for providing us with data on companies
corporate governance practices, Vidhi Chhaochharia, Luc Laeven, Konstantinos Tzioumis and
Michela Verardo for stimulating conversations. We also thank our discussants Bernard Yeung
th

and Antoine Faure-Grimaud, Bernard Black, Enrico Perotti and other participants in the 6
Annual Darden Conference on Emerging Markets and the LSE Corporate Governance Seminar
Series for especially insightful comments. Affiliations: Valentina Bruno, World Bank and
Financial Markets Group, LSE. Stijn Claessens, International Monetary Fund, University of
Amsterdam and CEPR. The paper was substantially completed while the second author was at the
World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely
those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the World Bank or the IMF,
their Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. Corresponding author:
[email protected].

1. Introduction
In this paper, we investigate the impact of country legal regimes and company
corporate governance practices on company performance using a cross-country
framework. Corporate governance is nowadays a widely used concept with many
studies of country legal regimes and company-specific corporate governance practices
and structures. These studies have highlighted some aspects of legal regimes and main
corporate governance practices that are associated with improved company
performance and explored the channels through which corporate governance may
affect performance. Although both legal regimes and company practices have been
found to matter in corporate governance, by how much each does and the interaction
between legal regimes and company practices has not much been researched to date.
In this paper, by using data on practices for companies from different legal regimes,
we investigate not only the impact of country rules and detailed company-level
practices on company valuation but also the degree of substitutability or
complementarity between rules and practices in terms of their effect on company
valuation.

We find that the valuation impact of company corporate governance

practices varies by legal systems. In particular, we find evidence of overregulation

when a company already has good corporate governance practices.
The importance of corporate governance has been well established in recent years.
Corporate governance can reduce agency problems among shareholders and between
managers and shareholders, limiting private benefits and expropriation by controlling
owners. Better corporate governance also means better monitoring of management,
which can translate into higher company performance. Much evidence supports these
two channels (see Dennis and McConnell, 2003; and Claessens, 2006, for recent
reviews). Typically though this empirical literature has investigated corporate
governance from either a country or a company point of view. In their widely cited
papers, La Porta et al. (1997, 1998, 2000, henceforth LLSV) show that higher investor
protection at the country level is associated with greater access to finance, more
capital market development, and higher company valuation. Starting with Gompers,
Ishii and Metrick (2003), a large number of studies have investigated how different
corporate governance practices at the company level within a single country affect
shareholders, bondholders and investors and more generally company behavior and
1

performance. These single-country studies have tried to identify the individual

corporate governance aspects most important for company behavior and valuation.
Studying, however, in one framework country level corporate governance regimes
and company corporate governance practices can be important for several reasons.
For one, companies specific corporate governance choices have to be considered in
light of the corporate governance regime in the specific country. Take two similar
companies implementing exactly the same governance practices but located in two
different countries. Identical corporate governance practices may be valued differently
by investors depending on whether they are required or voluntarily adopted. Also
shareholders may consider some aspects of the legal regime in one country as
substitutes to the same corporate governance practices used in another country. Or
shareholders may prefer to invest in companies whose country of incorporation
guarantees better protection in the eventuality of legal disputes, irrespective of the
company corporate governance practices. Correspondingly, shareholders may value
corporate governance practices differently depending on the legal regime in the
country. Second, corporate governance practices are not independent of the legal
regime and vice-versa.

Given current laws, a company may not have a

choiceexcept to incorporate in another jurisdictionbut to adjust its corporate

governance practices. This discussion makes clear that both the strength of country
protection and companies corporate governance practices are aspects to account for
when studying the impact of corporate governance of companies. Only by taking both
rules and practices into account, can we hope to detect which practices affect
performance, the degree of complementarity or substitutability between practices and
legal regimes, and the overall magnitude of impacts of practices and legal regimes on
performance.
Doing such an analysis can be complex though. In a single-country context,
company-level studies can focus on those few corporate governance aspects salient
for the particular country. In a cross-country setting, the variety in corporate
governance practices increases. Also given differences in legal regimes and
consequent requirements, it becomes more important to capture as many corporate
governance aspects as possible, but this is difficult due to the lack of a comprehensive

coverage of sufficient aspects of corporate governance practices.1 The fact that studies
for different countries looking at the association between board independence and
performance have found contradictory results (e.g., Hermalin and Weisbach, 2003)
may be related to the lack of comparable data. Several of the cross-country studies
have had to resort to using a broad measure of corporate governance (e.g., in the form
of an index covering aspects of transparency, independence, accountability, social
responsibility and discipline in one number). This does not allow one to study
individual corporate governance practices, which can be an important omission. For
US companies, for example, Bebchuk et al. (2004) find that not everything matters
equally for performance, and that associations between a broad index and
performance may be driven by only few aspects.
More generally, with more details on corporate governance practices one can
answer specific questions like: Is it more important to have an independent board or to
leave more monitoring powers to shareholders? Is greater transparency beneficial to
shareholders? How do these aspects depend on the local legal regimes? Are there
interactions between certain aspects of legal regimes and corporate governance
practices in terms of company performance? Furthermore, using more detailed data
one can investigate interactions between corporate governance and (access to)
external financing. Corporate governance has been found to help relax external
financing constraints by alleviating signaling problems and ensuring managers exert
efforts on value-maximizing projects and do not expropriate private benefits.
Whether these results hold across countries and how they depend on specific
corporate governance regimes and practices is subject to study.
The Institutional Shareholder Services (ISS) dataset provides us with a unique
opportunity to investigate the interaction between performance and the corporate
governance regime at the country and companys level in a cross-country framework.2
The coverage of companies and countries is quite wide, approximately 5300 US
companies and 2400 non-US companies from 22 advanced economies for the period
2003 2005. In contrast to many existing empirical studies using only a broad
1

For instance, Gompers, Ishii and Metrick (2003) cover only the presence of anti-takeover provisions
(ATPs) in companies charters, thus potentially ignoring other important governance practices.
2
Two studies also using ISS data, but done independently are Arel, Aggarwal, Stulz and Williamson
(2007) and Chhaochharia and Laeven (2007).

measure of the companys corporate governance practices in the form of an index, ISS
provides individual corporate governance practices of each company. It covers,
among others, information on the composition and independence of boards and
committees, the level of shareholders involvement in the companys decisions, and
relations with the auditors. For a cross-country analysis, it will also be important to
cover in detail the countries institutional environment, especially the different legal
frameworks and other various aspects possibly affecting the impact of corporate
governance practices. Fortunately, much progress has been made in recent years to
document aspects of countries legal regimes, and we draw on this literature.
Using these data, we find that across the 23 countries two corporate governance
practices are positively and significantly associated with performance: the degree of
board independence, and the existence and independence of board committees. Also,
absence of entrenched boards and higher investor protection at the country level are
positively associated with performance, but this evidence is not robust under all
specifications. The corporate governance channels are found to be stronger for
companies in highly financial dependent industries. We also find evidence that strong
corporate governance practices pay off less for small companies, maybe because
strong corporate governance practices involve costs in terms of monitoring, time and
resources which offset the benefits.
Importantly, we find interaction effects between the strength of legal protection
and the companies corporate governance practices. In particular, we find that country
level investor protection matters little when companies have weak corporate
governance practices, suggesting that country legal protection cannot substitute for
weak company corporate governance practices. In contrast, for corporations with
strong corporate governance practices, excessive country regulation can harm
valuation, consistent with a hypothesis that excessive regulation can harm managerial
initiatives and lead to lower return and valuation. This finding has important
consequences from a regulatory viewpoint. If high corporate governance practices in
the form of strong, independent, and pro-shareholder boards are already in place, as

for the average US company, there may be a cost of increasing regulatory burdens.3
On the contrary, if companies of a specific country tend to adopt weak corporate
governance practices, regulatory intervention may be of little value. This is the case,
for instance, for Italian and Belgian companies, which rank well below the overall
sample mean for level of board entrenchment and independence, or existence and
independence of board committees. Of course, this is not to say that no forms of
government rules or interventions are useful in these countries and for these types of
corporations. Our conclusion has to remain limited to the type of regulatory
intervention captured in our index of legal regimes. But, our finding does suggest that
regulations need to be well-designed and that there can be cost from overregulation.
We contribute to the literature in methodological aspect by using detailed panel
data on companies corporate governance practices, which means we can be less
concerned about reverse causality driving our results. Using detailed aspects of
corporate governance, we can also disentangle the channels through which corporate
governance acts. Furthermore, our results are robust to the inclusion of different
control variables, using different statistic techniques and using several performance
variables (Tobins Q and ROA). Besides these, we also add in methodological aspects
by analyzing the role of company external financing needs and size without
introducing endogeneity problems. We show that corporate governance acts
especially as a bonding-monitoring-discipline device for those companies that can
expect to require more external financing by applying the Rajan and Zingales (1998)
methodology of identifying industries that heavily rely on external financing.
The paper is structured as follows. Section 2 reviews the relevant literature.
Section 3 describes corporate governance indicators and the main financial data used
in the analysis, and the empirical methodology employed. Section 4 discusses the
results and section 5 concludes.

This is in line with the increasing debate among academics, politicians, and practitioners about the
negative effects of the introduction of the Sarbanes-Oxley Law.

2.

Literature
We are interested in disentangling various aspects of corporate governance, inter-

relating these aspects with country-specific measures of legal investor protection and
studying their association with performance. Such analysis can teach us whether the
implementation of certain corporate governance practices and legal requirements is
reflected in higher company valuation and better performance in all countries. The
(US) based evidence supports that (some) corporate governance practices can lead to
higher valuation and rates of return. The first such paper, Gompers, Ishii and Metrick
(2003) find that the more anti-takeover provisions (ATPs) a company has in its
charter, the lower its performance.4 Since then a number of papers have documented
for the US positive relationships between corporate governance practices and
valuation, rates of return and performance (e.g., Bebchuk, Cohen, and Ferrell, 2004).
Studies for other countries (e.g., India (Black et al. 2007), Korea (Black et al. 2006;
Black and Kim 2007), Brazil (Nenova 2005), Bulgaria (Atanasov et al. 2007), Czech
Republic (Glaeser, Johnson, Shleifer, 2000)) have found similar results.
However, theoretical analysis has also suggested that there can be trade-offs with
respect to corporate governance requirements. Burkart, Gromb, and Panunzi (1997)
argue in particular that too much monitoring and legal protection may hurt managerial
initiative and consequently lower returns and worsen company valuation. They argue
that constraints on managers through monitoring may be costly precisely because
managerial discretion comes with benefits. Managers are less inclined to show
initiative, like searching for new, profitable investment projects, when shareholders
are more likely to interfere. Along the same lines, Boot, Gopalan and Thakor (2006)
find that corporate governance controls may sometimes prevent management from
doing what it should and thereby actually exacerbate agency problems.
These theoretical papers suggest that there can be trade-offs between the gains
from monitoring and those from (more) managerial initiative, and too intensive
monitoring can be inefficient. The trade-off is likely to depend, among others, on the
degree of interaction between internal (boards, committees, company charters,
4

However, some other studies show that this methodology not only can be incorrect (Arcot and Bruno,
2006) or not associated with performance (Core et al., 2006), but when valid, its association with
performance is not necessary monotonic (Hannes, 2002).

