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Photo -by

Sebah

H.M. SULTAN,

MOHAMMED V

&

JoailHer

Turkey of the Ottomans

By

Lucy

Garnett

LONDON: SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD.

No.

AMEN CORNER,

E.C.

.1911

Printed by Sin Isaac Pitman

Sons, Ltd., London, Bath

&

AND New York

32

1911

CONTENTS
CHAP.
I.

II.

III.

IV.

V.
VI.

MOSLEM OTTOMANS
CHRISTIAN OTTOMANS

HEBREW OTTOMANS

35

THE OTTOMAN SULTAN

47

THE OTTOMAN PARLIAMENT

70

LAW COURTS, POLICE AND ARMY

88

THE RELIGION OF ISLAM

100

CHRISTIANITY IN TURKEY

112

JUDAISM IN TURKEY

143

URBAN LIFE

153

XI.

AGRARIAN TURKEY

170

XII.

PASTORAL TURKEY

189

XIII.

OTTOMAN HOMES AND HOME-LIFE

202

XIV.

EDUCATION AND CULTURE

233

TURKEY AT PLAY

261

INDEX

297

VII.
VIII.

IX.

X.

XV.

....

ILLUSTRATIONS
H.M.

SULTAN MOHAMMED V

Frontispiece
page

PRINCE YOUSSOUF IZZEDIN EFFENDI

PRINCE ZIAEDDIN EFFENDI
MEVLEVI DERVISHES
IMPERIAL PALACE OF DOLMA BAKHTCHE
A NEARER VIEW OF THE IMPERIAL PALACE OF DOLMA
H.I.H.

....
....
....

BAKHTCHE

RIZA BEY
EXCELLENCY HAKKI PASHA
NEDJMEDDIN MOLLAH
TURKISH CAVALRY
ANCIENT GREEK CHURCH OF KHARIA
HIS

MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMS
COURTYARD OF THE MOSQUE OF BAYAZID
HIS HOLINESS JOACHIM, PATRIARCH OF THE GREEKS
MGR. TOURAIN, PATRIARCH OF THE ARMENIANS
ENTRANCE TO THE VALIDfe MOSQUE, AK SERAI
MARKET NEAR THE VALIDE MOSQUE
SKIPPER OF A COASTING CRAFT
BOATMEN OF THE GOLDEN HORN
FISHING IN THE BOSPHORUS
A HARDWARE MERCHANT
OPEN-AIR COBBLERS
COFFEE-HOUSE IN BACKGROUND
A CHIMNEY SWEEP
BULGARIAN PEASANTS OF YENIKEUY, MACEDONIA
WATER CARRIERS
BULGARIAN PEASANT WOMEN OF KIRETCHKEUY
BROUSSA
A STREET IN THE TURKISH QUARTER
IMPERIAL MUSEUM, STAMBOUL
MOSQUE OF THE VALIDfe (INTERIOR)
A TURKISH MUSICIAN AND STORY-TELLER
"
THE MARBLE TOWER," WITH PART OF THE ANCIENT
WALLS OF STAMBOUL
.

....
....

'

......

52
56

62
66
7Q
78
84
88
94

PART OF THE PALACE OF TCHERAGAN

AHMED

48

100
104
108
112
124
152
154
158
160
162
164
166
168
174
176
184

202
256
262
272
284

Turkey of the Ottomans

CHAPTER

MOSLEM OTTOMANS

No

countty in the world perhaps contains a population so

heterogeneous as that now comprised under the general term
"
of
Ottoman." In addition to the various
*^ *

Ra

peaceful immigrations of
Circassians and Gypsies,

Jews and Tartars,

succeeding waves

of invasion from East, West, North, and South, have, during

countless centuries, thrown upon its shores and across its
frontiers hordes of conquering ahens, in their turn to be

vanquished and subjected by a later arrival. And at the

we find in Turkey, U\ing side by side, representatives of more than a dozen different races
Turks, Greeks,

present day
Servians,

Vlachs,

Kurds, Circassians,

Bulgarians and Armenians, Albanians,

Tartars, Turcomans and Yuruks.
Speci-

mens of all these races, together with many others, may be

met with every day in the streets of Constantinople and the
large seaports of the Levant
every provincial town of any
;

importance will include representatives of at least half a

dozen and even villages may contain famiUes belonging
;

to

two or more

and

different races

religions.

National traditions point to the Central Asian region

watered by the Selenga and its affluents the Orkhon and
^
An interesting illustration of this medley of races and tongues
in the population of a single city was afforded at a meeting held Ijist
May at Salonica to protest against the Cretan Deputies who took an
oath of fideUty to King George of Greece, speeches being delivered
in no fewer thein eight languages, Turkish, Albanian, Greek, Bulgarian,

Servian, Roumanian, Judaeo-Spanish,

1

and French.

Turkey

Ottomans

of the

Tugela as the primitive seat of the Turkish people and as early

as the sixth century a.d. we find a Turkish Khan exch-ang^
The
ing Embasssies with a Roman Emperor.
Osmanlis.
About the second decade of the thirteenth century, the Turkish tribe destined to found the
Ottoman Empire was driven from its original home by
;

Mongols, and passing through Persia,, entered

Armenia under the leadership of its hereditary chieftain
Suleyman Shah. His son and successor Ertoghrul, wandering
southward with his band of warriors, came one day upon two

invading

Riding at once to the

weaker party, their
a horde of Mongols who had invaded the territories
assailants
were
of Ala-ed-Din, Sultan of Konieh, the ancient Iconium
In
reward
this
the
to
for
service,
flight.
put
signal
Seljukian
Prince conferred upon Ertoghrul, as a military fief, a conarmies engaged in desperate conflict.
cissistance of

what appeared

to be the

siderable tract

of

land,

comprising within

its

limits

the

towns of Sugut and Eski-Shehir. His son Osman, surnamed

"
The Bonebreaker," having while still young won from the
Greeks for his Suzerain several important towns, weis rewarded
"
for this service with the title of
Bey," along with the
symbols pertaining to that military rank the drum and

In 1300 the Seljukian Kingdom fell

to pieces, ten separate principalities taking its place, all of
which were eventually merged in that of Osman, originally
the least important among them and from this time may be
dated the rise of the Ottoman Empire.
horse-tailed standard.

The Osmanli race cannot, however, according to modern

"
"
Turks in the sense in
ethnologists, correctly be said to be
"
which that term, in common with Turanian," is ordinarily
used, namely, to designate not only a non-Aryan, but a
coloured race, and appear rather to have belonged originally
to a branch of that white race of Western Asia variously
termed Circassian, Alarodian, or Archaian. But whatever
^

Gibbon

pp. 178-181.

The Decline and Fall

of the

Roman Empire,

Vol, V,

Moslem Ottomans

may have

been the original stock from which they sprang,

the Osmanlis have developed into the great nation they now
constitute by admixture during more than six centuries with
the best white blood both of Western Asia and Eastern
Europe. This admixture has been effected in various ways,
and began at an early date in Ottoman history. Such a
condition of security appears to have been estabUshed by
Osman'sson, the Emir Orchan (1327-1360), in his dominions
that many Asian subjects of the Byzantine Emperors sought
his protection,

practically

and, abjuring their Christian faith, became

this nation being also during its

Osmanhs,

and importantly augmented by the

submission
and
conversion of various independent
voluntary
Asian princes and chieftains who freely enlisted themselves

early histor}^ frequently

and

under the banner of the Crescent, Other

were, however, the reverse of volunChild
for instance, instituted in the reign
'*\Jhe
Tax,"
tary.
of Orchan, during three centmies forcibly recruited from
their followers

method^of "recruitment

among the subject Greek, Bulgarian and Armenian peoples

tens of thousands of boys who, during their training as Janisseries,

were converted to Islam and thus became indistin-

guishably merged in the Moslem population And the spoils

of cities and proxinces conquered by Turkish armies, or
raided by Mediterranean corsairs, included both youths and
maidens, the latter finding their way to the slave-markets

and harems, and the former often escaping labour at the oar
or some menial service on/ land by
voluntarily embracing the
creed of their masters.
in

Moslem

/The

society eithel^

condition of slavery not being

permanent or hereditary, many

of these Christian apostates rose to

high positions in
Ottoman state, their origin was speedily lost sight

and

their

descendants

helped

to

the
of,

swell the ranks of the

ever-increasing Osmanli natioft?

It is consequently at the present
day impossible to say who
beside the Imperial family have any claim to be descended from

the original tribe of

Osman.

Certain sections of the Turkish

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

nation possess, however, definite characteristics which at

once distinguish them from their compatriots, and among
these may be mentioned the nomad Yuruks described elsewhere and the Koniars of European Turkey who are chiefly
found in the North of Thessaly, in the valley of the Vistritza,

Macedonia to the north of Salonica, and who

descent from isolated bodies of Seljuks, eftiigrants
to Europe before the Ottoman Conquest.
Largely as the
Turkish element has increased since its first appearance in
what is now the Turkish Empire, it forms, however, but a
small proportion of the population of the Balkan Peninsula.
In the Armenian provinces of Asia Minor it scarcely amounts
to a third
and it is only in its first habitat, the province
of Konieh, and in parts of the vilayets of Broussa and Aidin,

and

also in

claim

the mass of the population

may be considered Turkish.

their
five centuries of rule over the
Osmanlis
during
^/The
various peoples they subjugated have hitherto made no
attempt to assimilate them, and still less have they been
assimilated by them, the policy of the Sultans having in the
past almost invariably been rather to encourage dissensions
and rivalries among these subject races a nd s o prevent any
joint action on their part against their ruler^
The Turks have been not inaptly characl/rised as a nation
of aristocrats, even the peasants being distinguished by a
tljat

Ttle^"

dignity of bearing and courtesy of manner

seldom met with among the rustic populations
Yet the institutions of the
of other lands.

country are in

many respects essentially democratic, its

soci al organisation being distinctly opposed to the pri nctplfe
Even the connections o?
privilege.
the Imperial family do not form a class apart, as Sultans'
daughters marry subjects and the genealogy of their descendants is, in a few generations, lost sight of. The suboT^er editary rank and

division of estates

among

the children of one father, female

characteristically Oriental pro-

as male, and the

pensity in the past of the
as

well

Government

to confiscate large

Moslem Ottomans

accumulations of wealth, have also proved effectual barriers

to the transmission to descendants of
family position and
affluence.
In Macedonia, however, and also in some parts of
Asia Minor are certainly still to be found a certain number

of hereditary Beys or landed gentr}^ whose ancestors

many
them converted Moslems of non-Turkish origin obtained
at the conquest grants of land which
they held as mihtary

of

fiefs

and previous

to the introduction in 1867 of the central-

system of administration the country districts of

provinces were ruled by these local magnates who
either such Tiu-kish feudatories, or, as in Albania and
distan, tribal chieftains whose loyalty to the Porte was
ising

these

were
Kurmost

easily secured by allowing them complete liberty of action

with regard to their vassals.
With the exce ption of these provincial families, however.
theTjttomans have never had an _aristocracy, properly so
called.
All t he subjects of the E mpire~were he
ld_toJ)e oiTa
level at thejeet of their Pa di^h a
h^jwho c onferred the title'
FasHa on the men whom he dehghted to honour, and,^
when displeased with them, deprived them of rank and
fortune if not also of their heads and
relegated them to

^r

their original obscurity.

This title of Pasha
that carries with it any definite rank and

and

"

Effendi

are
"

merely
"
has come to be. The former
Esquire
generally apphed to high government officials, generals,

indefinite
is

"

is the
only one
"
"
precedence.
Bey
conventional designations as

as our

colonels, and to distinguished persons and their sons.

The
latter has the same
signification as the French Monsieur,
and is apphed indiscriminately to princes of the
Royal House,

and sheikhs, to

to mollahs

ladies,

and

to native Christians.

used in conjunction with other titles, a

gentleman
"
"
"
Effendi
or
being addressed as
Pasha Effendi," and
Bey
"
"
a lady as " Hanum Effendi."
Agha is apphed to noncommissioned officers and respectable
Turks, and
It is also

"

Tchelebi

"

(gentleman)

to

persons

generally, whether Christian or

elderly
of the better

Moslem.

class

Turkey

Ottomans

of the

Family names, too, though common among the higher

classes at least of the other Ottoman races, are, with very
rare exceptions,

u 3i

Family

a
ML
Names.
,

unknown among
which

circumstance
r

the Turks,

constitutes
r

still

further proof of the absence from their mstitutions of class divisions.

It is also customary for native

Christians occupying official posts, as also for foreigners in

the Turkish service, to lay aside their Christian family cogno-

mens

in favour of a Turkish

denoting

their

official

name

rank.

to which is affixed the title

Men's names are generally

and to them is often prefixed a

nickname denoting some personal peculiarity, physical or moral.
This want of family names renders identification difficult,
and to foreigners especially is a great source of confusion.
Two names are now in many cases used, which may perhaps
be considered a step towards the adoption of surnames.
either Biblical or historical,

The Albanians have been recently brought into special

prominence by their long maintained revolt against the
authority of the Porte. The attempt of the
Government to consolidate the
nation by the uniform application of new
measures to all its constituent ethnical elements has had the
not very surprising result considering the dissimilarity of
these various elements of producing serious hostility to cerConstitutional

Albanfans

tain enactments, especially among the non-Turkish Moslems

who, under the old regime, had enjoyed special privileges now

menaced by the new

There were, accordingly, risings

order.
the Arabs of the Hedjaz, and risings in Kurdistan,
which were more or less speedily suppressed. But the revolt
of the Albanians, having more serious causes, proved a more
difficult matter.
The new enactments especially obnoxious
to these highlanders were three in number
(1) Enforcement
of the conscription among the tribesmen
(2) their general

among

disarmament

and (3) the compulsory use of the Arabic

alphabet for their Aryan language.
;

Moslem Ottomans
With regard

first, it may be pointed out that the

a
Albanians, being
fighting race, have naturally no objection
to military service as such.
Hitherto, howThe late
ever, they had joined the armies of the

Rising.

to the

Sultans

as

volimteers,

for

the

imder the leadership of their owti

most part
chieftains,

or enrolled in separate regiments \Nith special privileges and

they bitterly resented this infraction of the time-honoured
;

As to
rights invariably conceded to soldiers of their race.
the second grievance, an Albanian considers his arms a part
of himself, or at least a part of his national costume, and
never goes abroad \\ithout his sellakhlik, or leathern armswith inlaid and silver-mounted pistols, daggers
and yataghans, while his full dress is incomplete without
sword at side and gun on shoulder. His resentment at being
deprived of these, to him, indispensable accessories is not
difficult to understand
and the immediate effect was to
drive the warhke tribes of Northern Albania into open revolt.
Without the third and scholastic grievance, however, the
rebeUion would probably not have assumed such serious
proportions. The arbitrary imposition of the Arabic alphabet
"
by a so-called Liberal Government," naturcilly gained the
important accession to the revolutionary movement of the
more cultured section of the nationahty, the Albanians being
"
by no means, as has often been asserted, a nation of savages,"
but a high-spirited, chivalrous, Ufe-contemning race, belonging
ethnically to a stock equal in intellectual capacity to that
of any other European people.
The general sent by the
Ottoman Government to chastise these unruly tribesmen
was Dja\id Pasha, a man of iron hand and stony heart,
whose guns soon demolished their castles, towers, blockhouses

belt, bristling

and villages, and were only silenced by the advent of winter.

The campaign was, however, re-opened in spring the important towns of Ipek and Djakova, together with many others,
were occupied by the Ottoman troops, and even the supposed
;

impregnable fastnesses of the MaUisors

fell

into the hands of

Ottomans

of the

Turkey

the Turkish commander, who then reported to his Govern"

ment that he had restored law and order in Albania." In

the very next month, however (July, 1909), the rebellion

broke out afresh, and Djavid Pasha's ferocity in suppressing
it excited the indignation of many members of the Government which had entrusted him with the task. In the spring
of this year the revolutionary

movement assumed,

known, even greater dimensions.

But, as

that the military operations of

as' is

well

I write, it

Mahmoud

appears
Shefket Pasha,
by the Ottoman

combined with the concessions wisely made

Government, have been successful in putting an end to
least its outward manifestations.

at

The character of a people being so largely determined by

the nature of the country they inhabit, a few words descriptive
of those
Western Highlands of Turkey
Natural
occupied by the Albanians may give greater
Albania.

interest
its

to

native

my

remarks on

this

"

name

of Schkyiperi,
one of the most

race.

The Land

As
of

mountainous
The principal chain runs north and
divisions of Turkey.
south, and from it jut many spurs, as lofty as the main range,
which ramify in every direction. The greater part of the surface of the country consequently consists of rugged hiUs and
deep valleys.
Grandly mountainous also is, in many places,
the cocist, where the spurs often terminate in abrupt precipices,
Rocks,"

signifies,

Albania

is

their bases eternally beaten

Adriatic.

Northern Albania

by the waters
is,

in fact,

of the restless

one of the wildest,

least cultivated provinces of the Ottoman

In
the
south, however, and especially near the coast,
Empire.
the climate is of a Mediterranean mildness, and there the
olive, the fig, and the vine, together with oranges, lemons,
and a variety of other fruits, grow luxuriantly. Over the
foot-hills stretch vast forests of pine and other trees, and rich
pasturages frequented by the flocks and herds of the nomad

most desolate, and

shepherds. The land is, indeed, cultivated to any considerable extent only in the south, where the climate is more

Moslem Ottomans

suited to the production of crops, and the character of the

people to the pursuit of agriculture. The cold increases with

the distance from the coast

only twenty miles distant the
snows are heavy and the frosts severe, while the higher and
more northern summits are clad with perpetual snow.
Though nominally brought under Turkish rule and partially converted to Islam in the fifteenth century, after an
;

_f^^^^
Independence.
T

heroic struggle of twenty-five years' duration

under their hereditary prince Skanderbeg, or

Iskender Beg

,<

t-i

-T

4 1

The Lord Alexander,

>.

the

Albanians, nevertheless, have always virtually maintained

a sort of independence. As Moslems they have been exempt
from the poll-tax levied on the subject Christians in heu of
mihtary service, and also from the conscription to which all
men of the ruling race have been Uable. Never admitting
themselves to be a conquered race, and still maintaining
in their mountain homes the feudal system of their fathers,
the Albanian chieftains have frequently defied the authority
of the Sultans when it threatened to become more than

nominal, and have asserted from time to time their national

independence. The most famous among these chieftains

were Black Mohammed of Skodra (Skutari) and Ah Pasha of
The former, at the end of the eighteenth centurj',
loajinina.
aimed at an independent sovereignty which his son, Mustapha
and the latter
Pasha, asserted in open rebellion in 1831
created for himself a principality of considerable size and
practically independent, within which he maintained good
In his later
order, constructed roads and encouraged trade.
years Ali Pasha posed also as the champion of Greek independence and foe of the Turks, and, notwithstanding the
frightful cruelties of which he was guilty, still lives in popular
legend and song as the mighty upholder of Albanian
;

Ottoman tyranny. Subsequent risings

against
have, however, resulted only in the death or banishment of
the most influential members of the old feudal famihes. The
freedom

great landowners are

now aU Moslems,

the property of whic

10

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

the Christian proprietors in Southern Albania were despoiled

"
at the end of the eighteenth century by the
Lion of loan"
nina
having, on his death, been appropriated by the Crown.
For administrative purposes Albania is divided into two
vilayets, or provinces, designated by the names of their chief
towns, Skodra or Skutari, and loannina, the
respectively of Ottoman Governors
General. The vilayat of Skodra, or Northern
inhabited chiefly by that section of the race known

^Trfbef"

Albania,

is

Seats

locally as Ghegs,

who

also

occupy certain

districts in the

loannina, or
adjoining vilayets of Kossovo and Monastir
Southern Albania, by the Tosks, Chams, and Liaps, who,
in common with the Ghegs, are divided and subdivided into
;

a number of

tribes,

or clans.

Though the same splendid

physical type is, as a rule, observable among the Albanians

generally, it varies somewhat according to the degree of
admixture with neighbouring races Slav in the north, and,
in the south, Greek.
In other respects also the Tosks and

the Ghegs present many points of difference for while speaking

the same language and cherishing identical national traditions
;

and aspirations, they are in matters of religious belief divided

by three creeds, the Moslem, Orthodox Greek, and Roman
The Moslems constitute about half the population,
Catholic.
and of the remaining half the majority follow the rites of the
Eastern Church.
The Mirdites, together with some smaller
tribes of Ghegs on the coast, adopted the Roman Cathohc
faith about the end of the eighteenth century, and follow the
Latin rite with some Oriental differences. The Mirdites are
the most important numerically of the North Albanian
tribes, numbering, it is computed, over 30,000 souls, and
forming an independent state. Their capital, Oroshi, is the
residence of a princely family who claim descent from an
early sixteenth century hero, named Dzon Marku.
Previous to the Ottoman Conquest the Albanians were all
members of the Greek Church. But as a native proverb
"
Where the sword is, there is the Faith " and when.
says,
;

Moslem Ottomans

11

towards the close of the sixteenth century, the Porte issued

a decree assuring the possession of their property to those
Albanian families who would bring up a son
Conversion

^^e advantages which

-.
mercenary soldiers could not
fail to find in belonging to the religion of the dominant race
soon made conversion so general that the whole populations
of villages, towns, and even districts, would simultaneously
But whether Christian or Moslem, each Albanian
apostatize.
tribe has its separate internal organisation which varies
considerably, and consists of customary laws and traditional
usages by which its social Hfe is alone regulated. This
^^ ^^^ j^^j^ ^f jsj^j^

to Islam.

a nation

11.

of

government is a species of aristocratic republic, all

matters affecting the communitj' being decided in council
by the chiefs, the elders, and other hereditary functionaries.
There is also a sort of tribal General Assembly to which every
household sends a delegate. It meets regularly twice a year,
in spring and autumn, and may be also specially summoned
to deal %vith questions of public importance, such as the
internal

commencement

or conclusion

of

tribal

vendetta.

The

Turkish Governor, of Skodra also presides over a

council composed of delegates from the chief tribes, \nthout
whose consent no proposed measure has a chance of being
Vali, or

carried into effect.

An

account of the Albanians would be incomplete without

of the terrible blood feuds which, though often

some mention

originating in trifling causes, result in great

loss of hfe, and are frequently handed down
from generation to generation. Sometimes these feuds exist

between individuals

or

famihes

only

adhered
state of

a bessa

\dllages

at

others,

whole

In carrying them
are punctiUously
and occasionally those concerned, finding the
to
continual hostility inconvenient, mutually agree to
peace or truce for a stated period. When entire
or clans take part in a feud, each keeps strictly

villages or tribes are concerned in them.

on, however, certain traditional rules
;

12

Turkey

Ottomans

of the

own wells and fountains, its communal ovens and

markets. Such dissensions do not, however, as a rule, interrupt the usual occupations of a district, the land being tilled
and the flocks pastured as usual in the daytime, the combatants
assembling for the fray at evening outside their towns or
When a few men have bitten the dust, the hostile
villages.
withdraw
with their dead and wounded, and the
parties
battle is over for the time.
The Albanian generally has no fondness for field work and
usually leaves it to the women, children, and old men, while
he attends to his vineyard, cuts wood in the
to its

10

s.

fQj-gg^g^

Qj.

Yi^hat

is

still

more

to his taste,

tends his sheep in the mountains, gun on shoulder, a pursuit

which agreeably combines laziness with a spice of adventure.
Their native land offering so few openings in the way of
trade or industries for the more enterprising, a considerable
number of young Albanians leave home every year to seek
their fortunes in the towns of other provinces of the Empire.

Some attend

the Greek and Turkish colleges, and ultimately

quaUfy as schoolmasters, doctors or lawyers. Many attain
while the generhigh rank in the army and public services
;

work

as masons, carters, butchers, dairymen, etc.

Solidarity being a distinguishing trait of the Albanian abroad,
those already settled and doing well in distant towns will,
ality find

when necessary, pecuniarily assist or even maintain newcomers from their native villages until they are in turn able
to obtain profitable occupation.
Gay, reckless and improvident, the Schkyipetar is generally short of money, and often
carries his fortune on his person in the shape of richly embroidered garments and valuable arms. Should his luck be
adverse and the generosity of his friends exhausted, he will
small arsenal of pistols and daggers, and perhaps
embroidered jacket and vest may follow suit. But the
son of the mountains, even when reduced to the condition
of a tattered chipiak
to use his own term, loses nothing of
first sell his

his

his characteristic

swagger and self-assurance.

And when

Moslem Ottomans

13

things are at the worst with him he sometimes mends them

by taking to the road and replenishing his purse from that

Gheg and Tosk have about

an equal reputation for bravery as well as rapacity, but for
fidehty and honourable deahng the Moslem Gheg has the
more en\'iable record. He certainly turns brigand with as
but should he enter your employ,
great facility as the Tosk
or be indebted to you for a service, however small, all his
alarming characteristics retire into the background and he
becomes the most faithful of friends and servants. These
qualities of the Gheg are so generally recognised that Emropean consuls, bankers, merchants, and others who need
retainers on whose bravery and fidehty they can rely,
of one less at odds with fortune.

are glad to secure their services in preference to those of

a
of any other nationaUty in the capacity of kavass

men

combination of armed guard, orderly, and doorkeeper.

The Kurds

are to be found dispersed all over the Eastern

Minor as well as in Kurdistan proper,
where the population is, however, equally

Highlands of Asia
_^

mixed. According to some ethnologists, they

are connected with the ancient Chaldeans, and the various
terms used by classic authors to designate this race would

seem to give conclusive proof to theories of such a derivation. ^

Though more or less dominated by the nimierous conquerors
who have successively, during the past three thousand years,
overrun the regions now called Kurdistan, the Kurds have
never ceased to own a distinct nationahty. Ever since the
Ottoman Conquest, however, they have constantly wavered
between the two rival powers of Islam, the Sunnis and the
Shias, as represented by the Turks and Persians respectively,
siding now with one and now with the other, according to
the exigencies of the time.
sufferings in the destructive
^

See,

for

instance,

premiere partie,

p. 4.

Yet, notwithstanding their

wars waged for centuries by

Lenormant, Origines de PHistoire,

torn,

iii,

14

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

Turk and Persian and the constant internal feuds fomented

by both, they have hitherto maintained a sort of semiindependence, preserving their nationahty as distinct from
that of their neighbours as in earher days, a circumstance the
more remarkable seeing that they possess no native dynasty,
pohtical constitution, ancient religion, historical traditions
or literature to bind them together. Three times within the
past century have national aspirations incited the Kurds
to throw off Ottoman domination
but owing to the vast
extent of mountainous country over which they are scattered,
their successes have been but partial and nugatory.
Yet the
Turkish yoke has sat but lightly on their shoulders, and by
Sultan Abdul Hamid they seem to have been permitted to
use their unfortunate Armenian neighbours as they pleased,
so long as they gave the Porte no trouble.
Since the establishment of the Constitution the Ottoman
Government has repeatedly found it necessary to send a
large military force against the tribesmen who, resenting the
abolition of their ancient privileges, have again and again
defied the authorities.
These semi-barbarous tribes appear
in common, it must be admitted, with other Ottoman subjects
less remote from the seat of Government
to have considerable
"
"
difficulty in defining the word
liberty
{hurriet) which, a
couple of years ago, was on everyone's lips, and by not a few
"
it was evidently transliterated as licence.
Since there is
hurriet for all," said the leader of a Kurdish band, as soon
as tidings of the events of April, 1909, reached his village,
"
we also are free to do our will. To make a beginning, let
us fall upon Balka (a neighbouring Armenian village) massacre
the men, and make slaves of the women and children." ^
"
Under the name of Kurd " two distinct races are, however,
;

included, distinguished locally by terms signifying respec"

"
"
"
dwellers in tents
and
labourers," or
tively
subjects,"
*
Quoted in the Stamboul from an Erzeroum journal, The
Azadamart, to which the incident was reported by Faki Abdellah,
a Kurd, whose action apparently prevented the proposed massacre.

Moslem Ottomans
and these two sections

of the so-called

15

Kurds present as great

a contrast ph5^ically as morally and economically. The

"
dwellers in tents," or tribesmen, are nomadic, warlike, and
"
"
fuU of \-ivacity, the
are sedentary, pacific, and
labourers
not remarkable for intelligence, as e^-idenced by the Turkish
"
adage,
Stupid as a Kurd," a reproach which applies, howThe
ever, only to the agricultural element of this nationahty.
features of the peasantry are
than those of the tribesmen,

much softer and less pronounced

who have long and rather aqui-

line noses, prominent

foreheads, deep-set eyes ^generally
black, but sometimes grey, or even blue small mouths and
strong chins. Their step also is firm, their bearing proud

and

dignified,

and

at the

lords of the coimtrj'.

glance one sees that they are

children of the tribesmen are clear

first

The

skinned, rosy-cheeked, hardy, hthe and active httle creatures,

and the young women, in the Taurus especially, have a great

reputation for beauty. Certain famihes in Boktan and

Hakkari claim descent from the Ommejide Khalifs, and some
Eastern travellers are of opinion that the tribe of the
Rouadi, to which the famous Saladin belonged, may be the

same as the modem Revendi, or Rewendi. The chiefs of the

Bebbeh clan confidently affirm that they have Enghsh blood
from an ancestress named Keighan, concerning
a romantic legend is cherished. Less mythical, perhaps, is the story of the company belonging to the second
Crusade (1147-49) who wandered in a north-easterly direc-

in their veins

whom

tion from Syria, and not being able to find their

settled in the mountains of Kurdistan.

way

back,

Though nominally Moslems, the Kurdish women do not

themselves very strictly when abroad, though in large

veil

towns like their capital, SuUemanieh, a blue

checked sheet is worn, together wiih. a screen
of horsehair tissue, like that used by the
Turkish countr>-^vomen of Asia Minor. This is, however,
seldom pulled dowTi over the face, except by dames of high
degree who may \nsh to pass unobserved through the streets

wSS

16

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

and women of the lower class dispense with the veil altogether
in the neighbourhood of their homes.
Menservants are not,
as with the Turks, excluded from the tents or rooms occupied
ladies, and male visitors are freely received by the
assembled family. Notwithstanding, however, this apparent
freedom of manners, Kurdish women habitually conduct
themselves with the utmost dignity and propriety, dis-

by the

playing neither the timidity characteristic of their Armenian

sisters, nor the forwardness too often seen in the behaviour
Their standard of morality is, indeed,
of Osmanli women.
exceptionally high among the diverse races of Asia Minor,
any lapse from matrimonial fidelity being, as a rule, punished
with death at the hands of the injured husband, the seducer
usually sharing the same fate. No social odium attaches to

man who thus takes the law into his own hands, such
retributory vengeance being, on the contrary, considered
Kurdish maidens are, as a general rule,
highly meritorious.
allowed the privilege of choosing their husbands, and the
the

practice of courtship

is

not unknown.

The

father's consent

however, necessary to marriage, though when it is withheld couples usually dispense with it and elope together.
Among the famiUes of the chieftains, on the other hand,
is,

"

marriages are
arranged," and the contracting parties are
frequently total strangers to each other. Save among the
"
tribes forming the sect of the Yezidis, or
Devil Worshippers,"
the Kurds are practically monogamists,
and divorce,

though permitted to them as to

all

Moslems,

is

very rarely

resorted to.

The Tartars inhabiting the Ottoman Empire

classes

the

Khanate

tribes

of the

who have wandered

are of

two

for centuries

past
over the highlands of Asia Minor, and the
immigrants into European Turkey from the

Crimea on

its

annexation by Russia.

Settled

in the first instance in Bessarabia, the Tartars, when that

province also was annexed by the Muscovite, again took to

Moslem Ottomans

17

behind them much of the property they had

flight, leaN-ing

there acquired.
Lands were, however, a second time allotted
to them by the Porte, chiefly in Roumeha, where they now
At the conclusion of the Crimean
form thri\'ing colonies.

War
men

a second band of emigrants came to join their countryin Turke}', and were received with equal hospitality.
Some obtained grants of lands on which they settled as
agriculturists, while those skilled in handicraft trades made
In many of their cottages may still
their way to the towns.
be seen ancient heirlooms, which have been brought with
them from their Crimean homes quaintly carved and

silver, totally unhke

mirrors of antique
and
sometimes
Turkey,
and curious design. The capacity of the men of this race
for rapid and tireless riding, together N\ith the reputation

decorated chests, dishes of copper

made

those

and

in

they enjoy for general trustworthiness, also specially qualifies them for the postal service, which, with a few exceptions,

on in the interior of Tvukey in very primitive

and so generally are the Tartars thus employed
"
mounted
that their name has become s>Tionymous \\ith
Tartars
in
and
build
the
Both
feature
are, genepostmen."

is still

fashion

carried
;

characteristically Mongoloid, ha\ing broad,

round faces, high cheek bones, small sunken noses, and long
narrow eyes, which give to them a cunning and mean expression beUed by their actions.
In figure they are usually short,
square and powerful, with well-shaped hands and feet and
rally speaking,

upright carriage. Pretty faces may, however, occasionally

be seen among the girls, who have most luxuriantly long and
thick hair. They are an extremely quiet, inoffensive, honest,

and sober people, fond of social intercourse, and of relating

or listening to long and wonderful stories in the style of the
Arabian Nights. Even the children are staid and demure,
and most respectful in their beha\iour to their parents
and the women, according to the testimony of those who have
Hved in their midst, are ne\'er known to indulge in that most
"
unpleasant propensity vulgarly termed
nagging."
;

-(2389)

18

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

The women are also by no means behind the men in industry,

and are seldom seen without the spindle and distaff. They
embroider the borders of their towels,

also
Tartar

and other cotton and linen articles

with gold thread and coloured silks in odd
curiously contrasting hues. But, though so
veils,

patterns

of

thrifty and industrious, cleanhness in food, dress, and general

habits seem to be utterly disregarded by the Tartar women,
whose failings in this respect excite the liveliest repugnance
in their Turkish neighbours, with whom culinary and personal
Their cookery,
cleanliness certainly comes next to godliness.
too, is not very palatable to other races, one of its ingredients
being invariably mutton fat. Mutton, cooked in various
ways, is their staple food, and is often supplemented by a
kind of vermicelli prepared with fat and honey, which latter

The dress
delicacy also enters largely into their cookery.
of the Tartar townswomen differs little from that of their

The Tartar girls always wear a little

blue silk tassel, and their hair, which is

Osmanli neighbours.
red cap with a

flat

little tails, hangs all round their shoulders,

and sometimes down to their heels. The wealthy Tartar
ladies have these caps ornamented with gold coins, and the

plaited in fifty

gold thread. Like the Turks, too, they stain

their fingers and toes with henna, and make use of the same
dye for their hair, which imparts to it a not unpleasing shade

tassel is of

of auburn.

Their eyelashes they darken with antimony, and

also
"

With

care the sable brows extend,

two arches nicely bend.
That the fair space that lies between
The meeting shade may scarce be seen."

And

in

Out of doors the Tartar women wear Turkish veil and cloak,
but in their homes they have no objection to being seen by
the men of their own race, and when visited by Europeans
they do the honours of the house with the utmost grace and
freedom. With this and a few other exceptions, they are

Moslem Ottomans

19

sufficiently strict followers of the Prophet,

both as to morahty and

ritual,

The Russian conquest

of

whose precepts,

they reUgiously obser\'e.

