Summary Chart of Leadership Perspectives/Theories/Models

Prepared by: Virginia Harwood

The intent of this summary chart is to keep me organized during the course so I can easily consolidate my learning of new theories and models
as they are reviewed and discussed in the course. Entries are made over the semester. These are highlights of key theories and models
reviewed over the course; however, there are many more theories and models that exist related to leadership studies.

Great Man Theory

Key concepts:
belief that leaders are exceptional people
born with certain unique attributes/qualities
destined to be leaders
leaders were studied through their innate qualities/traits
leaders are born not developed
lead into the development of trait theory
Contributor
Timeline
Summary:
Carlyle
1849
extraordinary individuals
On heroes, hero-worship,
unique attributes through genetic make-up
and the heroic in history
study of heroes
Galton
1869
Summary:
Hereditary Genius
personal qualities were natural and passed from generation to generation
Criticisms/Limitations:
leadership cannot be developed as it is genetic single focus study of leadership
References:
Borgatta, E.F. Couch, A.S., & Bales, R.F. (1954). Some finding relevant to the great man theory of leadership. American Sociological Review, 19,
755759. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2087923?origin=JSTOR-pdf
Northouse, P.G. (2010). Leadership: Theory and Practice (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA.: SAGE Publications, Inc.
Zaccaro, S.J. (2007). Trait-based perspectives of leadership. American Psychologist, 62(1), 6-16.

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Trait Theory

what the leader is

evolved from Great Man theory
shift away from hereditary qualities
focus on leaders not constituents
personal characteristics associated with leadership effectiveness
people with the identified leadership traits would be good recruits for leadership roles
resulting research contributes to situational theory

Contributor:
Stogdill

Timeline:
1904-1948

Summary:
Conducted 124 trait studies in timeline
Concluded that effective leadership varied from situation to situation leads into
situational theory
Summary:
Study of 1400 findings of personality and leadership in small groups.
Concluded that personality traits could be used to distinguish leaders from nonleaders.
Summary:
Conducted 163 trait studies from 1949-1970
Reviewed 4,725 leader studies but no absolute definitive list of traits

Contributor:
Mann

Timeline:
1959

Contributor:
Stogdill

Timeline:
1948 -1974

Contributor:
Lord, DeVader, and Alliger

Timeline:
1986
(re-emergence of trait
theory)

Summary:
Reassessed Manns findings used meta-analysis (propose new way of analysis)
Emergence of perceptions of leadership
Findings intelligence, masculinity, and dominance were related to how individuals
perceived leaders.
Concluded that traits could be used to define leaders

Contributor:
Kirkpatrick and Locke

Timeline:
1991

Contributor:
Zaccaro, Kemp, and Bader

Timeline:
2004

Summary:
Leaders differ from non-leaders in six traits
Can be born with them or develop them
Leaders are different than other people
Summary:
Exploration of social intelligence understand ones own and others feelings
Findings these are important leadership traits

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Summary of traits identified by the researchers:

Stogdill (1948)

Mann (1959)

Stogdill (1974)

Lord, et al (1986)

Intelligence
Alertness
Insight
Responsibility
Initiative
Persistence
Self-confidence
Sociability

Intelligence
Masculinity
Adjustment
Dominance
Extroversion
Conservatism

Achievement
Persistence
Insight
Initiative
Self-confidence
Responsibility
Cooperativeness
Tolerance
Influence
Sociability

Intelligence
Masculinity
Dominance

Kirkpatrick and Locke

(1991)
Drive
Motivation
Integrity
Confidence
Cognitive ability
Task knowledge

Zaccaro, et al (2004)
Cognitive abilities
Extroversion
Conscientiousness
Emotional stability
Openness
Agreeableness
Motivation
Social intelligence
Self-monitoring
Emotional intelligence
Problem solving

Source: Northouse (2010)

Criticisms/Limitations:
Thousands of empirical studies on leadership traits; however, no conclusive list of specific traits that define effective leadership.
Does not consider the situation of the leadership nor constituents
How do we measure the traits?
Subjective.
How does one implement this in a development or training situation?
References:
Borgatta, E.F. Couch, A.S., & Bales, R.F. (1954). Some finding relevant to the great man theory of leadership. American Sociological Review, 19,
755759. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2087923?origin=JSTOR-pdf
Northouse, P.G. (2010). Leadership: Theory and Practice (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
Zaccaro, S.J. (2007). Trait-based perspectives of leadership. American Psychologist, 62(1), 6-16. Retrieved from
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17209675

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Behaviourist Theory

what the leader does

focus is on what leaders do and how treated constituents
observed behaviours
leads into leadership styles
influenced management theories
and, resulting findings takes us into contingencies and situational theory
also, ideas from this theory have been incorporated into other perspectives such as: contingency and transformative

Contributors:
Katz, et al
Stogdill and Coons

Timeline:
1951
1957

Summary:
These studies identified two leadership factors:
1. consideration supportive and person-oriented leadership
2. initiating structure directive and task-oriented leadership

Contributor:
McGregor

Timeline:
1960

Summary:
Expanded the two earlier studies
Impact on management theory
Management theory Theory X and Theory Y

Contributor:
Blake and Mouton

Timeline:
early 1960s

Summary:
Research explored how managers used task and relationship behaviours in the
organizational setting
Developed model of managerial behaviour Managerial Grid
Grid has been refined over the years and renamed Leadership Grid
Focus on task (production) and employee (people) orientation of manager the grid
Plotting on the grid can help identify to one of the five major leadership styles.