disclosure rules) and external (takeovers, product market competition, ownership

structure, legal protection) mechanisms of corporate governance. The empirical
literature has indeed identified some examples of counter-effects of strong corporate
governance. Gillan, Hartzell, and Starks (2003) point out that there is a difference
between strong corporate governance and optimal corporate governance, as stronger
corporate governance does not necessary mean better performance and higher
valuation because costs may offset the benefits. A number of papers have found that
the introduction of some new regulations can be counterproductive for valuation.
Chhaochharia and Grinstein (2006) and Wintoki (2007) find that the Sarbanes-Oxley
Act in the US hurts some companies valuation, and Litvak (2007a and 2007b) finds
that foreign companies cross-listed in the US from well-governed countries reacted
worse to the Act, as did already high-disclosing companies.
Furthermore, there is at least anecdotal evidence that the implementation of
corporate governance practices may not be the result of optimal contracting, but of
other pressures. Worldwide, there is an increasing appetite for more regulation and
rigid laws (besides the Sarbanes-Oxley Act and similar efforts in other countries,
there are calls for laws requiring increased hedge funds transparency and reforms of
the company laws), especially after the recent wave of corporate failures.
Increasingly, public opinion, press and institutional investors are asking for more
rigidity, and more and more sophisticated corporate governance practices are being
required of companies. But many of these requirements do not have strong theoretical,
let alone empirical support that they help with company performance. It also raises the
risk of corporate governance becoming a tick-box exercise, where the more boxes
ticked, the better corporate governance is considered, without necessarily being
supported by empirical evidence or theoretical analyses (Arcot and Bruno, 2006).
This is not to say that corporate governance does not matter. Cross-country work
has shown that corporate governance reforms can pay off in term of higher valuations.
Dahya, Dimitrov and McConnell (2006) in a cross-country study show the specific
importance of board independence and board committees. Studies have found though
that the corporate governance aspects that matter for valuation vary by country. A
company, for example, may not have an independent board, but may have strong

board committees and a non-entrenched board, which in some institutional

environments may still provide for appropriate internal and external (market)
monitoring, but not in others. By using cross-country data, one can investigate what
the impact of higher legal protection on performance is relative to corporate
governance practices exercised at the company level (and vice-versa). Only a few
studies have so far looked at both these perspectives. Using data on company
corporate governance practices across countries, Durnev and Kim (2005) and Klapper
and Love (2004) show the impact of corporate governance to be a decreasing function
of legal protection. Doidge, Karolyi and Stulz (2004) show that country effects
dominate company corporate governance practices in determining valuations. Durnev
and Fauver (2007) draw attention to the links between corporate governance and
government policies, including corruption and predatory behavior. They find that in
countries with more predatory governments, companies practice weaker corporate
governance and disclose less financial information. This cross-country work has,
however, only started to address the interface between legal regimes and corporate
governance practices. For instance, it is not clear, given different legal regimes,
whether the constitution of board committees is important, whether their
independence plays a role, and to what extent these practices they impact company
performance.
Corporate governance is both a way to reduce agency costs and limit pet projects,
leading to more efficient investments, boosting growth and performance and a way to
protect investors from managerial expropriation, thus easing companies in accessing
financing and enhancing valuation. In particular, corporate governance can mitigate
the problem of inefficient access to finance (credit rationing). Borrowers with large
private benefits for which performance conveys little information about managerial
actions, are more likely to see their positive NPV projects turned down by the capital
markets (Tirole, 2006). In particular, when investor protection is low and corporate
governance practices are hard to enforce, there will be a limit on the fraction of future
cash flows that companies can credibly commit to outside investors (limited
pledgeability of cash flow, Almeida and Wolfenzon, 2005). It is therefore important
for the company to bond itself credibly to higher quality corporate governance, which
can involve the cross-listing or the use of ADRs (Doidge et al., 2004). In general, a

companys cost of funds will depend on the extent that investors expect the company
to be governed well after the funds have been raised. Corporate governance is in great
part about mitigating this commitment problem: Corporate governance deals with
the ways in which suppliers of finance to corporations assure themselves of getting a
return on their investment (Shleifer and Vishny, 1997).
This commitment problem is particularly large for companies that rely heavily on
external financing.5 But a test whether companies which are heavy users of external
finance are valued higher when better corporate governance practices are in place can
not unambiguously show that corporate governance reduces the agency problems of
moral hazard and adverse selection. The reason is that the association between
corporate governance and company external financing can arise from reverse
causality, that is, companies improve corporate governance practices (only) when
raising new funds. Conversely, external financing could trigger changes in
companies corporate governance structures, in part as investors require changes.
Therefore, using actual external measures of external financing could create
endogeneity problems.
In a seminal paper, Rajan and Zingales (1998) show how external financial
dependent companies grow more in countries with greater financial development.
They solve the simultaneity biasfinancially more developed countries having
companies with a greater degree of external financingby identifying an industrys
need for external finance from data for US companies. The US can provide a
benchmark for external financing dependence if two conditions hold: capital markets
in the US are relatively frictionless, and a technological demand at the industry level
for external financing carries over to other countries. We use a similar argument to
investigate whether companies belonging to industries that are financially more
dependent are higher valued when displaying better corporate governance practices or
5

Lombardo and Pagano (2002) formalize the above argument in a simple model. They argue that
corporate governance, and more generally the legal environment, can affect the severity of agency
problems between company insiders and outside shareholders in two ways. First, it may directly reduce
the private benefits that managers are able to extract from companies. This shifts the demand function
upwards, thus increasing the quantity of external equity and reducing the cost of capital to companies
in equilibrium. Second, it reduces the auditing and judicial costs that shareholders potentially incur.
This effect shifts the supply curve down, thus again increasing the quantity of available external
finance and lower the cost of capital. Overall, the effect on the equilibrium quantity is always positive.

facing stricter regimes. This provides a test whether corporate governance specifically
adds value for those companies most in need of external financing because
shareholders rights are more protected, without the simultaneity problems. Our
analysis differs from Rajan and Zingales methodology, besides using companyspecific corporate governance measures, in that we do not limit our analysis to
manufacturing industries only, but include all companies (except for financial
institutions).
Another important variable affecting the impact of corporate governance on
company valuation may be size. In the general finance literature size has been found
to matter for company performance. Small companies may have better growth
opportunities, reflected in higher valuation (Shin and Stulz, 2000). Size also proxies
for company age and older and larger companies tend to have lower ratio market-tobook ratios. Beck at al. (2005) find a size effect in the association between financial
development and growth, possibly because smaller companies face tighter credit
constraints than large companies. There might also be a relationship between size and
corporate governance practices. Some empirical evidence finds that strong corporate
governance is more beneficial for large than for small companies. For instance,
Chhaochharia and Grinstein (2006) find that the Sarbanes-Oxley Act was more
harmful for small companies, for which the costs of complying with corporate
governance rules outweighs the benefits.
In order to limit the endogeneity problem between corporate governance choices
and company size, we again apply the Rajan and Zingales methodology by interacting
companies corporate governance with a proxy for size at the industry level.
Specifically, we test whether companies belonging to industries that have in the US
on average larger sized companies perform better if they have stronger corporate
governance than companies belonging to small-size industries. Among others, such
evidence will highlight whether strong corporate governance is equally beneficial for
large and small companies.
Performance would not only need to differ with corporate governance practices,
external financial dependence and size. They can also be industry dependent, varying
with company leverage, degree of assets intangibility or because of cross-listing on
10

other, and higher standard exchanges. We therefore include certain control variables
to capture these company characteristics.
Besides affecting the availability and cost of external financing, and therefore
valuation, corporate governance can affect economic performance in other ways too.
By putting more pressure on management and punishing management for bad
performance, better corporate governance encourages managers to pursue more valuemaximizing projects, be more efficient in company operations, and therefore increase
value added (Jensen, 1986). We therefore also analyze how companies return on
assets relates to corporate governance practices and legal regimes.
3.

Data and Econometric Models

Data on corporate governance practices analyzed

The corporate governance data come from the proxy voting agent Institutional
Shareholder Services (ISS). ISS gathers corporate governance information of
approximately 5300 US companies and 2400 non-US companies from Canada,
Europe, East Asia and Pacific for the period 2003 2005. The non-US companies it
covers are all large and belong to the main indices of their respective country stock
markets. For instance, the UK companies mainly belong to the FTSE350 index. The
US coverage is wider as it covers also mid- and small cap companies. Therefore, to
avoid over-sampling problems we select a sub-sample of US companies, specifically
all those belonging to the S&P500 index. The sample then reduces to 7078 total
company-year observations.
In terms of corporate governance practices, ISS documents among others the
presence or lack thereof of the following:
-

board independence: whether the board is controlled by a majority of

independent outsiders;

nomination, compensation, and audit committees composition: whether the

committees exist and if they consist solely of independent outsiders;

governance committee composition: whether the committee exists or not;

11

degree of board entrenchment: whether the board is annually elected (not

staggered), whether no poison pills are in place, majority vote is required to
amend charter/bylaws or to approve mergers;

whether chairman and CEO are separated;

whether former CEO sits on the board;

relations with the auditors: whether auditors are ratified at the recent
shareholder meeting, and the consulting fees (audit related and others) paid to
auditors are less than audit fees; and

whether the CEO is not listed as having a related-party transaction in the

proxy statement.

In addition to this information ISS collects information on corporate governance

practices which we do not consider in our analysis. This is in part because of limited
variability within countries among some of these corporate governance practices,
which may be the consequence of legal requirements. For instance, the percentage of
companies where shareholders may act by written consent is 99% for European and
Asian companies: the inclusion of such items in our index would confound the
econometric results.6 ISS also gather information on the size of the board, on whether
directors have participated in ISS education programs, or on the authority of the board
to hire own advisors. Such data are generally available, but their associations with
performance are not clearly theoretically motivated. We, therefore, exclude them from
our analysis to avoid any spurious results. Finally, there are some practices with many
missing or non available observations which would reduce our sample too much.
Using the above provisions and on the basis of earlier work and theoretical
analysis, we construct five main different indices.
1. Committees index. Codes of best practices stress the importance of the
committees as a corporate governance device. In particular, the presence of a
6

The problems of missing observations and limited variability concern especially the following
corporate governance practices: shareholders may act by written consent or call special meetings, antitakeover characteristics (TIDE, sunset, trigger, etc) which are typical to the US but not to other
markets, the existence of interlocks among compensation committee members, proxy contest defense,
shareholders vote on directors selected to fill vacancies, board attendance. For these reasons, we can
not construct all the corporate governance provisions of Bebchuk et al (2004). Of the 18 provisions
considered by Bebchuk et al., for example, only four apply our sample us (limits to special meeting and
written consent, no cumulative vote, blank check), while the other 14 are typical for the US only.
Regardless, these 14 provisions do not appear to be significant in the Bebchuk study.

12

nomination, compensation, audit and governance committee should guarantee

a more transparent procedure of directors appointments, compensation
approval and internal audit, respectively. We initially assign one point for each
committee a company has: the resulting index, COMM1, therefore considers
only the existence or not of a committee, and it ranges from 0 to 4. However,
codes of corporate governance also advocate for a certain degree of
independence of the committee members. We therefore create another index
that gives points respectively for strict independence of nomination,
compensation and audit committees: the resulting index COMM2 ranges from
0 to 3.
2. Entrenchment index. We follow Bebchuk et al. (2004) and we give one point
each if a company has no poison pills in place, if the board is annually elected
(no staggered), if a majority is required for mergers and if a majority is
required for charter amendments (no supermajority). Differently from
Bebchuk et al., we do not have data on golden parachutes, and on charter and
bylaws separately. The resulting index (BEBCHUK) varies from 0 to 4.
3. Board independence index. We construct a dummy INDEP1 that takes the
value 1 if the board consists of a majority of independent members, as judged
by ISS. We also have information of the presence of the former CEO on the
board and of the separation between CEO and Chairman, which are both
proxy for a greater division of the powers in the board, and hence of greater
independence. We therefore also construct the index INDEP3 which, in
addition to INDEP1, considers the presence of the former CEO on the board
and whether the CEO and the Chairman are separated or not (with the index to
vary from 0 to 3).
4. Transparency index. In addition to the existence of the audit committee, a
higher degree of transparency can be guaranteed by the ratification of the
choice of auditors at the shareholders annual meeting. Further, if consulting
fees paid to the auditors are less than audit fees, the existence of possible
conflicts of interests will be less and the credibility of the auditors report will
be higher. Recent high-profile frauds and some accounting literature (e.g.,
Kohlbeck and Mayhew, 2004) highlight the use of related party transactions as
a way of manipulation profits. We, therefore, give points if the auditors are
13

ratified at the most recent annual meeting, if the fees are strictly audit fees, and
if the CEO is not involved in related party transactions. The index TRANSP
goes from 0 to 3.