Circassia

which followed the

Sheikh Schamyl, in 1864,

drove multitudes of its brave defenders to

capture of their heroic leader,

and Turkey, always

seek asylum elsewhere
ready to give a hospitable welcome to political
^
received these expatriated people to the number
refugees,
of three hundred thousand.
Arriving, for the most part,
p.

utterly destitute, and before any adequate arrangements had

been made for their reception, they at first suffered great
privations, but were finally dispersed through the country

a large number being settled in European Turkey.

The immigrants soon, however, began to be regarded by
their new neighbours with feelings the reverse of charitable.

districts,

For, instead of leaving these semi-barbarous people under

the control and government of their own chiefs, whom

national tradition

had taught them alone

to obey, the Porte

framed special laws

for regulating their conduct, set free the

slaves
of
which the ruling class possessed a great
hereditary
number, and, by thus utterly disorganising their tribal and

patriarchal system, released them from the only authority

they were capable of respecting. Under these circumstances
"
it is not surprising that
the Tcherkess Kurt,
Circassian
wolf," became the pest of the villages, both Turkish
and Bulgarian, which had the misfortime to be in the

neighbourhood of their settlements.

Among other enactments, the Porte decreed that, as
Circassians were now Moslems living on Ottoman soO,
sale of their daughters would thenceforward be illegal.
the Turkish laws, however, the Circassians, as I have
*

Among

the
the

For
just

who have, during the past cenTurkey may be mentioned the Persian

the political refugees

tury, found an asylum in

Prince, Kouli Mirza Khan ; the Syrian chieftain, Emir Beshir, and his
followers ;
the Algerian Abdul Kadr, and Poles and Hungarians

without number.

20

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

and the partial diminution in the

said, had little regard
number of girls sold was due rather to the dishonest use they
made of it, than to the enactment itself. Two brothers,
;

for instance, would sell their sister to a Moslem, who was

then cited before the authorities by the father, and thus
lost both his slave and the money he had paid for her.
This
enforced liberty was much resented by the girls thernselves,
who considered that they had been deprived of the chance
which might otherwise have been theirs of entering, if not
the Imperial Serail, at least the harem of some Pasha,

and there acquiring position and fortune.

The people comprised under the name of Circassian in
hke the Kurds, of two distinct racesthe
reality consist,
and this
tribesmen, and their hereditary slaves or serfs
;

account for the very contradictory descriptions

of
them, and especially of their women, by Eastern
given
The tribesmen are true aristocrats in the correct
travellers.
sense of the term.
Proud of their long and unsullied descent,
ancestry is with them the only title to nobiUty, and, unlike
the Turks, they set no value whatever on mere official rank
and position. These high-class Circassians are, as a race,
rather above the middle height, slenderly built, and quick
fact

may

and vivacious in every movement. They are clear-skinned,

the colour of their eyes ranging from black to grey or blue,
and of their hair from black to chestnut or light brown.
Small and delicately shaped hands and feet are also characand are attributed to
manual labour of any kind.

teristic of this race,

repugnance to

their hereditary
The serf class

are, on the other hand, of an inferior type, and belong no

doubt originally to a race subjugated and enslaved by the

tribesmen, who thereafter lived by their labour. Their faces

are disproportionately long and narrow, and their complexions
of a dull leaden hue.
Dress and ornament, and, with the men, also arms, are

a passion with the Circassians, and upon them all their spare
cash is expended. The costume of the women consists of

Moslem Ottomans
a skirt, generally red, and,

when the wearer can

afford

it,

and a leathern bodice worn over a

sleeved chemise. Like most of the highland women

embroidered
loose,

21

N\ith gold,

who are nominally Moslems, the Circassian women Uving

among their own kindred disdain to conceal their faces with
a veil, and in their social Hfe generally they disregard many
of the conventionalities observ^ed by the Osmanli women.

Like
able.

all

true Orientals, the Circassians are extremely hospitpassing guest, friend or stranger, is sure of being

Any

served with the choicest food in the house.

And, when

visited in their temporary' encampments shortly after their

arrival in European Turkey, profuse apologies \\ould be

made by

the hosts for being unable to offer their guests the

customary refreshments.

CHAPTER

II

CHRISTIAN OTTOMANS

The

Christians of Turkey belong mainly to four races, the

Greek, Vlach, Bulgarian and Armenian. As the Greek and
Bulgarian elements are connected respectively with the
dwellers in the kingdoms of Greece and Bulgaria, which will
be probably dealt with in other volumes of this series, I
shall in this chapter refer only briefly to these two elements
of the population.
Communities of Greeks are widely distributed throughout
the Ottoman Empire, and form the majority of the populaprovincial towns and districts,
towns of the ^gean and Marmora,
and also in the Turkish towns situated on
the Black Sea. In the interior of Asia Minor they are likewise very numerous, especially in the vilayets of Trebizond,
Aidin, and Kaiserieh (Cesarea), and also in the wide district
known as Karamania. In the more southern parts of
European Turkey, as in the Greek Kingdom, the Ionian and
Dorian blood, to which the triumphs of Hellenic civilisation
were due, has been overwhelmed by the intermixture consequent on the resistless tides of Slav immigration and of
Frank conquest, and also by intermarriage with neighbours
of Vlach or Albanian race./^So far, therefore, as the Greeks
of the Balkan Peninsula retain Greek characteristics, these
are probably due rather to community of language and
traditions than to community of lineage with those ancient
Hellenes/'who made the Greek name famous, and in these
tion in

^reS:s"

many

^" ^^^^ coast

"
"
now gener ally indicates the
Hellene
regions the name of
inheritor of a tradition rather thau-tae. descendant of a race.

On

the Asiatic mainland, however, and to a certain extent

and its neighbourhood, the facts are precisely

in the Capital

22

Christian

23

Ottomans

reversed, and physically as well as mentally the Greeks of

these regions exhibit the more characteristic traits of ancient

Hellenic types. In Asia Minor one may still frequently

remark the broad low forehead, the straight line of the prothe lower one
file, the dark lustrous eyes and crimson hps
the figure
and
rounded
the
firm
chin
throat,
full,
slightly
being rather above the middle height, the carriage graceful,
the hands and arms beautifully formed, and the feet exhi-

biting the peculiarity noticeable in classic statuary of the

second toe being of the same length as the first. The islanders

of the Archipelago, including the inhabitants of Crete and

Cyprus, form a distinct type and may be said to be much

more purely Greek than the Hellenes of the European mainland.

For though they have received a certain admixture
of Venetian and Genoese blood, they have remained free
from contact with Slavs, Vlachs, and Albanians. This
admixture of Itahan blood, combined with the active pursuits of seafaring and fishing, has produced a magnificent
physical type endowed with considerable mental and intellectual power, many Greeks who have been famous in their
day

either as patriots, pashas, or pirates, having been islanders.

owing to its annexation to the Venetian Republic

Crete,

during four and a half centuries, has been subjected to a

stronger and more continuous Prankish influence than any
other part of the Ottoman Empire, and has consequently
a considerable admixture of Itahan blood, as also perhaps
of Arab
but it is not blended with that of the Slavs, Alban-

notwithstanding
;

ians or

the subsequent

Ottoman occupa-

For the Cretan Moslems who have so strenuously opposed the annexation to Greece are no more Turkish
in blood than are their Christian fellow islanders, with whom
tion

^Turks.

they are identical in race as in language. _ After the conquest

of Constantinople, Sultan Mohammed II brought from various
parts of the Empire to the Capital 15,000 Greeks to take the
place of those who had been slain in its defence or had fled
the country, granting

them

special privileges,

and reorganising

24

Turkey

all his

of the

Ottomans

subjects of this race as a millet, or

community under a

Patriarchy

So denationalised, however, had the Greeks in some of

the remoter regions of Asiatic Turkey become in course of
time that, though still holding firmly to their
"
lost the use of their national
^?55eJ5enes^?'^ religion, they
tongue to such an extent that even the ser-

mons

churches were, in the eighteenth century,

Until quite recently also the Greeks of
Turkey generally designated themselves and were designated
by their neighbours as Romeots, "Romans," a term which
in Byzantine times included all the subjects of the Eastern
Empire. The development of national sentiment which
followed the creation early in the eighteenth century of the
Greek Kingdom and the subsequent spread of education led,
however, to the gradual abandonment of the use of this term
by the Greeks both of Hellas and
Turkey in favour of that
"
of the classical designation of
Hellene," and the terms
"
"
Romeot and " Romaic " are now little used save by the
uneducated classes of Asia Minor. Christian personal names
have also, for the same reason, been very largely superseded
during the last few generations by classic designations, and
among Greeks of all classes one now accordingly meets with
a far greater number of Pericles, Themistocles, and Alexanders, Iphigenias, Calliopes and Cassandras, than of names
of saints belonging to the Greek calendar.
And though the
Greeks of Turkey may be looked upon generally as loyal
subjects of the Sultan, every educated man among them
"
"
considers himself as much a
Hellene
by race as if he were
a citizen of Greece and a subject of King George I,
in

their

preached in Turkish,

The Bulgarians appear to have been originally a tribe of

Huns of Attila, who, after their defeat on the death of
"
"
this
Scourge of God (a.d. 453), retreated eastwards towards
the
the

"

Great Bulgaria," which extended between the shores

and the Black Sea to the confluence of the

of the Caspian

25

Ottomans

Christian

Kama and the Volga, which last river-name appears to indiTwo

cate the former occupation of its banks by Bulgarians.
centuries later, certain tribes who had been
The
for a time subject to the Avars, threw ofE
their yoke and, crossing the Danube and
Corrununides.
uniting themselves

^\'ith

the Slavs by

whom

Thrace was then in great part peopled, founded the Bulgarian kingdom between the Danube and the Haemus. But
as in Greece the Slavs became Hellenised, so the Bulgarians
And though a single language
in Thrace became Slavonised.
from the fusion of the two
the
has
sur\-ived
Sla\dc,
only,
races, the two ethnological elements of which the Bulgarian
people are composed are still easily distinguishable the one
the Ar^'an Slav, taU, fair, and well-proportioned, full-eyed,
high-nosed, and with low cheek bones, the other the non-

and disproportionately broad,

and high-cheekboned. The Bulgarians of RoumeHa and Macedonia who now alone form
part of the Ottoman population have, however, also in their
veins a considerable admixture of Greek and Thrakian blood
and we consequently find, in the pro\Tnces south of the Balkans, persons with Bulgarian features speaking Greek, and
others with Greek or Wallachian features speaking Bulgarian.
The mixture of blood among the Bulgarians of these regions

Aryan Tartar,
small-eyed,

short, swarthy,

flat-nosed,

is,

as a matter of fact, plainly indicatedeby the

number

of

different Bulgarian dialects which are hardly reducible to

fewer than three di\isions (1) those of Bulgaria and Thrace ;
:

(2) of Southern
and Old Servia.

Macedonia

and

(3)

of Northern ilacedonia

Ethnologists appear to be agreed that the Vlachs or Wallachians are the best representatives now to be found of the
ancient

common

Thrakians,

their

name ha\ing a

origin \rith Walloon, Valais, Welsh,

COTnrnuraties
etc., and it is exceedingly interesting, therefore, to find that they, Hke their remote ancestors the primitive

26

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

Aryans of some 5,000 years ago, are to this day characterised by nomadic habits.
Of the pastoral Vlachs some
account is given in another chapter. ^ But the burgher class
are also engaged in pursuits which require them to lead a
more or less wandering hfe. The wealthier section consists
of merchants who trade in Italy, Spain, Austria and Russia,
as well as in other parts of Turkey, and are often absent
for periods extending over many years
a mode of life which
they seldom renounce until compelled to do so by age or
The inferior class of Vlach traders do not, as a
infirmity.
rule, leave the Ottoman Empire, but travel with goods of all
kinds for sale, penetrating to the remotest towns and villages,
like the peddlers in England in the Feudal Period, when, as
in Turkey at the present day, shops were in the provinces
few and far between. And in the summer months everywhere between the Danube and the Pindus range may be
met long files of pack-horses and mules winding through the
mountain passes or plodding across the dusty plains, led by
roughly dressed but handsome and intelligent looking men.
Another calling practised by the Vlachs is that of Kiradji,
or hirer of saddle and baggage horses, which are either let
out to travellers, or used by their owner for the conveyance
of the goods of his customers from one town or village to
another. There is also an artisan section of Vlachs who
reside for the greater part of the year in the larger towns and
cities of Turkey where they follow handicraft trades as
tailors, embroiderers, jewellers, gold and silversmiths, etc.
The villages and townships of the Vlachs are now in the

mountains.
Vlach

Homes.

Previously, however, to the Ottoman Conquest

the Vlachs occupied the plains of Thessaly
jj^ gy^.jj numbers that the province acquired
"
the name of
Great Wallachia," while
"
Little
Aetolia and Acarnania were called

Wallachia."
for
1

But with the hatred

self-government
See p. 189.

characteristic

of servitude
of

Aryan

and passion
races,

they

Christian

27

Ottomans

of hardship, \nth freedom, in the mountains, to

one of comparative comfort, with subjection, in the plains
and, retiring before the invading Turks, took up their abodes

preferred a

life

Olympus and Pindus. Here they founded

numerous large \illages and townships, the most consider"
Meadows of the
able of which are Vlacholivadia the
"
Midand
Mezzovo
the
west
of
on
Vlachs,"
Olympus,
in the ranges of

mountain," in the heart of Pindus. The former contains

some four hundred houses and five handsome churches,
while, grouped around on the
presided over by a bishop
Mach villages surrounded by
are
other
neighbouring hills,
Mezzovo is the most picturesque
fields and vineyards.
town imaginable, clinging as it does to both sides of a sublime
ravine, and overhung by the highest crests of Pindus which
;

tower so perpendicularly on either hand that not till long

"
"
out of
after sunrise is even the proselion, or
sunny side
shadow. The opposite side is appropriately termed the
"
Several Vlach \-illages surround
sunless."
anelion, or
Mezzovo also, and the most remarkable of these is Kalyarites,
the hill on which it stands being so steep that the highest
dweUings are five hundred feet above the lowest, and the
streets are consequently almost vertical zig-zag paths cut
Another great Vlach centre is
into stone-faced steps.

"
The Shepherds' Town," and the important
Voskopolis
town of Monastir in Central Macedonia, which constitutes
one of the strongholds of Greek influence in this province,
contains also a large community of Greek-speaking Vlachs,
who are hardly distinguishable, save in feature and complexion, from their Greek neighbours.
Many of these burghers
are wealthy and enterprising, and have considerable business
Communities of this race
relations with foreign countries.
are also found in Albania between Antivari

and Dulcigno,

and
as well as in the neighbourhood of El Bassan and Berat
their \'illages are scattered throughout Macedonia, Thessaly
;

and Epirus.
The Vlachs

are, as

rule, tall of stature, well knit, well

28

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

The women
poised, and apparently incapable of fatigue.
are also often exceedingly handsome, with regular features,
dark eyes and hair, and small hands and feet. Especially
refined both in manners and appearance are the Vlachs of
Voskopolis and Monsistir, together with those inhabiting the

neighbourhood of Lake Ochrida, those of the first named

being distinguished by greater fairness of hair and -comTheir countenances are fine and open, their moveplexion.
graceful, and their
affable and engaging.

ments and gestures most

is

demeanour

Referring
particularly
generally
"
to the men of this town, M. Picot says,
They make use of
elegant phrases and refined language to everyone, including
their wives." ^
Notwithstanding, however, this high degree
of refinement, the Voskopolitissais are not less industrious
than the women of their race generally, and do not disdain
to work in the fields, tend the flocks, and fulfil all the other

multifarious duties which

fall

to their share.

The wives and

daughters of the traders also wilhngly add to these duties

that of waiting with the most assiduous attention on their
brothers, and husbands during the brief and rare
periods which they are able to spend in the bosom of their
No stranger can, however, command their services,
family.
as they manifest an invincible repugnance to leaving their
fathers,

mountain homes.
Although the Vlach communities have long maintained
Greek neighbours and co-religionists
they do not habitually intermarry with them. Indeed, it is
said that no Vlach maiden ever marries outside her own
community, though men of this race occasionally take Greek
wives to whom, however, their roving propensities would
seem, judging from folk-song, to be the reverse of congenial.
social relations with their

So

little is

generally

known

and the place they occupied

fourth until the end of the
*

Les Valaques de

la

in this country of the Armenians

in the world's arena from the

fifteenth century, that a brief

Macidoine, Revue

d' Anthropologic

torn. iv.

Christian

29

Ottomans

sketch of their history- and fortunes pre\ious to the latter

date will not, I trust, be here considered out of place.
Few records relating to the Armenians appear before the
sixth century B.C.

when Dikran,

is

or Tigranes, King of Armenia,

said to have maintained his independence

Armenian

against Cvrus the Great In 328 B.C. however,

,? ,
,
r x^-i
n
i.
^^i
battle
Vahe, the successor of Dikran, fell
who
of
with Alexander the Great, the conqueror
Darius,
succeeded Cjtus, and only from this date does authentic
.

Ottomans.

i-

But the Armenians a few years

threw off the Macedonian yoke, chose
and in 250 B.C. estabHshed an Arsacid
to
that
then reigning in Persia. After a
related
d}Tiasty
Armenian history begin.
later (317 B.C.) again
a king of their own,

century or two of national prosperity, Armenia was, at the

beginning of the Christian Era (a.d. 30), added to the everand its king, Artavasdes, was
growing Roman Empire
carried prisoner to Alexandria, and beheaded by Cleopatra.
Though conquered, this nation was not, however, whoUy
crushed, and again recovered its independence which it
retained untU the eleventh century, when the Byzantine
"
succeeded in subjugating Armenia, but not the
Emperors
;

Armenians."

For

their national

development stiU continued,

began at the separation
of the Armenian from the Greek Church at the end of the
fifth century
was soon added a new monarchical consolidation.

and to

their elementary consolidation

Rhupen, or Reuben, a relative of the last king belonging to the

Pagratid d^masty, which had succeeded the Arsacid, retiring
to the north of Cilicia, there founded in 1080, in the shelter
Taurus mountains, a small principaUty which, gradually
extending its boundaries, became known as Lesser Armenia.
of the

This Eastern Christian State succeeded in maintaining its

independence until the end of the fourteenth century, when
its last king, Leo VI, defeated by the growing Moslem power,
sought refuge in Europe. After living for some years on a
pension from the English and French monarchs, Leo VI
died in Paris in 1393, and was buried with Roj'al honours.

30

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

And

the Armenians residing in the French capital to this day

honour the memory of the last king of their country by making
a pilgrimage to his tomb at St. Denis on the anniversary of
his death, when mass according to the Armenian rite is
performed by a Gregorian priest.
The traditional history of the Armenians is also not without
interest.
According to local legend the nation is descended
from an eponymous ancestor, Haik, from
Traditional

whom they derive their native name of

Haikians and the name of their country,
Haiasdan. This Haik was, according to the story which,
however, evidently acquired its present form after the conversion of the Armenians to Christianity the great grandson
He had
of Japhet, or, according to some versions, of Noah.
first settled in Mesopotamia, but finding the rule of Bel,
the king of that country, irksome, had removed thence to
Armenia at the head of his tribe of 300 persons. As he refused
to return when summoned to do so by Bel, the latter led his
army in pursuit of the emigrants. But in the battle which
ensued Bel was slain by an arrow from the bow of Haik and
this patriarch succeeded in consolidating his new kingdom
which, at his death, he transmitted to his descendants.
Physically, the Armenians are, for the most part, a rather
short, thick-necked, large-nosed race, with features of the
Semitic type so frequently met with in
those Western Asian regions. The ethnology
.^"*^
'^p^^^
o^ Asia Minor, and especially of those districts
Features.
in the vicinity of the Caucasus, is even more
complicated than that of Macedonia, and we yet lack historical data as to the rise or immigration of many of the
races now found there.
The Turks, however, distinguish the

two

entirely different types presented

"
"

Indje

by

this

community

as

Coarse," and to the existence

of these two types we may attribute the very contradictory
accounts given by authors of the personal attractions of
Armenian women. Dora d'Istria, writing some sixty years

Pure," and Kalun

Christian

Ottomans

31
^

while according
ago, described their beauty in glowing terms
to Sir Paul Ricaut, who represented this country as consul
;

Smyrna in the latter half of the seventeenth century,

they are commonly ill-shaped, long-nosed, and not one of
a thousand so much as tolerably handsome." ^ Though
gifted with little pohtical aptitude, as their national history
testifies, the Armenians are, on the other hand, a people
of great commercial and financial talents, supple and
flexible as those must be who desire to make others part
with their money. They are, however, lacking in artistic
at
"

sense, as also in attractive qualities generally, including some

forms of courage, though they have proved themselves

stubborn to heroism in preserving certain characteristics of

creed and custom which differentiate them from other peoples.
Besides constituting the bulk of the population in Armenia
proper, the Armenians form large communities in Constantinople and Adrianople, as also at Broussa and
^^^.
Smyrna, and are also found in several of the
Artnenian
^^
r ttsmaller towns oi European iurkey such as
Communities,
GaUipoh. In Constantinople and Smyrna
the wealthier members of the Armenian Communities are
much more advanced in everj' respect than elsewhere in
Turkey and at Smyrna their adoption of western manners
and educational methods may be said to date even further back
than in the Capital. Here, as elsewhere, the Armenians occupy
for the most part a separate quarter of the town
and this compares favourably, both as to the width and cleanliness of its
streets and the architecture of the dwellings that border them,
with the tnahallds of any of the other races inhabiting the city.
Previously to the middle of last century, and even for some
locahties up to a much later date, Turks and Armenians got
.

on excellently well together, the latter being treated with

^ "
La beaute des Armeniennes, quand elle n'est pas defiguree par
un enbonpoint precoce,

est

veritablement

remarquable

Leur

fraicheur est merveilleuse, leur taille svelte et elancee, leur sourcils

quoiqu'epais parfaitement dessines, etc." Les Femmes en Orient.
*
Present state of the Greek and Armenian churches, p. 386.

32

Turkey

Ottomans

of the

confidence, and characterised by the flattering epithet of millet"

the loyal community,"
i-sadika
As equals, however,
they did not, of course, regard them, but
rather as a harmless, serviceable, comfort.. *?
Wltn Moslems.
^
r
e~ , \
r 1
^
able kind
of
serconfidential
infidels,

wiTL

vants to

-,

whom

they might safely trust their business affairs,

and even their children. For Armenians are
thorough Orientals, and much more in touch with Turkish
ideas and habits than are the Greeks or Slavs. There is,
"
an
indeed, much truth in M. de Moltke's observation that
Armenian is but a baptised Turk." The wealthier members
of the community understood and sympathised with Turkish
methods of transacting business
the poorer were extenin
in various domestic
Moslem
houses
sively employed
their property,

while a considerable degree of social intimacy

capacities
existed between Armenian and Turkish neighbours, as I
;

have myself had opportunities of observing in the vicinity

of Smyrna.
And with the exception of those who settled
abroad for commercial purposes, the Armenians were quite
content to live among the Turks, to spend their money in
Turkey, and even be the daily butt of Turkish humour. For,
according to a local adage, no Turk goes to bed happy unless
he has in the course of the day cracked a joke at an Armenian's
expense. They also speak the language of their masters,
often even in preference to their own though their accent

and phraseology are not always those of the Osmanlis and

write and print Turkish in Armenian characters.
The change in these pleasant relations was caused by the
Armenian aspirations towards political independence. This
~
movement seems in reality to have begun
Armenian
quite early in the century, but it was not
Revolutionary until the date of the last Russo-Turkish war
Movement.

^^^^ ^^^ attitude of easy tolerance of the

Porte towards this section of its Christian subjects began to
be substituted by one of suspicion and distrust. Nor was this
change without some justification. For the spirit of revolution

Christian
which had

Ottomans

in Russia given rise to Nihilism inspired

33
many

of the inhabitants of the Caucasus, and naturally spread to

the Armenians of Tiihs and Transcaucasia. At first it was

directed chiefly against Russia, whose severity drove the

revolutionaries of Tiflis westwards to Paris, Geneva, and

London, where their organs could be produced unmolested.

It was ine\'itable that this movement should affect the
Armenians of Turkey, and raise alarm in the minds of their

The Turk has a frantic terror of secret societies and

based on his experience of the Greek hetaireia and the
Bulgarian comitadjis. The Armenian patriots, from their
various places of refuge in Europe, sent emissaries to work
on the feeUngs of their compatriots at home and distribute
among them revolutionary literature, and the change pro"
duced in Ottoman feeling was enormous. The
loyal com"
were no longer loyal. They were as seditious as
munity
Greeks and Bulgars, and, it was confidently beheved, were
arming and conspiring to massacre the Moslems, their indulgent masters. Their favourable position, as above mentioned,
had depended on the fact that they were regarded as Orientals and untcdnted with the
European cultm-e affected by
the Christian races of the Balkans. But now European ideas
and hterature were being disseminated among them, and
"
"
Armenia as an
foreign nations were beginning to talk of
rulers.

plots,

autonomous principahty like Bulgaria, and urging the Porte

it
autonomy. Where was this to end ?
The first indications of the growing distrust and hostiUty
of the Turks towards the Armenians were manifested in the
increasing lawlessness of their Kurdish neighbours, who were allowed to ravage and
Armenians,
plunder their \'illages and lands with absolute
impunity. The relations of Kurds and Armenians have
already been referred to in a previous chapter, and, as has
to grant

been seen, there exists in certain districts a sort of feudal

connection between them, the Kurdish chieftain occupying
the position of overlord. The growing distrust of the Porte

3(2389)

34

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

for their Christian subjects in these regions had the result

Turks and Kurds in an alliance against these

of welding

suspected persons, and the deeds of violence perpetrated by

the so-called Hamidian troops were invariably condoned by
the Ottoman authorities. The various minor massacres of
Armenians in the various Asian vilayets culminated, in 1894,
in those of Sasun
in 1895 it is estimated that 25,000 unhappy
Armenians were butchered in half a dozen different localities
and in the Constantinople massacres of 1896, which followed
the abortive attack of the revolutionists on the Ottoman Bank,
no fewer than 6,000 are said to have lost their lives. The
object of the majority of these massacres seems to have been
to reduce the number of Armenians in order that it should
be in future impossible to contend that they were the predominating ethnical element in any given district. But the
latest terrible massacre, which immediately preceded the
downfall of the imperial organiser of all those which had gone
before, has been indubitably proved to have been commanded
from Yildiz Kiosk with the object of throwing discredit on
the new Constitutional Government.
Many of the exiled Armenian patriots, of whom a small
;

minority only were, correctly speaking, revolutionists,

worked in concert with the equally
"
"
members of the
Young Turkey
th Port*
the aims of both being the same.

loyally
exiled

party,

RepaArmenians and Turks, as Ottomans possessing

equal rights and privileges, continue loyally to co-operate for
the welfare of the empire. And the Armenian Committee
of Erzeroum have formally declared that, even were Turkey
triated in 1898,

now

own free will to grant autonomy to the Armenians,

could
not accept it. For their country, owing to its
they
geographical position, being surrounded by hostile elements,
would never be able to protect itself. And the Armenians
as a people realise that their safety lies in fraternity with the
Turks and in aiding them to defend the Ottoman Empire,
their

of her

common

Fatherland.

CHAPTER

III

HEBREW OTTOMANS
In all the cities and larger toNVTis of the Ottoman Empire
are to be found considerable communities of Jews, their
chief centre being Salonica, the great seaport
of Macedonia, where they now constitute

Salonica

Jews.

the

majority

the

of

Here,

population.

therefore,

this

Ottomans may best be studied. A colony of

appears to have been settled in this city at a

section of the

Hebrews

very early date, according to local tradition, at the time of

Alexander the Great. The expulsion of the Jews from Spain
in 1493 caused so great an influx at Salonica as to convert
the former comparatively insignificant colony into the largest

And

here, more especially, the overwhelming

immigrants appear to have completely
absorbed the original Jewish element for the Judaso-Spanish
idiom, which they brought with them from their Western
home, and which is written in Hebrew characters, is now
used both as the vernacular and literary language by the Jews
throughout Turkey. Like the other subject races of the
in existence.

numbers

of

the

countiy, however, they are polyglots, making considerable

use of ItaUan as well as of their ancient Spanish among

themselves, and of Turkish and Greek in their intercourse

with other races.

The Jews
known

of Turkey belong chiefly to the division of their

as Sefardim, in contradistinction to the Ashkendzitn. These do not, as is sometimes
Sefardim
supposed,
and
constitute different sects, but are merely
Ashkenazim.
jo^al divisions, and date back only to the
twelfth or thirteenth centur>' a.d., about which time it

race

became usual among the members

the Biblical

name

of this persuasion to apply

of Seferad to Spain
35

and Portugal, and that

36

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

of Ashkenaz, son of Japhet, to the Teutonic peoples.

Hence
the Jews living in Spain and Portugal, as also in Provence
and North Africa, became known as Sefardim, and those of

Northern Europe as Ashkenazim.

The Jews

living in

Turkey

before the arrival of the Spanish immigrants were accordingly

like them, Sefardim, the Ashkenazim element having only

made

its

appearance there during the past century, coming

In addition to
chiefly from Poland, Hungary, and Roumania.
the ecclesiastical .differences which distinguish the Sefardim

and the Ashkenazim

this

varies,

fact

their

denoting,

pronunciation of
it
would seem,

Hebrew
a

also

Sefardim

descent from the Jews of Judaea and an Ashkenazim descent

from those of Galilee.
And although the Spanish Jews
have, in the course of the four centuries since their arrival
some degrees become blended with the original

in Turkey, in

two distinct types may still be recognised amongst

them, one section possessing more regular features and fairer
complexions than their neighbours, the result probably of
some foreign strain acquired during their long residence in
Western Europe, They are also distinguished by the peculiarity of the high arched instep which forms a noticeable
contrast to the flat foot of the Oriental Jew.
In the cities where the Jews form large communities, the
Hebrew quarter is almost as overcrowded as a London slum,
colonists,

families among the very poor occupying

^^^ house, a practice which is quite at varirTr^
ance with the habits of the other native races.
Particularly noticeable is this at Salonica, where the Jewish
quarter has encroached on the neighbouring Greek and Frank
quarters and side by side with a fine old mansion belonging to
some decayed Greek family may be seen though many of

many

these disappeared in the disastrous

fire

of 1891

dilapidated

tenements teeming with men, women and children, their upper

In
stories being reached by means of outside staircases.
the cities and towns of the Empire, however, where the Jews
are found in less disproportionate numbers, their quarter

Hebrew Ottomans

37

The
presents a less squalid and unsightly appearance.
dwellings of the wealthy class naturally occupy the main
streets, and are spacious cind more or less showily furnished,
while those belonging to the families of foreign Israelites,

who

are chiefly from

Italy,

and form the educated

resemble

the commimity,

of

the

houses

of

class

European

residents.

The Je\\'ish mahalla of an Oriental town is naturally, under

such circumstances, dirtier and more malodorous than the
quarters occupied by the other races of the countrj^ Yet
notwithstanding the insanitary conditions under which the
people live, and the poor food ^\^th which they content themselves, chiefly bread, salt fish and leeks, they are on the
strong and healthy, save for the skin diseases from

whole
which

the children at least, are seldom free. The comparatively

low rate of mortahty is no doubt attributable to the fondness
for the open air which characterises all ages and all ranks at
all seasons of the
year, ever\^ species of domestic work which
can be performed al fresco being brought to the doorstep or
Here the women and girls do their washing,
courtyard.
and
making
mending the mothers rock the cradles and comb
the little ones' heads
the men on returning from work smoke
;

and gamble

and the children play, quarrel and indulge in

amiable national propensity of stone-thro\\ing.
Nor
are these occupations by any means pursued in silence, the
most ordinary conversation being carried on in the loudest
tones of lively dispute, and all talk at once in such an elevated
key that a stranger might well fancy they were perpetually
;

their

Nor

the latter occupation infrequent, and

"
"
Billingsgate
indulged in by some
Rachels and Rebeccas on the wooden balconies of their houses
quarrelling.

is

the Judaeo-Spanish
in

our neighbourhood occasionally became such a nuisance

official interference.
Of a gay and cheerful

as to call for

disposition these children of Israel certainly are, and they

thoroughly enjoy their Sabbaths and festivals \\ith jumhush,
the local term for the vocal and instrumental music \\ith

38

Turkey

Ottomans

of the

which they are enUvened, so excessively discordant to a

western

ear.

Notwithstanding their hospitable reception by the Turkish

Government in the fifteenth century, in no country perhaps
have the Jews been regarded with more
Status of
antipathy or treated with greater contumely
than in the Ottoman Empire, all kinds of
crimes, both fictitious and real, being attributed to them,
from the supposed obUgation never to transact business with
a Moslem or Christian without cheating him, to the kidnapping
This
of Christian children for their mystical Passover rites.
widespread vulgar belief obtains credence among the Moslems
cLS well as among the Christians of Turkey, and has occasionally
led to riot and serious bloodshed, especially at Smyrna where
is numerous and exceptionally turin that city the coincidence
residence
During my
of a Greek child having been found drowned in the river

the Greek population

bulent.

Meles at Passover-tide gave rise to a Judenhetze which might

have assumed serious proportions but for the prompt action
Greeks
of the Turkish authorities in dispersing the rioters,
openly attackedjews in the streets, and the assailed, not daring
to retaliate, sought refuge in the courtyards of the foreign
consulates and mercantile houses. The Christian populace
generally, indeed, allow no opportunity to pass of insulting
their Jewish fellow-citizens, who, as a rule, submit humbly to
this contumelious treatment, except at Salonica where their

superiority in numbers gives them greater assurance, at least

in their relations with Christians
though even in that Jeru;

salem-by-the-Sea they show themselves as abjectly servile

before Moslems as in other localities. The very mention of a
with an apology for mentioning
Jew is prefaced by a Greek
"
the race, as, for instance,
Asking your pardon, I met a Jew

The Moslems on their side have also

members of this millet with unmitigated

to-day who, etc."

hitherto treated

contempt, not manifested, however, as a rule in acts of

personal violence towards them, but rather in scornful

Hebrew Ottomans
gestures
this

and opprobrious

feehng

is

afforded

epithets.

by a

little

forcible

folk-tale in

39
example of
which the

partridge applies the term tchifut, signifying

Jew," to the murderers of Hassan and Hussein, the
martyrs of Kerbela, "as it is the most opprobrious name
that can be given to any creature of Allah."
By Hebrew apologists generally the hostility manifested
towards members of this race by their neighbours is attributed
to religious fanaticism.
I venture to think, however, that

grey-legged
"

it is

more generally called forth by aversion to the traditional

and habits of the Jews. For to the Moslems, a

character

is far below a Christian in the scale of

humanity,
although his creed is, in its absolute monotheism, almost
identical with that of Islam.
Indeed the only people I know
to be hostile to the Jews on purely reUgious grounds are the

tchifut

Roman

Catholic natives of the Philippines who have never

into personal contact with that race, and to whom,
consequently, the Jews are simply the people who crucified
Christ. So fierce, however, is the fanaticism of the Christianised

come

known as such, to land on the

confidently believed, be torn to pieces,
or roasted alive, hke the efhgies of Judas Iscariot on Good
Friday Eve. Some writers, on the other hand, have attributed
the low status occupied by the Ottoman Jews in recent times

Fihpinos, that were a Jew,

island,

he would,

it is

to the unfavourable impression produced by the collapse of

the pretended Messiahship of Shabatai She\i, ^ the Jewish

communities

in

Turkey

ha\'ing,

teenth century, occupied a

to the middle of the sevenhigher position both socially

up

much

and intellectually than during later centuries. For Hebrew

books appear to have been printed at Constantinople as
early as 1530, two centuries before the Turks themselves
adopted the use of the printing-press.
The Jews of the Ottoman Empire have, however, always
manifested a greater partiality for their Moslem rulers than
for their Christian fellow-subjects, and in
disputes between
^

See p. 44.