Source: http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_73.htm
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Contributors:
McGregor
The Human Side of
Enterprise

Timeline:
1964

Summary:
Emphasis on managing people
Leadership is influenced by a leaders assumptions about human nature
Concept of Theory X and Theory Y managers beliefs:
Theory X beliefs
the average human being has an inherent dislike of
work and will avoid it if possible

because of this human characteristic, most people

must be coerced, controlled, directed, or threatened
with punishment to get them to put forth adequate
effort to achieve organizational objectives
the average human being prefers to be directed,
wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively little
ambition, and wants security above all else

Theory Y beliefs
the expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is
as natural as play or rest, and the average human
being, under proper conditions, learns not only to
accept but to seek responsibility
people with exercise self-direction and self-control to
achieve objectives to which they are committed.

the capacity to exercise a relatively high level of

imagination, ingenuity, and creativity in the solution of
organizational problems is widely, not narrowly,
distributed in the population, and the intellectual
potentialities of the average human being are only
partially utilized under the conditions of modern
industrial life

Source: Theory X and Y Managers (McGregor, 1960)

Criticisms/Limitations:
No consistent of preferred style across situations.
High concern for people and high for production seems to be favoured but does this work for all situations?
Confusion between leadership and management theories
References:
Day, D.V. & Antonakis, J. (2012). The Nature of Leadership (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA. SAGE Publications, Inc. Retrieved from
http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/41401_Day_Antonakis_introduction_to_the_nature_of_leadership2.pdf
Northouse, P.G. (2010). Leadership: Theory and Practice (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA.: SAGE Publications, Inc.

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Situational Theory
in which situation is the leader effective
originated from the idea that behaviour theory cannot alone be used across every situation
situations determine what leaders do and that behaviours must be linked
leadership changes with the situation
Contributor:
Timeline:
Summary:
Fiedler
1967
Leaders effectiveness is based on the situation.
Contingency theory
Leadership style is fixed
Relationship between leadership style and the favourableness of the situation three
dimensions:
1. the leader-member relationship degree to which leader is accepted and
supported by group members
2. the degree of task structure extent to which the task is structured and defined
with clear goals and procedures
3. leaders position of power the ability of the leader to control constituents
strong or weak
Situations are favourable to the leader if all of these are high.
Fiedlers model first involves i.d. of leadership style. Developed the LPI scale
Task-oriented leaders view their LPC in a negative way low LPC leaders these
leaders are effective at completing tasks. Relationship-oriented leaders view LPC in a
positive way higher score. High LPC leaders focus on personal connections
manage conflict and better at making complex decisions.

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Source: http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/fiedler.htm

Contributor:
Hersey and Blanchard

Timeline:
1985

Summary:
Key to appropriate leadership style is the readiness or development level of the
constituent. Determine amount of direction task behaviour and socio-emotional
support relationship behaviour based upon degree of maturity. Behaviours are on a
continuum of directive to supportive. Four leadership styles result:
directing clear instructions
coaching two-way communication to help build confidence
supporting share in decision-making
delegating high constitute readiness to accomplish tasks
Leader has to determine where constituent is in relation to the task and the
leadership style then will be determined

Criticisms/Limitations:
Fiedler believe our leadership style is fixed; so, necessary to change the leader depending on the situation
How does this fit with large groups focus is small constituents or one-to-one
References:
Fairholm, M.R. & Fairholm, G.W. (2009). Understanding Leadership Perspectives. DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-84902-7_1
Northouse, P.G. (2010). Leadership: Theory and Practice (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA.: SAGE Publications, Inc.
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Transformational Theory
(includes Transactional as well as Charismatic) and

interaction of leader-follower could be transactional or transformational

changes and transforms individuals focus on constituent (Bass)
Burns (focus on exchange)
involves influence to move constituents to accomplish more than
what is expected
concerned with emotions, values, ethics
Charismatic special gift certain people possess and they can do extraordinary things
Contributor:
Timeline:
Summary:
Burns
1978
Leaders tap the motives of followers
Distinguished between transactional and transformational leadership
Transactional focus on exchange of things of value leader wants followers to do
certain things
very common and easily observed in everyday life
Transformational person engages with others and creates a connection that raises
the level of motivation and morality in both leader and follower. Also, concerned
about needs and motives of follower tries to help follower reach full potential
Contributor:
Timeline:
Summary:
Bass
1985
Extended work of Burns more attention on followers needs
Bass Transformational
Includes elements of charismatic leadership
Leadership Theory
Could apply to situations that werent positive
More attention on emotions and interaction between leader and followers
Describes transactional and transformational leadership on a continuum

Source: Northouse (2004)

Transformational leadership motivates followers to do more than expected by:

a. raising levels of consciousness in followers regarding goals b. transcend their own
self-interest for the sake of the organization c. followers to address higher level
needs.