Data on country-level indicator of investor protection

Consistently with the existing literature, we consider both de-jure and de-facto
aspects of investor protection: the LLSV anti-director index as revised by Djankov et
al. (2007), the International Country Risk Guide (ICRG) Law and Order index, and
the anti-self-dealing index as elaborated by Djankov et al. (2007). The widely used
and cited indicator anti-director index of La Porta et al. (1998) consists of six subindices capturing the possibility of voting by mail and of depositing shares, aspects of
cumulative voting, oppressed minority, preemptive rights, and the percentage of share
capital to call a meeting. This index covers aspects of de-jure regulation since it does
not control for the level of regulatory enforceability. On the contrary, the ICRG Law
and Order Index assess de-facto aspects of the law and order tradition of a country.
For the ICRG index, we take the average over the three years 2002-2005. Finally, we
use the self-dealing index constructed by Djankov et al. (2007) which is the sum of
two indices: the ex-ante private control against self-dealing and the ex-post control
against self-dealing. The ex-ante index covers disclosure and approval requirements
imposed by law. The ex-post control of self dealing mainly looks at enforceability
issues as it scores how easy it is for minority shareholders to obtain redress through
the courts in case of legal disputes (standing rights to sue, ease of holding
management or the body liable for civil damages).
We normalized these three legal indices on a scale from 0 to 1 and we construct
three investor protection indicators:
-

INV_PROT1: the sum of the LLSV revised anti-director index and the ICRG
Law and Order index;

INV_PROT2: the sum of INV_PROT1 and the anti-self dealing index;

INV_PROT3: the product of the revised anti-director index with the ICRG
Law and Order Index so as to get a measure of the effective degree of investor
protection (as in Durnev and Kim, 2005).

14

Summary statistics
Of the total 7078 observations in the ISS dataset, we exclude in the main
regression results financial companies and companies of countries with no La Porta et
al. (1997, 2006) LLSV index (Bermuda, 9 observations) or for which we have only
one year observation: China (2 observations), Cayman Island (1 observation), Israel
(2 observations), Luxemburg (3 observations), Thailand (1 observation), and South
Africa (1 observation). We are then left with a total of 5857 company-year
observations, for which we have a complete set of information in terms of the
existence and independence of board committees (COMM1 and COMM2). However,
we progressively lose observations in the construction of some of the other corporate
governance indicators. In particular, we lose 228 observations in the creation of
BEBCHUK, 750 for INDEP1, 2348 for INDEP3, and 2829 for TRANSP. Among
others, we have very limited information on the level of board independence of
Austrian companies (5 observations), and the separation of the roles between the
Chairman and the CEO in Japan (3 observations), Portugal (3 observations), and
Spain (5 observations). Due to the problem of missing observations, in the following
analysis we will mainly focus on three indicators for which we have the largest
number of observations: COMM1, BEBCHUK, and INDEP1.
Table 1.A reports summary statistics of the governance indicators described above
by country. The analysis of the data by country shows an interesting picture of the
differences in corporate governance practices across countries. Ireland scores the
highest (2) in the INV_PROT1 indicator, followed by UK (1.97) and Singapore
(1.89). Greece and Italy are at the bottom of the ranking (0.98). Similar differences
obtain for INV_PROT2 and INV_PROT3. US companies tend to have all four board
committees

(on

average

COMM1=3.94),

similar

to

Canadian

companies

(COMM1=3.82). At the bottom in terms of board committees, we find Danish

(COMM1=0.11) and Austrian companies (COMM1=0.31). Danish companies stand
out also for the absence of independent committees (COMM2=0), while again US
(COMM2=2.66) and Canadian (COMM2=1.97) companies are well above the sample
average of COMM2=1.04. Companies in Hong Kong (BEBCHUK=2.06) tend to give
more power to shareholders. In terms of board independence, Italian and Japanese

15

companies rank the lowest on the two corporate governance indicators (INDEP1,
INDEP3). There is not much variation in the TRANP index across countries.
Table 1.B shows the percentage of incidence of corporate governance provisions
per indicator. For the COMM1 indicator, most companies have an audit committee
(83%), but only in 40% of the cases do companies have an audit committee consisting
of a majority of independent members. Similarly, in roughly half of cases, do
companies have a nomination committee (52%), but only in 26% of the cases do we
observe independent nomination committees. Only in 31% of cases do companies
have a governance committee. The absence of poisons pills (80%) clearly stands out
as the driver of the BEBCHUK index, while in only very few cases (10%) is a simple
majority required to amend the company charters/bylaws. Roughly half of the
companies have a majority of independent board members (46%), a percentage which
increase to 65% for INDEP3 due to a lower number of observations. In 40% of the
cases does the company have a separated CEO/Chairman. In 91% of company-year
observations is the CEO considered not to have related party transactions (TRANSP).
Table 1.C shows the overlap (or lack thereof) between country-level requirements
and the main corporate governance practices. For instance, it shows the relation
between the level of investor protection (INV_PROT1) and the existence of
committees (COMM1). The majority of companies in countries with an INV_PROT1
index less than 1.7 have all board committees (20.45%), an independent board
(26.85%), and a BEBCHUK index equal to 1 (18.60%). However, when INV_PROT1
index is equal or greater than 1.7, companies tend to have only one board committee
(25.7%), a not independent board (46.33%), and a BEBCHUK index equal to 1
(40.06%). There is, therefore, not a clear and monotonically relation between investor
protection at the country level and the existence of board committees. The largest
majority of companies have a low BEBCHUCK indicator, but there is an equal split
in terms of board independence across the level of investor protection INV_PROT1.

Financial data
For US companies, financial data are obtained from COMPUSTAT, while for
non-US companies we use Worldscope data. As mentioned before, our companies are
16

large in size, with an average total assets of $US10 billion and an average total sales
of $US7.9 billion (Table 1.D).
We use Tobins Q as our main performance measure. As in La Porta et al. (2002),
Doidge, Karolyi, and Stulz (2004), and Durnev and Kim (2005), we define Tobins Q
as the sum of total assets plus the market value of equity less book value of equity,
over total assets. The average Tobins Q of the companies in our sample is 1.66. In
our robustness checks, we also use Return on Assets (ROA), where ROA is defined as
the ratio of the earnings before interests, taxes, depreciation and amortization
(EBITDA) to the book value of assets. The average ROA in our sample is 0.06.
As control variables, we use the logarithm of sales (LOG_SALES), the ratio of
property-plants-equipments to sales (PPE_SALES), the 1-year growth of sales (G_S),
the ratio of capital expenditures to sales (CAPEX_SALES), the ratio of total debt to
common equity (D_E), and a dummy ADR equal to 1 if a company has American
Depository Receipts traded.7
We construct our measure of external financing dependence as Rajan and Zingales
(1998) do. The Rajan and Zingales industrial measure refers to only US
manufacturing industries for the year 1980; as our data are for the period 2003-2005,
we update the measure of external financing dependence for all 2-digit SIC code
industries, using the COMPUSTAT universe of US companies for the year 2000.
Rajan and Zingales used the 3-digits ISIC code for identifying industries, which
typically corresponds to the 2-digits SIC code. A companys dependence on external
finance is defined as the ratio of capital expenditures minus cash flow from operations
divided by capital expenditures.8

We winsorize at the 1% and 99% percentile Tobins Q, G_S, CAPEX_SALES, and D_E to limit the
effects of serious outliers. As common in the literature, we also drop observations with negative values
for common equity.
8
Differently from Rajan and Zingales (1998), for the period 2000, the variable cash flow from
operations (COMPUSTAT item 110) is no longer available due to a change in accounting rules. Cash
flow is therefore calculated as the sum of COMPUSTAT items 123, 125, 126, 106, 213, and 217, plus
the change in working capital (the sum of COMPUSTAT items 302, 303, and 304). Capital
expenditures are calculated as the sum of COMPUSTAT items 128 and 129. A limited number of
industries consist of a very small number of companies, which could lead to biases in the constructed
index. We therefore exclude the values at the 2.5% and 97.5% percentile.

17

Finally, we construct a proxy measure of each industrys natural size, measured by

the industry ks share of employment in companies with more than 20 employees in
the United States.9 As Beck et al. (2005) do, we find a very small positive correlation
between Large Firm Share and External Dependence, which suggests that the industry
characteristics explaining company size are not the same as the characteristics
explaining technological dependence on external finance.

Econometric model and strategy

Besides univariate analysis, to investigate the associations between corporate
governance, external financing dependence and performance, we use the following
econometric specifications.

Corporate governance and performance

To capture the associations of country and company governance with
performance, we regress Tobins Q on indicators of companies corporate governance
and the strength of legal environment, while controlling for industry, time, and other
company characteristics, over the period 2003 2005. As in Durnev and Kim (2005),
we use country random effects because some of the explanatory variables are at the
country level, precluding the use of country fixed effects. Furthermore, the BreuschPagan (1980) test suggests the presence of unobserved country level heterogeneity.
Specifically, we estimate the following country, random effects regression with time
and industry fixed effects:

Yi ,ct = + 1 INV _ PROT c + 2 CGic,t + INV _ PROT c * CGic,t + ( Firms controls)ic,t + ic,t ,

(1)
9

Such proxy is available from the 2000 US Census for industries classified according to the 3-digit
NAICS code. We then converted the 3-digit NAICS into 2-digit SIC code for the following reasons.
First, the original test by Rajan and Zingales (1998) mainly uses 3-digit ISIC codes, that corresponds to
the 2-digit SIC codes. Secondly, the number of industries classified according to the 3-digit NAICS
code is almost double the number of companies classified according to the 2-digit SIC code. Since in
our regressions, we control also for industry fixed effects, besides countries and time dummies, this
could lead to less degrees of freedoms. There are few cases where more than one industry classified
according to the 3-digit NAICS code corresponds to one industry classified according to the 2-digit SIC
code. In such circumstances, we take the average.

18

where Y is Tobins Q, the variable INV _ PROT is the country-level investor

protection indicator, while CG is the vector of the company corporate governance
indicator(s) as described above. And in terms of indexes, c is country, i is company,
and t is time. Theoretical and empirical literature predict the coefficients 1 , 2 to be
positive and to be negative. By summing various coefficients, we can find the
overall economic effect of an increase in the investors protection strength in the
presence of different companys corporate governance practices.
To capture the differences in valuation for a given level of country and companylevel corporate governance, we divide companies according to their level of country
and company-level of corporate governance, i.e., above or below the respective
medians. We, therefore, end up with four groups: companies with both high (above
the median) levels of country and company corporate governance (HiHi), companies
with high level of country investor protection but low (below the median) level of
company corporate governance (HiLo), and vice versa (LoHi), and finally companies
with low standards of both country and company corporate governance (LoLo).
Besides univariate analysis documenting the differences in performance among these
four groups of companies, we perform the following country random effects
regression with time and industry fixed effects:
Yi ,ct = + 1 Hi c Hi ic,t + 2 Hi c Lo ic,t + 3 Lo c Lo ic,t + ( Firms controls ) ic,t + ic,t ,

(2)

where Y is again Tobins Q, HiHi , HiLo , LoLo are dummy variables equal to 1 if the
company corporate governance structure is characterized by high standards at both
country and company levels (HiHi), by high standards at the country and low
standards at the company level (HiLo), or by low standards at both the country and
company levels (LoLo), and 0 otherwise. The country-level indicator is INV_PROT1,
divided between high (Hi) and low (Lo) according to the 23-countries median. The
company-level governance indicators are COMM1, COMM2, BEBCHUK, INDEP1,
INDEP3 and TRANSP, which are divided between high (Hi) and low (Lo) according
to their overall sample median. The estimated coefficients 1 , 2 , 3 provide then the
differences in performance, all compared to the base case, i.e., those companies with

19

high corporate governance standards in the presence of low country investor

protection (LoHi).
In both specifications (1) and (2) we control for the usual variables found to be
associated with performance, i.e., size, tangibility of assets, and cross-listing in other
exchanges, for which we use respectively the logarithm of sales (in US$), the ratio of
property, plants, and equipment (PPE) to sales, and a dummy equal to 1 if a company
has American Depository Receipts (ADRs) traded. As argued by Durnev and Kim
(2005), we use sales because it is less affected than earnings by diversion,
manipulation, and different accounting rules; however, our results are robust to the
use of the logarithm of total assets. We use the ratio of PPE to sales because
companies operating with higher proportions of fixed assets (and lower proportions of
intangible assets) may find it less necessary (or optimal) to adopt stricter governance
mechanisms to signal to investors that they intend to prevent the future misuse of
intangible assets (Klapper and Love, 2004). Finally, empirical evidence suggests that
companies cross-listed on US exchanges are valued higher (Doidge et al., 2004;
Coffee, 2002). Regressions (1) and (2) include time fixed effects, 2-digit SIC code
industry fixed effects, and clustered standard errors at country level as this is the
source of possible autocorrelation. We do not use country fixed effects because the
INV_PROT acts as a country dummy already, nor company fixed effects because, as
in Gompers et al. (2003), we do not have enough variability in the corporate
governance indicators over the short time period we consider. As is common in this
literature, financial companies are excluded from the main regressions, but we do
perform robustness checks including financial companies.