40

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

Turks and Christians they have invariably made common

cause with the former. For though the Turks, as just observed,
regard the Jews individually with contempt, their attitude
towards them collectively has always been more tolerant and
lenient than towards the Christian millets, and for this two
reasons may be assigned, one religious and the other political.
The pure monotheism of the Hebrews, on whose scriptures
the Koran is so largely based, is naturally regarded with
greater favour by the equally monotheistic Moslem than the
vulgar polytheism of the Eastern Churches, Armenian and
while the Jewish communities,
Orthodox, could possibly be
;

being devoid of all political pretensions and aspirations, have

ever been loyal subjects, and consequently in no way a
source of trouble or suspicion to their rulers. Added to this,
the wealthy Israelites have always been eager to help the
while those of humbler standing
authorities in any difficulty
will not only, in their serviHty, perform the basest and most
;

degrading services required of them, but, as Wcis abundantly

evident in the Armenian massacre at Constantinople, have
also been ever ready to encourage, rather than deprecate,
outbursts of fanaticism on the part of the Mohammedan
Now, however, that all the races of the Empire
populace.
have been placed on a footing of pohtical' equahty by the
it is hoped that such manifestations of interenmity will not again recur, but that Moslem, Christian,
and Jew may, as Ottomans, live side by side in peace and

Constitution
racial

amity.

Low, however, as is the status of the Israelitish race among

the peoples of the East, the social position of their women in
^^ community, especially with regard to
Position of
Jewish

Women.

personal and proprietary rights, is greatly

superior to that of the women belonging to
Christian races, and, in some respects even to

the native
that of Moslem

women. Ignoring this important fact, some

Jews have deplored what they assume
to be the low position assigned to women by the Talmud, as
writers on the Eastern

Hebrew Ottomans

41
"

exempts them, in company with slaves and

the study of the Law, and the rigid performfrom
children,"
ance of its ritual. But if one reflects for a moment on what
the observance of the two Codes of the Mosaic and the Oral
Law entails upon men, it will at once be e\ident that a woman
this authority

could not possibly fulfil half their requirements in addition

The degree of secluto her household and maternal duties.
sion to which Jewish women are subjected also varies, as
in

the case of their Christian sisters, according to locality

In the to\\-ns of the interior, for
social surroundings.

and

instance, and especially in Asia Minor, where they may run

the risk of insult from their Christian and Moslem neighbours,

Jewesses go abroad as Uttle as possible, and always veiled

and, like the women of the other creeds, are denied all social
In the seaport cities, however,
intercourse with the other sex.
the reverse is the case, the Jewish women of Smyrna, Salonica,
and the capital being as much in evidence as the men,
Jewish customs with respect to marriage and divorce have
much in common with those of Moslems, but in the matter
of divorce would seem to be more favourable
* ^^^ ^^'^^^^^^ though theoretically a
an^^ivo?ce
Jewess cannot repudiate her husband save
for a limited number of reasons, she may for other reasons
apply for a divorce to the Rabbinical Court, and, if her
case is a good one, the husband may be compelled to give
her her freedom. Under such circumstances, the man,
besides returning the dowxy and any other property of which
he has enjoyed the usufruct, pays a sum of money called the
kethuha, promised in the marriage contract, to which she
would have been entitled on his death. And though a widow
does not inherit her husbcind's property, she has a right, so
long as she does not claim her dowry, or re-marry, to remain in
the house of her deceased husband, and be supported by his
heirs in the style to which she has been accustomed diuing
her married hfe. And a husband, how-ever poor, is bound to
maintain his wife, though she may, of course, voluntarily
;

42

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

add by her own industry to the well-being of the family. And

it may be here remarked that the Rabbinical Law, in common
with that of Islam, makes no distinction, so far as rights of
maintenance and hereditary succession are concerned, between
legitimate and illegitimate offspring.
Early marriages are the rule among all Eastern Jews,
though the obligation of a father to marry his children as
soon as they attain what is considered a
proper age is not so rigidly enforced as at
if a man of twenty remain unwed, he incurs
where,
Jerusalem,
"
the reproach of
causing the S'chinah to depart from Israel."
Girls are usually married from the age of fifteen and upwards,
These early
and youths become husbands at eighteen.
the
maintenance
of patriarconduce
to
marriages naturally
For the young couple, being still in a state
chal customs.
of pupilage, and unable to provide for their material wants,
and it is consequently
must remain in the paternal home
no uncommon thing to find several married brothers living
with their wives under the roof of their father, who delights
to see a numerous progeny of grandchildren growing up
around him. With those who are not in affluent circumstances, however, such a custom entails grave anxieties, and
Early
Marriage.

"

the precept,
Increase and multiply," the head
of a house is often worn out before attaining his prime.
The Oriental Jews do not recognise the law of monogamy

while

fulfilling

promulgated by Rabbi Gershom in the twelfth century.

They are, however, as a rule, practically
monogamists, being allowed to take a second
wife without divorcing the first for two reasons only her

childlessness or failure to bear sons.

The

first

wife

may,

however, refuse to receive a second into the house in which

she resides
and as a second establishment entails large
A Jewish
additional expense, polygamy is not common.
for her
is
man
chosen
under
no
the
to
girl
obligation
marry
by her parents, but enjoys full liberty to reject any candidate
;

for her

hand who may be

distasteful to her.

As, however,

43

Hebrew Ottomans
there are always

some pecuniary matters

to settle in connec-

tion with the affairs of marriage, the match is usually made

up by third parties, parents or relatives, subject to the consent
of the principals.
The chief occupations of the higher and middle classes
of the Jews in Turkey, as elsewhere, are banking and com-

merce. In both they excel to such a degree

that where a man of another nationality would
realise
a
fair
only
competence, the Israelite makes a fortune ;
while in positions in which a Gentile would probably starve,
the Jew will manage to keep himself and his family in comYet in few countries is the contrast of
parative comfort.

wealth and indigence among the Jews more striking than

Turkey. On one side may be seen prosperity so great as

in

to

command undue

respect for

its

possessors,

and give them

a local influence superior to that of other nationahties, while,

hard by, exists poverty and wTetchedness in their most sickening aspect. The principal cause of this state of affairs is
no doubt the limited sphere of action allotted to, or rather
adopted by, the artisan and labouring classes of the race,
who appear to evince a repugnance, or inabihty, to learn any
trade, craft or calling beyond those followed by their forbears from generation to generation. They are blacksmiths,
and fishermen, docktinsmiths, and glaziers, boatmen
labourers, porters, and scavengers, but never apparently

shoemakers or

tailors,

carpenters or cabinet-makers, grooms,

gardeners, or farmers.

There exist also few openings for female labour outside

for Jewish women are not employed to any
great extent as domestic servants by the

the home,

La^^

better classes of other races, the great objection to them in this capacity being that,

no matter how urgent the necessity for her services, a Jewess

insists on spending the whole twenty-four hours of the Sabbath
in the bosom of her family.
The low wages they are inclined
to accept alone induces Oriental housewives to

employ them

44

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

At Smyrna, Salonica, and a few other

number of women and girls find employment in the
cotton mills. But the managers of the silk factories at
Broussa prefer not to employ them in common with Christian
and Turkish women, as the observance of three different sets

in

this

capacity.

places, a

would occasion too great difficulty in

the
work.
on
carrying
A peculiar community of Hebrew origin have also their
headquarters at Salonica, where they are said to number
some 8,000 souls. These are the Diinmehs

of national holidays

^^MeSfT^^
as

term

"The

Turned," as they are called by the

"
The Faithful,"
Turks, or the Mameeni
themselves, descendants of the followers

they
Shabatei Shevi who, in 1666, proclaimed himself at
Smyrna as the promised Messiah and soon had a numerous
This imposter,
following both in the East and in Europe.
by Sultan
having four years later been unmasked
Mahmoud II in person, was offered the alternative
of death by impalement or the profession of the faith of
He chose the latter, declaring that his object had
Islam.
of

always been that of leading his followers to acknowledge that

"
There is no God save Allah, and Mohammed is His Prophet,"
and that he had deferred taking this final step until he could
make his profession of faith in the presence of his Padishah.
Great was the consternation of his credulous adherents, and
loud the mockery with which they were naturally assailed
both by Jews and Gentiles. Such, however, was the infatuation of a certain faithful few that they continued to believe
in the divine character of Shabatei's mission,

and while imi-

tating their leader in his apostacy in order to escape persecution by their orthodox fellow Hebrews, they are held to have

continued in secret to cherish the doctrines he had taught.

imposter, on his side, was allowed to remain for a" time
that
at the Ottoman Court where he sat at the feet of
Gamaliel of the law of Islam," Vanni Effendi, but died in

The

prison at Belgrade about six years later.

45

Hebrew Ottomans

His devoted followers, however, steadfastly maintained

had not died, but had ascended to heaven

that their Messiah

Expected
Second Advent.

And ever since, at Salonica,

in bodily form.
g^^^j^ q{ ^Yievr kals, or secret temples, they,

keep a bed always ready on

which he may
repose from the fatigue of his second
Either from the fact of Shabatei's having
advent."
disappeared from the world at Belgrade, or from his having
quitted Salonica by the Vardar Gate, he is expected from that
IS

it

said,

"

emd every day during over two centuries a Diinmeh

direction
has gone out on this road at sunrise to meet and welcome him.
Since the opening of the raihvay between the capital of
Servia and Salonica, a question appears to have arisen as to
the possibiUty of the Messiah's arrival by train in the latter
And consequently, according to local report, a reprecity.
"
"
sentative of
the Faithful
may always be seen at the ter;

minus when the northern mail

is due, watching eagerly for

the passenger who has tarried so long, and at whose coming
the Mameeni will be rewarded for their fideUty by being
"
"
appointed lords of the earth.
As a community, the Diinmehs are highly respectable,
industrious, and prosperous.
Poverty is, indeed, said to be

non-existent

The Dunmeh

Commumty.

among

them,

the

wealthier

helpinsf those less successful in worldly affairs

and supportmg widows and orphans by an

admirably organised system of charity. Ostensibly, their
domestic arrangements are similar to those of their Osmanli
neighbours, the houses of the wealthy being divided into
haremlik and selamlik. The dwellings of the community are
clustered together in a httle quarter of their own in the centre

and
means
by

of the city,

other

it is believed, communicate with each

of interior doorways and passages which

all,

also afford access to the secret temples of their pecuhar cult.

of doors, the Dunmeh women cannot be distinguished
from their Turkish sisters, but are less restricted in their

Out

intercourse with the other sex than bona-fide Moslems.

One

46

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

may, for instance, see them at Jewish weddings, unveiled

and it would
and exposed to the gaze of dozens of men
limits
of the comwithin
the
social
intercourse
that
appear
chitthe
is
unrestricted.
Under
disguising
munity
quite
charf they wear either the picturesque and many coloured
local Jewish costume, or, in imitation of Osmanli women,
would-be Parisian toilettes. Some of the Diinmeh women are
;

handsome, though like the Jewesses of the East generally

they lack vivacity. Constant intermarriage during two and
a half centuries has, however, produced a type not only
physically different from that of the surrounding Hebrews
but also- mo^e dignified in appearance and demeanour.
Conformity with the creed which they outwardly profess
"
"
the Faithful
to put in an occasional appearance
obliges
at the public services in the mosques on
and festivals. The mosques, howFridays
^
J ^1
/-,
1Jever, are numerous, and the Osmanh disand
imams
the
is
to
allow
too indolent
worthy hodjas
position
to inquire into the cause of absence of True Believers who
may have gone to worship in another temple and with
the devotions of the women they would still less think of
Pretended
Moslems.

concerning themselves. So the Diinmeh tradesman, hke

a good Moslem, closes his shop in the bazaars on Fridays
and though he takes down his shutters on the Jewish Sabbath,
and sits cross-legged on the raised floor which serves him as
counter and shop- window, he makes no effort, as on other
days, to thrust his wares on the passer-by. And if a customer,
;

attracted
self,

he

by some

article

the Diinmeh will

on

his shelves, should present himprohibitive price for it, which

name a

will decline to abate.

CHAPTER

IV

THE OTTOMAN SULTAN

By

the Revolution of the 23rd July, 1908, Turkey was suddenly transformed from an absolute monarchy into a conand the failiu-e
stitutionally governed State
;

Accession of
Mohanuned V.

^^

^^^

counter-revolution

of April, 1909,
,
r
, ,
tt
i
deposition of Abdul Hamid,
and the elevation to the throne of his brother, hitherto knoN\'n
under the simple designation of Reshid Effendi, as the thirty,

resulted

m
.

the

Sultan of the Osmanli Dynasty. In the course of the

Parhament's deliberations early on that eventful day, before
fifth

the pubUc reading of the feiva legalising the deposition of

"
Red Sultan," Senator Samy Pasha thus addressed the
House:
Mohammed^ was the conqueror of Constantithe City has again been taken by an Ottoman Army ;
nople
the

"A

therefore fitting that our first Constitutional Sovereign

should also be known to history as Mohammed." And as
Mohammed
the new Sultan was forthNWth unanimously
it

is

His Imperial Majesty Sultan Mohammed V was

bom at Constantinople on the 3rd November, 1844, and is
consequently sixty-six years of age according to the European
calendar. As, however, the Moslem year consists of about
360 days, the Padishah has, according to Turkish reckoning,
already completed his sixty-seventh year. Unlike his polygamic brother and predecessor, his Majesty has but one \\'ife,
to whom he is legally married, his family consisting of three
acclaimed.

sons, the Princes Ziaeddin,

the eldest of
was

whom

Nedjim-Eddin, and Eumer Hilmi,

in 1877 and the youngest six

bom

years later.
1

Mohammed

II (1451-1481).

47

48

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

According to the Ottoman law of succession, the eldest

male in the whole Imperial family ascends the throne. The
eldest

of these

princes

is

consequently far

The Ottoman

from being heir-presumptive, as no fewer

than six of his princely cousins are his seniors
Succession.
of whom the eldest, Youssouf Izzedin Effendi,
a son of Sultan Abdul Aziz, is now in his fifty-fifth year
and the youngest, a son of the ex-Sultan, in his forty-first
Such a system of succession was no doubt advantageyear.
ous, and even necessary, in the thirteenth century, when the
Turks were but a wandering band of soldiers of fortune but
its inconvenience became manifest as soon as the House of
Osman ceased to be nomad chieftains and became the heads
of a great State, The heir to the throne was thenceforward
;

generally looked

upon by its occupant as his natural enemy,

most cases a brother, the practice of Imperial
fratricide became common, though, later, even sons were
frequently kept in seclusion and not allowed to participate
and

as

he was

in

in political or miUtary activity.

Notwithstanding the large
families the majority of Turkish sultans left behind them,

so ruthlessly had this extermination of possible rivals been

carried out that on his accession in 1808, Mahmoud II was
the sole male representative of the House of Osman. Since

that date, however, this systematic fratricide has fallen into

desuetude, the only Ottoman prince who has subsequently
died a violent death having been Abdul Aziz after his deposi"
Red Sultan,"
tion in 1876, and his murderer, the
it pohtic to attribute his end to suicide.

deemed

The practice of incarcerating, or at least secluding, possible

heirs to the throne, however, continued, with the consequence
on the deposition of Abdul Hamid in
April, 1909, the succession devolved on a
prince who for thirty-three years had been

that,
^

^*Princ*"

virtually a prisoner in his own palace, forbidden to consort

with his equals, or correspond with either Ottoman subjects
The effect of such a life on the majority of
or foreigners.

Km^mm
H.I.H.

mm

PRINCE YOUSSOUF IZZEDIN EFFENDI, HEIR

PRESUMPTIVE TO THE OTTOMAN THRONE

The Ottoman Sultan

49

could not but be disadvantageous. ^ Hamidian sycophants were, during all these years, at pains to circulate
calumnious reports most damaging to the reputation of the
heir-apparent, though such calumnies were to a certain extent

men

counterbalanced by the flattering eulogies of his anti-Hamidist

partisans.
Being, however, neither a monster of vice nor
a paragon of virtue, but simply a prince of artistic tastes and
well-balanced mind, and professing a religion of which the
essential principle is resignation to the will of Allah, Sultan
Mohammed V, while Prince Reshid, was still able to occupy
worthily his too abundant leisure. Music is, for instance,
a passion with him, and he is said to be, if not a virtuoso, at
least an accompUshed performer on the pianoforte.
Denied

by Hamidian jealousy and

suspicion facihties for self-improve-

ment, he has yet succeeded in obtaining a knowledge of

Enghsh and French sufficient to enable him to peruse works
in those languages, and is said to be cdso a good Persian and
Arabic scholar. Those who have been brought into intimate
contact with this prince assert the most prominent traits
of his character to be "goodness and simplicity"
the
allied
a
a
man
with
of
of
simplicity
dignity
grand seigneur,

conscious of his illustrious ancestry.

Sultan Mohammed V has personally suffered too

much

under the tyranny of an absolute ruler not to appreciate the

benefits of a less Oriental form of government
^^*^ some years before his accession he is
Views
said to have confided to one of the Europeans
who were permitted to visit him in their various professional
capacities, his intention, should he be destined to ascend the
;

^
During all these years Sultan Mohammed was only permitted to
leave the palace grounds in order to visit two or three times a week
his estate at Balmoumdjou whither he invariably proceeded in a
closed brougham, surrounded by guards and spies.
And though
entitled to a Civil List of six thousand Turkish pounds a year, he frequently received only a third of this sum, some j'ears. report says,
nothing at all. Heir-apparent to a great Empire, he has often been
in intolerable pecuniar}^ straits, without means to pay even the current
expenses of his exceedingly modest household.

.4(2189)

50

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

of restoring the suppressed Constitution of 1876.

asked on one occasion his opinion as to his brother
Abdul Hamid's real attitude with regard to the new Constitution which he had sworn to maintain, Sultan Mohammed

throne,

When

"A constitutional sovesaid to have laconically replied

retire
a
hke Yildiz Kiosk,
has
no
need
to
into
fortress
reign
is

five or six thousand troops,"

During 'the late
absolute sovereignty of Sultan Abdul Hamid, not only every

guarded by

life, but also many details of Turkish private

An Irade, being the
hfe were regulated by Imperial- Irades.
expression of the Sultan's will communicated in writing by

detail of public

one of his secretaries, but not necessarily signed by him,

constituted less a command than a permission. For during
this period of repression, no Turk, especially if he were a
man of rank, could, without first obtaining such an Irade,
leave the capital, frequent foreign society, or enter a profession
nor could he marry his children or buy a house
;

without his actions being brought to the notice of the government and interfered with. And it is noteworthy that the
first Irade issued by Sultan Mohammed had for its object
the reinstatement of Field-Marshal Kemaleddin Pasha, son
of Ghazi Osman Pasha, the hero of Plevna, who in 1904, had
been illegally deprived of his grade and honours, and exiled
to Broussa.
On the proclamation of the Constitution he was
at once released from the durance vile in which he had languished for four and a half years, and on arriving at Constantinople he demanded to see his young son. The mother,
"
Naimeh Sultana, a daughter of the
Red Sultan," raised
objections, and the case was brought before the religious
court of the
which ruled that "sovereigns and subjects
being equal before the Law, Kemaleddin Pasha was entitled

S^m

to see his son."

This case excited the greater public atten-

from the circumstance of a duel which took place in

connection with it between the advocate of the Pasha and a
chamberlain of Abdul Hamid.
tion

An

interesting incident indicating the higher moral st?indard

The Ottoman Sultan

Young Turks

characteristic of the

as

51

compared with that

of their predecessors, occurred in connection with the accession of Sultan Mohammed.

Two distin-

MwalitT

guished

the Third Army Corps, who

of the Imperial escort having

officers of

had formed part

been, on the following day, received in special audience by

His Majesty, were each offered, on taking leave, a purse of
red satin containing fifty gold pieces. On both requesting
to be allowed to decline the gift, the Sultan still insisted,
"
a father had a good
remarking in his paternal fashion that
to
reward
right
deserving sons." The senior officer, however,

emboldened by his sovereign's affabiUty, kissed his hand and

earnestly begged him never to recompense v\ith money the
services of his subjects, this practice having during the past
reign led to such disastrous results.
Among the various on dits which find their way into the
columns of the Constantinople press, both native and foreign.
Proposed
Court
Innovations,

^^^

announced

^o institute

soon

after

the

Sultan's

was His Majesty's intention

at Dolma Bakhtche a kind of
of the Imperial family would

accession that

it

Court, at which the ladies

receive the wives of the other princes as well as the wives of
Pashas and others who have already the entree at state functions, the Imperial Princesses to have also their ladies-in-

waiting chosen, as in other coimtries, from among the leaders

of society in the capital.
Since the foundation of the Ottoman
Empire all its rulers

have borne the same title, that of Padishah, which

signifies
"
"
^^ once
Protector
and "King." For
The Toughra.
as Khalif successor and
representative of
the Prophet of Islam a Sultan of
Turkey is Protector of the
Faith, and as head of the State he is Shah.
The Ottoman
Flag, red in colour, with a white crescent and star, has also
remained unchanged since the time of Sultan Murad I, who
reigned at Broussa from 1360 to 1389. The Imperial standard

bears, however, in place of the crescent

and

star, the

Toughra.

52

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

This peculiar symbol, which is to Turkey what the fleur-de-lys

was to France, has also constituted during many centuries
at once the sign-manual and the Imperial seal of its sultans,
the Arabic characters composing the names of each successive
ruler being in turn introduced into its somewhat compHcated
design of hues and curves. To the uninitiated, one^Toughra
resembles another
but to those versed in the mysteries of
Turkish calligraphy this is far from being the case, and Sultan
Mohammed V required several new designs to be submitted
to him before deciding on the form in which his name should
be introduced into the Toughra denoting his reign. The
;

Toughra in its simple form appears on all state documents,

also, surrounded by sun-rays, on the standard which

and

floats over the palace of Dolma Bakhtch6, and, when the

Padishah embarks, from the mast of the Imperial yacht

Seuyudlu. According to popular belief, the Toughra represented originally the signature of Sultan Murad I who,
unable to write, when ratifying a treaty with the republic of
Ragusa wetted the palm of his hand with ink and placing it
on the parchment left there the marks of his five fingers,
the three central being extended in a line, leaving a space
between them and the thumb on one side and the little finger
on the other. The three articulations of the middle fingers
represent the letters Alif and Lam of the words Sultan and

Khan.
"

The

tip of the

son," and the

little

extended thumb standing for Ben

finger for

"

ever."

The base

of the

thumb

represented the names of the Sultan and his father,

"
Victorious."
together with the Turkish word signifying

"

The whole legend consequently read

Sultan Murad, son
of Sultan Orchan ever victorious."
This sign-manual continued to be used by succeeding sultans, and was elaborated
by secretaries and calligraphists, who cunningly interlaced the
Arabic characters to denote the
*

five fingers of the

Padishah.

This origin of the Toughra is probably as purely legendary as that

"
"
of a similar
signature
imprinted in blood and dust by Mohammed
the Conqueror on the inner walls of St. Sofia after the taking of ConFor Murad I, the son of the Greek princess Nitoufer
stantinople.

Pholo by

Sebah

&

JoaiUier

PRINXE ZIAEDDIX EFFENDI, ELDEST SOX OF SULTAN,

MOHAMMED V

The Ottoman Sultan

53

The investiture of a Sultan of the Ottoman Empire forms

an elaborate and lengthy ceremony, or rather succession of
ceremonies, of which the initial obsers'ances
vary according to the circumstances which
^"^f^^*^^

The

render the throne vacant.

Sultan.

three

last

having been successively deposed,

their deposition was in each case legalised by a fetva signed
by the Sheikh-ul-Islam, the rehgious head of the Turkish
sultans

At the recent deposition

nation.

was, for the first time in

ally elected

Chamber

of

Abdul Hamid

this decree

Turkish history, read before a nation-

of Deputies.

The

follo\\ing is the text

of this curious document, which is couched in the

question addressed to the Sheikh-ul-Islam
:

form of a

"

WTien the Commander of the Faithful suppresses certain

when he
important legal questions of the Sacred Books
_
when
_.
interdicts, tears or bums these books
he depletes the treasur}' and squanders or
when he
appropriates to his own use the national wealth
;

imprisons and exiles his subjects and habitually commits other acts of tyranny, and, after having sworn
to mend his ways, \'iolates his oath
when he persists in

illegally slays,

provoking revolts calculated to give rise to national and

rehgious troubles and foments massacres
"
When, with a \'iew to putting an end to such tyranny,
from all parts of the country come demands for his depo;

sition

when

positive

his

maintenance on the

danger,

while

his

throne constitutes
downfall
would be of

advantage
"
Should he,
;

if
competent men judge this measiu-e to be
was
an
(Lotusflower),
enlightened prince and patron of the Arts, and
therefore unhkely to have been unable to sign his name.
more
probable origin is that lately assigned to the Toughra by a Turkish
.-X.

correspondent of the Stamboul (whose letter I have unfortunately

mislaid).
According to this authoritj', it is but a conventionaUsed
representation of an eagle, that royal bird constituting the symbol
of the early Sultans as well as that of their
the

neighbours

Emperors.

Byzantine

54

Turkey

Ottomans

of the

necessary, be desired to abdicate the Sultanate

or be dethroned ?
"

and Khalifate,

Yes.

"
(Signed)

The Sheikh-ul-Islam.
"

Mohammed

Ziaeddin."

The National Assembly,

tion,

rejecting the proposal of abdicaunanimously passed the Act of Deposition, which reads

thus
"

the 7th day of Rebi-ul-Akhir, 1327, ^

,
,
,
,
,
at half-past six o clock, at the sittmg of the
of
the
Senate
and
the
National Assembly composed

^K^f'S*"
i
Abdul
Hamid.

Ottoman
Chamber

On

,,

of Deputies, on the proposal of choosing between

dethronement and voluntary abdication the two solutions

contained in the fetva bearing the signature of the Sheikh-ulIslam, Mohammed Ziaeddin Effendi, and read at this sittingit has been determined to dethrone the Sultan Abdul Hamid II
and to call to the Sultanate and the Khalifate the heirpresumptive Mohammed Reshid Effendi under the title of

Mohammed V."
Two delegations were then appointed, one to notify to Abdul
Hamid his deposition, the other to conduct from his residence
at

^^^o^'th^"'^

Dolma Bakhtch^ to the Seraskierat the new

The latter delegation, which was

Sovereign.

of five Deputies and Senators,

two Christians, an Armenian
be
mentioned,
may
and a Greek. All the members of the Chamber then proceeded to the Seraskierat, where the new Sultan was to be

composed

included,

it

proclaimed, passing among the guns of the 15th Battery of

Sofia in
Artillery placed at the entrance of the square of St.
preparation for the Royal Salute. Presently disembarking
on the shore of the Golden Horn from a steam launch, the
Sultan-elect was speedily driven to the Seraskierat where he

was received by the President of the Chamber, Ahmed Riza

The Moslem Era dates from the Hej'ra. or Flight

from Mecca.

of

Mohammed

The Ottoman Sultan

55

Bey, and Field-Marshal Moukhtar Pasha, the hurrahs of the

"
"
assembled crowds, and the strains of the Hymn of Liberty
played by the bands of the Salonica troops, filling the vast
square without as the Imperial standard was hoisted on the
building.
Proceeding to the throne-room, Mohammed V took
his seat, while around him grouped themselves the princes
Med j id and Farouk, son and grandson respectively of the late
Sultan Abdul Aziz, the generalissimo Shevket Pasha, and other
officials of high rank.
The proceedings were opened with a
prayer offered by a member of the Ulema, at the conclusion of
which the Sultan took the oath of fidelity to the Constitution.

The

signal being given, the Royal Salute of 101 guns was fired,
"
"
the troops of ^;he Salonica
Army of Dehverance marching
meanwhile under the windows of the throne-room, and
"
"
shouting Padishahim tchok yasha !
Long hve our Sultan
Then followed the ceremony of the Be at or Homage, the
members of the National Assembly passing before the Sultan,

and signifying their

fealty by taking in turn the hand he offered

as a constitutional sovereign, instead of
making before him
the signs and gestures symbolising submission to the will of

an absolute Padishah which have hitherto been customary

on such occasions.
The Old Palace was the scene of the subsequent incidents
in the day's ceremonial.
At the cliief entrance. knowTi as
"
Dar-ul-Saadet the
Gate of Fehcity," the New Sultan
descended from his carriage, and attended by his three sons
and the high dignitaries of the Empire proceeded on foot
to the Kiosk of Bagdad over which the
Imperial flag was now
After reciting here the Namaz, or
floating.
obhgatory
prayers, the Imperial party proceeded to the edifice in which
are preserved the rehcs of the Prophet.
"It is the will of

God

"

observed His Majesty to the reverend sheikhs who are

the guardians of the sacred rehcs, after he had
silently, in
Oriental fashion, acknowledged their respectful
greetings on
his entrance.
Passing into the interior of the sanctuary,
and opening with his own hands the silken
wrappers
!

56

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

containing the relic, the Sultan, in his capacity of KhaUfa, or

successor of the Prophet and titular head of Islam, performed

them the customary acts of veneration, the attendant

chaplain chanting meanwhile passages from the Koran.
It was not, however, until the 10th of May that the further
and far more imposing ceremonies connected with the acces-

before

new Sultan could tak6 place,

crowded to view the
Constantinople
oJ^the Sword
passage of its first constitutional sovereign to
the village of Eyoub on the southern shore of the Golden
Horn. For it is here, in the mosque built over the mortal
remains of Eyoub, or Job, the standard-bearer of the Prophet,
that invariably takes place the investiture of the Commander
of the Faithful with the traditional sword of Osman, a ceremony which, for princes of the Ottoman dynasty, is the
Not, however, according to ancient
equivalent of coronation.
custom, in one of the ancient state barges does Mohammed V
make the journey from his palace, but as if in acknowledgment of the new order of things in the Imperial steam-yacht
Seuyudlu, preceded by a single police boat, and followed by
a number of launches and motor-boats. A carpeted pathway
leads between the marble tombstones from the little landingstage of Bostan to the mosque of the Village of the Dead,
sepulture in the sacred soil of which has, during so many
centuries, been esteemed a privilege by the great ones of the
land.
At the outer gateway of the mosque, the threshold
of which none but True Believers may cross, stand a number
of Moslem clergy, together with the guardians of the Shrine.
These are all Dervishes of the Mevlevi Order in fawn-coloured
sion

^^^^

of

the

3.11

hats, conspicuous among them by

turban being the Tchelebi Effendi, the General, or
Hereditary Grand Master of the Order, whose presence is
indispensable to the ceremony. For ever since a predecessor

cloaks

and sugar-loaf

his green

the

of the Tchelebi Effendi performed, in 1299, at Konieh

ancient Seljukian capital, this office for Emir Osman, the
of the

Ottoman dynasty,

the privilege of girding a

first

new Sultan

The Ottoman Sultan

has been vested in successive Grand Masters

57
;

and the Turkish

nation generally would alone recognise as their legal sovereign

a prince whose claim to the throne of Osman was thus legalised.

Passing through the courtyard of the mosque, a square

cloister enclosing a fountain is reached, the ogival arches

which are supf)orted by slender columns of exquisite

On the south side of this a doorway gives
access to the shrine on account of which the Mosque of Eyoub
is so highly reverenced by Moslems.
The walls from floor
to ceiling are covered with tiles of exquisite design and
and in the centre a tomb of white marble, covered
colouring
with a fine plating of silver cut into beautiful op>en work
of

workmanship.

patterns, covers the ashes of the Prophet's stsindard-bearer.

In front of this, on a tripod draped with crimson velvet,
reposes the historic sabre, curv-ed hke a yataghan, its blue

sheath almost hidden in precious stones, its golden hilt set

with turquoises and rubies, the gold encrusted sword-belt
ha\'ing as its only ornament a cluster of the same stones on
the buckle. Around the walls are low cushioned divans in
the usual Oriental style, one side being piled high with similar
cushions in guise of throne. On this the Sultan seats himself
cross-legged, his sons occupying places on a lower level in
front of him, wlule around are grouped the Tchelebi Effendi,
with as many Ministers, Generals and Court fimctionaries as
are able to enter the small edifice, many
remaining outside.
in Court hveries sparkUng with gold
intone canticles during the seventeen minutes' duration of

Four Imperial pages

the customary prayers, while without, from the

height of
the minaret, the voice of the muezzim proclaims abroad the
presence in the shrine of the Commander of the Faithful.

These devotions terminated, Ghazi Mouktar Pasha leads

the Sultan to the foot of the silver-encased tomb, takes
up
the sabre, and hands it to the Mevle\i Grand Master, who,
after a low obeisance, holds up the belt as
though in the act
of girding with it his
Sovereign. The Sultan, however, takes
it from his hands, and with a
graceful movement himself

58

of the

Turkey

Ottomans

passes the belt around his waist, carefully adjusting the

And as the Padishah stands there, girt with this
fastening.
ancestral sword, before the tomb of the early Moslem warrior,
the assembly, headed by the Sheikh-uI-Islam, files before him
to offer their congratulations, and passes out into the cloister,
the Sovereign with his sons and the Grand Master remaining

behind in prayer.
Leaving the sacred precincts a few minutes later, and
entering an open State carriage drawn by four horses, Sultan
Mohammed becomes the central figure in a vast procession
headed by an armed automobile, and composed of Princes
Imperial, grandees of the Empire, clergy representing every
creed and sect, interspersed with officers and troops of all
arms, which according to time-honoured precedent on such
occasions, defiles by way of the Adrianople Gate in the western wall of the City through the streets of Stamboul to the

Old Palace at its eastern extremity. Opposite this historic

gate of Old Byzantium have been erected a dozen or more
tents which are occupied by the Corps Diplomatique, the
foreign heads of Ottoman state departments, representatives
while on the rising ground beyond
of the Press and others
a great concourse is gathered, the towers and ramparts of
;

the ancient walls being also crowded with loyal subjects

anxious to obtain a glimpse of their Padishah on this auspicious
day.
Passing amid this enthusiastic assembly, the Sultan proceeds
on his way to the Parliament House where his arrival interReceived at the
rupts a discussion on the Press Laws.

entrance by the President of the Chamber, Ahmed Riza Bey.

and his colleagues, the Sovereign is conducted to the platform
of the Chamber where a red armchair has been hastily substituted for the President's more unpretentious seat, the
Grand Vizier and the Ministers ranging themselves to right
and left. Instead of acknowledging the ovation with which
is greeted with the customary dry mihtary salute,
the Padishah wins all hearts by an original gesture. Extending

his arrival

The Ottoman Sultan

59

he traces with them a semicircle, his fingers finally

meeting on his forehead as if including all present in a paternal
benediction,
Standing erect, his hand on his sword-hilt,
His Majesty now makes a sign to the Grand Vizier, HUmi
It is the Speech from the
Pasha, who unfolds a paper.
Throne, and with a smile on his face Mohammed V draws the
his arms,

Grand

Vizier nearer, standing by his side while the latter

reads to the also standing assembly as follows
"
By the Grace of God and the spiritual aid of His Prophet,
:

we

by the will and the desire of the nation, ascended

Ottoman Throne of which we are the lawful heirs. Great
is my joy and my pride at finding myself among the Senators
and Deputies who represent the noble Ottoman Nation. I
have,

the

beheve that they,

and happiness,

like myself, are convinced that the welfare

as well as the progress of our common country,

depend on the constant and

strict

application of constitu-

tional methods, the conformity of which with the prescriptions of the Sheriat and the principles of civihsation it is
unnecessary to dwell upon. Imbued with that firm conit my most sacred duty to labour with all
strength to assure the happiness and well-being of all
and I pray that God may
subjects without exception
Our
give me grace to accomplish this, my supreme desire.
beloved country, which has lately passed through a great crisis,
having more than ever the need of the patriotism, the union
and the concord of her sons to retrieve her past misfortunes
and assure her future progress, I doubt not that all the racial
elements composing the Ottoman nation, united in heart

viction, I consider

my
my

and

soul,

wiU now zealously devote

all

their efforts to the

fulfilment of this patriotic duty."