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The model of transformational and transactional leadership has seven factors:

Source: Northouse (2004)

Factor 1 leaders are strong role model high moral and ethics respected by
followers
Factor 2 leaders communicate high expectations to followers inspire through
motivation shared vision emotional appeal
Factor 3 stimulates followers to be creative challenge beliefs
Factor 4 leader provides supportive climate listen carefully to individual follower
needs coaches and advisers looking for followers to fully actualize
-----Transactional
Factor 5 Contingent reward leader tries to obtain agreement from followers on
what must be done and what payoff will be
Factor 6 management by exception negative feedback or criticism. Active leader
watches for mistakes and takes corrective action Passive after a problem arises
negative reinforcement
----Factor 7 is on the most right of the continuum hands-off wait and see approach
no exchange no effort to help followers
Charismatic Theory (included here as it is key to transformational theory but also part of trait theory
Contributor:
Timeline:
Summary:
Weber
1947
At this point this theory could also fit into trait but I have place it here because of the
later research and links to transactional theory
Key point is the some people have special personality traits can do superhuman
things.

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House
(Leadership was not taken
seriously at this time this
theory aroused scholars
and links to Burns and
Bass work

Criticisms/Limitations:

1976

Summary:
Published theory of charismatic leadership framework and focused on psychological
impact of these leaders on followers.
Leaders act in unique ways special charismatic effects on followers
House noted these characteristics: dominant, strong desire to influence others, selfconfidence, strong sense of ones own moral values
They are strong role models for values and beliefs and want followers to adopt these.
Have strong vision or goals. High level of expectation and confidence in followers
abilities. Obtain follower trust and followers accept leaders beliefs and goals.
This type of leadership can be used from wrong purpose abused
Seems like behaviourism in a way
How is it learned
Has some super hero tones

References:
Day, D.V. & Antonakis, J. (2012). The Nature of Leadership (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA. SAGE Publications, Inc. Retrieved from
http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/41401_Day_Antonakis_introduction_to_the_nature_of_leadership8.pdf
Northouse, P.G. (2010). Leadership: Theory and Practice (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA.: SAGE Publications, Inc.

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Values Theory

(Zwart 2000) in Fairholm and Fairholm ~Not related to any one style or model of leadership and All leadership is values-laden and
relationship based

Contributors:
Many and include
Bass, Burns, Fairholm,
covey
References:

Timeline:

Summary:
Elements of relationship values, morals, motivation, needs, desires, hopes,
influence

Fairholm, M.R. & Fairholm, G.W. (2009). Understanding Leadership Perspectives. DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-84902-7_1

Servant Leadership
Leaders duty to serve his/her constituents
Desire to serve rather than lead
Needs are discovered by listening
Contributor:
Timeline:
Greenleaf
1977

Summary:
Servant to others
Four questions servant leaders ask:
1. are other peoples highest priorities being served?
2. do those served grow as persons?
3. do they while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, ad
more likely themselves to become servants?
4. is there a positive effect on the less privileged in society?

Criticisms/Limitations: only way to change society is to produce enough people who want to serve

References:
Fairholm, M.R. & Fairholm, G.W. (2009). Understanding Leadership Perspectives. DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-84902-7_1

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Authentic Theory

Emerging
True to ones self
Leaders relation to others give to constituents as much as they get from constituents mutual relationships
Can be developed
Self-awareness

Contributor:
Emerging Gallup
Leadership Institute on
Authentic Leadership
Development
(many contributors)
Avolio and Gardner

Timeline:
2004 onward

Summary:
A practical approach
Avolio and Gardner developmental definition pattern of leader behaviour that
develops from ad is grounded in the leaders position psychological qualities and
strong ethics. Components of authentic leadership development theory:
positive psychological capital, positive moral perspective, leader self-awareness,
leader self-regulation, leadership processes/behaviours, follower self-awareness,
follower self-regulation, follower development, organizational context, performance

Contributor:
George
(2003 wrote Authentic
Leadership )

Timeline:
2003 onward

Summary:
understand own values and behaviour toward others based on values dont
compromise own values
relationships
authentic in all aspects of life strong family/friend bonds
true north internal compass
leadership principles are values translated into action
staying grounded
strong sense of self
Five dimensions: purpose, values, relationships, self-discipline, heart

Criticisms/Limitations: emerging area much research still required. Also, research in the development of authentic leaders. How does this
type of leadership translate to outcomes?
References:
Avolio, B.J., & Gardner, W. L. (2005). Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership. The Leadership
Quarterly. 16, 315-338. Retrieved from http://www.keyleadership.com/Downloads/Authentic%20Leadership%20Development%20.pdf
George, B., Sims, P., McLean, A.N., Mayer, D. (2011). Discovering your authentic leadership. ASCA Newsletter. 2011 (01), 9-17. Retrieved from
http://www.sirc.ca/newsletters/nov11/documents/free/authentic_leadership.pdf
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