Robustness checks
We perform three sets of robustness checks: a. at the company-level; b. regarding the
country-level indicator used for investor protection; and c. regarding the overall
governance impact.

20

a. Robustness of the control variables, sample and performance measure

We use an alternative set of controls as in Black et al. (2005): the ratio of capital
expenditures to sales, the ratio of total debt to equity, and 1-year growth of sales, to
control for investment intensity, leverage, and growth opportunities, respectively. We
also check whether our results are still valid with the inclusion of financial companies
(SIC code 6). Finally, we use ROA as an alternative accounting measure of
performance.
b. Robustness of the country-level indicator of investor protection
We check the robustness of both the association of governance with performance and
the differences among groups of companies by using alternative country-level
indicators of investor protection INV_PROT2 and INV_PROT3.
c. Robustness of the overall governance impact on performance
To confirm the impact of the incremental effect of higher country-level investor
protection, we run the following regression:
Yi ,ct = + 1 INV _ PROT c + 2 INV _ PROT c * Hiic,t + Hiic,t + ( Firms controls) ic,t + ic,t ,

(3)
where Y is again Tobins Q, INV_PROT is the country-level indicator INV_PROT1,
and Hi is a dummy equal to 1 if the company-level corporate governance indicator is
above the median, and 0 otherwise. The coefficient 1 indicates the investor
protection effect for companies with low (Lo), i.e., below the median, corporate
governance practices. The coefficient 2 indicates the incremental effect for
companies with high (Hi), i.e., above the median, corporate governance practices, all
relative to poorly governed companies (Lo). The sum of the coefficients 1 + 2
indicates the total effect of country-level investor protection on performance for
highly-governed companies (Hi). Finally, the coefficient tests whether the
performance of highly-governed companies is different from that of poorly-governed
ones when country-level investor protection is weak.

21

Corporate governance, external financing dependence, size and performance

To test whether companies belonging to industries that typically are more
financially dependent perform better with better corporate governance, we use the
Rajan and Zingales methodology to overcome causality issues in the analysis of the
associations between corporate governance, external financing dependence and
performance. Specifically, we interact the measure of industry external financing
dependence with a measure of the companys corporate governance quality to
estimate the following country random effects model:

Yi ,ck ,t = + GOVi ,ct EXT _ DEPk + Sizeic,t + ( Fixed effects) ck ,t + ic,k ,t ,

(4)

where Y is Tobins Q, EXT _ DEP is the Rajan and Zingales measure of

dependence on external financing at the industry level k, and Size is the logarithm of
sales. GOV

is the country (INV_PROT) or company-level ( CG ) corporate

governance

or their combination INV _ PROT * CG , with all the indicators as

defined before. The regression is run with 2-digit SIC code industry and time fixed
effects, with robust standard errors clustered at the country level. The United States is
dropped as it is the benchmark.
If corporate governance matters more for external financing dependent companies,
we would expect the coefficient of the interaction term to be positive and
significant. If so, this would suggest that corporate governance is especially important
to guarantee an efficient allocation of external capital resources and high returns. The
better monitoring of management enhances investors confidence for those companies
and leads to higher companys valuation.
As in other papers, we check whether our evidence is robust when controlling for
cross-industry differences in size. The models we estimate with this size variable are:

Yi ,ck ,t = + GOVi ,ct Large firm sharek + Sizeic,t + ( Fixed effects)ck ,t + ic,k ,t ,

(5.1)

and

22

Yi ,ck ,t = + 1 GOVi ,ct Large firm sharek + 2 GOVi ,ct EXT _ DEPk + Sizeic,t
+ ( Fixed effects ) ck ,t + ic,k ,t ,

(5.2)

where Large firm share is the 2-digit SIC code industry ks share of employment in
companies with more than 20 employees in the United States as from the US Census,
and Y , EXT _ DEP , Size and GOV are as defined above. The regressions are run
with industry and time fixed effects, with robust standard errors clustered at the
country level. If in regression (5.1) the estimated coefficient is positive and
significant, then higher standards of corporate governance are more valuable for
large-size companies, e.g., because those companies can bear the costs of it. Finally,
the coefficients 1 and 2 in regression (5.2) will indicate whether stronger corporate
governance matters more for large or high external financial dependent companies: if
one of the two effects prevail, we would expect only one of the coefficients 1 and

2 to be significant.
4.

Results

Univariate Analysis
Table 2 provides an initial assessment of the association between corporate
governance and performance (Tobins Q) for the main indicators (INV_PROT1,
COMM1, BEBCHUK, INDEP1). We provide these data for the four groups of
companies/countries: companies with both high (above the median) levels of country
investor protection and company corporate governance (HiHi), companies with high
level of country investor protection but low (below the median) level of company
corporate governance (HiLo) and vice-versa (LoHi), and finally companies in low
country investor protection and with low company corporate governance (LoLo).
There is a clear, but non-monotonic interaction between corporate governance
at the company and at the country level. Take for instance COMM1. Companies with
a high level of corporate governance have higher Tobin's Q than companies with a
low level of corporate governance. But companies in countries with a high level of
corporate governance do not have higher Tobin's Q than companies in countries with
23

low corporate governance. In particular, when both the country and company are high
(INV_PROT1 HIGH and COMM1 HIGH), companies do not have the highest
average Tobins Q (1.70). Rather companies with COMM1 HIGH incorporated in a
country with relatively low investor protection level (INV_PROT1 LOW) have the
highest Tobin's Q (2.03). This evidence is further confirmed with BEBCHUK and
INDEP1 as company-level indicators. Surprisingly, the governance combination
COMM1 LOW and INV_PROT1 HIGH is not associated with a higher average
Tobins Q (1.42) than the combination COMM1 LOW and INV_PROT1 LOW (1.53).
This is also true for the other company-level indicators. Of course, these are
univariate comparisons and we need check whether such associations still hold in our
multivariate analyses.
Corporate governance and performance
We first show the results of the association between governance choices and
performance, estimated using equation (1), with regression results reported in Table 3.
We first consider country level investor protection and each of the six indices
(COMM1, COMMM2, BEBCHUK, INDEP1, INDEP3, and TRANSP) separately and
interacted with INV_PROT1 (columns I-VI). Note that, given missing observations
on companies corporate governance practices, we have fewer observations for the
last two indexes. We find that the degree of investor protection is not statistically
significant for any of the indexes. We do find that each of company practices matter,
however, with all coefficients positive and significant at the 1% level. This means that
the existence of board committees, lack of entrenchment at the board level, board
independence and transparency contributes to higher valuation.10 In terms of
relationship between country and company corporate governance, we find that the
interaction terms of the various company practices with INV_PROT1 are all negative
and significant at the 1% level. This suggests a substitution effect between company
and country corporate governance and in particular that the impact of corporate
governance practices at the company level are all less when investors protection at
country level is high. The coefficients of the control variables are in line with the

10

Additionally, as in Bebchuk et al. (2004) we examine the association between staggered boards and
firm value for US companies only. We find that the governance indicator BEBCHUK is positive and
significant also for our sample of companies.

24

results found in the literature: size (log of sales) and capital intensity (the ratio of
property, plants, and equipments (PPE) over sales) are negative and highly significant,
while the dummy ADR is positive and significant only in two cases.
We next run the regressions using at the same time three indexes, COMM1,
BEBCHUK, and INDEP1, and their interactions with INV_PROT1 (regression VII).
We find now that the INV_PROT1 is statistically significant positive, that the three
indexes themselves remain positive statistically significant, and that all three
interactions are again statistically significant negative, confirming the evidence above.
We also run similar regressions using COMM2, INDEP3 and TRANSP as company
corporate governance indexes (results not shown here). We obtain similar results with
COMM2 and TRANSP, while INDEP3 is no more significant, which suggests that, in
terms of independence, what matters is the effective independence at the board level
rather than other matters such as the separation of the CEO/Chairman roles.11
By calculating the overall impact of the constructed indexes we can show the
economic impact of differences in legal regime. The regression result of column VII,
for example, implies that one standard deviation (0.26) increase in INV_PROT1 is
associated with an effect on Tobins Q of 0.26 * [0.57 0.20*COMM1
0.31*BEBCHUK 0.46*INDEP1]. The overall magnitude of the impact of legal
reform thus depends on the degree of corporate governance in place at the company
level. Take for instance companies with COMM1=4: one standard deviation increase
in INV_PROT1 is associated with a decrease in Tobins Q of 0.26* [-0.23
0.31*BEBCHUK 0.46*INDEP1], i.e., with a decrease of at least 0.0598, which is
3.5% of the average Tobins Q.12 The effect is even more negative when the board
consists of a majority of independent directors, because for companies with
COMM1=4 and INDEP1=1 one standard deviation increase in INV_PROT1 is
associated with a decrease in Tobins Q of 0.26*[-0.69 0.31*BEBCHUK], i.e., a
minimum decrease of 0.1796 (10.8% of the average Tobins Q).13 In other words, our
results suggest possible overregulation from stronger legal regimes when company
corporate governance practices in place are already high.
11

When using INDEP3 and TRANSP, the sample is reduced by 30-50% and these results thus have to
be considered with some caveats.
12
For which we have 1734 total observations, with an average INV_PROT1 index of 1.55.
13
For which we have 1589 total observations, with an average INV_PROT1 index of 1.53.