After referring with much feeUng to the then recent

massacre of Armenians in the vilayet of Adana, the Sultan
proceeded
"
Administrative, judicial, and financial reforms being also
:

imperative, it is necessary for us to make every effort to place

on a satisfactory footing our sea and land forces, to forward

60

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

the cause of education, and to develop and extend the sphere

works of public utility. I rely on the co-operation and
assistance of the two honourable assemblies in carrying out
these measures.
of

"

government which we have succeeded

on a firm and solid basis has been favourable
to the prestige and credit of the empire. We continue in

The

constitutional

in establishing

good relations with the Great Powers, as

We

also with other States.

indispensable that every effort should be made

to maintain these relations, based on a sincere and cordial

deem

it

May The Most High

friendship.

us and to
Cries

extend His Divine Aid to

all."

of

Amin / and Padishahim

tchok yasha

filled

the

Chamber

at the conclusion of the reading, most of those

present being visibly affected by this unwonted instance of
sympathetic personal contact between a ruler of Turkey and
legislative assembly.
Taking from an inside pocket of
his stambouline a small square of paper, His Majesty then
renewed the Oath of Fidelity to the Constitution taken on

its

the day of his accession.

Retiring to the Imperial

loge,

the

Padishah was replaced on the platform by the eminent

"
"
the
swear in
President of the Senate, who proceeded to
first
read
over
The
of
the
Senators and Deputies.
form
Oath,
by the President, was then repeated in turn by each member
who, when his name was called, responded with the phrase
Vallahi, Billahi,

this

ceremony occupying the space

of

two

hours.

In the meantime preparations have been in progress for

the reception of the Sultan at the Old Serai. The palace
attendants, some three hundred in number, pupils of the
State schools, and battaUons of infantry and artillery line
the outer courts, while the Grand Vizier, Ministers, Deputies,
Members of the Ulema body, civil functionaries and mihtary
officers not taking part in the procession, proceed to their
Escorted by
allotted places outside the Bab-es-Saadet.
*

"

In the

name

of

God, with the aid of God."

The Ottoman Sultan

mounted grooms and black eunuchs,

61

eight state carriages

with closed blinds conveyed the ladies of the Imperial family

into the inner court, these being followed by fifty broughams
containing the wives and daughters of the Moslem ministers
and grandees of the Empire. The arrival of the procession
is announced by a cavalry ofhcer who arrives at fuU gallop.
The Sultan alights from his carriage before
the group of Ulema, the spiritual heads of
^^5
g
the Empire, whose felicitations he gracefully
acknowledges, exchanges a few words \rith the Grand Vizier

and the President of the Chamber, and enters the antechamber of the sacred edifice accompanied by the Tchelebi
As he passes into the sanctuary, its guardian sacriEffendi.
"
fices on the threshold two sheep, while cries of
Long hve
"

fill the outer air.

After venerating for the
our Padishah
second time since his accession the sacred relics and offering
the customary prayers, the Sultan, escorted by the Imperial
Princes, Field-Marshal Mouhktar Pasha, the President of the
Chamber, the Grand Master of the Ceremonies and other
"
Garden of Lilacs," and
official personages, traverses the
takes his place in the carriage awaiting at the gate of the third
court to convey him to the landing-stage where the Imperial
yacht is now moored. As His Majesty is about to alight,
five Court pages standing by the gangway chant in unison,
"
Padishah,
according to an ancient custom, the admonition
be not overproud, for there is One greater than thou, even
Allah," concluding their admonition with the loyal wish
"
"
The Sultan then embarks, the
Long hve our Padishah
is
standard
and
the Seuyudlu steams rapidly
hoisted,
Imperial
back to Dolma Bakhtche.
!

The Imperial palace of Dolma Bakhtche,

in the

main building

which the present Sultan soon after his accession took up

his residence, stands on the Western shore of
Dolma B^chtch^, ^^^ Bosphorus and with its various depen-

of

dencies forms quite a

and pleasure-grounds extending

little to\Mi, its gardens

for a mile or more along the

62

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

water's edge.
Though the exterior of this palace, built by
the extravagant Abdul Medjid, exhibits a variety of architectural styles, and is decorated with a profusion of ornament,

the general effect is not unpleasing, and the site is remarkably

Its interior, like that of the other Imperial
well chosen.
palaces, gUtters with gilded decorations, costly chandeliers
and mirrors, priceless porcelains, and gorgeous brocades of

and silver tissue. The vast gardens and pleasuregrounds were originally laid out by European experts, and
comprise wooded hills, grassy vales and fruitful orchards,
terraced slopes, gay parterres and hanging gardens, interspersed with pavilions, fountains and waterfalls, together
with aviaries of birds, menageries of wild beasts, and lakes
The interior of this
teeming with gold and silver fish.
in
common
with
all
the
abodes of Moslems,
is,
Imperial palace
divided into selamlik and haremlik, the former containing
gold

the state apartments and public rooms generally, and the

latter being consecrated to the use of the ladies of the Imperial
household and their attendants. In a Serai, the Padishah's
private suite of apartments constitutes the mabeyn, or neutral
ground which, in humbler dwellings, is usually represented
by a single room or corridor, and communicates with the

apartments of the haremlik.

The number

of

persons

inhabiting

an Imperial palace

varies according to the character and predilections of the

reigning Sultan. At the deposition of Abdul
The Imperial
^^iz in 1876 no fewer than three thousand
Household.
,.
,
,
,
,
,
persons were dismissed from the palace of
.

Dolma Bakhtch6,

being computed that less than onewomen, the rest being functionaries,
The household of
menials and hangers-on of every degree.
Abdul Hamid was organised on a less extravagant scale,
but was yet so numerous that on his downfall in April, 1909,
the removal from Yildiz Kiosk of the women and children
belonging to the Imperial harem occupied a whole week, no
it

third of these were

fewer than forty-six carriage-loads having issued from the gates

The Ottoman

Siiltan

63

in a single day.

Pending their re-housal in some of the disused palaces, temporary hospitality was accorded by several
of the Imperial princesses to batches of these unfortunate
"
"
"
women, for whom hberation by no means spelt hberty,"
but who were, on the contrary, exchanging a life of ease and
luxury for a hopeless future of absolute seclusion. The
present Sultan being, as above mentioned, a man of simple
and having on his accession to the throne generously
relinquished a considerable portion of his Civil List, it is

tastes,

probable that the female personnel of the Imperial harem

will be as httle
numerous as custom and tradition may
permit.

WTiether numerous or not, however, the organisation of

an Imperial haremhk remains the same as it has been during
the past four and a half centuries. ^ Its inhabitants, who
are exclusively of slave origin, form a
^
society apart from the rest of the population,
HaSm."
and constitute a peculiar Court which has
its high dignitaries, its intermediate and lower
ranks, Uves
its owTi hfe, has its own
traditions, manners, customs and
For the speech of the
etiquette, and even its own dialect.
.

Serailis, as the denizens of the Serais are collectively termed,

differs in pronunciation and
from that in common

expression

use,

by

and

their extraction

this peculiarity.

can always,

Over

said, be detected
Court presides the

it is

this feminine

Valide, or Dowager Sultana, the mother of the reigning Sultan,

while next in rank come the mothers of his sons,
according
to the seniority of the latter, the first four
bearing the honourable title of Kadin Effetidi,
subsequent bearers of Imperial
offspring being termed merely Hannni Effendi.
of precedence are the Sultanas, the unmarried

Next in order
daughters of the
Padishah, and after them the Ikbals, or Imperial favourites
who have not borne children. To each of these ladies is
assigned a daira, or separate estabhshment, which comprises
^
The household of the Ottoman Sultans was more or less modelled
on that of the Byzantine Emperors who
preceded them.

64

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

a money allowance, a suite of apartments, and a train of

female servants and eunuchs. The Empress Mother's daira
includes twelve Kalfas, or ladies-in-waiting, all of whom have

among these is the Hasnadar Ousta,

the
others being termed respectively
Lady Treasurer,""
"
Private Secretary,"
Mistress of the
Keeper of the Seal,"
"
"
Robes,"
Lady Almoner," Lady Waterpourer," and so on.
Each functionary has under her orders an assistant, and
half a dozen or more underlings who are collectively desigtheir special duties.
"

Chief

or
"

nated according to their special department of service. The

dairas of the other ladies are organised on the same general
model, the persons comprising them being more or less

numerous, according to their respective ranks.

Large as is the
the
perfect
organisation
that there is no confusion, each one having her own position
and functions. Order is preserved among the Kadins, Hanuns
and Sultanas by means of an elaborate system of etiquette, and
among the rank and file by a more or less severe discipline.

number

of these

harem inmates, so

is

On the accession of a Sultan, his mother is elevated from

the rank of Bash Kadin Effendi to that of Vahde Sultana,
and at once invested with almost Imperial
The new Padishah requires all the
dignity.

^Sultlna^^

persons composing his harem, from his wives

down

to the lowest menials, to take an oath of obedience to

his mother.

"

Henceforth she

is

invariably addressed

cis

the

Crown

of Veiled Heads," a title with which every petition

addressed to her must begin. No one may venture to appear

before her, unless an audience has been previously sought and

sit in her presence
but all stand in the

granted, nor to

customary posture of respect with arms crossed on the breast,

and accompany their every reply with a profound obeisance
"
and the words
Our Lady." Court etiquette also decrees
the wearing in her presence, as

"

full dress,"

the intarie, or

trailing house robe, and whatever the weather, not even a

Sultan's favourite wife would venture to appear before her
august mother-in-law otherwise garbed. In the harem the

The Ottoman Sultan

65

Valide Sultana wields absolute authority, and no one of its

Kadin, Hanun, or Ikbal, can leave her

inmates, be she

apartments without this lady's permission, or address any

Such
petition to the Sultan save through her intermission.
supreme authority, however, naturally entails great responsibihty and duties sufficiently arduous. In these the great
lady is greatly assisted by her Hasnadar Ousta, who practiThis funccally ranks next to the Valide Sultana herself.
tionary is generally a woman of a certain age who has been
brought up from childhood in the daira of her mistress, and
whose seniority, combined with her abihty and devoted
As General
service, has advanced her to this important post.
Superintendent of the Harem she has absolute authority
in every matter with which the Empress-mother does not
choose to concern herself
and should the latter predecease
her Imperial son it is the Hasnadar who succeeds to her
;

position

and prerogatives.

Should a Sultan have ascended the throne while still young,

his wives and favourites will probably have been chosen from

among
him

the

either

selected

beauties

by the nation at the annual

when such gifts are customary.

individuals, or

presented

to

by the Vahde Sultana, by private

festival of

Kandil

however, the
best years of his hfe have been passed in the retirement
Ghedjessi,

If,

enforced until quite lately upon princes of the blood, his

mother alone will have been responsible for his family conSlaves are, as a rule, piurchased for the service
nections.
of the palaces when very young, in order that they may be
the better trained for the positions for which they are destined.
first they are all classed under the
general designation
"
of adjemis
rustics," those who give no promise of future
beauty being trained to menial duties, while the finer speci-

At

mens who may be called upon to fill higher positions are

taught elegance of deportment, dancing, singing, and music,
and are initiated into all the graceful formalities of Oriental
etiquette, a certain number, with a view to their being called
5(2389)

66

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

in turn to undertake the duties of secretary or lady

almoner, being also taught to read fluently and write with
There is, thus, always a constant supply of these
elegance.
alaiks, or pupil slaves, ready to fill up any vacancies that
may occur in the various dalras.
The kalfas are generally slaves belonging to the privileged
class who have not been honoured with the notice of the
Sultan and have attained their position by
of seniority.
Their ages vary greatly.
o"^the"Htf^rn* right
Some of the younger may still look forward
to marriage outside the Serai
but the majority, contented
with the life which has become habitual to them, and devoted
to the service of their mistress, look for their only promotion
within its walls. These old Serailis are the faithful guardians

upon

the ancient palace traditions and usages which they

with jealous conservatism and transmit to their
successors from century to century.
Separated for ever
of

all

cherish

from her own unnatural kindred, a girl, on entering the

Imperial Harem, becomes, as it were, the adopted daughter
of the kalfa who has purchased her for the service of her
Slaves both, kalfa andalaik look to each
special department.
other for mutual support. The senior takes a pride in the
appearance and proficiency of her pupils, watches vigilantly
over their interests, and should marriage outside the Serai
be the kismet of any one of them, does all in her power to secure
as good a parti as possible. The alaik, on her side, when
to another sphere, maintains the same
intimate relations with her mother by adoption, while the
latter, in her turn, will continue to intrigue with undiminished
zeal for the welfare of her protege.
"
Eski Serai
The Old Palace," which occupies the trianof
washed on two sides by the waters of the
land
gular point

removed by marriage

Golden Horn and the Sea of Marmora,

Old ^p\

ancestral

home

is

no

longer a palace in the ordinary acceptation of

the term, the edifice which constituted the
of the Ottoman Sultans having been destroyed

The Ottoman Sultan

67

It had, however, previously been more or

1865.
abandoned as an Imperial residence since the time of
Mahmoud "the Reformer" (1808-1839) who, in common
with his successors, preferred the modem palaces they had
caused to be erected on the shores of the Bosphorus. At
the time of its destruction the old palace was occupied by
the numerous harem of the defunct Sultan Abdul Medjid,
some members of which, according to common report, wilfully set fire to it in order to be removed to a less gloomy
abode. The high tower-studded walls of this Imperial
domain still, however, enclose a number of detached edifices
which fortunately escaped destruction, some among them
being connected by custom and tradition with certain reliAnd through their
gious observances of the Moslem year.

by

fire in

less

sentry-guarded gateways frequently passes His Majesty the

Sultan, either to take a leading part in some solemn ceremony,
or to enjoy a quiet hour in one of the many charming kiosks
scattered about the grounds.

The most important dependency of the Old Palace is the

known as the Treasury, for in it is enshrined that,
to Moslems, most sacred of reUcs, the Proand in the treasure chamber
xJisiJ^HSise. P^^^'^ Mantle,

building

itself

are

preserved

among

other

valuable

and interesting objects. Crown jewels and other heirlooms of

the House of Osman, bowls of gems, cut or uncut, jewelled
arms, ancient Imperial costumes, and, protected

by a large
and footstool thickly encrusted
which formed part of the booty

glass case, the golden throne

with pearls and rubies,

taken from the Persians in 1514 by Sultan

Sehm

I.

Among

the other edifices w'hich foreigners are also permitted to visit ^

"
is the
Kiosk of Bagdad," so called from the model in that
*
A Turkish lady complained to me the other day that though
foreigners were, even during the late reign, allowed to visit the Treasury,
this privilege has not hitherto been extended to Osmanh women ;

and she had consequently never seen its contents though she had
enjoyed the privilege of taking part in the ceremony of venerating
the Prophet's mantle, which takes place in the same
building.

68
city

Turkey
from which

existing

it

example

of the

Ottomans

was copied, which

of

Turkish

is

esteemed the

decorative

the

art,

finest

artistic

blending of colour being strikingly successful. The inner

and the outer walls are equally faced with tiles patterned in
a peculiar and dehcate shade of blue
the doors and shutters
are of walnut-wood, inlaid with ivory and mother-of-pearl,
and the carpets, draperies, divan stuffs, and other accessories
are the finest products of the most renowned looms and
The friezes which surmount this
workshops of the Orient.
kind of wall decoration, which is found in other parts of the
Old Serai as also in some of the mosques of Stamboul, are
inscribed with texts from the Koran, or
;

" Soft
Persian sentences in lilac letters,
From poets, or the moralists, their betters,"

Arabic
adapted to

the

composing them being peculiarly

arrangement in conventional patterns most

characters

artistic in their general effect.

As above mentioned,

Mahmoud

later Sultans, following the

example of

Reformer, have equally shunned the Old

Palace with its imprisoning walls, ancient
f
dungeons and gilded bowers, and its memories
of the fratricidal crimes of their predecessors
and by degrees the European and Asian shores of the
"
"
at their
sprinkled with palaces
Bosphorus have been
Abdul Hamid, however, not feeling himself secure in
behest.
the

any of the splendid waterside palaces of Dolma Bakhtche,

Tcheragan, or Beglerbey, added extensively to the modest
villa of Yildiz Kiosk, situated on the summit of the hill
behind the first-named, and converted it into a kind of fortress by building round the park in which it stands a high
wall flanked with guard-houses and barracks for the accommodation of his Kurdish, Arab, and Albanian bodyguard,
the hills and valleys beyond being also occupied by an
outer circle of sentry-boxes and blockhouses, extending down
nearly to the shores of the Bosphorus. On the deposition of
"
Red Sultan," Yildiz Kiosk became national property
the
;

The Ottoman Sultan

its

69

vast pleasure-grounds were converted into a public park,

it is proposed to utilise its numerous

buildings for
educational and scientific purposes.
In addition to palaces proper, a considerable number of

and

dimensions occupy delightful

European and the Asiatic shores of
the Bosphorus, embowered for the most part in groves and
gardens, fragrant with flowers, and teeming with song-birds.
Few of these are regularly occupied, but remain at the disposition of the Padishah and the Imperial family for an
Imperial

viUas

of

various

situations on both the

occasional brief

visit,

or

summer

sojourn.

CHAPTER V
THE OTTOMAN PARLIAMENT
"

The term

Sublime Porte," commonly used to designate

the Sultan's government, is also applied to the edifice in
which are situated the offices of the Grand

T ^k^

Parliament,

Vizier,

together with those of the Minister

of Foreign Affairs, the Council of State,

other branches of the administration.

and

In
the Seraskierat is situated, as its name imphes, the department of the Minister of War, and here the Turkish
Parliament assembled in November, 1908.
The Turkish Parliament consists, like our own, of an
Upper and a Lower House, the first being composed of Senators, and the second of Deputies.
Deputies are elected by
the nation, every 50,000 male Ottomans over the age

who pay taxes sending a representative to

the Chamber. The Senators, on the other hand, are nominated by the Sultan
their number must not exceed a third
of that composing the Lower Chamber, and these members
of the Ottoman Senate, who hold office for life, and enjoy
an annual salary of twelve hundred Turkish liras, must
be over forty years of age. General elections in Turkey take

of twenty-five

As yet there has, of course, been

place every four years.
only that of the autumn of 1908 which followed the
establishment of a Constitutional Government. The general
elector does not, however, vote directly for the Deputy he
desires to represent him in Parliament.
In each of the fifteen
electoral districts of the capital, for instance, the registered
voters are entitled to choose delegates in the proportion of
one to every 500 of the voters, and to these delegates is given
the actual power of choosing the Parliamentary representaThe polling places of the first memorable election
tives.
70

- z
w o

C K

The Ottoman Parliament

were various, school-houses,

pubHc

offices,

71
churches

and
"

In
occasion.
mosques being utilised for this auspicious
"
under nobly proporsilent mosques," \sTote a spectator,
tioned domes, with views through \istas of columns with
interlacing arches of coloured marbles, the vote did not seem
to make its ordinary mean appeal to the petty individual
of the selfish man, but, exalted and dignified
surroundings, became rather a ceremony, almost a

interests

by

its

sacrament."
Simplicity, combined with dignity, appears also to have
characterised so far at least as the Turks were concerned

th "v**r^

the ceremony of counting the votes recorded

at the respective polling places.
And, as
I

had not myself the advantage

of being in

at this important election time, I cannot, I think, do

better than quote the description by a Daily Mail corre-

Turkey

spondent of one of these countings in a Turkish quarter of

"
Stamboul.
It was in a room about twenty feet long and
half as wide, with foiu: windows overlooking the sea.
About
thirty men were crowded into it, some seated on chairs
round the walls, others squatting on their haunches on the
floor.
Some of them were smoking cigarettes, all but one wore
fezes,

and most

of

them had

their eyes fixed

upon

sheets

were holding. Standing up in the middle of the

room was a turbaned and bearded old Turk, in a long coat
like a dressing-gown.
He was reading aloud in a sonorous
voice from a similar paper, and at the end of each sentence
the men sitting round made a chorus of assent hke schoolof paper they

boys in a

I stood in the doorway until the old

gentlefinished his recitation, with a sort of sing-song
intonation to the final phrase. Then he came forward very

class.

man had

pohtely and inquired my wishes. I told him who I was and

that I wanted to see the votes counted, and he invited me to
enter,

and said

was welcome to see everjrthing. He was the

and presiding officer in charge

prefect of the municipal district

of the counting operation.

72

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

" In the middle of the floor was one of the familiar tinclamped travelling trunks which had been used as ballot-boxes.
The slit in the top had been closed by a sheet of pasted paper,
So it was quite clear, the prefect
sealed at each comer.
could have been introduced after
no
votes
that
out,
pointed
the poll closed. The seals to the lock had been broken by
him in that room in the presence of all the gentlemen present.
And the gentlemen present included, he explained, not only
the three gentlemen over there, who were the official representatives of the Elections Board the three gentlemen over
there rose at this and bowed but also those other two
gentlemen at the end of the room the other two gentlemen
indicated rose and bowed who were the official Inspectors

representing the Greek Political Committee. I assented,

there could not be any hocus-pocus there. The whole roomful
chorused approval of that sentiment, except the two Greek
gentlemen, who did not seem eager to commit themselves.
presiding officer Ufted the lid of the sacred box with
great solemnity, and taking from it a handful of ballot-papers,
distributed twenty-five of them among the gentlemen sitting
around on the chairs and on the floor. The three officials

The

and the two Greeks were not included in this distribution.

Taking himself another paper, the prefect stood up in the
middle of the room and proceeded to read aloud from it as
he had been doing when I entered. He read from it a list
of forty-four names, most of them pashas and beys and
effendis, indicating

Turkish nationality.

The

last five

names

ian,' the invariable Armenian namea name with any Greek termination.
I
did
not
catch
ending.
As he called out each name, the twenty-four sitting around

he read out ended

'

in

checking then: lists nodded their heads and said Tatnam,

Correct,' I never saw such perfect unanimity in voting,
and I have seen some one-sided elections. All the twenty'

whose papers had been counted in that operation

for
the same forty-four candidates, the same thirtyvoted
had
That was quite
nine Turks and the same five Armenians.
five voters

'

The Ottoman Parliament

simple,

and quite

fair,

wasn't

'

it ?

73

the prefect remarked,

agreed that it was most charming and dehghtful. So

the twenty-five checked ballot-papers were thrown in a heap
on the floor, the Greek inspectors standing up the better to
assure themselves that none of the counted votes found their
way back into the travelling trunk. The operation was
repeated.
Twenty-five more papers were taken out and distributed, and the chief from his copy sang the same song again.
They were the same forty-four names in the same perfect and

and

Again and again and again the operation

The old gentleman's breath began to give way
a time and his voice to grow husky, so he exchanged

beautiful unanimity.

was repeated.
after

duties with his chief assistant, to whose recitation he joined

in the general chorus of
Tamam.'
When the general
'

assistant's voice began to wear, another gentleman with the

vocal facihty of a city auctioneer took up the lecture. Still
the same forty-four names and stiU the same Tamam.'
"
I was told that there were
altogether 923 voters in the
'

division,

Th

El

each being

entitled

to vote for forty-four candi-

Eight hundred and sixty-seven had

voted, which is up towards the ninety-five
which by-election organisers in England dream
was it that such charming unanimity had
dates.

per cent, poll

about.
How

characterised the voting ? Had any hst of candidates been

recommended by the Young Turk Committee ? Oh, no
certainly not

that

would not be

would it ? Every
voter was free to make his own choice. But how did it
happen, I inquired, that nearly all the voters chose the same
He said he supposed that for weeks
forty-four candidates ?
the people had been talking the matter over
among themselves, in the mosques and in the coffee-houses, until they had
come to a general agreement as to the forty-four very best
men in the district. The Greeks yes, they had voted to
order.
They had all voted for a Greek Committee-Ust,
upon which, would it be beheved, appeared not one single
Turkish name. But the Turks, as the visitor could see for
right,

74

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

much more generous, for they had voted for

Armenians. No, the Turks had not voted for any
Greeks. Why should they, when the Greeks were all voting
for themselves ?
Besides, the Turks were only thinking of
who were the best men the forty-four very best men in the
whole district. And were they all good men ? I inquired
men of repute and standing, not firebrands or self-se'ekers,
but men of sound and responsible opinions ? Yes, he said,
all of them.
There were generals, functionaries of high positions, priests from the mosques, learned and wise men in
himself, were
five

whom

the people had learnt to repose the highest confidence.

for instance,' I said, taking up one of the ballot
papers and spreading it out before him, this gentleman,'
and I pointed to the first name on the list, who is he ?
'

Now,

'

'

'

That,' said

the presiding

'

'

and here,'
myself
another of the forty-four.

officer,

indicating his chief assistant,

'

is

is

I congratulated them both very heartily upon the bright

It all seems very odd and
prospects of their candidatures.
strange, but you have to remember the difference between

our system of electioneering and theirs. And I have not

the slightest doubt that the counting of the votes was most

The elected forty- four

fairly and accurately carried out.
will assemble next week, along with the elected delegates
from all the other divisions of the city, at the central
municipality of Stamboul to elect the ten parliamentary
representatives of the capital."

The palace of Tcheragan, on the European shore of

the Bosphorus was, on his accession, presented by Sultan
Mohammed to the nation for the purpose of
a House of Parhament, the accommodation
^T^
of the existing Chamber at Stamboul being
House.
insufficient.
This Palace was, unfortunately,
much damaged by fire last spring, but has been restored and
again serves for the deliberations of the National Assembly
which are held in the great hall, the Senate meeting in the
smaller apartment, an adjoining salon being reserved

The Ottoman Parliament

for

foreign

75

ambassadors and other distinguished x-isitors.

however, to construct a New Senate House

It is proposed,

at Seragho Point affording better accommodation for carrying

on the work of the government and possessing the additional

advantage of being more central than its present quarters.

Young as is the Turkish Parhament, two distinct parties
already appear in it, the adherents of the Committee of
Union and Progress to whom the Revolution was due, and
"
the Ahrar who, though they claim to be
Liberals,"
represent the more conserv^ative section of the Ottoman nation.
Among the numerous problems which confront the Young
Turks, none is more pressing than the question of finance.
P UlcUlCC

Essential to every State, it is even more so

to one in which a new form of government

has just been established with the obligation of proving itself

better than that which it has replaced.
Apart from the
revenues directed by the International administration of
the Public Debt, such a degree of disorder had for long
reigned in the collection of taxes and dues, as well as in
public expenditure, that the slightest reform in these departments could not but make it evident that a change for the
better had taken place.
According to Article 96 of the
Turkish Constitution, no duties to the profit of the State
can be imposed or levied save by law. The Budget must
contain an account of revenues and disbursements
each
detail must be discussed and voted upon by the Senate and
the Chamber of Deputies
and the draft of this Finance Bill
must be submitted to the Chamber immediately after the
opening of Parhament which should be on the 1st November,
while the closure is fixed for the 1st March (old style).
;

Two Budgets have

already been brought forward and passed

by the Ottoman Parhament. The first, which was drawn
up by the aid of the eminent French financier
^^Charles Laurent, was laid before the
budget*
House in the spring of 1909 and the framer
of this first Ottoman Budget stated that during its
preparation
;

76

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

"
"
such extraordinary facts
had come to his knowledge
"
as to cause wonderment that a state could have continued
to exist under such conditions."
The requirements of the
amounted
to
Turkish
29,500,000
liras, and the revenues
Empire
amounted to but 25,700,000. To cover the deficit it was
decided to have recourse to a loan of seven million liras
(about ;^6,400,000). Though two millions of this sum were
reserved for London, the stock was not readily taken up by
that market, and through the agency of the Ottoman Bank,
the Paris Bourse ultimately absorbed the whole. These
new Ottoman bonds bear interest at four per cent, to be
derived from the tithes of five vilayets of Asia Minor and the
sheep-tax of Aleppo.
When presenting the second Budget to the Chamber in
November of the same year, Djavid Pasha who had some
months previously succeeded Rifaat Pasha

Budeet"*^

as

Minister

of

Finance

after

referring

to

important services rendered to the

Government by the Ottoman Bank, proceeded to show that
this financial transaction constituted a real success for the
the

Young Turk

party, and expressed his conviction that the

Porte would in future be able to obtain loans without offering
The demands made on the government
special securities.
he
were,
pointed out, stupendous. The Nation was impatient
to be supplied with the equipment possessed by other modern
states

commerce and

agriculture required careful fostering

the navy, the gendareverywhere schools were demanded

But as financial
and
the
mery,
'police required reorganising.
the
was
of
the
first
Ministry would
equihbrium
importance,
only then ask for the most Umited suppUes, and he confidently
anticipated that its next and third Budget would show no
deficit whatever.
This would be accomplished with the
co-operation of two institutions which respectively play an
;

important part in the economic Hfe of the Empire the

Ottoman Bank and the Agricultural Bank. This second

Finance

Bill

contained some interesting clauses.

It

proposed

77

The Ottoman Parliament

the suppression of the Ibtissah, or professional tax, which

abolished the
was still levied in some parts of the Empire
in money
amount
the
of
in
kind
imposts, fixing
payment
district
each
of
the
to
suppressed
according
requirements
and proposed the coinage in
the use of inland passports
;

the course of the next four years of nickel pieces representing

fractions of a piastre to the amount of one million liras,
the existing silver piastres, being of inconveniently small

Other clauses dealt

to be withdrawn from circulation.
with the cession to the City of Constantinople of the tolls
of Galata Bridge, which constitute the security for the municipal loan of one miUion liras, to take effect from the 1st
March, 1910, and the concession to an Ottoman Company

size,

the completion and working of the Hedjaz Railway.

Reductions were to be made in official salaries with a view

of

to ultimate pensions, the administration of pension funds,

civil, military, and religious, to be placed under the direction
of the Ministry of Finance dealing with the Pubhc Debt.
The finances of the Empire, which, since the end of the

sixteenth century, have been in an unsatisfactory state, were

about thirty years ago placed in the hands

"Council of the Pubhc Debt." The

operations of this body, which comprises
representatives of bondholders belonging to
half a dozen different nationalities, are conducted in a magnificent building conspicuous in Stamboul both from its size
and position. The delegates are elected for five years and
the president is either of French or English nationality,
of^the^PubHc
Debt."

^^ ^

according to the numerical preponderance of bondholders.

Originally a sort of trustee, empowered to control on behalf
of the creditors of Turkey the revenues which had been

relinquished as security, the Debt, as it is termed for convenience sake, has graduaUy enlarged its sphere of operations.

The Government, appreciating

1888,

and

to

assume the

in the

same

its services, requested it, in

collection of the sur-tax, Hissei-Jan ;

year,

when the Deutsche Bank

of

BerUn

78

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

offered to undertake the construction of a railway in Asia

Minor the Porte imposed the condition that the tithes, which

had been assigned as guarantees for the receipts of the hne,

should be similarly controlled by the Debt. In the space
of eight years, nine similar contracts were placed in its control, six of which referred to the construction of railways,
and the remaining three to State Loans, the commission paid
being, as a rule, five per cent. The Debt constitutes a powerful
organisation, and is admitted by the new government to have
been of great public utility, Djavid Pasha in his speech on
the first Budget having spoken in the highest terms of the
services rendered by it to the State.
Its staff is enormous, numbering over four thousand
officials, whose united salaries exceed 200,000 liras, and includes many grades Nazirs or Directors,

r.,

..

Organisation.

forth.
districts

Mudirs or Chief Accountants, Cashiers, Secretaries. Inspectors, mounted and other, and so
.

For fiscal purposes the Empire is partitioned into chief

termed Nazarets, which are divided into Mudiriats,

and again subdivided in their turn into Memoursets, presided

over respectively by officials whose rank corresponds to these
divisions and subdivisions, and who now form an active and
disciphned body of men, imbued with the spirit of order and
regularity which characterises similar organisations in the West.
Sir Adam Block, the Enghsh member of the Council, in presenting his annual report to the British and Anglo-Dutch
bondholders, whom he more specially represents, also referred
to the important services which had been rendered by the
Debt, and drew attention to its economical working, con-

sidering the extent and multiplicity of the tasks devolving

upon it, citing as an instance the salt monopoly which alone

required the maintenance of two hundred depots. Sir Adam

at the same time rendered his tribute of praise to the work
already done by the Young Turks in diverting to national
uses the vast sums formerly spent by the Palace and in
returning to the Treasury the vast amount of property which

Photo by

AHMED

Sebah

RIZA BEY. PRESIDENT OF THE

DEPUTIES

&

Joailler

CHAMBER OF

The Ottoman Parliament

79

during the past reign had formed part of the Imperial Civil
List.

The Ottoman Bank, which played so important a part

Ottoman State Loan of 1909, was

in the negotiation of the

formed as

^^^B^k."^^

company

such in 1863.
established in

Originally a banking

London

in 1856 with

a capital of 500,000 with several branches

"
in Turkey, it was transformed into the
Imperial Ottoman
Bank," with a capital of 2,700,000 hras, half of which was

paid up. It had the exclusive privilege of issuing bank-notes

to the extent of three times its metallic reserve,
payable at

and

Its other
legally current throughout the Empire.
operations consisted in receiving and banking the revenues
of the Empire from all sources
in

sight,

negotiating exclusively

on behalf of the Government both at home and abroad the

payment of Treasury bonds and the transaction of all financial
connected with the administration
in contracting
its owti account or on that of others, in
undertaking
their negotiation, and in
opening credits for the State on the
In 1865 the capital was increased
security of its revenues.
affairs

loans on

to 101,250,000 francs, or
;f4,050,000,

and

in 1874,

mation with the Austro-Ottoman Bank, to

by amalga-

fifty

miUions

sterhng, distributed in 500,000 ;^20 shares, half of which were

paid up. The Bank is administered by a Council having its
seat at Constantinople,
consisting of four Directors and three

Administrators, nominated by the Anglo-French Committee

established in Paris and London, the
appointment of the
three
administrators
being ratified by the Ottoman

Government.

The history of this Bank has been

intimately connected
with the history of Ottoman finances more
especially since
1874, at which critical financial period it became the Treasury's Paymaster-General, being represented on the Commission of the Budget, and entitled to receive
payment of the
Nation's revenues, thus holding a
position which the Hon

Thomas Bruce.

President of the Assembly of Shareholders

80

of the

Turkey

Ottomans

"

without precedent in the history of free

corporations or financial institutions." The Ottoman Bank
has ever since remained the Bank of the Treasury, on whose
characterised as

account

its

operations have long been so successful that its

Bank in the ordinary sense have remained but

activities as a

secondary, its paper issue having, for special reasons, never

attained any considerable figure. At the present day it
amounts to but 800,000, a very modest sum considering
the population and the extent of the Empire. Bills of
exchange would also be a great convenience to business men,
obviating the present costly mode of conveyance of specie
risks in transport.
The Government
appears, however, to appreciate the advantages which may
be derived from the development in such directions of this

which often runs great

prosperous national bank.

The Turkish monetary unit

is the gold lira, worth about

English money. Theoretically it is divided into
100 piastres and each piastre into torty paras;
but this equivalence of the Turkish hra is
^ystem.^
far from being stable, and the number of

18s. 4d. in

which

piastres

a gold

piece

in different

In

addition

one
varies

or

receives in exchange for

most extraordinary manner
the Empire and at different periods.

parts of
to this,

gives

in

the

the

coins

is

imperatively necessary.

of

lesser

value

now

in

condition, and a new issue

Owing also to the want of facili-

circulation are in exceedingly

bad

communication between different parts of the country,

some classes of coins become accumulated at certain points,
and are consequently lacking in other localities, the result
ties of

being the establishment of local rates of exchange, the vagaries of which often assume incredible proportions.
According
to the normal tariff, the gold lira is now worth 108 silver
but the number that may be obtained in exchange
piastres
;

one of these gold pieces varies immensely according to

their abundance or scarcity in the district where the transaction takes place. But it is not only in the remoter
for

The Ottoman Parliament

81

provinces that the excessive variations in the rate of exchange

are met with.
For even in such a comparatively civihsed
centre as Salonica as many as 160 piastres may be demanded
against a gold lira, which same coin on the confines of
Arabia is obtainable for 100. One reason for this unsatisfactory
state of affairs is the exceedingly limited circulation of banknotes.
Those of the Ottoman Bank, which has the monopoly
issuing notes, are only negotiable at Constantinople,
Could
are consequently not accepted in the provinces.
of
the
be
for
in
ten
or
more
principal
they
presented
payment
of

and

towns
would

of

be

the Empire,
minimised,

some
to

at least of these fluctuations

the

detriment,

no

doubt,

of

enormously by
changers who now profit
them, but to the advantage of the public and of business
the

money

generally.
It has aheady been recognised by the Ottoman Government that the sj^tem of centraHsation, which has existed in
Turkey ever since the abolition of feudahsm
^" ^^^ beginning of last century, and still
Decwito^fsation
exists, must be largely modified, and power
be given to local governors of provinces and their councils

to carry out necessary reforms without reference of every

detail, as at present, to the Chamber of Deputies.
is this desirable in the \Tlayets most distant from

and a beginning

Especially
the Capital,

of such necessary decentrahsation and pracRule has already been made in the appointment
to the important governorship of Bagdad of "Nazim Pasha.
This able man, who had been seven years a prisoner of Abdul
Hamid, left last spring for his post vested with the powers
not of a mihtary governor general merely, but practically
with those of a viceroy
and the experiment entrusted to
him by the Government is being watched with anxious
A similar
interest by both its advocates and its opponents.
scheme is under consideration with reference to the province
of Arabia where, as also in Syria, the need for more local
self-goverrmient is held to be pressing.
6 (2389)
tical

Home

82

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

In the Custom houses, too, both of the capital and the

seaports generally, it is admitted on all hands that considerable reforms have been operated under the
Customs
-^^^ Government. This has been in great
measure due to the action of our late
Sir
Nicholas O'Conor, who, before he advised
Ambassador,

government to agree to the proposed increase of Customs

dues on imports, stipulated for a more satisfactory management of this exceedingly corrupt department. This department was accordingly placed under the direction of an
Englishman, Mr. Crawford, who has entirely reorganised it.
The time-honoured system of bakshish, or bribery, has been
and the discipline and order which have been
abolished
estabHshed have called forth the highest enconiums, not only
from the foreign merchants and others who suffered under
the old system, but also from the subordinates of this able
his

British

official.

Railways in Turkey, as elsewhere, have played and will

play an important part in commercial and industrial development. The first Turkish railway dates back
ai ways.
^^^^ some forty years, and was due to the
Maurice de Hirsch, who realised the
of
Baron
enterprise
of
connecting Constantinople with the rest of
importance
Europe by an iron road. The mileage of Ottoman railways,
6,600 kilom6tres, is as yet but meagre compared with that
of the majority of European states, but will in time be no
doubt greatly extended. The Hues first constructed, termed
"

The Oriental Railways," comprise practically

collectively
four distinct hues
(1) from Constantinople to Vakarel, passing

by Adrianople, Tirnova, and Philippopolis (2) from Salonica

^
to Mitrovitza, Uskub to Zibeftche, Tirnova to YamboU
;

^
The parts of this hne situated between the stations of Tirnova
and Yamboli and those of Mustapha Pasha and Vakarel respectively pass
through what is now Bulgarian territory, and were ceded to the princiof francs {;^ 120,000) paid to
paUty in consideration of three millions
"
Societe des Chemins de Fer
the Ottoman Government by the

Orientaux."

The Ottoman Parliament

83

"
line connecting Salonica with Dedeaghatch
junction
and the main artery and (4) a Une from Salonica to Monastir,
The other lines are those from Haidar Pasha on the Bosa

(3)

"

from Eski-Shehir to Konia from Smyrna

phonis to Angora
from
to Kassaba on the one side and to Aidin on the other
Moudania, on the sea of Marmora, to Broussa from Mersim
to Adana
from Jaffa to Jerusalem and last, but not least,
the Hedjaz, or Pilgrim's Railway, from Damascus to Mecca.
This important line, already in working order as far as
^ledina, is due to the impulsion of the late Sultan who not
only saw in it a ser\'iceable instrument for
;

"^'

.J

his

panislamic propaganda by facihtating

the conveyance of pilgrims to Mecca, but

no doubt astutely recognised its strategic importance in

It starts
dealing with the unruly Arab tribes of the Hedjaz.
from Damascus in a southerly direction, and joins the branch

also

Under Abdul Hamid, the

was defrayed partly by the State and
partly by subscriptions raised in ever>' part of the Moslem
world. The completion and future working of the remaining
section between Medina and Mecca has now been entrusted
by the Government to an Ottoman Company. Begun 'in
1901, it follows in the main the old pilgrim road to Mecca,
a distance of 1,100 miles from Damascus.
Of this the 815
miles to Medina were completed in seven years. The cost
will have been less than 3,000 per mile, in all 3,105,000,
on completion of the Une to Mecca. The explanation of
line

connecting Khaifa and Deraat.

cost of its construction

comparatively small expenditure is to be found in the

through which the railway passes conand the labour has been suppHed by
the Ottoman troops. No fewer than 4,000 bridges and
culverts, together with numerous tunnels have been conthis

fact that the country

sists of Crown lands,

structed, as well

as workshops at Damascus, Haifa, Dara,

and other stations on the line. The cost of construction of
the other Unes was met by
a variety of financial

arrangements.

84

Turkey

At
as

of the

Ottomans

the Government conceded what were then known

"
Ottoman Railways
to a contractor to whom it
the
for
work
paid
by means of obUgations,
'^nown by the term Lots turcs, which conConSsTk>ns.
"

first

the

stituted a direct debt of the Treasury.

Later,
concessions to private companies were in some instances had
recourse to, which impHed the granting of kilometric guarantees, given for the most part in the form of tithes made over to
the concessionaries, thus assuring them a fixed revenue. This

however, equally condemned by reason and experiit does a premium on

and
poor traffic
other methods will no doubt be adopted by the new government in the extension of the existing Asian lines starting
from ports in the Sea of Marmora, the ^gean, and the

system

is,

ence, constituting as

Mediterranean, in addition to the new fines it is proposed

to inaugurate at Samsoun on the Black Sea.
International
arrangements have also now made possible the continuation
of the work on the Bagdad Railway, of which the section

between Konia and Boulgourlou is already in working order.

Without adequate complementary highways, however, all
these new railways cannot be expected to prosper. Thousands
of miles of good roads are necessary to convey to their various
stations the produce of the interior, and bring prosperity
again to the Empire generally. The beginning that has

been made

in giving a concession to a French company of

engineers for the immediate construction of 10,000 kilometres of highways is, it is hoped, but an earnest of what

may

be accomplished in

this

direction in

the immediate

future.

The

"

Committee of Union and Progress," so long a secret

political organisation, has now thrown off its disguise and
The " Committee P'"*'l^"^^^ itself publicly as an association
of

Union and

Progress."

having as its President Halil Bey.

^j^g
appointment of Hakki Pasha,

With
lately

ambassador at Rome, to the post of Grand Vizier, it may

be said that every minister is now at least a nominee, if

Photo by

HIS

Sebah

&

Joaillier

EXCELLENCY HAKKI PASHA, GRAND VIZIER

The Ottoman Parliament

not, indeed, a

member

of the Committee.

85
Kiamil Pasha,

Grand Vizier under the Constitution was not, nor

was Hihni Pasha who succeeded him. But for the
proper
working of the Constitution it is no doubt advisable that
the

first

ministers should, for the present at least, be

its

nominees.

The new Prime Minister enjoys the

reputation of being a
particularly able and level-headed man, endowed with a
judicial mind and the capacity of seeing both sides of a

He

also possesses the

question.
courage of his opinions, and
even in the days of Abdul Hamid, never
hesitated, in private
conversation, to express his views on current events.
One of the greatest evils inflicted on his
country by Abdul

Hamid was

the depriving

it

of

men

of administrative
capacity.

*^^"^^ * exercise the functions of

responLack of Trained
^^^^^ government officials.
The consequence
Officials.
is that the men in whose hands
the welfare
of the country now rests lack for the most
part administrative experience.
on aU hands to

ministry,

and

who compose

The

present ministry

have w orked well

also the
it is

weak point

that,

is,

but

however, admitted
weak point as a

its

of the individual ministers

though abounding

in

good intentions,

they are apparently afraid of incurring

Under
responsibility.
the old system,
responsibiUty for any undertaking was
spread over a number of officials, no one of whom was
per-

sonaUy responsible for its success or failure. Now, of course

each minister is responsible for the
working of his owti department of state, and
to sanction
apparently lacks the
courage

large undertakings for the

good of the country. On

hand the cry is that the Government advances too every
slowly,
that It does
nothing. There are numberiess projects for
pubhc works before the Chamberroads,

by European
the

railways, proposals
capitahsts for electric traction and
lighting,

of marshes, and
many others, which would
foreign money into the country and
develop its natural
resources, besides giving much needed
to tens
employment
of thousands of native
workmen. Very few of these
projects

drammg

bnng

86

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

and the
have, however, yet received Government sanction
in
the
Press
Parliamentary Reports
daily
unfortunately
convey to the public at large the impression that the time
;

of the able Minister of Public

Works, instead of being devoted

to the consideration of these important matters, is largely

occupied in defending his position, and that botlv in the

Chamber and

in the Ministry an undue amount of time is

personal matters, to the prejudice of public
A beginning has, however, apparently been made,
interests.
and with the progress of decentralisation and improved
finances, works of public utility will no doubt before long

diverted to

be inaugurated in all directions.

The Turkish Chamber of Deputies

is admitted to have,
into
so far, worked well.
account the absoIndeed, taking
lute lack of experience, not only in constitutional, but in any

kind of government, with which its members undertook

their important duties, it may even be said to have worked
wonderfully well. It was at first feared that the Deputies,
having been nominated by the Committee of Union and
Progress, and largely elected by its influence, would prove
its subservient tools.
These fears have not, however, been
realised, many leading deputies of all creeds and races having
given evidence of a spirit of independence which augurs well
for the future.
Groups for mutual support are already being
formed within the Chamber, and various men who entertain
definite opinions on measures necessary for the good of the
country have published a list of what Americans would call
"

"

The friendly understanding

in their programme.
planks
entered upon two years ago between Moslems, Christians and
Jews continues unbroken, all representatives of the various
races working harmoniously together and referring in terms
of respect to each other's creeds, and all equally eager to be
doing something for the progress of their common country.

The discussions in the Chamber may, it is true, be occasionally

somewhat noisy and personalities be exchanged. These
and are called
irregularities are, however, but healthy signs,

The Ottoman Parliament

87

most part by impatience at the delay in passing

while the discussions generally, which are eagerly
read throughout the country, are politically of the greatest
forth for the

Bills

educational value for the provincial and rural population,

allowing them to see what progress is being made day by day
towards reforming the Courts of Justice, or bringing a railway
to transport the farmer's produce to a favourable market,
and thus affording him a reply to the cavilling reactionary

who

asks what the Constitution has done for him.

CHAPTER
LAW COURTS,

POLICE,

VI

AND ARMY

In 1867 the Porte made considerable changes

in the adminis-

tration of the provinces, abolishing the ancient pashahks,

and establishing in their stead the modern

termed Vilayets. Each of these

under the authority of a Vali
Pasha, or Governor-General, and is subdivided into three or
'^%Itim.^^

divisions

Vilayets

more sanjaks

is

administered by mutessarifs, or
and
subdivided
into cazas and nahies,
sub-governors,
again
or cantons and communes, the latter being aggregates of
from five to ten villages under a mudir, a kind of Justice of
the Peace. The capital has, however, a separate jurisdiction.
The judicial organisation of the Empire was also entirely
or districts,

remodelled during the past century, the procedure of the Civil

Code being now based partly on the Code Napoleon, and
partly on the usages of the ancient courts of the country.
Turkish Criminal Law and its procedure has also been largely
borrowed from the French judicial system, while the Mercantile
Law of the country is based conjointly on that of France and
Holland. The Courts may be characterised respectively as the
Ancient and the Reformed, the latter being under the control
of the Minister of Justice, and the former, which is semiecclesiastical, constituting part of the office of the Sheikh-ulIslam, and deals with all questions in which Moslems only
are concerned.
The adoption of French legal methods has proved, in
working, by no means such an advance on the old methods as
Courts

was anticipated by those responsible for their

For instead of one judge
introduction.

presiding in each court, as previously, the

operation of this system in Turkey has made necessary the
88

^Photo hy

NEDJMEDDIN MOLLAH, MINISTER OF JUSTICE

Law

Courts, Police,

and Army

89

presence in one court of several judges belonging to different

and religions, and the result has hitherto been apparently
greater venahty and corruption than under the old system.
races

And further to comphcate matters,

in addition to this

system of

there exists, as I have said,

jurisprudence, the semi-

civil

which the procedure is based

on the Sunna, or Moslem Traditions, the supreme Court of
Appeal for which is that of the Sheikh-ul-Islam. In the case
of Moslems this system of law is applicable to aU transactions
but its peculiar importance is due to the fact that all questions
affecting real estate, whatever the nationahty or creed of the
The
Utigants, must be decided according to its principles.
functionaries who administer this sacred law belong to the
higher ranks of the important body of Moslem legists and
theologians termed collectively the Ulema, who constitute the
most conservative section of Mohammedan society. This
order consists of three classes
(1) The Imams and other
religious court of the Sheriat, in

(2) the Muftis, or

the Mollahs and Kadis, or Judges,
the last two categories being subdivided into a number of intermediate ranks according to the special departments included
in the Court of the Sheriat.
No changes are likely to be

inferior

functionaries of the

Doctors of

Law

and

mosques

(3)

operated in this Court but in the department of Civil Law

the need for reform is generally recognised, and the question will no doubt shortly be dealt with by the Sultan's
;

government.
These Courts of Justice are also supplemented by mixed
councils composed of Christians and Jews, as well as Moslems.

Among these are the Chambers of Commerce and the Medjliss,

or Municipal Council, which includes representatives of the
various communities forming the population of a city or
township. Councils of Elders or Notables under the presidency of their respective religious chiefs, Bishops or Rabbis,
also everywhere regulate the internal affairs of the Christian
and Jewish communities without interference by the Turkish
authorities.

90

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

One important sign of the progress made by Turkey during

the past two years towards the estabHshment of order and
security throughout the Empire may be found
^^^ development of the new force of
Gendarmery. First instituted in Macedonia
by the intervention of the Powers, it had, even before the
Revolution worked so well that immediately after that event
it was by common consent resolved to extend it to other parts
of the Empire.
Its organisation was entrusted to an Italian
officer. General de Robilant, who began with the three adjoin-

G nd^rmT

^^

ing vilayets, this new force being now in process of organisaThese have been grouped for
tion in the remaining vilayets.

the purpose into six sections, the cities of Constantinople,

Salonica, Smyrna, Beyrout, Erzindjian, and Bagdad forming
respectively the headquarters of the European officers entrusted with the task. Schools for the training of gendarmes
have already been estabhshed in the Asiatic centres of Smyrna
and Beyrout on the model of that opened a few years ago at
Salonica, and in the first-named the force numbers upwards
of 1,700 trained men, with an additional third in training.
These gendarmes are selected from among the military re-

who, after six months' training in the regular army,

volunteer for three years in the gendarmery. As they receive
a sHghtly higher pay, this service obtains the best men, while
under the old system it was the riff-raff of the army who were
It was perhaps natural that
drafted into the Zaptieh force.
the gendarmery should have been at first regarded with a
cruits

by the members of this antiquated body, and they

consequently in certain places met with opposition, as for
instance at Beyrout, where the rivalry between the new and the
On the whole, however, they have
old order led to bloodshed.
received the hearty support of the nation, and even in the
remoter districts, where innovations are usually regarded with
are beginning to
suspicion, if not hostiUty, the inhabitants
manifest a degree of confidence in the new police which they
were far from feeling towards the Zaptiehs, and do all in their

jealous eye

Law

Courts, Police,

and Army

91

power to assist them in the maintenance of order. In the

inhabitants
capital their presence is greatly appreciated, as its
show by their acts their recognition of the fact that this force
exists for the convenience and protection of the pubhc.
In the country

districts,

not only the pohce but also the

gendarmery and the troops are entrusted with the task of

maintaining order and safeguarding hfe and
In the towns, however, this duty
property.
This force
devolves chiefly on the pohce.
has been entirely reorganised during the past two years and
in the larger cities and to\Mis now exists on an excellent

p^

Such a

city as Salonica is, for instance, divided into

twenty-two police stations, served by 154 constables, and
thirty-two officers of different grades, under an able Superfooting.

Of the constables, twenty are provided with bicyand

when
the city force has been, as proposed, increased
cles,
twelve
of these will serve as mounted policemen.
men,
by sixty
A Police School has for some years past been estabhshed in
this important provincial capital, in which a five months'
intendent.

course of special instruction in professional duties is afforded

to young men desirous of joining the force either as constables
or officers.
At Adrianople also a degree of order and public
security hitherto unknown has been established under the
direction of its energetic young Superintendent of Pohce who,
within six months of his appointment, had thoroughly re-

organised the force under his orders, dismissing those members

of it whose methods savoured too much of the old regime

and replacing them by capable officers inspired Hke himself

with zeal for the pubhc welfare. Without waiting for the
pending Parliamentary enactments with regard to decentrahsation, Djemal Bey ventured at the outset to assume the
responsibiUty of initiating changes and inaugurating new
methods in his department. A new pohce station was, for
instance, immediately necessary in a quarter of the city
where fires and robberies had long been of frequent occurrence.
Setting red-tape at defiance, the Superintendent, without any

92

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

reference of the matter to headquarters, which would inevit-

ably have caused delay, made a local appeal for subscriptions

which was so heartily responded to that the amount required
was speedily collected, and the new station forthwith built.
The twelve district police stations of the town also lacking
telephonic inter-communication, the enterprising officer
proceeded to organise an al fresco entertainment, which
included among other attractions, cycle-races and wrestling
matches, in which the Turkish pehlivan, Adali, a wrestler of
world-wide renown, took part, and the proceeds sufficed for
the necessary telephonic installation. Before the reorganisation of the gendarmery, the members of this force were
subordinate to the police, making the rounds under their
direction.
Now, however, though still liable to be called
to
upon
supplement the action of the police in cases of emergency, they occupy an independent position with special and
strictly defined duties.
regiment of gendarmery is assigned to

each of the vilayets

and to every caza
a company. Four battahons are, however, quartered in the
caza of which the city of Salonica is the seat of government,
the city itself being allotted, in addition to the tv/enty-two
police stations, seven of gendarmery, to one of which is
entrusted the safeguarding of the local branch of the Ottoman
"
Bank and the " Frank or foreign quarter generally, a second
being in charge of the Prison of Detention, and a third of the
This city force consists of two hundred men, of whom
gaol.
twenty are mounted, officered by a captain, lieutenant, subof the Empire, to every sanjak a battalion,

three sergeant-majors, eleven sergeants and

fourteen corporals. Like the poUce, the gendarmery patrol
and in localities
their respective beats by night as by day
in which police stations have not yet been established, the
ordinary police duties are performed by the gendarmery.

lieutenant,

military forces are naturally concerned first and foremost

with assuring the political security of the country, as guardians
but they also are liable to be called upon in
of the frontiers

The

Law

Courts, Police,

and Army

93

case of necessity to supplement both the police and the gendarmery in the maintenance of order. To the above guardians
of the peace must be added the ancient company of pasvans
or bektchis

watchmen

of the night,

who, cirmed only with

lantern and iron shod staff, form the counterpart of the not
"
"
watch of eighteenth-century England.
too efficient
Conflicting opinions have been expressed of late years by
writers on Turkey as to the state of her Army prior to the
Some have represented it as
Revolution.

Army

having, in common \\ith the Navy, fallen into

decay, while others, apparently equally com-

petent to judge, have spoken favourably of

tion

and equipment.

However

this

its

general condi-

be, the soldiers of

account of themselves

may

the Sultan certainly gave a very good

in the Greek War, and also during the counter-revolution of
For, throughout all their history, the mainApril, 1909.
tenance of an effective army has been the primar\' care of the
Sultans, and Abdul Hamid cannot be said to have failed to
follow in this respect the example of his predecessors.
Still,
however, the Ottoman Army was far from having attained the

European standard. And when the movement of reform

culminated in the dethronement of the Tyrant of YUdiz, the
Government and the mihtary leaders at once turned their
attention to the improvement of the Army, the immediate
necessity for which was made abundantly e\ddent by the
situation in the Balkan Peninsula Bosnia and Herzegovina
formally annexed by Austria, Bulgaria elevated from a
principaUty to a kingdom, and Crete in revolt. The country
had been terribly impoverished by the misrule of the exSultan
but money for the Army had to be found, and the
treasure chests of Yildiz Kiosk and the foreign investments of
its late master were laid under contribution for this
purpose.
A considerable nmnber of Turkish officers who had been
trained either under German methods or actually in the
German Army had returned home imbued with military ideas
of the most modem pattern, eind many of these co-operated

94

Turkey

Ottomans

of the

with the Committee of Union and Progress in effecting a

Revolution which has rid the country for ever of absolutism.
The task of Army Reform could accordingly be immediately
taken in hand. The old green and blue uniforms were
discarded, the troops being now clad in khaki, and well shod
obsolete arms have been replaced by the newest European
models the cavalry are also well equipped, and field-guns and
other munitions of war are not lacking. The rank and file
are now much more carefully drilled than formerly, and are
also frequently exercised during long days at manoeuvres
in a way quite new in the Ottoman Army.
The result naturally is that the troops generally are smarter in manner and
;

appearance, march in more orderly fashion, and according to

military experts, each regiment is worth at least fifty per cent,

more than

it was two years ago.

striking and important change has also this year taken
place in the composition of the rank and file. All Ottomans

are

Non-Moslem
Soldiers.

now

hable for miUtary service, irrespective

creed
and for the first time in

,.,,.
Turkish

;
'

,.

history Christians and Jews are

entitled equally with Moslems to bear arms and fight in the
armies of the Sultan against the enemies of what is now their

common country.
and expressed by

Considerable doubt was at

first

entertained

foreigners as to the

possible satisfactory
difficulties being foreseen in the

working of

this scheme,
observance of three separate days of rest and other circumBut all necessary arrangements appear to have been
stances.
made for meeting these difficulties, suggestions offered by the
religious heads of the various communities having been

welcomed and acted upon by the mihtary authorities. During

the six months prior to the enrolment of non-Moslem recruits,
officers in barracks and Imams in the mosques with equal
earnestness urged upon the Moslem soldiery the necessity of
treating with courtesy and consideration their new Christian
and Jewish comrades and so far, apparently, the greatest
;

harmony has prevailed among the various elements comprising

Law
this

year's

Courts, Police,

additions

the

to

and Army

95

the

Ottoman

strength

of

The only point which does not seem yet

Army,

to have been

satisfactorily settled is the pro\'ision for training non-Moslem

military cadets in nmnbers commensurate with the numbers of

non-Moslem conscripts.

This question

\\ill

probably, however,

ere long also be satisfactorily dealt with ; and when Christians

and Jews reaUse that they are practically on a footing of
equaUty with their Moslem fellow-cotmtr^-men, a great advance

win have been made tow ards the estabUshment of tranquillity

throughout the Empire.
For mihtar^^ purposes Turkey
three in Europe
_

Army
j

Conscription.

tioned,

by

and fom:

is

divided into seven districts,

each of which furnishes an

Corps
r for the defence of the Fatherland,
in Asia,

recrmtment bemg
conscription.

Under

effected, as above
this system, all

menmale

the Sultan are hable to be called upon to

ser\-e their coimtry in the field.
The wealthy may, however,
by pacing a fine of 50, evade this patriotic duty, and 3'oung
subjects

of

men whose

labour constitutes the sole support of a parent are

entitled to complete exemption,

^'er^' curiously also, there
are certain locaUties of the Empire the Capital, Scutari in

Albania, and the Yemen residence in which confers freedom

from the conscription. Members of the learned professions,
theological, medical and legal, together with students preparing to enter them, are also ever^^vhere excluded from the

number of those available for military service

the result being

;
vocation for the study of
the Sheriat, or Sacred Law, deeming that
they have even less
vocation for active service, endeavotu* to pass at least the
prehminary examination in Arabic and other subjects which
that

many young men who have no

entitles

them

to this pri^ilege, even if they subsequently adopt

The vast number of able-bodied men thus

another career.

claiming exemption has hitherto proved a serious blot on an

othenvise admirable system
and the question of at Iccist
;

modifying these local pri\ileges of exemption

now under consideration. For the purposes of

is,

beheve,

conscription a

96

Turkey

register of

is

boys

of the

Ottomans

kept in every recruiting

district,

annual

returns of births being made by the municipal officers of towns

and the headmen of villages. As each youth arrives at the
age for service his number is drawn, and if he cannot claim
exemption under any of the above pretexts, and is medically
certified, he is either sent to the military depot for training, or

should

there be at the moment no vacancies for service

with the colours is at once passed into the second-class

The Cavalry,

Artillery and Engineers are recruited

indiscriminately from all the various military districts, every
centre furnishing a certain proportion to each arm.
On completing his nine years' service with the colours,
a soldier returns to his home as a Redif, or first-class reservist,

Reserve.

Reserve

being attached to the battalion of his district

^^^ ^^^^^ liable to be called out for active

service in cases of emergency.

Of these
regimental districts of Redifs there are no fewer than 384, each
under the command of a major with a small permanent staff
and as arms, accoutrements and equipment generally are
stored at the battalion headquarters, a body of highly-trained
and seasoned men is always available to supplement the
Regular Army. As to the Mustafiz, or second-class reservists,
ten divisions of this body are nominally attached to each
Army Corps, but are liable to be called upon for active service
only in the event of grave national danger. As they possess
;

no military qualifications beyond regimental organisation,

they are not available as a fighting contingent, though as
"
hewers of wood and drawers of water," and in similar
subordinate capacities, they would no doubt furnish a valuable
,

asset to the Nizami, or Regular Army, during a campaign.

The rate of pay, both for officers and men, is low compared

with our standards. It is, however, no longer in arrears,

as under the old regime
and not only do the
Pay and
officers receive both uniforms and rations from
;

Kations.

/-.

the Government but are for the most part

accustomed to the simple life, and have no drinking and

Law

Courts, Police,

and Army

97

gambling temptations. The rations supplied to the men in

barracks are of good quality and ample in quantity, a Turkish
peasant being said to fare far better as a soldier of the Sultan
than he ever did in his village home, being entitled to a daily
ration of an oka ^ of bread and half an oka of meat per diem,
with certain quantities of rice, vegetables, and cooking butter
The barracks in which the regimental officers and men are
housed are, on the whole, sufficiently spacious and airy, and
the troops are, generally speaking, strong and healthy. Barrack life is, no doubt, in many respects trying for the sons of
the soil who form the majority of the recruits. But taken as
a whole, the physique of the Turkish Army is magnificent, and
in marching and staying powers the rank and file are admitted
by competent authorities to be second to none in the world.
Accustomed to frugal fare, and a total abstainer from strong
drink, the Ottoman soldier when on active service, is ever
ready at the bugle-call to strike or pitch his tent, saddle or
unsaddle his charger, and hang his camp-kettle wherever
he may chance to bivouac. The requirements of the soldiery
being so easily satisfied, and those of the officers being proportionately modest, the commissariat of the Turkish Army
simple to arrange, and to this fact is chiefly due its extreme
mobility. The transport service has certainly, in the past,
often proved lamentably defective.
Efforts are now, however,
is

made to bring this department of the service also up

modern requirements, though as yet, owing to the lack of
good roads, commissariat wagons cannot be used, and pack

being
to

animals are stiU often the only mode of land conveyance

possible for the necessaries of an army.
Among the publications which have sprung into existence
under the new regime may be mentioned a review entitled
"
Asker
The Army," dealing exclusively
^^*^ military subjects, its price of 100
PuStiJns.
paras, about sixpence, making it accessible

to officers of
^

An

oka

7 -(2389)

is

all

grades.

Some

idea of

its

scope and quality

equivalent to about 2| lbs. avoirdupois.

^8
may

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

be formed from the table of contents of No. 17 of this

"
which includes, among other articles,
Moral

periodical,
Effects of

War,"

"

"

"
Bits and Headstalls,"
The Sovereignty
Guide for the Education of Infantry from
"

of the Adriatic,"
the War Point of View,"
Encounter between Two Cavalry
"
What I Observed in European Armies,"
Scouting Parties,"
The authors of these papers are all Ottoman
etc., etc.

ranging in grade from brigadier-generals to captains.

Turkey, once an important naval power, never regained her
supremacy in Mediterranean waters after her disastrous
defeat at Lepanto in 1571, though a fleet of
The Navy.
a certain numerical strength was usually
maintained until the accession of Abdul
Hamid II. This Sultan, fearing that his navy might be used
against him, kept it in harbour in the Golden Horn, though
at the same time he added to it from time to time.
A dozen
torpedo boats were purchased from France, three great vessels
of the newest type were ordered to be built in England, France,
and America respectively, and an order for the refitting of
another great ship was given to an Italian firm. But every
one of these on arriving at Constantinople was sent into the
inner harbour, where it steadily deteriorated and before long
officers,

The disturbances in Crete finally awoke the

useless.
Porte to the necessity of putting its fleet at least into seagoing order. A British admiral was invited to undertake this
task, and with the assistance of other British naval officers,
its reorganisation was at once taken in hand.
Orders have
been given for the construction in England of two battleships
of about 16,500 tons each and an armoured cruiser of 12,000
tons, and it is anticipated that in two or three years' time the
Ottoman fleet may once more have attained a degree of
strength and efficiency commensurate with the importance of
the Empire. Nor apparently is any difficulty experienced in
became

obtaining Ottoman sailors to man the new vessels. The

Greek inhabitants of the coasts and islands of the ^Egean Sea,
the Sea of Marmora, and the Black Sea have ever been

Law

and Army

Courts, Police,

99

as mariners
and now that non-Moslems are eligible
for all positions in the service of the State, volunteers belonging
to this race are showing themselves eager to man the vessels

renowned

of her navy.
Among the very

nmnerous clubs which have been estabhshed

during the past two years, the most important are the military
clubs, the largest of which is situated in
Military and
stamboul close to the Persian embassy.
Naval Clubs.
,
,
,
,
Among its onginal benefactors this club
.

numbered no

less

a personage than Abdul

Hamid, who gave

it

as a birthday present the sum of one thousand pounds and the

fee simple of the building in which it meets.
The military
club at Pancaldi, on the opposite shore of the Golden Horn,
has been similarly assisted by Prince Youssouf Izzedin Effendi,

and other Imperial princes have been

generous in connection with similar institutions.
The naval clubs are not so numerous as the military ones,
"
but they, too, have felt the
revival," and in the smartlydressed naval officers who meet in a house behind the British
Embassy, and who are studying Enghsh with laudable enthusiasm, one would have some difficulty in recognising the
dispirited men of former days, who were imable, owing both
to lack of proper uniforms and to the express prohibition of the
Sultan, to return the visits paid them in due form by the
foreign naval officers stationed at the Ottoman capital.
None of these clubs are in any sense political, but have for
the heir-apparent

equally

their sole objects

exercise.

study, mutual improvement, and physical

CHAPTER

VII

THE RELIGION OF ISLAM

The main

tenets of Islam, as summed up in what are figuratermed by Moslem theologians the " Five Pillars of
Practice," consist in (1) belief in one God
^
and in the Divine mission of the Prophet
^^^llllm!^

tively

Mohammed

times

daily

of

the

the punctual repetition five

(2)

the

Namaz,

formula

appointed

of

praise and prayer

(3) pilgrimage to Mecca
(4) observance
of the annual fast of Ramazan
and (5) almsgiving. The
;

Koran insistently inculcates monotheism in its most absolute

and uncompromising form, the Moslem profession of faith

"I believe
being contained in the following declaration
in God and His Angels and His Books and
^
^^^ Prophets
in the Predestination of good
"^^jg^^^^
and evil by Allah
and in the resurrection
after death
I bear witness that there is no God save Allah
and I testify that Mohammed is His Servant and His Prophet."
:

The Koran is full of magnificent passages describing and

extolling the might, majesty, and omniscience of the Deity
and of these the two following may serve as examples
:

"

With Him are the keys of the Unseen none knoweth

them save Him. He knoweth what is on the land and what
;

but he
a seed in the
darkness of the earth nor aught that is moist
He it
or dry but it is contained in the perspicuous Book.
^
and knoweth what
is that taketh you to Himself by night,
you have earned during the day that is past and He raiseth
you up again that the number of your days may be fulfilled.
is

The Koran,

in the sea.

knoweth

it

There
There

falleth not a leaf

is

not

Moslems believe that during sleep the

and wander in illimitable space.

bodies,

100

souls of

men

leave their

The Religion

of Islam

101

Unto Him

shall ye return, and He will declare unto

you what
^
have
done."
ye
"
Allah, There is no God but Him, The Living, The Eternal.
Neither slumber nor sleep overtaketh Him. To Him
belong
what is in the heavens and what is on the earth. WTio is he
that can intercede with Him without His
permission ? He
knoweth what is before mankind and what is behind
them,
and they comprehend naught of His
knowledge but what He
willeth.
His Throne extendeth over the heaven and the
earth,
and the care of both is not a burden to Him." ^
Although, in the Koran, Allah is generally characterised as
^^
"
The Merciful " and " The Compassionate," and as
ready to

^^^^'^ *^^ ^^"^ ^^ *^^ ^^^Y penitent, 'the

general conception of the Deity is at the same
time that of a Being even more inexorable
and terrible than the " Jealous God " of the Hebrew Bible.
The word " Moslem " signifies "
Resigned "resigned, that
is, to the mysterious decrees of an
irresponsible ruler who,
though He has revealed a certain moral law for the

The Moslem
AUa?.*'"

guidance
law and aU moraUty.
"
Almighty as The only potentate. Lord of
lords, and King of kings," recurs aU
through the Koran, and
is illustrated
by the common formula of devotion termed the
Natnaz. For there is in Islam,
properly speaking, no ritual,
no sacrifice of homed beasts as in
Judaism, nor has sacerdotalism any place in Moslem
worship. The Ulema, who constitute
at once the legists and
form no
of His creatures,
This \iew of the

is

Himself above

clergy,

the

Imams and

all

spiritual hierarchv,

and

other mosque functionaries

lay claim "^to no
priestly rank, but merely for convenience sake lead the collective prayers of the
congregation in the mosque. The
mosque itself is, indeed, merely a convenience, for the Namaz

may equally weU be recited elsewhere, so long as the worshipper's face be turned in the direction of Mecca.
This act
of worship should,
howe^-er, be preceded by ablution as
prayer must only be offered in a condition of
legal purity.
1

Sura VI.
Sura II.