25

We next run the regressions using instead of INV_PROT1, our other two indexes
of investor protection, INV_PROT2 and INV_PROT3 (regressions VIII and IX). The
results found above are substantially confirmed when using INV_PROT3 as the
country level index. However, the positive association between country legal investor
protection and valuation is not significant when using INV_PROT2 as indicator
(column VIII), with BEBCHUK not significant as well. Given also the previous
results, we can therefore conclude that the positive associations between country
investor protection and the level of board entrenchment with performance are not
always robust to alternative measures and specifications.
We next run the regressions following equation (2) using the dummies for the HiLo country regimes and company corporate governance practices, where the category
Lo investor protection and Hi company practice is the base case and thus dropped
(Table 4). We see here clearly the effects of different combinations of country
regimes and company corporate governance practices, and the differences in valuation
effects of these combinations. Relative to the base case (Lo investor protection and
Hi company practices), all other combinations have statistically significant lower
Tobin's Q, with the difference being the highest for the combination Hi investor
protection regime with Lo company practices ( 2 ranging from - 0.46 to -0.80)
depending on which company corporate governance measure we use. The coefficient

3 of the combination where both investor protection and company practices are Lo,
is between -0.24 and -0.70, not very different from the Hi investor protection regime
with Lo company practices. In particular, the differences between the coefficients 2
and 3 are never statistically significant different, except for the TRANSP index,
when it is statistically significant different at the 6% level.
This lack of statistically significant difference between these two groups suggests
that for those companies with poor corporate governance practices, there are no
effects of investor protection on company valuation. In other words, better country
legal investor protection is not a substitute for poor company corporate governance.
At the same time, there is a negative effect of investor protection for those companies
with better corporate governance practices, since the group of Hi investor protection
and Hi company corporate governance practices, have a discount between 0.51 and
26

0.82 (depending on the specification used) compared to the base case of Lo investor
protection and Hi company corporate governance practices, which suggests that
stronger country corporate governance is not necessary the optimal solution. In terms
of specific company practices, we notice from Table 4 that only high values of
COMM1, COMM2, and INDEP1 and not of BEBCHUK, INDEP3 and TRANSP are
statistically significant associated with higher valuation, regardless of the level (Hi or
Lo) of country investor protection. This suggests that some company practices impact
performance more than others under any country legal condition.
These results confirm the regression results of Table 3 that there can be
overregulation when company corporate governance practices are good, negatively
impacting valuation. In particular, for companies of a specific country, like US or
Canada, that on average have high company corporate governance standards, then
there may not be a need to increase stricter country investor protection, as it can have
a negative impact on performance. On the other hand, if companies on average
converge to low corporate governance standards, tightening the country-level
protection may not be sufficient to improve performance. It is worth, though, to
mention that the sample of countries considered in this analysis have on average
already a high level of investor protection compared with many emerging markets and
developing countries.14 While for these companies, it is the corporate governance at
the company level that matters most, it might well be that increases in legal protection
are effective for emerging markets and developing countries.
We next perform several robustness checks to confirm both the significance of the
results and the economic impact of the corporate governance variables, with results
reported in Tables 5-7. As a first robustness check, we include three extra company
control variables in equation (2): the one year growth of sales to control for growth
opportunities (SALES GROWTH), the ratio of debt to equity to control for leverage,
and degree of debt financiers monitoring (D_E) and the ratio of capital expenditures
to sales to control for investment opportunities (CAPEX_SALES). We still use
INV_PROT1 as our country legal protection index. In Table 5 (columns Ia, IIa, IIIa)
we report the results with COMM1, BEBCHUK and INDEP1, but we find similar
14

The average LLSV and Self-Dealing indexes for our sample of companies are respectively 0.73 and
0.53, compared to 0.62 and 0.39 for developing countries.

27

results also with the other indexes. The results confirm the earlier evidence:
companies with poor corporate governance practices are lower valued and differences
in legal regime do not affect the discount for these companies; and for companies with
good corporate governance practices, a stricter regime can increase the discount. We
also run regression (2) including financial companies (SIC code 6), with the results
found before again confirmed (columns Ib, IIb, IIIb), although for BEBCHUK the Ftest can again not reject equality of the 1 and 2 coefficients. Finally, we perform an
additional robustness check by using the return on assets (ROA) as a performance
measure instead of Tobins Q. The coefficients of the three dummies (columns Ic, IIc,
IIIc) are still significant at the 1% level and the relative comparisons are still valid in
case of COMM1 and INDEP1 (although for the latter the F-test can only reject
equality of the 1 and 2 coefficients at the 8% level).
We next run robustness checks on the impact of the specific investor protection
index by using two alternative indices capturing the quality of the country legal
regime, INV_PROT2 and INV_PROT3. We run again equation (2), i.e., using the
three group dummies. We find very similar results (Table 6), especially for COMM1
and INDEP1, with companies with high practices in low regime countries having the
highest values and no significant differences in valuation between low and high
investor protection countries for companies with low practices (again, for BEBCHUK
the F-test can not reject equality of the 1 and 2 coefficients).
We also consider whether the clearly non-monotonic relationships between
investor protection and corporate governance practices with performance may have
affected the results because of the specifications we have used. We, therefore, regress
Tobin's Q on the index INV_PROT1, the interaction term INV_PROT1*COMM1 Hi
(or the interaction with the dummy BEBCHUK Hi or INDEP1) and the dummy
COMM1 Hi (or the dummy BEBCHUK Hi or INDEP1), with the usual company
controls (regression 3). In this specification, both the level of investor protection and
good company practices are allowed to have a direct impact on valuation, yet we
allow for a combined effect of the level of investor protection and good practices. We
find (Table 7) that on its own INV_PROT1 is not significant for any company
practices index used in the regressions. This once again confirms that country level
investor protection has no significant impact on Tobins Q in the presence of low
28

company corporate governance standards. The incremental effects of investor

protection on Tobin's Q for companies with high governance practices ( 2 , 3 , 4 )
are always negative and significant. The total effect of country investor protection on
Tobin's Q for high standards companies ( 1 + 2 , 1 + 3 , 1 + 4 ) is always negative
and significantly different from zero, confirming the too much of a good thing
effect. The only exception is in column V, where, similarly to the previous analyses,
the total effect for BEBCHUK ceases to be significant when BEBCHUK is used at the
same time with the COMM1 and INDEP1 indices. In terms of economic impact, the
effect on Tobins Q of a one standard deviation increase in INV_PROT1 is
0.26*[ 1 + 2 COMM1 Hi + 3 BEBCHUK Hi + 4 INDEP1], which can be smaller
or larger than zero. For companies with COMM1 above the median, a one standard
deviation is associated with a decrease in Q of 0.0624 (3.7% of the average). For the
companies with also an independent board, the decrease in Q is 0.24 (14% of the
average).
Lastly, a possible concern is the large share of US companies in the sample, since
the US has a special combination of relatively low country level corporate governance
and a relatively high level of company corporate governance practices. We, therefore,
also use a smaller subset of US companies, specifically those companies with higher
(above the median) market capitalization. The main results of Tables 2 and 3 are
confirmed (results not shown).

Corporate governance, external financing dependence, and performance

We next discuss the results of the association between corporate governance,
external financial dependence and performance using regression specification (4).
Table 8, column I, shows that the interaction term with investor protection
INV_PROT1 itself is again not statistically significant. Columns II-VII show the
coefficients of the interaction terms when using one by one the three main governance
indicators (COMM1, INDEP1, BEBCHUK) as well as the indicators multiplied by
the country level of investor protection, both interacted with external financial
dependence. The coefficients of the interaction terms external financial dependence
with COMM1 and INDEP1 are positive and significant, while the coefficient for the
29

interaction of external financial dependence with BEBCHUK is not statistically

significant. We find further that the coefficient estimate of INDEP1 (0.14, column VI)
is higher than that for COMM1 (0.035, column II), indicating the importance of board
independence for valuation with regards to higher external financial dependence.
When using all the company indices contemporaneously (columns VIII and IX), we
find that COMM1 and INDEP1 remain positive and significant, while the interaction
of external financial dependence with BEBCHUK is again not statistically significant.
These results suggest that companies belonging to industrial sectors that rely more
on external financing have a higher valuation the more board committees they have
and if the board committees are independent. This can be interpreted as evidence that
the market values strong and independent boards more than any other bonding
practice when providing capital to companies. The channels are likely that a strong
and independent board reduces moral hazard and adverse selection problems, and
improves companies performance, particularly when naturally dependent on external
financing. We can show the importance of these corporate governance features for
more financial dependent companies using the following example. The industries at
the 33% and 66% percentile have a ratio of external financial dependence equal to
0.015 and 0.541. Using the results in column II, the coefficient estimate for the
interaction term predicts that the difference in valuation between the 33rd and 66th
percentile of financial dependent industries to be two percentage points for a company
with an index COMM1 equal to 3 compared to a company with COMM1 equal to 1.
Next we check whether the associations between corporate governance, external
financial dependence and performance are affected by the size of the company,
avoiding issues of simultaneity by using the average size of the companies within the
respective industry (regression 5.1). The results in Table 9 show that companies
belonging to industries with larger shares of big companies are higher valued if they
have stronger corporate governance in the form of independent board committees and
executives on the board (columns II and VI). The interaction terms with the
BEBCHUK index (column IV) as well as with the country index INV_PROT1 are not
statistically significant. These regression results remain when interacting the company
indexes with the investor protection index. Here, COMM1 and INDEP1 (columns III

30

and VII) are again statistically significant, but BEBCHUK is now statistically
significant only at the 10% level (column V). When including all three company
indexes, either alone (column VIII) or interacted with investor protection (column
IX), we find the same results, with again INDEP1 more important than COMM1.
This evidence suggests that the market considers strong corporate governance to
increase value, especially for those companies that are naturally large enough. This
could be because only these companies can bear the costs of it.
Lastly, we investigate how cross-industry differences in external financial
dependence and natural company size interact with company corporate governance
practices and legal regimes (regression 5.2). We do this for the samples of all
companies and of manufacturing companies only (Table 10). We find the earlier
results of good corporate governance practices having more impact for larger
companies to be confirmed again in the case of COMM1 (columns I and II) and
INDEP1 (columns V and VI), with the coefficients of the interaction terms with
external dependence to remain significant only in the specification with INDEP1.
Putting the results from regressions (4), (5.1) and (5.2) on the associations
between corporate governance, external financing, size and performance together
reinforces the view that strong corporate governance can be very beneficial in the case
of highly financial dependent companies, as it favors more efficient management,
capital allocation and higher valuation, and can be even more valuable for large size
companies. This evidence, in line with previous studies (e.g., Chhaochharia and
Grinstein, 2005) suggests that only large companies can effectively bear the cost of a
strong corporate governance regime, while for smaller companies it can be too much
of a good thing. Overall, we can conclude that better corporate governance helps in
efficient capital allocation, and subsequently performance, mainly for companies that
depend heavily on external financing and for large companies, and that (too) strict
requirements may have costs for companies that largely rely on internal financing and
for small companies.

31

5.

Conclusions
In this paper we have analyzed whether and through what channels corporate

governance at the company and country level affects performance and company
valuation. Consistent with existing studies, we find that better corporate governance at
the company level exerts a positive effect on performance. Not everything contributes
equally to this association, though. The presence of board committees and board
independence seem to play a more important role for company performance than
other corporate governance practices. We also find that corporate governance is more
important for companies that especially rely on external financing. This is likely
because of two channels. Corporate governance acts as a signaling device for
companies having positive NPV projects, thus allowing a more efficient capital
allocation. And once funds have been allocated, corporate governance helps through
the monitoring of management.
In terms of shareholder protection at the country level, and different from other
results, we find a neutral or negative impact. Specifically, for companies with poor
corporate governance practices, there is very little or no impact of better investor
protection and for companies with good corporate governance practices, there is a
discount from better investor protection. We find that only for large companies or for
companies that naturally depend heavily on external financing do strict corporate
governance practices or requirements increase valuation.
This suggests that the optimal form of corporate governance is not necessarily a
strong form of corporate governance. This has important policy implications.
Increasing the number and severity of country-level regulations may not always lead
to superior performance. A straight-jacket of many corporate governance rules can,
besides being costly in terms of direct outlays, limit managerial freedom of initiative,
and thereby negatively affect performance. A policy-maker needs to decide both
whether to intervene and if so, what (new) rules are the most efficient to improve
companies performance and shareholders returns, bearing in mind that stronger rules
do not necessarily mean better corporate governance.

32

The paper does come with its caveats. One is the sample, which is limited to
relatively well-developed countries where issues such as public enforcement and the
quality of the judicial system are less in doubt that in many emerging markets and
developing countries. Furthermore, there may be other mechanisms at work in these
countries that discipline companies, but that are not captured through the investor
protection measures we use (for example, competition in factors markets, wellfunctioning banks and other financial institutions). As such, the effects might well be
different from those developing countries where enhancing country level governance
is likely to have positive effects on value. Indeed, results do not need to negate the
findings in the literature that in general better corporate governance frameworks
improve company valuation and performance. There are also likely important
interactions between company corporate governance practices and overall public
governance, including the presence of corruption that need to be considered when
evaluating the effects of stronger corporate governance regimes.