102
For

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

this preliminary, facilities are offered

by the fountains

with which the courtyards of every mosque are suppUed.

The ablution usual before prayer is called the ablest, and
consists in washing the hands and forearms, the face and
feet, in running water, and prayer carpets
Daily Prayers, are used to guard against any impurity on the
spot where a religious act is performed. The
Namaz itself consists of two or more repetitions of a ceremony
"
called therikat or
prostration," which is little more than the
recitation in various prescribed attitudes of certain formulae
"
"
God is most great \" "
give praise unto Allah
The ordinary midday service consists of ten of these rikais

We

such as

and the Friday service of twelve. A few minutes before the

hour of each of these five daily prayers, a servant of the
mosque, called the Muezzim, generally chosen for his vocal
abilities, ascends the spiral staircase of the minaret attached
to every mosque, and emerging on one of its surrounding
balconies, chants in Arabic the Ezan, or Call to Prayer
"
"
"
Allahu ekher,"
God is most great
(repeated thrice),
"
"
Come to prayer Prayer is better than sleep
(for the
"
He giveth
There is no God save Allah
sunrise Ezan only),
life and dieth not
My sins are great, but greater is Allah's
I
His
extol
perfections Allahu ekher."
mercy
At the full midday service the MoUahs, or Doctors of Law,
seated on elevated platforms, repeat the same formula, while
the male worshippers seat themselves in rows
Public
Qj^ ijjg mats and carpets with their faces
vvorsnip.
turned towards the Mihrab (a niche in the

mosque indicating the direction of the holy Kaaba

Mecca), the few women and children who may be present

wall of the
at

concealed in a lattice-screened gallery, which is

approached by a separate entrance. The Imam, or precentor,
stands alone facing the Mihrab with his back to the congregation, who, led by him, perform the prescribed gestures
being

with the precision of soldiers at drill. Placing his thumbs

behind his ears with the fingers extended he ejaculates, "God

The Religion

of Islam

103

most great." Then, with his hands folded on his breast

and with downcast eyes, he recites a collect and the Fatiha,
"
"
Lord's Prayer
the Moslem equivalent of the Christian
"
Praise be to Allah, Lord of the Universe, The Merciful and
Thee only
Compassionate, Lord of the Day of Judgment
do we worship
to Thee only do we cry for help
guide us
is

whom Thou hast

laden with
those
who
have
encountered
not
in
the
of
way
Thy blessings,
"
Other passages from the
Thy wrath, or have gone astray
Koran may follow, at the conclusion of which the Imam
inclines himself, placing his hands on his knees with the
"
"
three times
God is most great. I praise Allah
words,
Standing erect, with his hands extended downrepeated.
"
God hears those who praise Him
wards, he next exclaims,
O Lord, Thou art praised " falls on his knees with the words,
"
"
God is most great
and then prostrates himself with his
"
forehead touching the ground while he thrice repeats, I extol
"
O
Allah
At the conclusion of the Namaz, all the
Thee,
stand
erect
with outstretched arms and extended
worshippers
as
if
in
the
act
of
palms
receiving the expected blessing from
on high. Most impressive is the simple faith, reverence, and
absorbed devotion with which this ser\ice of worship is
performed by a congregation composed chiefly of the working
classes, in Turkey the most devout section of the population.
On Fridays, after the Namaz, a Mollah ascends the pulpit and
delivers a discourse.
This is, however, hardly a sermon in
our sense of the word, including, as it does, prayers for the
protection and triumph of Islam, followed by mention of the
early Khalifs and companions of the Prophet, whose names
are invariably greeted by the congregation with the pious
"
"
wish
May he find acceptance with AUah
Pilgrimage to the shrines of Islam, and especially to Mecca,
in the right

way, the way of those

!

less frequently performed at the present day than

formerly, notwithstanding the greater facilities of travel, is
still accounted the holiest action in the
eyes of a Moslem,

though

entitling

him

thereafter

during his hfetime to add to his

104

name

of the

Turkey
the honourable

in the life to

come

Ottomans

prefix of Hadji, or

to untold blessings.

be, however,

and frequently

"

Pilgrim," and

pilgrimage
is,

may

performed by

proxy, should the person desirous of acquiring this merit be prevented by bodily infirmity or other circumstances from accomplishing it in his own
In order, however, that all the merit of the att may
person.
accrue to himself, he must defray all the expenses of the
expedition and be able to satisfy the religious authorities who
sanction the transaction that the funds for it have been
Pilgrimage.

acquired by strictly honourable means. This religious duty

equally binding on men and women. Young unmarried
and
girls must, however, be in charge of both their parents
adult women, though they need not necessarily be accompanied by their husbands, must be married before setting out.
Previous to his departure for the Holy Cities, a Moslem is
is

bound to set his affairs

and to make provision

in order, to pay all outstanding debts,

for his family during his absence.

Pilgrims from Constantinople and the neighbourhood

assemble early on the morning of a given day in one of the
open spaces at Stamboul, where a procession is
The Departure, formed which includes a number of camels
with gorgeously ornamented saddles bearing
the coffers containing the Sultan's gifts to the Holy Shrines,
together with the alms and offerings of the wealthy to the
religious trustees of their respective families in the cities of
Mecca and Medina.
company of picturesquely garbed

Arabs accompany the caravan and exhibit at every haltingplace, to the accompaniment of kettle-drums, feats of swordsmanship to the crowds which surround and follow the caravan
and its mihtary escort through the streets and across the long
bridge spanning the Golden Horn to the Sultan's palace. The
departing pilgrims, after saluting their Padishah and offering
up in unison a prayer for the success of their pious undertaking, retrace their steps to the quay, where they embark
for the opposite

Asian shore.

Before the construction of the

The Religion
new

railway, which

now

of Islam

105

reaches Medina, the pilgrim caravan,

after crossing the Bosphonis, made the long journey by road

to Arabia, being joined at Damascus by thousands of pilgrims

from Africa, Syria, and Asia Minor generally. Then, under

the command of a special official, styled the "Steward of the
Offerings," and escorted by troops, it began its long and often
At the present day,
perilous journey to the Holy Cities.
however, the only perilous stage of the journey for pilgrims
from Turkey is that lying between Medina and Mecca
and
the devout Moslem from the West will, ere long, when the
intervening 285 miles of rail have been completed, be able
to take the train either at Haidar Pasha on the eastern shore
of the Bosphorus, at Damascus, or at Haifa on the Sjoian
;

coast, and, while

still

following

more

or less the old Pilgrims'

Road, proceed direct to the birthplace of the Prophet.

Although cis many as seven annual periods of abstinence
are observed by devout Moslems, only one of these, the monthlong fast of Ramazan, is held to be of Divine
Ramazan.
and its observance therefore
institution,
incumbent on all True Believers over the age
of fourteen, invalids and travellers
only being exempt from its

Ramazan is celebrated in the ninth month

Mohammedan year, when food, drink, and tobacco are

strict observance.

of the

from between sunrise and sunset during thirty

This |)eriod also constitutes a sort of re\dval time in
Turkey, as in Moslem countries generally. Western customs,
wherever adopted, being temporarily laid aside, and the more

rigidly abstained

days.

primitive native manners reverted to. During this season the

also supplements his usual announcement from the
"
minaret at the hour of prayer with the exhortation
Give

Muezzim

ye Faithful, unto the orphan and the poor, the wayand the bondsman, for His sake, saying
We feed
you for Allah's sake, and we desire no recompense from you,
nor word of thanks'"; while in the
mosques the Mollahs in
their sermons similarly call upon their
congregations to rememfood,
farer

ber those less favoured

'

by

fortune.

And though

the wealthy

106

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

no longer, as in olden days, stand at their doors to bring in

and set at their tables all the poor who pass by, peace and
goodwill reign supreme, and charity and hospitality are
More time is also devoted during this
largely practised.
period to religious observances, and many devout Moslems
both sexes seclude themselves for a portion of each day
own homes or in the mosques, abstaining' from
all worldly conversation, more
especially during the last ten
days of the fast.
"
As soon as any one of you observeth the new moon,"
commanded the Prophet, " let him set about the fast."
And all over the Moslem world, at the end of the eighth
lunar month, lone sentinels on minaret and mountain watch
for the appearance of the moon of Ramazan.
For timehonoured rehgious observances change not readily with
advances in scientific knowledge, and almanacs are ignored
of

either in their

in the matter.

The moment the

silver streak is visible, the

the^Fast

first

faint

watchers hasten

announce the tidings to the expectant

wildfire through the city,
"
set about the fast
in obeimmediately

to

multitude.

and the

The news spreads like

"

faithful

dience to their Prophet's command.

In consequence of this
lunar character of the Moslem year, Ramazan makes in course
of time the round of the seasons.
But through the long

scorching days of summer not less than in the short winter

days, the pious Moslem will rigidly abstain during this month
from food, drink, and tobacco between sunrise and sunset.
To the poor, who are among its strictest observers, and whom
necessity compels to pursue their usual avocations unrefreshed, this period is one of real mortification of the flesh,

The wealthy, however, merely turn

especially in summer.
night into day, and very little official business is transacted.
As the sun approaches the horizon, a tray laden with
"
"
or

mezaliks,
tiny plates of sweets, dried
cucumber,
together with glasses of iced
and other hors
fish,

appetisers

olives

fruit sherbet, is

d'ceuvres

brought into the room where the family, or

The

Religion of Islam

107

company, are assembled. As soon as the sunset gun has

thundered forth the welcome tidings that the day's fast is at
"
In the name of
an end, each person utters a Bismillah
"
and helps himself to an olive, it being considered
Allah
more meritorious to break one's fast with that fruit than any
other edible. After the sunset devotions have been performed,
the Iftar, or Ramazan supper, for which special delicacies have
been prepared, is serv^ed.

Two

hours after sunset the Teraveh prayers, special to this

season, are performed either at the

^%r

mosque or in private. It
was formerly the custom for the Stamboul
Moslems at the close of this service to repair

^^^^^

to the wide esplanade adjoining the Sulie-

manieh Mosque, where hundreds of elegant equipages filled

with mihtary officers, government officials, portly dames,
"
or
Lights of the Harem," might be seen making their way
through the crowd of pedestrians who appear on this occasion
to have been allowed a sort of carnival licence quite unknown
any other time. This custom, however, fell into disuse
during the late reign, when all assemblages were looked upon
with disfavour. The working classes, who have their usual
avocations to pursue on the morrow, retire to rest after the
Teraveh prayers. But the wealthy, as already mentioned,
turn night into day, pay calls, give parties, and spend the time
in a round of feasts and entertainments.
Two hours before dawn the " Awakeners " Hodjas
armed with a small hemispherical drum, accompanied by
at

boys carrying lanterns

" Awakeners

' '

go severally through

^^^ streets of the Moslem quarter to warn

those who sleep that it is time to arise and

partake of the Sahor, the last meal eaten before sunrise.

Stopping before every house occupied by Moslems, the
"He prospereth who
Hodja chants the following phrases
There is no God but Allah
the Guide,
saith,
Mohammed,
"
is the Prophet of Allah
preluded and followed by four
rhythmical taps on the drum, after which he passes on with
:

'

'

108

Turkey
"

of the

Ottomans
"

of nights unto thee, O AH

may be the name of the householder. The
Sahor partaken of, coffee and tobacco occupy the brief interval
until the boom of the cannon announces the advent of the
"
"
sealed
sun, when the mouth is rinsed with water and
food
until
sundown.
against

the greeting

The happiest

or whatever

On

the twenty-seventh day of

"

Leilu-l-Kadr or
,

is
*

of

Vowe^'

"

Ramazan

is

celebrated the

Night of Power," during which the Koran

believed to have come down entire to the

Lower Heaven," whence it was revealed in

portions to the Prophet by the Angel Gabriel.

certain hours of this night, which is also called the

During
"
"
"
and the
Excellent Night," popular
Night of Decrees
belief holds that the waters of the sea

become sweet

that the

whole animal and vegetable creations bow themselves in

adoration before the Deity
that the destinies of men from
the coming year are divulged to the Angels
and that there
is
one moment at which the prayers of those found
;

worshipping are fully granted.

The name of this season of day-fasting and night-feasting
invariably conjures up before me the fair scenes amid which
I first witnessed its observance under the blue skies of an
Asian winter a winter the charm of which will ever linger

pleasantly in my memory. Ramazan fell that year in December when I was staying at the little town of Bournabat in the

The house of
hosts, a long, low, onevicinity of Smyrna.
storied building with courtyard, well, and spreading plane

my

tree on one side and garden on the other, was situated at the
juncture of the Armenian and Turkish quarters of the town.
Every evening at supper, Ramazan loaves long flat cakes
were laid by each
plentifully besprinkled with sesame seeds
cover instead of the usual hunch of bread, and a dish of some
Ramazan delicacy sent by a Turkish neighbour often appeared
on the table. During the small hours of the night the " Awak"
eners
passed under the high courtyard walls, the monotonous

beat of their

little

drums and the

wild, yet plaintively sweet,

K
X

O
M
P

a
C

The
chant of the

Hod

Religion of Islam

as mingling with our dreams,

109
and producing

in the stilhiess of the night a singularly romantic impression.

The characteristic attitude of the Moslem mind of profound

and complete resignation to the will of Allah is, perhaps, on

no occasion more strongly manifested than in
The pious Moslem
the presence of death.
Fatalism.
has ever present to his mind the termination
of earthly existence, and the hfe beyond the grave
he
;

considers himself but

encamped in the world, just as the

OsmanU nation has been somewhat erroneously said to be
and he regards the joys and
but encamped in Europe
allurements of mundane life as but illusions and shadows in
comparison with the dehghts which await him in Paradise.
Kismet, which determines the events of a person's life, and
;

"

appointed time," are decreed by Allah, who, it is

has inscribed them in invisible characters
believed,
popularly
on the brow of every human being. This unquestioning submission to the decrees of fate renders death terrible to Moslems
Edjel,

his

only in the abstract, and when viewed from a distance. In

polite society it is never alluded to save under some poetical
"
name, such as the
Cupbearer of the Sphere," and prefaced
"
"
and the common people,
by the wish, Far be it from you
before uttering the word, invariably spit, an action which
has much the same signification. Such a fatahstic view of
life and death
naturally causes the Osmanhs to put Uttle faith
in the medical art.
If a person's Edjel has called him, he will
"
"
charmers
die, doctors and
notwithstanding.
Among the Turks, who have not, Uke the Greeks, adopted
the use of hearses, the dead are always borne to the cemetery
on the shoulders of the living, followed by a
!

^"S procession of male mourners. It is

considered a meritorious act to carry a dead
body even for a httle way, and the bearers at a Moslem funeral
Funeris.

are consequently continually reUeved

to obtain the benefits

duty

is

by

others, who wish

this reUgious

which the performance of

believed to confer.

The only

distinction

made

in the

110

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

men and women is that a man's

turban or fez of its occupant suspended on a
peg at the head, and that of a woman her chimber, or coif.
No lugubrious chants or noisy demonstrations of woe, such as
attend the funerals of Eastern Christians and Jews respectively,
mark the progress of the Moslem to his last
decoration of the coffins of

coffin carries the

The procession takes

resting-glace.

reverent silence to the mosque,

where the first part of the burial service is read, which includes
several very beautiful prayers.
When the interment has
been concluded and the mourners have dispersed, the Imam
remains a short time longer by the grave, in order, it is said,
"
to prompt the deceased in his replies to the
Questioners.".
These are the two angels Mounkir and Nekir, who, according
its

way in

creed, enter the grave with a dead man in order

him concerning his faith.
For, according to
a belief common to many Oriental races, the soul retains

to the

Moslem

to interrogate

after death some mysterious connection with the body, which

cannot be buried without it. If the dead has been a devout

Moslem,

his reply will be,

Mohammed

"

My God

is

Allah,

my

prophet,

Islam
and my kibla, the holy
Kaaba." If, however, he has been lax in his religious duties,
he will not be able to remember the words of his creed.
If the deceased has been well-to-do, gifts are made to the
;

my

religion,

poor from among his personal effects, and money is also

Three days afterwards specially prepared dishes,
distributed.
consisting chiefly of pastry and stewed fruits, are sent round to
the houses of friends, and the poor also receive their portion
of these funeral cates, in return for which their prayers are
requested for the soul of the departed. This ceremony is
repeated on the seventh and fortieth days after the funeral,
and on the latter occasion a dole of loaves is added. Prayer
for the dead is, indeed, considered by Moslems an act of

duty of the greatest importance. On their tombmay be seen engraved appeals to the passer-by to offer

religious

stones

up at the throne of grace a Fatiha, or recitation of the opening

chapter of the Koran, a customary act with all True BeUevers

The Religion
on

visiting the

tombs

of Islam

111

of friends or the shrines of holy

men.

No

external signs of mourning are used by the OsmanUs either

for a fimeral or subsequently, nor are periods of seclusion
obser\'ed by them on the death of a relative. Excessive sorrow

considered not only sinful, but detrimental

and rest in Paradise. It is, however, an
mourn constantly for lost parents, and not
to cease praying for their forgiveness and acceptance with
for children

is

to their happiness
act of fihal duty to

AUah.

CHAPTER

VIII

CHRISTIANITY IN TURKEY

The Orthodox Greek

of

Turkey but

Church, of which not only the 'Greeks

also the Bulgarians,

Vlachs, and Christian

Albanians are members, differs in dogma

from that of Rome on three essential points
Church^
(1) the Holy Ghost being held to proceed
from the Father only (2) the administration of the Eucharist
in both kinds to the laity
(3) the substitution in the churches
:

of pictures for images of the Virgin and the Saints.

Celibacy
is required of the higher clergy, but not of the papas, or
secular priests, though they are forbidden to contract a

second marriage. The former are drawn for the most part
from the better class of the community, and in their capacities of Bishops and Archbishops wield a temporal as well
As already remarked,
as spiritual authority over their flocks.
the Porte has ever refrained from interference in the internal
affairs of its Christian subjects which are regulated in each
council composed of the leading inhabitants
over
by the Bishop or Archbishop. These primates
presided
also acted as intermediaries in any disagreements between
Christians and Moslems.
It is, on the other hand, difficult to imagine a clergy more
ignorant than the Greek parish priests, especially in the
Drawn from the same class
rural districts.
as their parishioners, and dependent on the
diocese

by a

p^"^J^

fees paid by them for christenings, weddings,

and so forth, the post of parish priest is so ill-paid
that none can be found to fill it who could command a more
lucrative calling, and the papas is, as a rule, as rude and
uncultured as his flock. Such a priesthood could naturally
have very little, if any, moral influence on the nation generally.

funerals

112

HIS HOLINESS JOACHIM, PATRIARCH OF THE

GREEKS

Christianity in

113

Turkey

But the peculiar position of the Greeks, surrounded as

they
have been for centuries by a dominant
population aUen alike
in race and creed, has caused them to
regard their Church
and its ordinances as part and
of their national existence.

to

An

parcel

ignorant clerg>^ naturally attaches greater weight

outward observ-ances and superstitious

practices than to

the spiritual teachings of its Church. And to a

people so
debased by servitude as to have in some locahties
forgotten
their mother tongue, these ritualistic observances
have constituted an objective catechism which has done more
to keep
them faithful to the Church of their fathers than could have

been effected

by the most eloquent sermons. For, being

severely imposed and solemnly observed by the clerg>^
they
appear to the vulgar as divinely appointed ordinances,
the neglect of which would draw
upon them the Mxath
of God and His saints as much in this world
as in that to
come.

The natural

result of such a form of

Christianity is extreme
free-thinking among those sufficiently educated to disbeheve
all the
superstitions in which they have been cradled.
But
whatever may be the private convictions in
rehgious matters
of the cultured classes, the Church of their
fathers is

respected

as a time-honoured institution which has been

of the utmost
service to the race
during the dark centuries of Turkish
oppression. And though many both among the
clergy and the
laity are sensible of the inconvenient length of their
hturgies
and of the absurdity of the
superstitious behefs and customs
which have been engrafted
upon, or have grown up in,

then- rehgion, j-et

they have hitherto feared to introduce any
reforms, as the schisms which would
undoubtedly result
would inevitably weaken the
unity of the whole Greek nation.

Even the change from the

"

Old

"

to the

"

New

"

style of

reckoning is still considered as hazardous as when Sir Paul

"
Ricaut \\Tote more than two centuries
Lest the people,
ago
observing their guides to vary in the least point from their
ancient, and (as they imagine) their canonical
profession,
:

(2389)

114

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

should begin to suspect the truth of all, and from a doubt

dispute themselves into an indifference, and thence into an
entire desertion of the faith." ^
Religion consequently, as understood by the mass of the
people, consists of an agglomeration of superstitious rites
concerning times and seasons, fasts and^ feasts.
And
notwithstanding that the Greeks con^pr'JS^sm"^
sider themselves Christians par excellence

that term being exclusively used by

fellow-member of the Orthodox Church
essentially pagan.

They would

also

them

to

they havedesignate
remained

seem to have assimilated

to a greater extent perhaps than any other nation the heathen

and
festivals and observances of their Hellenic ancestors
;

the classic genii loci have only slightly changed their names.
At Sanctuaries, for instance, formerly dedicated to the Sun
{"HX,to9), homage is now paid to the Prophet, or rather
"
"
Saint
Ehas, and almost every high hill and promontory
in the country is now, as of old, sacred to him.
Power over
rain is also attributed to this Saint, and in time of drought
people flock to his churches and monasteries to suppUcate
"
the Sun God in his other character of the
Rainy Zeus."
St. Donato ("A7to9, or, vulgarly, "At ^ovdros) a favourite
saint of the SuUotes, is also merely the transformation of a
local pagan deity, 'Mhovev<;, the King of the Infernal Regions.

And

Athena, the Divine Virgin,

All holy Virgin Mother.

of Eos, the Dawn, the

is

now

The Virgin has

the Panaghia, the

also taken the place

Mother of the Sun, who opens the

gates through which her son will pass.

The Christian celebrations of the annual festivals of these
saints are consequently merely survivals of pagan anniver-

held at the church or monastery

dedicated to the saint who has replaced the
^Fafrs"^
heathen divinity. At the more frequented
of these Paneghyria, as such festivals are termed, a kind of
fair is held which is resorted to by crowds of pilgrims from
saries

The Present

State of the Greek

and Armenian Churches,

Christianity in

Turkey

115

the country round and the adjacent towns, when caravans

may be seen wending their way along the mountain paths
men and women mounted on mules
leading to the shrine
or donkeys, or leading stout ponies laden with panniers full
On arriving, the devotees repair at once to
of httle ones.
;

the church, and, after Ughting the customary taper, their first
care is to fulfil any vow they may have made during the past
year in earnest of benefits asked or received through the
mediation of the tutelary saint. These vows often take the

form of a gold or

silver aureole for his

Eikon, or perhaps a

of the precious metals, which

corresponding part of the painting.

hand or arm fashioned from one

is

fastened over the

Panawith
of
the
embroidered
and
representations
napkins
ghia,
Queen of Heaven, worked in gold thread, are presented to her

Gold

coins, too, are often affixed to the cheeks of the

shrine in return for favours granted.

The neighbouring \'illages being usually quite inadequate

accommodation of the crowds of pilgrims, they are
allowed to spread their mats and rugs in the church itself
and the votive offerings left behind in return for this indulgence constitutes quite a httle revenue for the priests and
for the

monks. Their pious duties duly performed, the guests next turn
their attention to feasting and merry-making, and the whole
company, thro\\"ing off for the time being their habitual
Greek exclusiveness, unite in a gigantic picnic on the greensward, the good things they have brought with them being
supplemented by purchases from the numerous hawkers of
fruits, sweets and cakes, which such an event is siire to attract
to the neighbourhood.
Music, dancing and stor^^-telling
are the leading amusements, and are kept up to what is, in
the East, considered a late hour.
At dawn, however,
they are all astir again, and ready, when the convent

summons them to repair to early Mass.

The Sacred Fountains have also their annual festivals,
held on the day of the patron saint who has supplanted the
^
A suspended bocird struck with a wooden mallet.

bell or symandra'^

116

of the

Turkey

Ottomans

Circumstances of various import have conwalls of Constantinople

the reputation of possessing healing virtues
but a romantic and solitary situation in the neighbourhood of a cavern
or grotto is the more usual characteristic of
"
^^
^S^^^^^^-" Once a year these sylvan
Foimtains
solitudes are thronged with a motley'crowd
who bring with them their sick to drink the waters, which,
however, do not, as a rule, possess any medicinal qualities
and the shrubs and bushes in the vicinity are decorated with
local divinity.

ferred

upon many springs within the

tufts of hair or scraps of clothing, affixed as votive offerings

by grateful recipients of the Saint's favours. The caves in

which crystal drops of water appear to be distilled from the

living rock were, no less than the perennial springs, the abodes of
the nymphs of antiquity but all such natural temples are now
also appropriated by the Queen of Heaven.
Thus a Panaghia
;

Spelaiotissa, or

"

Virgin of the Grotto," may often be met with

receives from the Greek peasant women
homage
paid in classic times
similar to that ^

who

T^^

Stoicheia or
Genii.

,,

to her predecessors, the

And

transformed though so

yet,

nymphs and

nereids.

many

of

these pagan divinities have been into Madonnas and Saints, a

goodly number still retain their ancient forms and attributes.
"
"
The Stoicheion or Genius still haunts
"

and

is

Spring and vale

Edged with poplar pale,"

and seen by lonely shepherd, belated

maiden who has put off till sunset her task of

often both heard

traveller, or

fetching water from the fountain. To the first he may appear

as a man-eating monster
but to the last he is a comely
;

in seductive language, invites her to visit his

beautiful palace beneath the water. Some of these Stoicheia,

youth who,

hamadryads of old, inhabit trees, but possess the

propensities as their brethren dwelling in the mountains,
rocks, and waters, and can only be slain by that popular hero
like the

same

Christianity in
of folk-tale

and folk-ballad the

"

117

Turkey
Widow's Son,"

or

by the

youngest of three brothers.

The Nereids, though they occupy in the popular imagination
of the Greeks a place corresponding to that of the Fairies
of more Northern countries, and are hke

them

proverbial

for

their

beauty,

ditfer

from them in being always of the full stature of mortals,

and also in being almost always malevolent. Like the
Stoicheia, they haunt fountains and wells, rivers and mountains, sea-caves and other lonely places, and generally shun

human

society.

They

are also, as a rule, solitary in their

occasionally be seen dressed in white,

dancing in companies in moonUt glades or on the glistening
sands of lonely islands and promontories. To see them while
habits,

but

may

crossing a river presages dire misfortune, unless a

be of the company to recite passages of Scripture and
"
so counteract the spell of the
Devil Daughters," as they are
sometimes discourteously termed. It is, however, usual to
propitiate the Nereids by some more complimentary epithet
"
"
"
such as the
Beautiful Ladies
or the
Good Ladies," just
as the Furies were formerly termed the Emnenides, and as
"
the ill-omened owl is at the present day termed the
Bird
of Joy."
They are credited with the power of banefully

one

is

priest

affecting women of whose charms they are jealous, and to

be in the habit of carrying off young children, while their
fancy for new-born infants is a source of great anxiety to
mothers and nurses. All kinds of maladies are also attributed
"
to the malevolence of the
Beautiful Ladies," and those
W'ho believe themselves to be thus afflicted can only be cured
^
These Stoicheia may be looked upon as survivors of the beings
referred to by St. Paul as "The weak and beggarly elements " (Gal. iv. 9),
"
The rulers of the darkness of this world " (Ephes, vi. 12), the "rudiments of the world " (Col. ii, 8 and 20), etc. For in the Apostle's use
of the phrase, To Srotxt'^a tov Kofffiov, he seems to attribute to these genii,
or spirits of the universe, a distinct personality. But the translation
"
"
of the word Sroixela as
rudiments," or
elements," also followed
in the Revised Version, completely obscures what
appears to be far
more probably the meaning of these passages.

118

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

residence in a church or convent, or by pilgrimage to some

holy shrine. They also occasionally fall in love with men,
whom they reward with great prosperity if they return their
But woe betide the mere
affection, and are faithful to them.
man a Nereid may honour with her notice should he be hardy
enough to slight her advances. This power to meddle with
mortals they appear to be endowed with chiefly at the noontide hour when they rest under the shade of trees, especially
of planes and poplars, and near springs and streams
and the
wary peasant, fearful of the consequences of annoying these
capricious beings, will carefully avoid their haunts, as similarly in ancient times the shepherds refrained from playing
on their pipes during the noontide hour lest they might disturb the sylvan god. Phenomena of Nature, such as whirlwinds and storms, are ascribed to the agency of the Nereids,
and it is customary to crouch down when they are supposed
to be passing overhead.
If this precaution is disregarded,
the Nereids seize the irreverent individual, and carry him
or her off to the mountains.
Offerings of milk, honey, and
cakes are made to them and placed in the spots they are held
to frequent
and the country folk, when they see the wind"
"
driven cloud scudding overhead mutter
Milk and honey
in order to avert all evil from themselves.
Tempestuous
weather is also attributed to the festivities attendant on a
wedding among the Nereids.

by

The little waterspouts formed of gathered spray so often

seen in the ^Egean Sea, are also looked upon with great awe
by the island and coast folk. "The Lamia of
the Sea is abroad," say they when they see
these wind-driven spray-wreaths, and cross
themselves and say prayers to the Panaghia for protection
The Lamias
against these demons of the air and water.

^th ^L^"-^"^

are generally ill-favoured and evilly-disposed beings who

haunt desert places and lonely seashores. Sometimes, however, they appear as beautiful women, who, like the Sirens,
lure men to destruction by their sweet voices and graceful

Christianity in

119

Turkey

dancing, or entice youths into their watery abodes under the

pretext of being distressed damsels who have let fall a ring
into the fountain.
There are stories of Lamias who have

wedded mortals and borne children

to them.

But unlucky

the peasant or fisherman who has such a mate for she can
neither spin, weave, knit, nor sew, and is equally incapable
of sweeping, baking, cooking, or taking care of the domestic
animals
and so firm a hold has this beUef on the popular
"
mind that the expression, a Lamia's sweepings," is commonly
;

used by indignant housewives to denote a perfunctory use

of the broom.
The Fates of To-day also closely resemble the Moirai of
classic

Th

mythology. They are represented as continually

occupied in spinning the thread symbolical

of the hfe of man, and preside more especibirth, marally over the three chief events of his existence
"
"
the
Three Evils of Destiny
as, in
riage, and death

pessimistic phrase, they are termed by the

Greeks. On the fifth day after the birth of a child the Fates
are accordingly propitiated in order to induce them to endow
the infant with a favourable destiny.
If the newly bom is
a boy, coins of gold and silver, a sword, and a cake of bread
"
are placed under his pillow in order to remind the
Destiners
"^
of Destinies
that fortune, valour, and abundance are
desirable gifts
if it is a
girl, a distaff or spindle is substituted
for the sword, intimating the value attached to female
industry.
significantly

The Greek clergy appear to have no very definite theory

what happens to the soul after death. Practices point,

as to

After-life.

however, to behef in an intermediate state,

masses are performed for the soul of a
deceased person on the eve of the third, ninth,

twentieth and fortieth days after burial, and similar ceremonies are repeated at intervals for the space of three years,
after which the grave is opened and the body exhumed.
If it
is found to be
the
bones
are
collected
sufficiently decomposed,
'

Ai Moipoi rov Moipwy.

120

of the

Turkey

Ottomans

and carried in a basket adorned with flowers

where they remain for nine days. If, however,
not found at the end of three years to be satis-

in a linen cloth

to the church,

the body

is

decomposed, grave fears are entertained that the

spirit is not at rest, and has not entirely abandoned the body.
The most terrible curse that can be pronounced against a
"
Greek is couched in the words, May the earth not eat'you."
For if this curse take effect, the object of it will, after death,
become that most dreaded of all spectres, a vampire.
factorily

"

In order, therefore, to induce the body to

dissolve," the
same ceremonies are repeated during another three years.
The causes of vampirism are various. Among them are
the fact of having perpetrated, or having been the victim
of a crime
having wronged some person
who has died resenting the wrong or a
curse pronounced in excommunicatory form by a priest, or
by an "injured person. Part of this ecclesiastical curse runs
Let him be separated from the Lord God, his Creator,
thus
and be accursed and unpardoned and indissoluble after death
Let wood, iron and
in this world and in that to come.
stones be dissolved, but not him." For a vampire is not a
disembodied spirit, but an undissolved body. Vampirism
is also held to be hereditary in certain families, the members
of which are regarded with aversion and shunned by their
It is popularly believed that a wandering vamneighbours.
.

pire returns nightly to his grave before cockcrow, and when

one of these ghouls has been identified, the men of a town or
village go on a Saturday
find his body just a^ it

and open his tomb where they usually

was buried. The priest who accom-

them reads certain parts of the ritual supposed to be

of peculiar efficacy in the circumstances, and sometimes this
course suffices to restore a neighbourhood to peace and quiet.
But cases happen in which the priest does not prove a sulfipanies

and as a last resource the disturbed

ciently powerful exorcist
population either drive a stake through the heart of the un;

dissolving body, or disinter

and consume the corpse with

Christianity in

121

Turkey

fire.
Nothing short of extreme necessity would, however,
induce Orthodox Greeks to perform such an act, as they have
a religious horror of burning a body which has been anointed
with the holy chrism.
The use of the Slavonic name for the vampire throughout
the Balkan Peninsula, together with the fact of the widespread belief in this spectre among Slavonic nations, has been
by some foDc-lorists considered sufficient to justify their

assigning it an origin purely Slavonic, an opinion which, I

venture to think, can hardly be sustained. For not only
does this ghoul bear in Crete and Rhodes the thoroughly
Hellenic designation of Kaiakhnas, in Cyprus that of Sar"
komenos the
Fleshy One," and in Tinos of Anaikathou"
menos the
Restless One," but there appears to be distinct
evidence that the notion of vampires has, in common with
so many other superstitions current in Turkey, a Chaldean
origin. In the great Chaldean epic of the third millennium B.C.
the goddess Istar in Hades gives utterance to the threat
"
"
I will cause the dead to arise and devour the Uving
and
in Egypt also the dead were imagined to return to the earth

as vampires.^

The Christianity of the \^achs, like that of the Greeks,

consists chiefly in the keeping of fasts and feasts, in the
adoration of saints, holy pictures and rehcs,
Tn 1. o ^
Vlach
Customs.
,
.,
,
iwi,
and in the strict obsers-ajice ofr all
the cunous
.

legendary customs by which the events of the ecclesiastical

year are honoured. These customs, though in the main
similar to those of the Greeks, differ from them in some details,
and many are identical with those of their Trans-Danubian
brethren. On New Year's Day, for instance, the children
take olive branches and go from house to house offering good
wishes to the neighbours in return for which they receive
little presents in coin or kind.
On the 2nd January, any
stranger who may enter a house is required to throw on the
fire
'

smaU

quantities of salt which stands in readiness in cups

Compare Lenonnant, Chaldean Magic, pp. 37 aiid 100.

122

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

for that purpose.

He must then go to the fowl-house, and
If the hen comes to sit upon one
place an egg in each nest.
of the eggs, the guest is considered an auspicious person,
and is feted by the household until evening as the " Lucky

Foot."
"

"
The
Feast of the Kings
is celebrated at
Epiphany,
and also throughout the Carnival weeks, by young men and
boys who stroll through the towns and villages

performing a Scriptural play something in

"
"
the style of the
Miracle Plays
of the
Middle Ages, These players, who are termed Vikliemi, or
"
"
"
Three Kings
Bethlehems," personate Herod and the
"
"
or
Wise Men
under their legendary names of Melchior,
Balthazar and Caspar. Bedecked with all kinds of frippery,
and crowned with gilt paper, they present an absurd travesty
of the poetical old story of the Adoration of the Magi, all the
the icfngs"^

custom having disappeared in

the ludicrous extravagance that now accompanies its observance.
original sacred character of the

As members
assimilated

all

Orthodox Church, the Vlachs have also

the Christian, and many of the Pagan beliefs
of the Greeks connected with birth and

of the

^^^ ^^^ customs observed at the birth

De5h*Customs ^^^*^'
of a child do not differ materially from those
of the Greeks,
The Nereids feared by the latter on these

by the Stringoi {crrpvyyoi),

elemental beings from whose malevolence new-born infants
must be specially guarded. In order to drive these away
the women in attendance on such family events occasionally
"
cast a stone behind them with the words,
This is in the
mouth of the Stringoi." Among their funeral customs are,
however, still retained some which would appear to be survivals rather of Roman than of Greek, pagan rites.
The
Lares, for instance, are still honoured on the anniversary
of the Saint under whose special protection each family is
On the days preceding one of these celebrations a
placed.
a
and
Vlach dwelling undergoes
thorough
cleaning
occasions are merely replaced

Christianity in

Turkey

123

lime-washing, the furniture is scrubbed and poUshed, the mats

and rugs are beaten, and everything that \dll bear washing
is washed.
The whole day is observed as a festival, and even
the poorest will spread a table with dishes special to such
While these are being partaken of, allusion is

occasions.

made

to deceased relatives to

whom

invocations are indi\adu-

ally addressed.
They are prayed to seat themselves at the
table, at which covers are laid for them, and to partake of

the good things provided in their honour. Another pagan

festival which the Vlachs, in common with the inhabitants of
in honour of the dead is the Rosata
held in summer, and every day of the six
weeks during which it is prolonged a tribute of fresh roses
is laid on the graves of the departed.
During this period
the women and girls abstain from washing any article in warm

Roumania, celebrate
or Rosalia.

It is

water, as such an act would, they beUeve, inevitably bring

bad

luck.

In the folk-poesy of the Vlachs, as in their folk customs,

the influence of long contact with Slavs and Hellenes is seen

admixture of Slav and Greek

mythology with that which the Vlachs have
in common with the ancient Romans.
Under
the names of Babu and Stringa we have the malevolent
Nereid of the Greeks and the Strouga of the Bulgarians. The
Zmok is directly borrowed from the Slav demonology, in
which he appears as an elemental demon of the same character
as the Greek Stoicheion.
This spirit is also the jealous
guardian of hidden treasures, and wily and daring is indeed
in the large

^sSvi?.^

the mortal who succeeds in outwitting him. Sometimes, too,

he appears as also in Bulgarian folk-song in the form of a
winged dragon, and carries off young maidens into the clouds
with which he is also identified. Some of the doinas, as the

popular ballads are termed, contain, Uke those of the Greeks

and Bulgarians, an element of rugged savagery, modified,
however, by the poetic grace which is characteristic of

Roumanian

folk-Uterature.

124

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

The Bulgarian Church, originally a branch of the Orthodox

Greek Church, had, in the thirteenth century, thrown off the
supremacy of the Patriarch of Constanti_ J^^.
nople, and continued to exist independently
until 1767 when it was once more brought
Church.
under the jurisdiction of that See. The
Bulgarian Bishops were immediately replaced by' Greeks,

monks

sent adrift, and the revenues of the monasteries

appropriated by the new clergy. The Greek was also subtheir

stituted for the Bulgarian language in the services of the

Church and in the schools, with the view of extinguishing
the Panslavist spirit and substituting for it Pan-Hellenism.

Such tyrannical action, though perforce submitted to for a

time, was none the less resented by the Bulgarian nationality.
In 1858 the struggle for a free National Church was recommenced, and after being maintained for fourteen years,
finally resulted in the issue of an Imperial Firman, releasing
the Bulgarians from the spiritual supremacy of the Greek
Patriarchate and empowering them to elect a religious chief
of their own.
Still, in many of the villages of Macedonia and
inhabited
Thrace,
conjointly by Greeks and Bulgarians, the
latter, having no churches of their own, continued to make
use of those of their Greek neighbours. Of late years,
however, the ever-growing political hostility between these
two sections of the Christian population has impelled the
Bulgarian peasantry of such villages to build churches of their
own. The Greek parish priests thus threatened with the loss
of half their emoluments, appealed to their Patriarch, who
took unwarrantable action in supporting the claims of his

The question was then brought before the Ottoman

after a heated discussion between Greek and
Bulgarian Deputies was finally decided in favour of the
A considerable sum of money has since been
Bulgarians.
clergy.

Chamber, and

voted to enable the Bulgarian Communities to build churches

of their own.
The creed of the Bulgarian Church being precisely similar

P'^'o

Sa>ah & JoaiUier

MGR. TOURIAN, PATRIARCH OF THE ARMENIANS

*>

Christianity in

Turkey

125

to that of the Greek, its fast and feast-days are also identical.
The dogmas and precepts of Christianity are, however, things
and to the Bulgarians,
httle understood by the lower classes
as to the members of the sister Church, religion is not so much
;

a spiritual as a practical matter, consisting in the superof

stitious observances connected with periods
penance
and festivals of saints, and the other outward forms ordained
by the Church and by custom. All these various events
of the ecclesiastical year are so inextricably mixed up with
fragments and relics of old pagan beliefs and customs, that
the lower clergy, being as ignorant as their parishioners,
are incapable of distinguishing between adets, as these customary observances are called, and the rehgious beHefs

The vaguest
actually professed by the National Church.
possible notions exist as to the immortaUty of the soul and
the life beyond the grave
Heaven, Hell, and Gehenna, the
purgatory of the Greek Church, present no very distinct
and though a peasant woman may
notions to their minds
describe the first as the place where the saints and angels
are, and the second as the abode of demons, she will deny all
practical belief that the souls of her departed relatives are
either in bhss or torture, by following the pagan custom of
leaving food and drink for them on their tombs. The long
connection of the Bulgarian with the Greek Church naturally
led to the assimilation of many of its superstitious beliefs
and customs. The paganism of the Bulgarian has, however,
remained, in its leading features, distinct from that of the
Greeks, and is, in fact, a survival of the pantheistic worship
;

which the invading Bulgarians adopted

language of the conquered people
they settled, and it teems with wild cosmogonic

of the ancient Slavs

together

with

among whom

the

myths.

The

great majority of the Armenians belong to the Gregorian Church, the history of which may be divided into three
The first period, dating from a.d. 34 to 302, is.
periods.

126

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

the second, from the latter date

however, mainly legendary
to 491, begins with the establishment of
Christianity in
Armenia by St, Gregory, and terminates with
the rupture with the Greek Church, of which
^ ^^.
Oregonan
,,
*
,
,
the Armenians had up to that time formed
Church.
a branch
and the third extends from that
event to the present day. To the first period naturally
belongs the interesting, though legendary, correspondence
between Jesus and Abgar, King of Edessa and the sunounding
countries, an account of which is given both by Eusebius and
Moses of Khorni. This King, having heard
;

of the

^Hlstoly^

miracles

desiring to see

performed by Christ, and

and be cured by Him of a

disease with which he was afflicted, sent to Him a letter

which, in the version of Eusebius, runs thus
"Abgarus, King of Edessa, to Jesus the good Saviour,
who appeareth at Jerusalem, greeting
"
I have been informed concerning Thee and Thy cures,
which are performed without the use of medicine or herbs.
"
For it is reported that Thou dost cause the blind to see
and the lame to walk; that Thou dost cleanse the lepers,
and dost cast out unclean spirits and devils, and dost restore
to health those who have been long diseased, and also that
Thou dost raise the dead.
:

"

All which

when

heard

was persuaded of these two

things
"
Either that
:

Thou art God Himself descended from

Heaven, or that Thou art the Son of God.
"
On this account, therefore, I have written unto Thee,

desiring earnestly that Thou wouldest trouble Thyself to take

a journey hither, and that Thou wouldest also cure me of
the disease from which I suffer.
"
For I hear that the Jews hold Thee in derision, and intend
to do Thee harm.
"
My city is indeed small, but it is sufficient to contain

us both."

Christianity in

Turkey

127

reply to this epistle Moses of Khomi attributes to

Thomas, who was deputed to write it by his Master. It

The
St.

runs as follows
"

O Abgarus, forasmuch as thou hast

thou hast not seen.
it is written concerning Me, that those who have
have not believed in Me, that those who have not

Happy

beUeved
"
For

in

art thou,

Me whom

seen Me
seen might believe and live.
"
As for that part of the epistle which relates to my visiting
thee, I must inform thee that I must first fulfil my mission
in this land, and after that be received up again unto Him
that sent

me

disciples

who

my ascension I will send one of my

thy disease, and give life unto thee

but after
will cure

and all that are with thee." ^

The seeds of the Christian faith are said to have been, in
fulfilment of this promise, sown in Armenia by St. Thomas
and St. Bartholomew, and, according to TertuUian, a
Christian

church

flourished

century.

here

as

early as

the second

"

The Illuminator," the inaugurator

Gregory, called
of the second period of Armenian Church history, was a
prince of the then reigning family of the
Arsacidae, who, having been converted to
became
eager for the conversion of his countryChristianity,
St,

In his missionary work he endured many persecutions,

the accounts of which were embellished by the early Christians with marvellous details.
According to the popular

men.

King was sacrificing to the heathen

goddess Anahid, he remarked among the crowd a young man
who appeared to take no part in the solemnity. The king
ordered him to be brought up to the altar, and bade him comGregory, for he it was, refused, and was
plete the sacrifice.
in consequence subjected to the most cruel tortures which he
bore with superhuman fortitude, and was finally cast into a
dungeon so damp, dark, and loathsome as to be a fit

story, as Tiridates the

Curzon, Armenia, p. 213.

128

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

habitation only for reptiles. But here, for thirteen years, St.
Gregory survived, forgotten and neglected, save by a poor
widow, or, according to other authorities, an angel, who

him

Another manidaily with bread and water.

of the king's ruthless cruelty resulted, however,
in the release of St. Gregory.
There lived at that time in
supplied

festation

Rome

a noble and beautiful maiden, the lady Ripsimeh

(Rosina) who, with her nurse and seventy other virgins, had
taken a religious vow. Her beauty had, however, attracted
the attention of the Emperor Diocletian, who wished to
marry her. In order to escape the Imperial soUcitations,
Ripsimeh, with her nurse and her seventy companions, fled
from Rome, and finally, after many wanderings, arrived at
the Capital of Armenia, Vagharshabad. Having succeeded
in discovering her retreat, the Emperor gave Tiridates the
option of sending her back to Rome or marrying her himself
;

and when he beheld the beauty of the maiden, the Armenian

king was minded to avail himself of the Emperor's permission.
The fair Roman, however, remained faithful to her vow, and
the king, infuriated by her persistent refusals, commanded
that not only she, but

all

her train, should be

first

tortured

The wrath of Heaven towards the

perpetrators of this crime was shown by the infliction upon
Tiridates and his courtiers of the punishment of Nebuchadnezzar for they lost their reason and became as the beasts
The king's sister Khosrovitoud having, after
of the field.
this terrible event, been repeatedly visited in a dream by an
and then executed.

angel who told her that only St. Gregory could restore her
brother to reason, finally sent men to his dungeon with orders to
The
release the captive, if perchance he might yet be alive.
Saint was found not only aUve, but strong and healthy, and
his prayers on behalf of the afflicted king and his nobles were
speedily answered.
The first use Tiridates made of his newly recovered reason
was to kneel to St. Gregory and ask his forgiveness. After
assuring the penitent

monarch not only

of his forgiveness,

but

Christianity in

129

Turkey

ako of that of Heaven, the Saint solemnly asked him,

"
"
The dismembered corpses
Where are the Lambs of God ?
of the martyrs, which had been scattered in the fields, were

now by

Conversion of
Tendates.

^j^^
,

the king's orders reverently collected

accorded honourable burial, and over

...
their

the place

of

,,

sepulture

r^

r-

St.

Gregory

watched and prayed all that night. During his vigil there
appeared to the holy man a wonderful and glorious vision
which was explained to him by an angel who also commanded
him to raise a church over the sacred rehcs. The spot is
now occupied by the monastery and cathedral of Etchmiadzin,
the seat of the CathoUcos or Primate of the Armenian Church.
Of this See St. Gregory was consecrated first Bishop by Leonand owing to this circumstance,
tius, the Bishop of Cesarea
it long remained customary for the Primates of the Armenian
Church to receive investiture at the hands of the succeeding
;

Bishops of the Capital of Cappadocia. This hierarchical

arrangement is, however, entirely unconnected with the
Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople, who, in ecclesiastical
But as the subject races of Turkey
rank, is only a Bishop.
have always been classified by the ruling race according to
their rehgions, and governed in all their internal affairs
their own ecclesiastical chiefs,
the Armenian Bishop

by
of

Constantinople, in his capacity of political head of his community, holds practically a more important position than his
spiritual superior, the CathoUcos of Etchmiadzin, who, as he
resides outside

Ottoman

territory,

has no authority in secular

matters.
of the Dominican Order had found
Armenia as early as the fourteenth century, it
was not until the sixteenth that Roman

Although missionaries
their

way

to

Uniate
Armenians.

Catholicism

the

country,

obtained
its

secure

successful

footing
'^

in

estabhshment

at the latter period being due to the efforts of the Jesuits

who, after the triumph of the Reformation in the West, were
"
sent by the Pope to
carry into the birthland of Protestantism

9{2389)

130

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

the revenge of Catholicism." ^ There are, however, at the

present day but few adherents of the Papacy in Greater
Armenia save in Erzeroum, Naketchivan, and other large towns,
the greater number being found in Lesser Armenia. A considerable section reside also in the capital where they form
the higher and wealthier class of the Armenian community.
"
"
These Uniates, or
United
Armenians as they are termed,
have retained in their ritual the use of the mother tongue,

and

also certain forms of

worship used in the Gregorian

must, however, in justice be admitted that the
perversion of this section of the Armenians has in no way
lessened its patriotism, but on the contrary, has enabled it
"
"
to confer immense benefit on the nation.
Under Uniate
auspices a literary and educational propaganda was set on
foot in the seventeenth century which has had great results
and continues to the present day. The pioneer of the movement was Mekhitar, a native of Sivas, the ancient Sebaste
or Ancyra, in Galatia.
His zeal having exposed him to persecution in his own country, he removed to the Morea, then in
the hands of the Venetians, where he established a small
brotherhood of fellow- workers. Taken prisoner and enslaved
by the Turks, he escaped with a few followers to Venice,
where he obtained the grant of two small islands in the lagoons.
On one of these he established the still flourishing monastery
of St. Lazarus, in which he set up a printing press for the
production of religious works in the Armenian tongue. An
immense number of books on historical, educational, and
religious subjects have been, during the past two centuries,
and still continue to be, printed in the monastery and disseminated among the Armenian nation. The demand for
native Uterature has increased with every year, and the
Mekhitarist Brothers, when I visited their island ten years
Church.

ago,
^

It

had

at

work

live

printing presses,

their

compositors

It was from
Europe and Asia, Int., p. 57.
about the sixth century, the so-called Paulician heretics,
the early church reformers, came to Europe.

St uart-Glennie,

Armenia

that,

Christianity in

131

Turkey

being Venetians who know nothing of the Armenian language,

but have become most expert in setting up the type. At St.
Lazarus, and also at Vienna, Armenian journals are published
which find their way not only to Armenia, but also to the
various communities of Armenians scattered throughout
Turkey, Persia, India, and the East Indies,

This Armenian
"

Knowledge

^*.
S.P.C.K.

"

Society for the Propagation of Christian

also maintains a college for hterary missionaries who in the course of their travels as

colporteurs through the highlands of Haiasdan

collect valuable manuscripts relating to the

past of the country which are made the bases

Patriotic ideas have, indeed, always

of national histories.

been inculcated by this society in their educational work,

and the Armenian National Hymn, composed, I beheve,
heroic defence of his
country against the Persians in 451, continued to be sung in
the Armenian schools until a few years ago, when its use was
forbidden by the Turkish authorities. The Armenian Bible,
separate books of which had been from time to time printed,
was first issued entire by the Lazarist Press in 1805 and the
thoroughness of the work bestowed upon this translation
"
has, I am informed, obtained for it the title of
Queen of

by Mekhitar, commemorating Vartan's

The Old Testament contains

The Testament of the Twelve

Versions."
"

three apocryphal
Patriarchs," the
"
Book of Jesus the son of Sirach," and the " History of
Joseph and his wife Asenath." The last named is extremely
rare, and has never, so far as I am aware, been printed in
any
European language. The New Testament includes an
"
"
Epistle of St. Paul to the Corinthians," and an
Epistle of

books

the Corinthians to St. Paul."

In point of doctrine, there

is

but Uttle difference between

the Greek and the Armenian Churches.

Though the latter

speaking Orthodox i.e., in communion with the
Churches of Russia and Constantinople, it was not represented at the Council of Chalcedon. The Gregorians perform

is

strictly

132

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

the rite of baptism by triple immersion, and accept the

articles of faith as promulgated by the Seven (Ecumenical

DocShleT

Councils, but reject the Western addition of

*^^ filioque to the Nicene Creed, and deny

the distinctive doctrines of

the Church of

The Liturgy in use is said to date from the first

century, and to have been adapted from that originally used
by the early Church of Jerusalem. It was remodelled by
Rome.

St. Gregory, who introduced into it the Nicene Creed with

the comminatory clause, and a conclusion of his own. As
regards the future hfe, although the doctrine of Purgatory
is not explicitly taught by the Church, the numerous funeral
prayers and the masses performed for the souls of the departed

an intermediate state. Popular

for while
behef is, however, somewhat vague on this point
it is denied that any save the Virgin Mary and EUjah (Ehas)
have yet seen the face of God, the aid and mediation of
Saints and Martyrs is invoked as in the Latin and Greek
testify to a practical behef in

Churches. An Armenian funeral custom observed in Cappadocia seems to present in addition a curious blending of
ancient

Greek with modern Turkish usage.

Every person

sets aside, according to his or her means, a sum of money

or the value of certain household goods to be distributed at

death to the poor in order to ensure their prayers for the

"
toll money," or
This bequest is termed
repose.
"
its
and
recipients engage to offer every
passage money,"
for
three
day,
days, prayers accompanied by genuflexions for
the free passage to Paradise of the deceased, and that he may
not be hindered on the way thither by the various toll-takers
who guard the roads to heaven. If this precaution be not
taken, the soul, it is beUeved, will be harassed by those

soul's

and will not find eternal bliss.

and feasts of the Armenians also coincide with
those of their Greek neighbours save for the addition of ten

celestial officials,

The

fasts

national saints' days to the already very large number

included in the calendar of the Orthodox Church. The fasts

Christianity in
are,

133

Turkey

however, observed by the former with varying severity,

degrees of self-mortification being observed, termed

three

^^^ ^^

hakh,
respectively
-^"
*^^ ^^^' ni^^t,

dzom
fish,

and

navagatik.

eggs, cheese,

and

abstained from
dairy produce
and the third
in the second, nothing is eaten until sunset
Neither shell-fish nor
signifies total abstinence from food.
olive oil are partaken of during Lent, and, as in the Greek
other

are

no

indulgences are granted by the clergy for

these
ordinances, save in cases of serious illness.
disregarding
The internal arrangements of the Armenian Churches differ

Church,

in

some

The
particulars from those of the Greek and Latin.
Aoor of the chancel, or sanctuary, is raised

Armenian

Churches.
several feet above the rest of the edifice,
and the altar is again raised above that of the sanctuary.
At certain intervals during divine service, and during the
whole of Lent, a curtain conceals both chancel and altar
from the congregation, while a second and smaller curtain

screens, save during the celebration of the Eucharist, the

altar alone.
As in the Romish Church, the Host remains

perpetually in a tabernacle on the altar, and before it tapers

bum continually. There are no stalls in the choir. During
the celebration of Mass, the assistants agitate a curious

instrument in the form of a cross set with jangUng rings, and

resembhng the Egyptian sistriim. The inferior officiating
clergy sit, in Oriental fashion, on mats or rugs spread on the
floor, the Bishops and dignitaries only being provided with
chairs.

Except

in the

town churches, there are

also

no seats

provided for the congregation, who sit either on the matted

floor or on cushions they carry with them.

As in the Greek Church, the superior clergy, who are termed

Vartabeds, belong to the monastic section of the priesthood.
The Derders, or inferior clergy, enjoy no
^krS'^"
neighbours

social

but hve in the country, hke

in the towns, as do their
and craftsmen. The Derders are

rank,

peasants,
the artisans

and,

134

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

"

the husband of one wife," and the higher

may have married before entering the
Church, must at the time of their ordination, be either bachelors or widowers.
The office of Derder is usually hereditary,

allowed to be
clergy,

though they

as in the Russian

Church

and though a son

of one of these

parish priests may, before he is called upon to succeed his

father, be engaged in a lucrative calling, he is obliged to
in order to take

upon himself the sacred office,

by education as by incHnation.
On the whole, however, the Armenian clergy, though
not more highly educated than their Greek brethren, may be
rehnquish
for

it

which he

is

often as unfitted

considered morally their superiors, being, it is said, less

avaricious, and having never, as too often the Greek clergy,
sided with the Porte against their fellow Christians
for the
Armenian Church has always been synonymous with Armenian
;

patriotism.

The

site of

the ancient Metropolitan Church and monastery

of Etchmiadzin, already referred to,

is

now Russian

The monastery was formerly

Etchmiadzin^

territory.

celebrated for

extensive and valuable hbrary, which, at

the present day contains but some seventeen

^^^

or eighteen hundred volumes, consisting chiefly of Armenian

MSS. Among the relics treasured here are "the lance that

pierced the side of Jesus," said to have been brought to Armenia

by the Apostle Thaddeus a piece of the true Cross, presented
to Tiridates by Constantine the Great
the head of St.
;

Ripsimeh, and the hands of

and

of St.

James

of Nisibis.

St.

Thaddeus, of

St.

St.

Gregory,

James was the

finder of

the remains of Noah's Ark, which he presented to the Fathers

of Etchmiadzin.
Climbing one day in contemplation the
steep sides of Ararat, the Saint, overcome with fatigue, laid
himself down to rest, when, in a vision an angel appeared to

him pointing out the spot where the fragments

of

Noah's

Many strange legends are current among

concerning this centre of their national cult.

vessel lay concealed.

the Armenians

One

of these

relates

that on the spot where

now stand

Christianity in

135

Turkey

the church and monastery rose three rocks forming the

points of a triangle, under each of which was a cavern whence
issued mysterious beings giving replies to questions after the
manner of the Oracles of Delphi. But Jesus Christ having

Name should be honoured in that place,

descended in person from Heaven, and, taking the Cross on
which He suffered, struck a blow on each of those rocks
which forthwith, together with the caverns and their tenants,
disappeared from the face of the earth. Another version of
decreed that His

the legend states,

however, that Christ permitted

spirits

of the earth to retain their abodes in the cavities of the rocks

on which the convent

the

its

holy men,

is

built in order that they might serve

as slaves and drudges
and

inmates,

they stiU perform their allotted tasks,

to the no small easement of the serving brethren.
The Armenians, in common with the rest of the Christian
world, have adopted Nicholas of Damascus' identification of their
here, accordingly,

Mount

"

the Mother of the World,"

Ararat
of the Deluge.
According
^axat
to Lenormant,^ however, the word Ararat,
or Ararad, originally signified not the mountain peak of
Massis only, but the whole of the district watered by the
Araxes, whose inhabitants are termed by Herodotus, AlaroSt. Jerome, too, applied this term
dians.
exclusively to the
The story told by Berossos
plain at the foot of the mountain.
of the stranding of the ship of Xisouthros, as also the Koranic
version of the story of Noah and the Deluge ^ and other
traditions localises the mountain-peak on which the vessel
rested in Kurdistan to the south-west of Lake Van
and the
Chaldean epic poem of Ourouk describes the Ark as resting
on the mountains of Nizer, also in this region
while the
inhabitants of Cappadocia claim for their Mount Argaeus
Massis,

^^^*^ *^^

Origines de I'Histoire, torn,

Mohammed, on

ii,

paxtie, p. 2, etc.

other hand, makes Noah disembark at

El Djoudi, which he calls " the Kurd Mountain," situated to the west
of

Lake Van.

Loe.

the

cit.,

p. 5.

136

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

The mountain
its resting-place.
which is also termed by the people of
"
World
the neighbouring Erivan Mouthen Aschkark the
of Darkness," appears to have been from the remotest antithe honour of having been

of Massis, or Ararat,

quity invested by the inhabitants of the surrounding country

with a supernatural character, easily accounted for by the
frequent volcanic disturbances which have from time t6 time
changed its aspect. As the Greek Gods were located on the
Thessalian Olympus, so the summit of Massis has been regarded as the abode of infernal beings whose mysterious
proceedings caused the awe-inspiring convulsions which
seemed to shake the mountain's very foundations. ^ On
the introduction of Christianity, the location of the restingplace of the Ark on this already sacred mountain endowed its
and the
reputedly inaccessible peak with new mystery
;

treading on its soil of the second father of

the human race constituted the adjacent country a holy
A ravine which penetrates deeply into the heart of
land.
traditional

first

the mountain formerly held the village of Arghouri, destroyed

by an earthquake in 1846, above which, at an altitude of
6,000 feet above sea level, stands the monasMonastery

^gj-y

^j g^

James.

Here

to the local legend, that

it

was, according

Noah planted

his

vineyard, and the monks still show the withered roots of a

vine rendered sterile by the divine malediction, the juice of
"
"
to fall into the sin
its fruit having caused the
Just One
The monastery is held to occupy the spot
of drunkenness.
"
on which Noah builded an altar unto the Lord," when the
1
In an ancient Armenian poem, the hero-king, Artaxes, in his anger

thus addresses his son Artabazes

"
If, when thou follow'st the chase, thou approachest the mountain,
:

great Massis,
shall the Famous Ones seize thee, and bear thee

There

Massis

away upon

There shalt thou bide, and for ever be hid from the gladdening
sunshine,"
actually disappeared in a hole
and, according to the story, this prince
"
Chants Populaires de rArmenie,"
at the base of Massis.
Dulaurier.

Revue des deux Mondes, April, 1852,

Christianity in

137

Turkey

"

Lord made a covenant with him and every Hving creature."

A bent and stunted willow growing just above the site of the
ruined village is accredited with having grown from a fragment of the Ark which had there taken root. Not far off
"
"
is the
Erivan, the name of which
grave of Noah's wife
"
town signifies First Seen," lies to the north while Naketchivan was the city founded by the patriarch on his descent from
the mountain.
It is also related that the Three Wise Men of
the East, one of whom, Caspar, is held to have been an
Armenian, were on Mount Massis when they perceived the
"
the place where the young
Star, and started thence for
;

child lay,"

The Armenian Paradise-tradition locates the Garden of

Eden on the present site of Erzeroum. This fact is the more
and noteworthy seeing that the
Oriental Paradise-stories extant are, according

curious

TradYo^^

to modern theories, all derived from actual

traditions of early settlements of the founders of civilisation
in Egypt and Chaldea, and that among the Chaldean Paradise
^
legends was one pointing distinctly to a northern location.
^
Reland and Brugsch have pointed out that in South-western
Armenia and in the neighbourhood of Erzeroum four great

have their sources the Phasis or Araxes, the Kyros,

the Euphrates, and the Tigris. Mr. Curzon has remarked'
that from a certain spot on a rocky mountain 10,000 feet
above sea level, and only three hours' distant from Erzeroum,
"
may be seen the sources of the Euphrates, of the Araxes,

rivers

and of another river which falls into the Black Sea near
Batoum." And it has been shown by Delitzsch that the
Euphrates and Tigris are certainly identical with the
Euphrates and Hiddequel of the Hebrew variant of the
*

Stuart-Glennie, Traditions of the Archaian

Roy. Hist. Society, 1889.

'
Persischen Reise, Bd.
*

i.

White Races.

Trans.

sl45 eh sey.

Armenia. The river thus vaguely indicated

Tchorouk, the ancient Acampsis.

is

evidently

the

138

Turkey

Chaldean tradition.

of the

Ottomans

A local Moslem tradition also relates that

the flowers of Paradise bloomed in luxuriant splendour in this

now barren region until the time of Khosref Purveez. This

mighty Persian monarch was, it is related, one day encamped

with his army on the banks of the Euphrates when a messenger
arrived from the Prophet Mohammed, then only an obscure
pretender, offering this magnificent sovereign his protection
he would renounce the faith of his fathers and embrace
that of Islam. Khosref Purveez threw, in derision, the

if

Prophet's missive into the river, when the bounteous stream

which had hitherto bestowed wealth and abundance on the
country, shrank into a narrow channel, refusing to fertilise
any longer the earth, and all the vegetation on its banks
forthwith withered. Cold, drought, and barrenness have
ever since been the result of the Persian king's impiety
and not this only, but the days of his kingdom were from that
moment numbered, and a few years afterwards the black;

smith's leathern apron, the standard of the Persians,

into the hands of the Prophet's general at the battle

Kudseah.
So much

"

Flowers of Eden

of

"

Erzeclaim to
inherit," for on the
mountain sides in the vicinity of the town
flourish several plants, almost, if not quite,
unknown elsewhere. Among these the

for the legend.

roum may, however,

^^Ed"

Some

fell

"

still

Ravanea coccinea the Armenian name for which is Jotn

"
"
is perhaps the most
Seven Brothers' Blood
Yegpair, or
It
is a parasite of the wormwood,
and
beautiful.
interesting
and its hly-hke blossom and stem, for it has no leaves, appear

to be covered with crimson velvet.

The Morena

" Flowers
Draghik

Orienialis,

the Sun,"
has something the appearance of a thistle with flowers growing
the
closely all up the stalk, and its scent resembles that of
and
curious
rare
Another
of
these
plants,
honeysuckle.
"
Wild Grapes," or " the grape-Uke," has a
locally called
locally called Aravelian

Wo

lag das Paradies ?

p.

1 .

of

Christianity in

Turkey

139

tough carrot-like root about two feet long, with leaves like
bunches of tussock grass, and under them drooping bunches
of grape-like globes, each contsdning a seed.
These, however,
are poisonous.
Very curious

and interesting are also current Armenian

legends relating to the Creation and Fall of Man. According
to one of these, God took earth from seven
Legends of

mountains and water from seven rivers to

make the clay wherewith he fashioned the
body of Adam. When God the Father had
thus begun the work of creation, God the Son took charge
of his maintenance, and God the Holy Ghost breathed into
him the breath of hfe. God loved Adam, but (Lucifer) the
"
Chief of the Angels was jealous of this preference.
What,"
and

Fall.

cried he, fuming with rage,

of yesterday is preferred to

"

is it

me

possible that this plaything

"
And so wrathful was he

that he refused to present himself before the Almighty on

the day when it was his turn to serve and adore Him. This

and his sympathisers were in consequence precipitated

from the highest heaven and transformed into demons.
Those among them who stopped midw^ay in air, as the good
rebel

angels began to sing the old Armenian (!) hymn of the Guetzo,
"
received the name of
suspended demons." Satan then
swore to compass Adam's fall. Under the form of a serpent

he approached him, and persuaded him to eat of the forbidden

fruit.
The sun set for the first time on the expulsion of the
First Man from Paradise.
He who had never known darkness
groped about for some time in the gloom, beside himself
with terror. At last he fell asleep, and saw in a dream
"
Christ on the Cross. Awaking with a start, he cried,
O
Cross
come to mine aid." He was weeping in the darkness
when Satan came to him, and offered to recover the hght for
him on condition that he placed his hand on a stone and
"
Let those who may be bom of me
pronounced the words,
be thine." As soon as Adam had accepted this condition,
the darkness became deeper, and to this day the Armenians
!

140
call

of the

Turkey

the darkest hours of the night

Ottomans
Atama Mouth

the " Dark-

ness of Adam." But Satan encouraged his victim by assuring

him that the night was drawing to an end, and ere long pointed
to the shimmering edge of the rising sun on the threshold
of the East.
Since that day a star has shone towards morning

and is called Lucifer. Satan hid in the Jordan the stone on

which Adam had sworn but Christ was baptised on that very
stone and it shivered to dust beneath his feet.
Adam, driven from Paradise, was devoured with rage.
He wished to revenge himself on the serpent, on his wife, and
on God. But being powerless to reach the
other two he approached, under cover of the
f E
;

r".

darkness. Eve,

who

sat at the foot of a wild

fig-tree weeping, and brutally assaulted her.

fled away, and hid herself in a deep forest

Eve, terrified,
where she lived

the apes, and there Cain was born. ^ Adam, wearying

of his solitude, went to seek his wife and promised never
again to ill-use her. Eve wept, and Adam consoled and

among

embraced
"

her,

and Abel was the

fruit of this reconciliation.

me when I
said Adam

could lay at thy feet Eden

to his wife on the following
and all its delights,"
"
What are thy feelings towards me now that, from a
day.
"
"
Eve replied, I love thee
I
have
become a beggar ?
king

Thou

didst love

still."