33

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36

TABLE 1.A: CORPORATE GOVERNANCE INDICATORS BY COUNTRY

COUNTRY INDICATORS
Revised
LLSV
AntiDirector

ICRG
Law
and
Order

DLLS
SelfDealing

Obs.

INV_
PROT1

FIRM INDICATORS
INV_
PROT2

INV_
PROT3

Value

COMM1
Min:
Max:
0
4

COMM2
Min:
Max:
0
3

BEBCHUK
Min:
Max:
0
4

INDEP1

Obs.

Mean

Obs.

Mean

Obs.

Mean

Obs.

INDEP3
Min:
Max:
0
3

TRANSP
Min:
Max:
0
3

Mean

Obs.

Mean

Obs.

Mean
1.77

Dummy

Country
AUSTRALIA

205

0.8

0.76

1.80

2.56

0.80

205

2.77

205

0.85

205

1.02

203

0.57

203

2.23

145

AUSTRIA

47

0.5

0.21

1.50

1.71

0.50

47

0.31

47

0.00

47

1.00

0.80

2.60

2.28

BELGIUM

47

0.6

0.83

0.54

1.43

1.97

0.50

47

1.25

47

0.25

47

0.74

22

0.27

15

1.66

1.41

CANADA

466

0.8

0.64

1.80

2.44

0.80

466

3.82

466

1.97

466

1.99

465

0.86

461

2.20

157

2.80

DENMARK

61

0.8

0.46

1.80

2.26

0.80

61

0.11

61

0.06

58

1.56

18

0.88

18

2.11

29

1.93

FINLAND

81

0.7

0.46

1.70

2.16

0.70

81

0.86

81

0.48

77

1.80

44

0.65

44

2.04

12

1.75

FRANCE

215

0.7

0.81

0.38

1.51

1.89

0.56

215

2.34

215

0.33

211

0.83

194

0.26

185

1.47

189

1.52

GERMANY

217

0.7

0.83

0.28

1.53

1.81

0.58

217

0.65

217

0.01

217

1.05

57

0.75

55

1.94

29

2.10

GREECE

112

0.4

0.58

0.22

0.98

1.20

0.23

112

0.38

112

0.04

63

2.01

73

0.04

37

1.40

2.33

HONG KONG

140

0.75

0.96

1.75

2.71

0.75

140

1.48

140

0.62

110

2.06

136

0.08

135

1.57

47

2.25

IRELAND

33

0.79

2.00

2.79

1.00

33

3.09

33

0.90

33

1.00

32

0.31

32

1.59

10

2.70

ITALY

122

0.4

0.58

0.42

0.98

1.40

0.23

122

1.13

122

0.09

121

1.04

84

0.08

50

1.42

59

2.32

JAPAN

1409

0.9

0.83

0.5

1.73

2.23

0.75

1409

1.04

1409

0.01

1407

1.35

1408

0.00

1.00

932

2.42

NETHERLANDS

123

0.5

0.2

1.50

1.70

0.50

123

1.25

123

0.72

115

0.74

51

0.92

47

2.59

15

2.13

NEW ZEALAND

38

0.8

0.95

1.80

2.75

0.80

38

2.71

38

0.34

38

1.00

37

0.37

37

1.70

24

2.20

NORWAY

58

0.7

0.42

1.70

2.12

0.70

58

0.43

58

0.24

51

1.15

17

0.82

16

2.37

15

1.86

PORTUGAL

33

0.5

0.83

0.44

1.33

1.77

0.42

33

0.42

33

0.09

27

1.03

19

0.26

2.00

10

1.70

SINGAPORE

119

0.89

1.89

2.89

0.89

119

2.55

119

0.87

55

1.40

107

0.50

94

2.18

27

2.77

SPAIN

120

0.78

0.37

1.78

2.15

0.78

120

1.71

120

0.25

100

1.02

46

0.13

1.40

21

1.95

SWEDEN

102

0.7

0.33

1.70

2.03

0.70

102

0.89

102

0.16

101

2.01

62

0.53

56

2.32

25

1.72

SWITZERLAND

135

0.6

0.83

0.27

1.43

1.70

0.50

135

1.30

135

0.45

135

1.10

60

0.78

59

1.86

21

2.66

UK

787

0.97

0.95

1.97

2.92

0.97

787

2.98

787

1.59

785

1.05

780

0.35

770

1.34

457

2.46

USA

1187

0.6

0.83

0.65

1.43

2.08

0.50

1187

3.94

1187

2.66

1160

1.82

1187

0.97

1179

2.01

792

2.61

Average

0.73

0.89

0.53

1.61

2.14

0.65

2.25

1.04

1.41

0.46

1.85

2.38

Median

0.70

0.89

0.46

1.70

2.12

0.70

Total obs.

5857

5857

5857

5629

5107

3509

3028

37

Table 1.A reports the country legal regime variables (INV_PROT1, INV_PROT2, and INV_PROT3) and the company corporate governance indicators (COMM1, COMM2, BEBCHUK, INDEP1,
INDEP3, and TRANSP). In particular, the country indicators consist of combinations of normalized values from 0 to 1 of the revised LLSV index, the ICRG Law and Order Index and the Anti-Self
Dealing Index. The company-level governance indicator COMM1 considers the existence of board committees, while COMM2 their independence. BEBCHUK is constructed following the
entrenchment index developed by Bebchuk et al. (2004). INDEP1 is a dummy equal to 1 if a board consists of a majority of independent directors. In addition to independence, INDEP3 takes into
account the presence of the former CEO on the board and the separation of the roles between the CEO and the Chairman. TRANSP ranks the degree of potential account manipulation within the
company. The composition of each index is given in Table 1.B

Table 1.B: INCIDENCE OF THE CORPORATE GOVERNANCE PROVISIONS FOR EACH INDICATOR
This table shows the composition of each corporate governance indicator and the percentage of incidence of each provision. The percentages are computed over the total company-year observations of
each indicator.

INDICATOR

COMM1

COMM2

BEBCHUK

INDICATOR

Constituents
Nomination
committee

Compensation
committee

Audit
committee

Governance
committee

52%

58%

83%

31%

Independent
nomination
committee

Independent
compensation
committee

Independent
audit
committee

26%

37%

40%

Annually
elected
board

No poison
pills in place

No
supermajority
for charters/
bylaws

No
supermajority
for merger

30%

80%

10%

20%

INDEP1

Constituents
Majority of
independent
board
members
46%

INDEP3

TRANSP

Majority of
independent
board
members

No former
CEO on the
board

Separated
CEO/
Chairman

65%

79%

40%

Auditor
ratified

Consulting
fees to
auditors less
than auditing
fees

CEO not
having
related party
transactions

65%

81%

91%

38

TABLE 1.C: PERCENTAGES OF CO-EXISTENCE OF CORPORATE

GOVERNANCE PRACTICES FOR THE MAIN INDICATORS
This table shows the distribution of the company- year observations in the combination of specific
corporate governance indicators. For instance, in 553 cases out of 5857 (9.44%), companies have
COMM1=0 and INV_PROT1 less than the median 1.7.

INV_PROT1
< 1.7
>= 1.7

INV_PROT1
< 1.7
>= 1.7

total

COMM1 = 0

553

297

COMM1 = 0

9.44%

5.07%

15.51%

COMM1 =1

99

1505

COMM1 =1

1.69%

25.70%

27.39%

COMM1 = 2

124

201

COMM1 = 2

2.12%

3.43%

5.38%

COMM1 = 3

264

1080

COMM1 = 3

4.51%

18.44%

22.94%

COMM1 = 4

1198

536

COMM1 = 4

20.45%

9.15%

29.60%

2238

3619

38.21%

61.79%

100.00%

BEBCHUK = 0

336

BEBCHUK = 0

5.97%

0.12%

6.09%

BEBCHUK = 1

1047

2255

BEBCHUK = 1

18.60%

40.06%

58.66%

BEBCHUK = 2

352

1084

BEBCHUK = 2

6.25%

19.26%

25.51%

BEBCHUK = 3

256

138

BEBCHUK = 3

4.55%

2.45%

7.00%

BEBCHUK = 4

152

BEBCHUK = 4

2.70%

0.04%

2.74%

2143

3486

38.07%

61.93%

100.00%

INDEP1 = 0

381

2366

INDEP1 = 0

7.46%

46.33%

53.79%

INDEP1 = 1

1371

989

INDEP1 = 1

26.85%

19.37%

46.21%

1752

3355

34.31%

65.69%

100.00%

total

total

total

total

total

total

39

TABLE 1.D: SUMMARY STATISTICS OF FINANCIAL DATA

This table gives summary statistics of the financial data use in the analysis. Tobins Q and ROA
(Return on Assets) are the performance variables. Sales (in logarithm), total assets (in logarithm), the
ratio property-plants-equipments (PPE) to sales, 1 year growth of sales (G_S), the ratio total debt to
total equity (D_E) and the ratio capital expenditures to sales (CAPEX_SALES) are the control
variables. ADR is a dummy equal to 1 if a company had traded ADRs, 0 otherwise. Details on how
each variable is constructed are given in the text.

Variable

Obs.

Mean

Std.
Dev.

Min

Max

Tobin' s Q
ROA
Total Assets ($US) (mill)
Sales ($US) (mill)
PPE_SALES
G_S
D_E
CAPEX_SALES
ADR

5773
5778
5797
5797
5773
5857
5857
5857
5857

1.66
0.06
10031
7940
0.64
0.08
1.3
0.1
0.19

0.94
0.1
28145
19246
1.24
0.22
2.95
0.19
0.39

0.45
-1.08
5.8
0
0
-0.48
0
0
0

5.76
1.52
750507
328213
33.56
1.09
20.42
1.09
1

40

TABLE 2: UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS

In this table we divide the company-observation in 4 groups: companies with both high (above the
median) levels of country and company corporate governance (HiHi), companies with high level of
country investor protection but low (below the median) level of company corporate governance (HiLo)
and vice-versa (LoHi), and finally companies with both low standards of country and company
corporate governance (LoLo). We then compute the average Tobins Q for each group. The total
number of observations is in parentheses.

INV_PROT1 HIGH

INV_PROT1 LOW

difference
HL-LH= -0.61***

COMM1 HIGH

1.70
(1587)

2.03
(1427)

HH-LH= -0.33***

COMM1 LOW

1.42
(1988)

1.53
(771)

HL-LL= -0.10***

HH-HL= 0.28***

LH-LL= 0.50***

HH-LL= 0.17***

difference

HL-LH= -0.62***
BEBCHUK
HIGH

BEBCHUK
LOW

difference

1.57
(1212)

2.16
(735)

HH-LH= -0.59***

1.53
(2233)

1.69
(1370)

HL-LL= -0.15***

HH-HL= 0.035

LH-LL= 0.47***

HH- LL= -0.12***

HL-LH= -0.61***

BOARD IND
YES

BOARD IND
NO

difference

1.74
(976)

2.07
(1338)

HH-LH= -0.32***

1.46
(2336)

1.56
(374)

HL-LL= -0.10**

HH-HL= 0.28***

LH-LL= 0.50***

HH-LL= 0.17***

41

TABLE 3: CORPORATE GOVERNANCE AND PERFORMANCE

This tables reports country random effects regressions of Tobins Q on a country level index of investor protection
(INV_PROT1, INV_PROT2, INV_PROT3), company corporate governance indicators (COMM1, COMM2, BEBCHUK,
INDEP1, INDEP3, and TRANSP), their interaction terms, and various controls (the logarithm of sales (LOG_SALES), the
ratio property-plants-equipments to sales (PPE_SALES), and a dummy equal to one if a company has traded ADRs).
Regressions are run with 2-digit SIC code industry fixed effects, time fixed effects, and robust standard error clustered at
country level (in parentheses). Significance levels are indicated by *, **, and *** for 10%, 5%, and 1% respectively.
Dependent variable
INV_PROT1

II

III

IV

Tobin's Q
V

VI

VII

-0.09
(0.18)

-0.09
(0.16)

0.02
(0.50)

-0.003
(0.16)

-0.07
(0.31)

0.09
(0.38)

0.57*
(0.29)

INV_PROT2

VIII

0.54
(0.34)

INV_PROT3

COMM1

0.72*
(0.40)
0.54***
(0.14)

COMM2

0.75**
(0.29)

INDEP1

2.37***
(0.39)

INDEP3

-0.23***
(0.09)

-0.41**
(0.18)

INDEP1 * INV_PROT

-1.16***
(0.20)

INDEP3 * INV_PROT

0.54
(0.36)
0.71***
(0.27)

0.29***
(0.08)
0.54***
(0.13)

-0.20**
(0.083)

-0.14*
(0.07)

-0.24**
(0.10)

-0.31***
(0.11)
-0.46***
(0.12)

-0.22
(0.17)
-0.21**
(0.10)

-0.41***
(0.14)
-0.49***
(0.15)

-0.32***
(0.11)

TRANSP * INV_PROT

Constant, Industry & Year

dummies
Obs.
Number of countries
R squared

0.53***
(0.17)
0.98***
(0.17)

-0.38***
(0.10)

BEBCHUK * INV_PROT

ADR

0.29***
(0.06)

0.41***
(0.12)

COMM1* INV_PROT

PPE_SALES

0.46***
(0.17)

0.56***
(0.19)

TRANSP

LOG SALES

0.46***
(0.13)
0.81***
(0.10)

BEBCHUK

COMM1* INV_PROT

IX

-0.24***
(0.07)
-0.12***
(0.01)
-0.06***
(0.01)
0.12*
(0.06)

-0.11***
(0.01)
-0.06***
(0.01)
0.14**
(0.06)

-0.07**
(0.03)
-0.05***
(0.01)
-0.002
(0.12)

-0.12***
(0.01)
-0.05***
(0.01)
0.11
(0.07)

-0.09***
(0.02)
-0.05***
(0.01)
-0.05
(0.12)

-0.13***
(0.01)
-0.05***
(0.01)
0.10
(0.06)

-0.14***
(0.01)
-0.06***
(0.01)
0.16**
(0.06)

-0.12***
(0.01)
-0.05
(0.01)
0.11
(0.07)

-0.14***
(0.01)
-0.06***
(0.01)
0.16**
(0.06)

Y
5749
23
0.23

Y
5749
23
0.23

Y
5526
23
0.18

Y
5002
23
0.23

Y
3419
23
0.20

Y
2997
23
0.22

Y
4854
23
0.25

Y
4854
23
0.24

Y
4854
23
0.25

42

TABLE 4: CORPORATE GOVERNANCE AND PERFORMANCE

This tables reports country random effects regressions of Tobins Q on 3 dummy variables equal to 1 if a company has high standards of corporate governance at both country and company level (HiHi), or has
high legal protection at country level but low at the company level (HiLo) (and vice-versa, LoHi), or had both low country and company governance levels (LoLo), 0 otherwise. The group LoHi is dropped as it is
the reference. INV_PROT1 is the country indicators of legal protection. COMM1, COMM2, BEBCHUK, INDEP1, INDEP3, and TRANSP are the company level governance indicators. The logarithm of sales
(LOG_SALES), the ratio property-plants-equipments to sales (PPE_SALES), a dummy equal to one if a company has traded ADRs are the control variables. Significance levels are indicated by *, **, and *** for
10%, 5%, and 1% respectively. The F-Test indicates whether the estimated coefficients are significantly different.
Dependent variable:
Tobin's Q

II

III

IV

VI

COMM1

COMM2

BEBCHUK

INDEP1

INDEP3

TRANSP

INV_PROT1 HIGH

HIGH

INV_PROT1 HIGH

LOW

INV_PROT1 LOW

LOW

INV_PROT1 LOW

HIGH

LOG SALES
PPE_SALES
ADR

Constant, Industry &

Year dummies
Obs.
Number of countries
R squared (overall)

F-test

1 = 2
1 = 3
2 = 3

-0.51***
(0.12)
-0.72***
(0.15)

HIGH

-0.62***
(0.12)
dropped

LOW

LOW

HIGH

-0.55***
(0.08)
-0.79***
(0.11)

HIGH

-0.70***
(0.06)
dropped

LOW

LOW

HIGH

-0.68***
(0.13)
-0.73***
(0.13)
-0.48***
(0.10)
dropped

=1
=0

=0
=1

-0.52***
(0.09)
-0.76***
(0.13)

HIGH

-0.58***
(0.07)
dropped

LOW

LOW

HIGH

-0.45***
(0.11)
-0.46***
(0.14)

HIGH

-0.24***
(0.06)
dropped

LOW

LOW

HIGH

-0.82***
(0.17)
-0.80***
(0.16)
-0.42***
(0.08)
dropped

-0.12***
(0.01)
-0.06***
(0.01)
0.08
(0.07)

-0.12***
(0.01)
-0.06***
(0.01)
0.12**
(0.06)

-0.09***
(0.02)
-0.05***
(0.01)
0.050
(0.09)

-0.13***
(0.01)
-0.05***
(0.01)
0.10
(0.08)

-0.11***
(0.02)
-0.05***
(0.01)
-0.01
(0.11)

-0.14***
(0.01)
-0.05***
(0.01)
0.08
(0.10)

Y
5749
23
0.22

Y
5749
23
0.24

Y
5526
23
0.20

Y
5002
23
0.23

Y
3419
23
0.21

Y
2997
23
0.25

p<0.01
p=0.01
p=0.21

p<0.01
p<0.01
p=0.27

p=0.48
p=0.26
p=0.18

p<0.01
p=0.52
p=0.10

p=0.71
p=0.19
p=0.23

p=0.65
p=0.06
p=0.06

43

TABLE 5: CORPORATE GOVERNANCE AND PERFORMANCE - ROBUSTNESS CHECK 1 This tables reports country random effects regressions of Tobins Q on 3 dummy variables equal to 1 if a company has high standards of corporate governance at both country and company level (HiHi), or has
high legal protection at country level but low at the company level (HiLo) (and vice-versa, LoHi), or had both low country and company governance levels (LoLo), 0 otherwise. The group LoHi is dropped as it is
the reference. INV_PROT1 is the country indicators of legal protection. COMM1, BEBCHUK, and INDEP1 are the company level governance indicators. The logarithm of sales (LOG_SALES), the ratio propertyplants-equipments to sales (PPE_SALES), a dummy equal to one if a company has traded ADRs are the control variables. In columns a. extra control variables are added (sales growth, debt/equity ratio and capital
expenditures/sales ratio). Columns b. include financial companies. Columns c. use ROA instead of Tobins Q as performance variable. Significance levels are indicated by *, **, and *** for 10%, 5%, and 1%
respectively. The F-Test indicates whether the estimated coefficients are significantly different.

1
2
3

INV_PROT1 HIGH
INV_PROT1 HIGH

INV_PROT1 LOW
INV_PROT1 LOW
LOG SALES
PPE_SALES
ADR

I.a

I.b

I.c

II.a

II.b

II.c

III.a

III.b

III.c

COMM1

ROA

BEBCHUK

ROA

INDEP1

ROA

HIGH

-0.48***

-0.47***

-0.063***

HIGH

-0.65***

-0.67***

-0.074***

=1

-0.50***

-0.50***

-0.070***

(0.11)

(0.12)

(0.02)

(0.11)

(0.12)

(0.01)

(0.08)

(0.08)

(0.01)

-0.62***

-0.69***

-0.079***

-0.68***

-0.70***

-0.082***

-0.72***

-0.73***

-0.085***

(0.14)

(0.15)

(0.02)

(0.11)

(0.13)

(0.01)

(0.11)

(0.12)

(0.01)

-0.58***

-0.59***

-0.065***

-0.44***

-0.47***

-0.050**

-0.55***

-0.55***

-0.069***

(0.11)

(0.11)

(0.02)

(0.10)

(0.10)

(0.02)

(0.07)

(0.06)

(0.012)

dropped

dropped

dropped

dropped

dropped

dropped

dropped

dropped

dropped

-0.11***

-0.10***

0.008**

-0.08***

-0.08***

0.011**

-0.12***

-0.11***

0.005

(0.01)

(0.01)

(0.003)

(0.02)

(0.021)

(0.004)

(0.01)

(0.01)

(0.003)

-0.06***

-0.03***

-0.003*

-0.05***

-0.036***

-0.002

-0.05***

-0.03***

-0.003**

(0.01)

(0.006)

(0.001)

(0.01)

(0.004)

(0.002)

(0.01)

(0.006)

(0.001)

0.09

0.04

-0.021**

0.06

0.024

-0.027**

0.11

0.05

-0.018**

(0.07)

(0.06)

(0.009)

(0.08)

(0.08)

(0.012)

(0.07)

(0.07)

(0.009)

LOW

LOW
HIGH

LOW

LOW
HIGH

=0
=1

SALES GROWTH

0.69***
(0.14)

(0.16)

(0.15)

DEBT_EQUITY

-0.01**

-0.01***

-0.01**

(0.006)

(0.005)

(0.006)

0.12

0.05

0.03

(0.15)

(0.26)

(0.26)

CAPEX_SALES
Constant, Industry &
Year dummies
Obs.

0.74***

=0

0.67***

5749

6893

5757

5526

6597

5531

5002

5963

5009

Number of countries

23

23

23

23

23

23

23

23

23

R squared (overall)

0.25

0.25

0.19

0.23

0.23

0.18

0.25

0.26

0.22

p<0.01

p<0.01

p=0.04

p=0.57

p=0.52

p=0.33

p<0.01

p<0.01

p=0.08

p=0.04

p=0.01

p=0.87

p=0.20

p=0.27

p=0.39

p=0.51

p=0.45

p=0.93

p=0.23

p=0.20

p=0.33

p=0.16

p=0.19

p=0.22

p=0.07

p=0.11

p=0.26

F-test

1 = 2
1 = 3
2 = 3

44

TABLE 6: CORPORATE GOVERNANCE AND PERFORMANCE - ROBUSTNESS CHECK 2 This tables reports country random effects regressions of Tobins Q on 3 dummy variables equal to 1 if a company has high standards of corporate governance at both country and company level (HiHi), or has
high legal protection at country level but low at the company level (HiLo) (and vice-versa, LoHi), or had both low country and company governance levels (LoLo), 0 otherwise. The group LoHi is dropped as it is
the reference. INV_PROT2 and INV_PROT3 are the country indicators of legal protection. COMM1, BEBCHUK, and INDEP1 are the company level governance indicators. The logarithm of sales
(LOG_SALES), the ratio property-plants-equipments to sales (PPE_SALES), and a dummy equal to one if a company has traded ADRs are used as control variables. Regressions are run with 2-digit SIC code
industry fixed effects, time fixed effects, and robust standard error clustered at country level (in parentheses). Significance levels are indicated by *, **, and *** for 10%, 5%, and 1% respectively. The F-Test
indicates whether the estimated coefficients are significantly different.
Dependent variable:
Tobin's Q

I
INV_PROT3

BEBCHUK

INV_PROT2

INV_PROT3

INDEP1

INV_PROT2

INV_PROT3

-0.50***
(0.13)
-0.73***
(0.15)

-0.50***
(0.12)
-0.72***
(0.15)

HIGH

-0.62***
(0.16)
-0.64***
(0.16)

-0.57***
(0.17)
-0.59***
(0.17)

HIGH

-0.50***
(0.10)
-0.74***
(0.14)

-0.48***
(0.10)
-0.72***
(0.14)

-0.61***
(0.12)
dropped

-0.62***
(0.12)
dropped

LOW

-0.42***
(0.10)
dropped

-0.38***
(0.09)
dropped

LOW

-0.56***
(0.07)
dropped

-0.55***
(0.07)
Dropped

-0.12***
(0.01)
-0.06***
(0.01)
0.08
(0.07)

-0.12***
(0.01)
-0.06***
(0.01)
0.08
(0.07)

-0.09***
(0.02)
-0.05***
(0.01)
0.03
(0.10)

-0.08***
(0.02)
-0.05***
(0.01)
0.02
(0.11)

-0.13***
(0.01)
-0.05***
(0.01)
0.09
(0.08)

-0.12***
(0.02)
-0.05***
(0.01)
0.08
(0.08)

Y
5749
23
0.22

Y
5749
23
0.22

Y
5526
23
0.20

Y
5526
23
0.19

Y
5002
23
0.23

Y
5002
23
0.23

p<0.01
p=0.01
p=0.11

p<0.01
p<0.01
p=0.15

p=0.69
p=0.27
p=0.22

p=0.73
p=0.28
p=0.24

p<0.01
p=0.44
p=0.08

p<0.01
p=0.32
p=0.09

INV_PROT HIGH

HIGH

INV_PROT HIGH

LOW

INV_PROT LOW

LOW

INV_PROT LOW

HIGH

PPE_SALES
ADR

Constant, Industry &

Year dummies
Obs.
Number of countries
R squared (overall)

F-test

1 = 2
1 = 3
2 = 3

III

INV_PROT2

LOG SALES

II

COMM1

LOW

HIGH

LOW

HIGH

45

TABLE 7: CORPORATE GOVERNANCE AND PERFORMANCE - ROBUSTNESS CHECK 3

This tables reports country random effects regressions of Tobins Q on the country indicator INV_PROT1, a dummy variable equal to 1 if the company
level of governance is above the median (Hi) and 0 otherwise, and their interaction term. COMM1, BEBCHUK, and INDEP1 are the company level
governance indicators. The logarithm of sales (LOG_SALES), the ratio property-plants-equipments to sales (PPE_SALES), and a dummy equal to one
if a company has traded ADRs are used as control variables. Regressions are run with 2-digit SIC code industry fixed effects, time fixed effects, and
robust standard error clustered at country level (in parentheses). Significance levels are indicated by *, **, and *** for 10%, 5%, and 1% respectively.
The F-Test indicates the total country effect for companies with an above the median governance level.
Dependent variable: Tobin's Q

INV_PROT1

INV_PROT1 * COMM1 HIGH

COMM1 HIGH

II

III

IV

-0.13
(0.13)

-0.23
(0.34)

-0.003
(0.16)

0.005
(0.16)

0.11
(0.20)

-0.80***
(0.25)
1.76***
(0.48)

-0.35*
(0.20)
0.85**
(0.35)

-0.91***
(0.23)
1.96***
(0.45)

INV_PROT1 * BEBCHUK HIGH

-0.94*
(0.49)

-0.63***
(0.22)

-0.53***
(0.20)

BEBCHUK HIGH

1.72**
(0.82)

1.17***
(0.37)

0.97***
(0.33)

INV_PROT1 * INDEP1

-1.16***
(0.20)
2.37***
(0.39)

INDEP1

LOG SALES
PPE_SALES
ADR

Constant, Industry & Year dummies

Obs.
Number of countries
R squared (overall)
F-test: effect of country investor
protection on Q for highly governed
companies

-0.72***
(0.14)
1.47***
(0.25)

-0.11***
(0.01)
-0.06***
(0.01)
0.09
(0.07)

-0.07**
(0.03)
-0.05***
(0.01)
-0.005
(0.12)

-0.12***
(0.01)
-0.05***
(0.01)
0.11
(0.07)

-0.11***
(0.01)
-0.06***
(0.01)
0.11*
(0.06)

-0.13***
(0.01)
-0.05***
(0.01)
0.14**
(0.06)

Y
5749
23
0.22

Y
5526
23
0.18

Y
5002
23
0.23

Y
5526
23
0.23

Y
4854
23
0.24

1 + 3

1 + 4

1 + 2

1 + 3

1 + 2
= -1.05***
p<0.01

= -1.18*
p=0.06

=-1.16***
p<0.01

= -0.80***

= -0.24*

p<0.01

p=0.06

1 + 3

= -0.63**
p=0.03

1 + 3
= -0.42
p=0.16

1 + 4
= -0.60***
p=0.01

46

TABLE 8: CORPORATE GOVERNANCE, EXTERNAL FINANCING DEPENDENCE AND PERFORMANCE

This tables reports country random effects regressions of Tobins Q on the interaction term between external financing dependence and corporate governance indicators at country (INV_PROT1) and
company level (COMM1, BEBCHUK, INDEP1), and their interaction (INV_PROT1*COMM1, INV_PROT1*BEBCHUK, INV_PROT1*INDEP1). The logarithm of sales (LOG_SALES) is used as
control variable. External dependence is the Rajan and Zingales (1998) measure of financial dependence at industrial level for US companies and updated for the year 2000. Regressions are run with 2digit SIC code industry fixed effects, time fixed effects, and robust standard error clustered at country level (in parentheses). Significance levels are indicated by *, **, and *** for 10%, 5%, and 1%
respectively.
Dependent variable: Tobin's Q
Interaction (external dependence
X INV_PROT1)

II

III

IV

VI

0.035**
(0.01)

Interaction (external dependence

X INV_PROT1_COMM1)

IX

0.039**
(0.02)
0.019**
(0.008)

Interaction (external dependence

X BEBCHUK)

0.021**
(0.01)
0.005
(0.02)

Interaction (external dependence

X INV_PROT1_ BEBCHUK)

-0.029
(0.02)
0.006
(0.01)

Interaction (external dependence

X INDEP1)

-0.016
(0.01)
0.14***
(0.042)

Interaction (external dependence

X INV_PROT1_ INDEP1)

Constant, Industry & Year

dummies
Number of countries
Obs.
R squared (overall)

VIII

0.083
(0.12)

Interaction (external dependence

X COMM1)

LOG SALES

VII

0.090***
(0.02)
0.08***
(0.01)

0.051***
(0.01)

-0.09***
(0.01)

-0.09***
(0.01)

-0.09***
(0.018)

-0.09***
(0.02)

-0.09***
(0.02)

-0.11***
(0.01)

-0.11***
(0.01)

-0.11***
(0.01)

-0.11***
(0.01)

Y
22
4571
0.18

Y
22
4571
0.18

Y
22
4571
0.18

Y
22
4378
0.18

Y
22
4378
0.18

Y
22
3832
0.19

Y
22
3831
0.19

Y
22
3709
0.19

Y
22
3709
0.19

47

TABLE 9: CORPORATE GOVERNANCE, SIZE AND PERFORMANCE

This tables reports country random effects regressions of Tobins Q on the interaction term between the average firm size with respect to the industry (large firm share) and corporate governance
indicators at country (INV_PROT1) and company level (COMM1, BEBCHUK, INDEP1), and their interaction (INV_PROT1*COMM1, INV_PROT1*BEBCHUK, INV_PROT1*INDEP1). Large firm
share is the Beck et al. (2005) industry ks share of employment in companies with more than 20 employees in the US for the year 2000. The logarithm of sales (LOG_SALES) is used as control variable.
Regressions are run with 2-digit SIC code industry fixed effects, and robust standard error clustered at country level (in parentheses). Significance levels are indicated by *, **, and *** for 10%, 5%, and
1% respectively.

Dependent variable: Tobin's Q

Interaction (large firm share X
INV_PROT1)

II

III

IV

VI

0.068***
(0.02)

Interaction (large firm share X

INV_PROT1_COMM1)

IX

0.078***
(0.02)
0.036***
(0.01)

Interaction (large firm share X

BEBCHUK)

0.040**
(0.01)
0.048
(0.03)

Interaction (large firm share X

INV_PROT1_BEBCHUK)

0.007
(0.03)
0.028*
(0.01)

Interaction (large firm share X

INDEP1)

-0.002
(0.01)
0.209***
(0.08)

Interaction (large firm share X

INV_PROT1_INDEP1)

Constant, Industry & Year

dummies
Number of countries
Obs.
R squared (overall)

VIII

0.091
(0.13)

Interaction (large firm share X

COMM1)

LOG SALES

VII

0.115**
(0.05)
0.116***
(0.04)

0.067**
(0.03)

-0.09***
(0.02)

-0.10***
(0.01)

-0.09***
(0.01)

-0.09***
(0.02)

-0.09***
(0.02)

-0.11***
(0.01)

-0.11***
(0.01)

-0.11***
(0.01)

-0.10***
(0.01)

Y
22
4593
0.18

Y
22
4593
0.18

Y
22
4593
0.19

Y
22
4397
0.18

Y
22
4397
0.18

Y
22
3848
0.19

Y
22
3848
0.19

Y
22
3725
0.20

Y
22
3725
0.20

48

TABLE 10: CORPORATE GOVERNANCE, EXTERNAL FINANCING DEPENDENCE, SIZE AND PERFORMANCE
This tables reports country random effects regressions of Tobins Q on the interaction term between external financing dependence or the average firm size with respect to the industry (large firm share)
and corporate governance indicators at country (INV_PROT1) and company level (COMM1, BEBCHUK, INDEP1), and their interaction (INV_PROT1*COMM1, INV_PROT1*BEBCHUK,
INV_PROT1*INDEP1). External dependence is the Rajan and Zingales (1998) measure of financial dependence at industrial level for US companies and updated for the year 2000. Large firm share is
the Beck et al. (2005) industry ks share of employment in companies with more than 20 employees in the US for the year 2000. The logarithm of sales (LOG_SALES) is used as control variable.
Regressions are run with 2-digit SIC code industry fixed effects, and robust standard error clustered at country level (in parentheses). The sample of companies is all industries (All) excluded financial, or
manufacturing industries only (Manu). Significance levels are indicated by *, **, and *** for 10%, 5%, and 1% respectively.
Dependent variable: Tobin's Q

VII

VIII

IX

Interaction (external dependence X

INV_PROT1_COMM1)

0.008
(0.007)

0.006
(0.01)

Interaction (large firm share X

INV_PROT1_COMM1)

0.028***
(0.008)

0.038***
(0.01)

Interaction (external dependence X

INV_PROT1_ BEBCHUK)

-0.008
(0.01)

-0.012
(0.01)

Interaction (large firm share X

INV_PROT1_BEBCHUK)

0.037*
(0.02)

0.044**
(0.02)

Interaction (external dependence X COMM1)

Interaction (large firm share X COMM1)

II

0.014

0.011

(0.01)

(0.01)

0.054***

0.070***

(0.01)

(0.01)

Interaction (external dependence X BEBCHUK)

Interaction (large firm share X BEBCHUK)

III

IV

-0.024

-0.027

(0.02)

(0.03)

0.072

0.073

(0.04)

(0.04)

Interaction (external dependence X INDEP1)

Interaction (large firm share X INDEP1)

VI

0.094***

0.087**

(0.02)

(0.04)

0.116*

0.238***

(0.06)

(0.07)

Interaction (external dependence X

INV_PROT1_ INDEP1)
Interaction (large firm share X
INV_PROT1_INDEP1)
LOG SALES

XI

XII

0.054***
(0.01)

0.050**
(0.02)

0.064*
(0.03)

0.134***
(0.04)

-0.09***

-0.12***

-0.09***

-0.12***

-0.11***

-0.13***

-0.09***

-0.12***

-0.09***

-0.12***

-0.11***

-0.13***
(0.02)

(0.01)

(0.01)

(0.02)

(0.01)

(0.01)

(0.02)

(0.01)

(0.01)

(0.02)

(0.02)

(0.01)

Constant, Industry & Year dummies

Industries

All

Manu

All

Manu

All

Manu

All

Manu

All

Manu

All

Manu

Number of countries

22

22

22

22

22

22

22

22

22

22

22

22

Obs.

4567

2190

4374

2121

3828

1845

4567

2190

4374

2121

3828

1845

R squared (overall)

0.18

0.19

0.18

0.18

0.19

0.20

0.18

0.19

0.18

0.18

0.19

0.20

49