But the Serpent could not leave Adam in peace, and from
"
She loves
behind a bush where he lay hidden, he hissed,
thee because there is none other."
One day Eve called to her Cain and Abel, who, still little
children, were playing on the grass.
Holding out an arm
"
Bite them, I command you." The elder
to each she said,
boy bit till he drew blood but Abel impressed a loving" kiss
Our
on his mother's arm. Then said his mother to Adam,
Cain will be a wicked man." Both parents loved Abel
Cain being jealous of their partiality, wished to
dearly.
;

This

"

Flight of

Story of the Fall.

Eve

"

is

also a

prominent incident

in the

Moslem

Christianity in

141

Turkey

Satan therefore took the

brother, but knew not how.
form of a raven, picked a quarrel with another raven, and in
Cain's presence, cut its throat with a sharp black stone.
Cain picked up the stone, hid it in his girdle, proposed to Abel
a walk on the mountain, and with it there cut his brother's
kill his

throat.
It may truly be said that the attitude of the Porte towards
the various creeds professed by its Christian subjects has
ever been one of quite exceptional tolerance.

Turkish

statement may be challenged by reference to the numerous massacres of Christians

which have from time to time sulhed the pages of Ottoman
It must, however, be borne in mind that such mashistory.
j^iis

have almost invariably been preceded by insurrectionary movements and Greeks, Bulgarians, and Armenians
were massacred, not because they were Christians, but because
they either were in reality, or were suspected of being, rebels
sacres

One striking proof of

against the authority of the Porte.
this truth is afforded by the non-molestation of CathoUc,
distinguished from Gregorian, Armenians during recent
massacres, the former having never been, like the latter,

as

The opposition
revolutionary proceedings.
raised against the passing of a Roman Cathohc procession
through the streets of Westminster wiU be fresh in the pubUc
concerned in

And the following translated extract from a newspaper account of a similar ceremony in Turkey may serve
to illustrate the present conciliatory attitude of the Sultan's
towards its Christian subjects
government
"
On Sunday last took place the annual procession of the
Corpus Domini. The briUiance of the fete was heightened

memory.

*
I have just read in a Salonica newspaper that the whole surviving
Armenian populations of the villages of Deurt Yol, Euzerli and Odjakli,
whose inhabitants suffered so cruelly during the massacres of 1909,
are disposed to abandon the native Gregorian church and join the
communion of Rome. More than two hundred families have already
taken this step, and their example will, it is anticipated, be followed
by the conversion of two thousand more.

142

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

of Monseigneur Sardi, and all the Catholic

of
the
neighbourhood assembled in the pretty church
colony
Towards five
to see and hear its first pastor.

by the presence

Romanist

emerged amid a vast

who lined the way on
marching to the music of

o'clock the procession

concourse of spectators

the sacred cortege

and of the band of the Salesian fathers.
In front walked the school children, after them the faithful,
then the clergy and notables of Makrikeuy, while in the rear
Monseigneur Sardi, surrounded by the clergy, bore the Holy
Sacrament. Perfect order was maintained by the Police
with a degree of tact which did honour to the force. And
for the space of an hour the procession traversed the gailyeither hand,

liturgical chants

decorated streets of the quarter which had been newly

gravelled for the occasion by the orders of the worthy and
ever-courteous president of the municipality, Sherif Effendi.
Such ceremonies leave a pleasant impression in a country

Turkey where everyone is free to practise his

^
religion according to the dictates of his conscience."
like

The Stamboul.

own

CHAPTER IX
JUDAISM IN TURKEY

The two

sections of the Sefardim

and the Ashkenazim into

which the Hebrew

race, as mentioned in a previous chapter,

observe in their ritual certain differences, the

divided,
chief of these being in the character of the trope or chant,
and the music used in the services of the Synagogue generally.
With the former these have retained their original archaic

is

small compass and monotony, while with the latter the

music has become greatly modernised. The liturgy also
presents some minor points of difference, though its main
featmres are identical, as are also the rules as to food and,
with some sHght variations, in which the Sefardim show themselves the

more

liberal, as to

Sabbath observance.

Ottoman

Jews, however, whether Sefardim or Ashkenazim, difier

considerably in their rehgious behefs and practices from
For not only are
their co-religionists in Western Europe.
they the most bigoted adherents of the Talmud to be found

anywhere, but they also observe

many

rites

and usages

peculiar to themselves.

The Talmud
of

divinely

devotees to be the perfection

the consummation of all
moral and rehgious teaching, the absolute
is

held by

revealed

its

wisdom,

and unchangeable Law dehvered to Moses,

and during long centuries orally transmitted,
unimpaired and unabridged, through a succession of holy men.
"
"
For its better security this pecuhar
Sacred Book
was,
however, in later times committed to writing and the Eastern
Rabbis are the present masters of this sophistical and to a
The Talmud,

great extent cabalistical learning which includes, intermixed

with many beautiful sentiments, lofty moral principles,

and apt

illustrations,

much

that can only be regarded as

143

144

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

degrading superstition and meaningless ritual. The Talmud

also inculcates belief in the Manichean doctrine of the existence
of good and evil spirits who interfere in and control the
The atmosphere is held to be peopled
affairs of mankind.
invisible
a
host
of
malevolent beings termed Shedim,
by
a word calculated to inspire fear and horror, and which is
"
"
those without ' being
never pronounced, the euphuism
used in its place. ^ It may indeed be no exaggeration to
say that the rabbinical writers have converted the pure
monotheism of Moses and the Prophets into a paganism
equal in its adoration of holy men and angels, its propitia-

demons and consequent magical practices, and its

of times and seasons, fast, feast and Sabobservance
rigid
bath days to that which is practically the cult of the
most ignorant Christian populations of Southern and
South-eastern Europe.
As might be expected from the foregoing, the Jews of
"
"
"
"
and
unclean
clean
Turkey are, in the matter of
food, particularly strict, and the preparation
tion of

'

'

^"*^

every article of consumption is regulated

Food.
by ^ variety of strange and complicated
formulae.
Rules relating to the order in which
certain kinds of food may be eaten are also strictly observed.
Cheese, milk, or butter, for instance, must not be partaken
of after meat has been eaten until six hours have elapsed,
though meat may be eaten immediately after such dairy
the forced
produce. In order also to carry out more rigidly
"
Thou shalt
interpretation given to the Mosaic ordinance,
*-*^

"t^if^^\

This expression is identical with that used by the Greeks Ta

According" to the Rabbis, these malevolent demons are
so numerous that
they stand around us hke the trench around the
were
garden bed," and are bo frightful in appearance that, if power
"
could withstand the sight.
Everygiven to see them, no creature
"
one of us," says Rav Huna,
has a thousand on his left hand, and ten
"
Want of room
thousand on his right." And Rabba exclaims that
at the sermon is caused by them, the wearing out of the Rabbi's
garments is caused" by their rubbing against him, the bruised legs are
caused by them
>

^{oTio.

Judaism

in

145

Turkey

not seethe a kid in his mother's milk," the utensils used

for cooking and serving meat and milk must be kept strictly
separate, and bread made with milk must be baked in loaves
of a special shape lest it should inadvertently be consumed
with meat. The Mosaic ordinances with respect to the
fasts and feasts as contained in the Pentateuch are also
supplemented by numerous other observances enjoined
by the "traditions of the scribes." This Oral Law requires,
for instance,

that every single

day appointed by Moses as

a hoUday shall be supplemented by another, to be observed

it has also added other fasts and
with equal strictness
;

feasts to the

number

originally

commanded, and

regulates

every detail of ritual by which all these ordinances are to

be accompanied. No article of food which has not been
specially prepared for consumption on a feast day may be
eaten on that day, however great the necessity, even eggs
laid on that day may not be used until the morrow.
All
sorts of extraordinar}'^ quibbles and evasions are, however,
set forth in the Rabbinical books in order to enable men
to comply with the letter of the law while avoiding
inconvenience to themselves. The obser\'ance of these
numerous fasts and feasts, and especially of the latter, often
proves a real hardship to the poor who, besides being obUged
to refrain

from work, are compelled to procure in honour

of such festivals luxuries they can ill afford.

The Sabbath day is, of course, most

rigorously

observed by the Jews of Turkey. It is also personified

"
The
^V ^^^ Rabbis under the name of
Adoration of
the Sabbath
its advent being
Queen" or "The Bride"
"
^^yThe Bride cometh
greeted with the crj',
The Bride cometh !" And in one of the Pentecostal prayers
;

the Sabbath is glorified as follows

"It is the end of all
work, above and beneath, it is accoimted the seventh among
the days, the first convocations of seasons, holy to the Lord
of Hosts, a glorious holy Sabbath to those who rest thereon
it redeemed the first created man from
judgment he chanted
:

JO{2389)

146

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

a hymn, and appeased the wrath of God." The incidents

referred to, which are not mentioned by Moses, are
related at length in the traditions of the Rabbis, and seem
to throw some light on the origin of the idolatrous character
of the reverence paid to the Sabbath by the Talmudic Jews.
At the seventh hour of the day, according to this authority,
on the eve of the Sabbath i.e., about one o'clock p.m.
on Friday the first Adam was introduced into Paradise
last

But
ministering angels, who sang his praises.
"
on the eve of the Sabbath i.e.,
between the suns
between sunset on Friday and sunrise on Saturday he
was driven out and went forth, and the angels lamented in
"
Adam being in honour, abideth not he is
the words,
The Sabbath day then came
like the beasts that perish."
"
Lord of the Earth," it said,
and interceded for Adam.
"
in the six days of the creation nothing in the world was
Is this my sanctislain, and wilt Thou begin with me ?
the
by
"

fication,

the

and

Seventh

my

blessing, as

it

was

Day and hallowed

'

said,

"

it.'

And God

blesseth

Therefore by

the

Adam was

dehvered from hell.

"
And when he saw the power of this Day he said, It was
name
he
blessed
not for nothing that the Holy One whose
hallowed and sanctified it." So he forthwith chanted,
intercession of the Sabbath,

Psalm xcii, which, according to

Rabbi Ishmael, was forgotten in the generations that followed until Moses came and restored it. Another version
of this legend adds that the Sabbath protested against the
"
Dost thou sing
honour paid it by Adam with the words,
hymns unto me ? Rather let us both sing hymns to the
Holy One, whose Name be blessed."
On Friday evenings, large numbers of men dressed in
their Sabbath raiment may be seen congregated on the
Meidan, the Common, outside the Vardar
^^^^ ^ Salonica, murmuring their prayers
in praise of the Sabbath,

the^Sabbath

proceeding to the service in the

ushers in the Sabbath,
Arrived at

before

synagogue which

Judaism
home

in

Turkey

147

the father and sons find the Sabbath lamp Hghted,

laid ready for the evenmg meal with the

and the table

customary

His ablutions
wine, and couple of loaves.
housefather recites part of the second
Genesis, and then pronounces the doxology,

salt,

the

performed,
chapter of
"
Blessed art Thou, O Lord our God, King of the Universe,
who hast created the fruit of the vine," gazing meanwhile
"
on the Sabbath lamp, as the Talmud declares that
if,
during the week, a man has lost a tenth part of his eyeA
sight, he may recover it by looking at this holy hght."
curious ceremony now follows, which illustrates one of the
strange behefs which the Jews entertain respecting the
prophet EUas. Taking in his hand a cup of wine, the man
makes the tour of the dwelling, and drops some of its con"
tents on the floor of every room with the words,
Elias
the prophet
EUas the Prophet come to us quickly with
"
the Messiah, the son of David
This invocation they
beUeve to be so acceptable to the Prophet that every household in which it is uttered is placed under his special protection
and blessed with the blessings of increase.
The great annual fasts observed by the Jews occur between
the fourth and seventh Hebrew months, the three weeks
intervening between the fasts of the fourth
!

and

months being periods of mourning,

which
no marriages are celebrated.
during
From the first to the eighth day of the latter month, the
month of Ab, the Talmudist Jews abstain from meat and
\vine, and on the ninth day they abstain even from drinking
water.
Before sunset on the eve of this day, on which is
commemorated the taking of Jerusalem and the destruction
of the Temple, the head of every household, seated on the
"
"
meal of mourners
bread strewn with
floor, eats the
ashes and then repairs to the synagogue, the service
Fasting.

fifth

appointed for this occasion, as w^eU as for the following

morning, consisting chiefly of chanted laments for the lost
glory of Israel

and plaintive aspirations

for its restoration.

148

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

"
the tenth
the day of Atonement, which is kept on
day of the seventh month," the Jews also in a similar degree
"
and abstain at the
afflict their souls,"
The Day of
game
time from all manner of work. In
Atonement.
,
r
the evenmg the head of the house performs

On

,,,,.,,

the ceremony of atonement, first for himself and subsec[uently

member of the family in turn. For every man
or boy a cock is provided, and for every girl a hen. The
for each

holding the bird by the legs, repeats part of the

"
If there be
107th Psalm, and the two verses from Job,
a messenger with him, an interpreter, one among a thousand,
to show unto man his uprightness, then he is gracious unto
Dehver him from going down the pit, I
him, and saith,
"
have found a ransom.' ^ Swinging the cock round over
father,

'

"

he continues,
This is my substitute, this is my
commutation
this cock goeth to the death in order that
I may be gathered, and enter unto a long and happy life
and into peace." When the whole of this formula has been
thrice repeated, the man lays his hands on the cock as in
the action of sacrifice. He then proceeds to perform the
his head,

same ceremony

for

the

members

of his

family

in

turn,

slightly varying the words to denote the respective persons.

At the conclusion of the act of atonement mention is made

departed parents, for whom prayers are offered. At

Salonica the Jews also on this day perform the strange
ceremony of casting their sins into the sea, and the crowds
who flock to the quay look anxiously across the bay for the
of

Messiah who, according to local tradition, will arrive in

that city from the East on the day of Atonement.
The double festival of the Passover and the feast of Unleavened Bread is the first great event of the Hebrew
the
religious year, and its observance by
Feast
a
most
is
Ottoman
by
accompanied
Jews
Tl^
"
elaborate ceremonial,

leaven,"
1

Chap,

which

precedes

xxxiii, 23, 24.

it,

being

the

search for the

out by the

carried

149

Judaism in Turkey

according to the minute directions given

At the conclusion of the Passover
Talmud.
are thrown wide open, and for a
the
house
doors
supper
few minutes absolute silence is observed, as it is at
this moment that the advent of Ehas may be expected,
for whom a glass of wine has been set aside at the
house-father

the

in

table.

The beginning
five

of the Feast of Tabernacles is observed

days after the Fast of the Atonement, In the interval,

the

The Feast

of

booth,

feature,

is

or arbour,
erected on

which
the

is

its

terrace

chief

which

forms part of every Eastern house, all the

family taking part in the work of construction. The walls
and roof are lightly built of branches or reeds, as the stars

and the booth is usually just

must be seen through them
contain
a
table
at which the household can be
to
large enough
accommodated. No work is done on the two first days of
;

so while the paterthe feast save the necessary cooking

familias and the children are busy building the tabernacle
on the terrace, the careful house\^^fe is occupied in the
kitchen preparing special cakes for the festival. On the
eve of the feast it is customary for all to attend a special
;

On returning home the family

time in the tabernacle, and offer prayers
and praises. The evening meal, of which all the household
but before sitting dowTi
partake together, is then spread
to it, the father takes a cup of wine in his hand and recites
a prayer over it. He then tastes the wine, the cup is handed
round, and all drink from it in turn. The two wheaten loaves
which stand on the table covered with a napkin are then

service in the synagogue.

gather for the first

On the morning
blessed, cut up, and the pieces distributed.
of the next day, which is the first day of the feast, all again
repair to the synagogue, the housefather carrying in his
hand a citron, with branches
The service on this occasion

of palm, myrtle
is

singular

and

and willow.
interesting.

During the chanting of one of the prayers called Hallel,

150

Turkey

the

men wave

left

and from

of the

Ottomans

the branches over their heads from right to

to right, backwards and forwards and

left

in all directions.

As Moslems and Jews visit Christians of their acquaintance

on the occasions of their chief national and religious festivals,
the

The Booth.

latter return the comphment pn the

days of the principal Moslem and Hebrew
Such visits are more especially
holidays.

de rigueur

among people holding official positions, and are

a great tax on the time and often on the patience, of the
On one occasion
foreign Consuls, as also of their wives.
when I accompanied a French Consulesa to a Jewish house
on the afternoon of this festival, I saw the citron and palm
branch displayed on a side table in the sala, and was informed that the possession of a specimen of this fruit by each
family was considered so necessary to the due observance
of the feast that, when it was scarce in Turkey, large sums
were expended by the wealthy for consignments from abroad,
and distributed to the poor. Being invited to visit the
tabernacle, we were conducted up a little attic stairway
to the terrace, passing on our way through a large airy
kitchen with its arched cooking apparatus on one side, and
on the other rows of well-scoured copper pans of various
shapes and dimensions ranged on shelves against the newly
limewashed walls. The booth, however, struck me as a

mean

composed not, as I had

boughs of goodly trees, branches of palm
trees, and boughs of thick trees and willows of the brook,"
but almost entirely of long withered looking reeds from the
vast marshes which border the river Vardar (the ancient
Axius) a few miles from the city.
Nor do the Eastern Jews, strictly as they observe the
rather

expected, of

construction, being
"

"

ritual of their religion generally, literally

dwell in booths seven
days." For though to sleep in the tabernacle is held to

ensure

all

manner

of blessings, so great in these regions

dread of malaria that an occasional siesta

is

is

the

alone ventured

Judaism
on under

151

Turkey

And, in reply to our various inquiries,

from our hostess and her daughter who,

its roof.

we gathered

in

dressed in their rich and brightly coloured native costiune,

had accompanied us that it was deemed sufficient to
sup under its shelter during the duration of the festival.

But, the booth apart, a more gorgeous banqueting-hall

could hardly be imagined. Above, the star-spangled canopy
of an Eastern sky
behind and around, the roofs, domes,
and minarets of the city, its upper part bounded by the
citadel of the Seven Towers and the old battlemented walls ;
and before us, the broad expanse of the land-locked bay,
on the distant shores of which loomed the dark mass of
hills.
Olympus and the Cambunian
"
The feast of Purim, or
The Lots," commemorates the
confounding of Haman's devices against the Jews and the
triumph of Mordecai, as recorded in the book of Esther. It
derives its name from the circumstance of
;

of

P^^m*

Haman having cast lots to ascertain which day

in the year was the most unlucky for the Jews,

he might the more easily carry out his designs
"
against them. The two
days of feasting and joy of sending
portions to one another, and gifts to the poor," are preceded
by one of fasting and propitiatory prayers in the synagogue,
because Esther and all the Jews of Shusan fasted for three
days before she ventured to present her petition to Ahasuerus
the King. On this day the whole of the book of Esther is
read aloud to the congregation from a parchment roll called
the Megillah. An extraordinary importance is attached
to this book, the reading of which on this occasion must
be performed, or hstened to, by every member of the community, man, woman, and child. The well-known Hebrew
"
all the
commentator, Maimonides, declares of it that
Books of the Prophets and all the Hagiography except the
roll of Esther shall pass away in the
days of the Messiah
but the last is as perpetual as the five Books of the Written
Law, and the constitution of the Oral Law, which shall
in order that

152

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

At the conclusion of the reading, blessings

are pronounced on the name of Esther and Mordecai, and
The two
curses on those of Haman, Zeresh, and their sons.
never cease."

days of Purim are consecrated to feasting and rejoicing,

all labour, fasting, and sorrow being forbidden.
For, according to the Talmud, "A man's duty with regard to this festival
feast
is that he should eat meat and prepare a suitable
he
be
drunk
to
his
and
drink
wine
until
means,
according
and fall asleep in his drunkenness." Rabbinical writers
"
a man is bound to get so drunk
have also decreed that
Cursed
at Purim as not to know the difference between
be Haman' and 'Blessed be Mordecai,'" and that this injunction was literally carried out by the Hebrew Fathers will
appear from the following little Talmudist story.
"
Rabba and Rabbi Zira were celebrating their Purim
entertainment together when Rabba got so drunk that he
arose and slew Rabbi Zira.
On the following day he prayed
The next
for mercy, and his friend was restored to life.
'

year Rabba again proposed to Rabbi Zira to keep Purim

with him
but the Rabbi replied, No, my friend, miracles
"
occur not every day
'

'

Hilchoth Megillah, translated in McCaul's The Old Paths, pp. 53, 54.

a
o
s
Q
<
>

CHAPTER X
URBAN LIFE

Urban

life in Turkey presents many features not generally

observable in the towns and cities of European countries.
Many other States contain certainly mixed
of
populations, the Austro-Hungarian Empire,
V^iety
for instance.
There, however, the German,
Bohemian, Polish, Hungarian, and other constituent elements
inhabit for the most part separate territories, while in the

Ottoman Empire the population

of a

town may be composed

as eight indigenous races, speaking as many

different languages, and divided by the profession of three

of as

many

In some few quarters the various comdifferent creeds.

munities are found living together but, as a rule, they inhabit
separate localities. At the Capital, for instance, the Turks
reside chiefly in Stamboul, at Nishan Tash, and on the
the Jews are found settled
most part in Hasskeui and Kus Kunjuk the Phanar,
on the South shore of the Golden Horn, is the seat of the
Greek Patriarchate, though the Greeks also inhabit various
parts of Galata, Pera, and the villages on the shores of the
Bosphorus, in common with the Armenians and Franks.
The Osmanlis are very numerous in the capital, but at Smyrna
and Salonica they constitute but a comparatively small
section of the population.
Life in Constantinople and in
Asiatic shore of the Bosphorus

for the

the large seaport cities of the iEgean presents certain aspects

not discoverable in the towns of the interior, where the
population, though mixed, is of a less cosmopohtan character
and social conditions generally are less affected by European
influence.

so far

cis

But even in these great cities these differences,

the vast mass of the inhabitants, and especially

the Turkish section of them, are concerned, are superficial

153

154

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

and external rather than

essential.
For all the various
communities, Moslem, Christian, and Jewish, of which these
cosmopolitan populations are made up, live in separate
quarters of the city, and their members, after transacting
business with each other during the day ^honestly or otherwise, according to their several codes of commercial morality
retire at sunset into worlds totally different, and divided
from each other by impassable barriers of language, religion,
the life and thought of a mere
tradition, and social custom
fraction of each section of the native races being in the
least influenced by those of the foreigners with whom they

come

into daily contact.

instance, occasionally

Moslem women and

girls

may,

themselves of a tramcar
when on an expedition, but the car itself is, in deference
to Turkish prejudice, divided into two compartments, the
women sitting apart from the men.
There has been during the past half century, owing to
political friction, even less social intercourse than formerly
for

Social
_.^--t^r.

avail

between ^the Turks and their Christian

subjects. LCommercial and municipal affairs
naturally bring

members

of

all

races into

public relations with each other, and ceremonial visits are

exchanged on the occcisions of their national festivals between

those holding official positions. In such intercourse there is,

the men call on the men
however, no mingling of the sexes
and the ladies on the ladies. The Greek communities are
;

and their women rarely speak

as do the generahty of Armenian women, whose
and modes of thought, especially in the towns of the
approximate more nearly to those of the ruling race.
also very exclusive,

Turkish,

customs
interior,

Osmanli

men

certainly manifest little taste for the society of the

native Christian women, though the generahty of the better
class Turks of the capital eagerly avail themselves of every

opportunity of making the acquaintance of European ladies.

Europeanised Turks also frequent the Pera cafes and hotels
and cultivate the acquaintance of foreigners generally.

Urban

155

Life

The upper class of Osmanli society at the present day may

be Scdd to consist almost entirely of the families of Government officials, military and naval men, and
^^S^ fmictionaries. For the Turks, generally
speaking, have not hitherto sho\Mi themselves active or inteUigent as business men, and venture
One never,
Uttle into speculative commercial transactions.
for instance, hears of them as bankers nor as members of
companies formed for working mines, constructing railways,

TuAf

or any other enterprise involving risk, and requiring for its

business capacity as understood in the West.

success

Finding the subject nationalities possessed of all, the business

qualities in which they confess themselves deficient, the

OsmanUs have, ever

since the conquest, fallen into the habit

of using their subjects as tools,

thought

for

them

who

worked, and

acted,

and thus they appear to have

the capacity of themselves fulfilling

which
should
on
devolve
naturally
lost

finally

all

the fimctions

homogeneous

people.

Diuring the eighteenth century the Greeks may be said to

have wielded an edmost greater influence on the social, reUgious, and economic condition of the Balkan Peninsula than
the Turks themselves. But the national movements among

the subject races of Turkey during the succeeding century

having inspired the Porte with a general distrust of members
of these nationahties as State officials, their
employment
in

such capacities gradually diminished, and

duiing

the

more posts in the higher Government departments were filled by men of Tvukish descent than at any
other period of Ottoman history. The recent change in
the form of Government has, however, again fortunately led
to the association of members of all races in the work of
late

reign

reconstituting the Empire.

One of the unusual conditions of civic

life found in
Turkey
was created by what are known as the " Capitulations,"
concerning which a few words may not be here out of place.

156

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

In European States generally a foreigner therein resident

amenable to the laws of the country and enjoys no
greater privileges or immunities than its
ii3.tives, foreign embassies and consulates only
Caoitulations
In Turkey,
being exempt from this rule.
however, aU European foreigners enjoy the same immunities
as diplomatists in other countries.
Their dwellings or
business premises cannot be entered by the Ottoman police
without the consent of their respective consuls, to whom
notice must immediately be given in case of the arrest of
one of their subjects, nor can a foreigner be tried for any
offence before a native court unless represented by his consul,
who is entitled to appeal against the sentence and its execution should he consider it unjust.
All suits in which foreigners
are alone the litigants are tried in their own consular courts,
is

and between foreigners and Ottoman subjects in mixed

courts at the sittings of which a representative of the consul
must be present. The taxes and dues which may be levied
foreigners are also regulated by treaty, and can only
be increased with the consent of their Ambassadors. And

upon

as the postal system of Turkey falls so far short of European

requirements, each European power has during the last
half century been permitted to establish in the capital and

the chief cities of the Empire

its

own independent

post

office.

The

somewhat

peculiar state of affairs dates

to
back,
Byzantine times, and has not arisen
from the circumstance of Christians living in Moslem lands.
origin of this

it

would seem,

During the ninth and tenth centuries many Latins settled

Constantinople, and in the 11th century the Comneni
and Angeli, in order to secure the alliance of the great Italian
States, encouraged the Italians of Amalfi, Venice, Genoa,
Pisa and other cities to form settlements there, gave them
commercial privileges, and allowed them to pay lower dues
and taxes than the subjects of the Empire. Each of these
mercantile communities was placed under an official sent

in

Urban

157

Life

out from the mother city and styled Consul, Bailo, or Podest4,
who, with the assistance of a Council, managed its judicial,
administrative, and religious affairs. The Genoese colony
located at Galata and Pera on the northern shore of the

Horn was even allowed

Golden

to erect fortifications

and
"

La
an independent republic known as
Magnifica Communita." Though this poUtical independence
was put an end to on the Turkish conquest of the city, the
became

practically

Sultans saw their advantage in protecting the commerce

"
Franks." ^ In 1540 capitulations were accordingly
signed with Venice again recognising the authority of the
of the

"

Bailo," as the head of the Venetian community had been

termed
and similar treaties were made with England in
1675 and with France in 1740, corresponding advantages
being secured by the Netherlands and other European States.
Now that the arbitrary rule of the Sultans has been replaced by a Constitutional government, signs are not wanting
;

Ottoman statesmen may ere long raise the question of

abolishing these Capitulations and placing foreigners on the
But
footing assigned them in other European states.

that

is a disposition on the part of

foreign ambassadors
to agree to a readjustment of the dues levied on imports
from European States, some time will probably elapse before
the Ottoman government will be able to point to such reforms

though there

in the procedure of their Courts of Justice and to such an

organisation of their postal system as would justify them
in asking

European powers to forego the

privileges secured

by these ancient commercial treaties.

The Esnafs, or Trade Guilds, constitute an important
feature of urban industrial hfe, esp)ecially at Constantinople,
^

The

true derivation of this term, applied in Turkey especially to

Catholic foreigners of Latin origin, appears to be from the
"
Arabic Frenk or Firenk= foreign." But by the Turks it has come
"
to be generally confused with
French," this power having made its
influence more especially felt in the country as the special protector
of all the Christian nations of the Sublime Porte not
represented by

Roman

an Ambassador.

158

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

where representatives of all the various trades, crafts and

Each Esnaf
callings practised in the Empire are to be found.
has in every quarter of the city and suburbs
one or more lonjas, or lodges, presided over

Q^^

by

several

officers

called

respectively,

according to their rank, Sheikhs, Naibs, Oustas, and Kiayas,

or Priors, Superintendents, and Inspectors, who are annually
elected by the members from among its own master craftsmen,
these officers being formally recognised by the Government,
which holds them responsible for the good behaviour of their
fellow-guildsmen. The internal organisation of the Esnaf s

remains practically the same as

it

was

in earlier centuries, its

as in the industrial guilds of Europe generally, falling into the three grades of oustas or masters, half as or journeymen, and tchiraks or apprentices. The lines of demarcation

members,

marked between these three grades. A kalfa

owes respect and obedience to his ousta, and apprentices
A tchirak
are required to be duly submissive to both.
are strongly

desiring admission to the guild of his craft is recommended

by the ousta under whom he has served his time to the

Prior of his lodge, his formal admission being attended

with traditional ceremonies and the payment of certain
The Esnaf of each craft and caUing has its own pecuhar
fees.
traditional laws and usages, as well as its special kanoun'^ or
and
written constitution, all of which are rigidly observed
;

the social relations existing among the members of the various

guilds affords in many instances curious and interesting
illustrations of the manners and mode of hfe of the industrial
These corporations existed in
classes of the country.

Byzantine times, according to some historians even prior

to the reign of Justinian. At the Ottoman conquest of
in
Constantinople thirty-five Guilds were already established
the city, among whom were the boatmen, fishermen, and
cordwainers. A large number of new Esnafs, however, came
into
1

existence during the following three centuries, and,

"
The equivalent of our canon,"

SKIPPER OF A COASTING CRAFT

Urban

159

Life

according to Dr. Paspati, as

many as 1,640 distinct trades,

at
existed
one time as separate corporacallings
This is probably an exaggerated estimate. In any case,

and

crafts,
tions.

number of guilds in the capital greatly diminished during

the last century.
For investigations made with reference to
this subject by Sarakiotis Bey in 1874 showed that the names
the

of only 120 Esnafs were then entered in the municipal registers.

Notwithstanding the historical facts above referred to,

the Moslem

members

of these corporations assign to

them

an Oriental, and even more ancient origin.

^^^
merchants, for instance, maintain that
Saints
their Esnaf was incorporated in the lifetime
of the Prophet, who himself followed the calling of a trader,
and thus became the patron of merchants. For, as with
the guilds of Western Europe, every trade has its owti patron
saint, the majority of them being the prophets and holy
men who figure alike in the Old Testament and the Koran,
each of whom, according to Moslem tradition, invented or
excelled in the craft or calling placed under his protection.
Thus Adam, besides being the patron saint of the tailors'

and among other patron

the Esnafs, Abraiham, as the traditional builder
of the Holy Kaaba at Mecca, is the protector of masons
Cain,
of the sextons, and also of all those who shed blood in their

guUd,

saints

also that of the bakers'

is

of

Enoch, of the scribes

Noah, of the shipbuilders
David, of armourers and smiths generally
Joseph, of the

callings

watch and clock makers and the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus

are included by Moslems in the roll of holy men,
watch somewhat paradoxically, together with Jonah, over
the sailors, especially those who navigate the Black Sea.
The more eminent among the " Companions of the Prophet "
also afford their protection to numerous
Selman,
guilds
one of the two to whom the prophet promised a
greeting
in Paradise, being the patron of the barbers, as it was his
;

who

privilege to shave the servant of Allah.

Previous to the massacre of 1897, thousands of Armenians

160

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

followed the calling of hamals, or were employed as guardians

of business houses in the capital.
These men
If unmarried,
were, as a class, honest, sober, and industrious.

and messengers

they Uved frugally as hektchis, saving their earnings to invest

on returning to their native villages if married, they
sent their wages to their wives and famiUes. What remained
in land

of this valuable

and meritorious section of the population

after the massacre fled, or were driven, from the city to their
places of origin to swell the already considerable number of

unemployed in Anatolia, their former occupations

the hands of Turks and Kurds.

falling into

In a city so water-girt as Constantinople a considerable

of the working population
naturally follow the

section

T^^^

service
callings of boatmen and fishermen.
of steamboats has for many years past

hnked the Capital with its various suburbs,

European and Asian, as well as with the
numerous villages on either side of the Bosphorus. So
great, however, is the demand for means of communication
between the parts of the capital separated by water that
the steamboats have not appreciably diminished the number
of kaiks and other oared craft in which one may be conveyed
in more leisurely fashion from shore to shore, and the Guild
Guild.

of

Boatmen consequently remains not

less

important than

of yore.
The ranks of this Esnaf, as also that of the hamals,
or porters, are largely recruited from among the youths,

both Christian and Moslem, who come in great numbers from

Asia Minor to seek their fortunes in the Capital. Half a
"
dozen or more of these bekiars, or
bachelors," as they are
collectively termed, live in common in some
paying a fixed sum per day or per week to

humble

lodging,

an old man who

acts as their steward and cook, and also as mentor and
arbiter in the disputes that may be expected to arise occaTheir relations with
sionally in such a mixed household.
the master kaikdji, to whom they serve a long apprenticeship,
are also of quite a fihal character.
Many waterside mansions

Urban
have

their

number

own

private boats

of the latter are

161

Life

and boatmen

attached to

the

and quite a
service of the

royal palaces. These are all Moslems, and constitute a

splendidly muscular set of fellows, with shaven polls, who
are apparently impervious to weather, their attire consisting
only of short, full, white Turkish breeches, red girdle, and

Broussa gauze, which, worn open in front, leaves

broad brawny chests completely exposed. A crew

shirt of

their

more propel the State kaiks at a splendid

pace from one shore of the Bosphorus to another, a mode
of traversing this wonderful waterway which may also be
enjoyed by Europeans who have obtained the firman, or
permit, requisite for visiting the Imperial palaces.
Individual Esnafs from time to time obtained from the
earlier Sultans special privileges in return for services rendered
to them personally or to the State.
During
the reign of Abdul Hamid many of the Guilds,
Unio*^^
finding protectors among the corrupt creatures
of the Sultan, became the most rapacious of monopohsts,
the hanials, for instance, demanding for their services fees
so exorbitant as seriously to affect the business of the Capital.
When the Constitution was proclaimed in July, 1908, it
was hoped that an end would be put to these abuses
but
"
Red
they continued unabated until the downfall of the
Sultan."
Shortly after this importajit event a Bill was
laid before the Chamber having for its object the regulation
of twenty-six or

of

these industrial societies.

The measure was, however,

so drafted, as to threaten interference with all rights of

association whatsoever, and was consequently vehemently
"
Monster
opposed by others than members of the Esnafs.

meetings" were held, not only in the Capital, but in all the
large provincial towns, to protest against the proposed law,
and to maintain the right of the labouring classes to combine
"
for their mutual benefit and also their
right to strike."
in
all the various languages spoken by
Speeches were made
the crowds of always orderly demonstrators, urging them to

n (2389)

162

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

a solidarity devoid of racial or religious rivalry, and having

for its sole object the bettering of the

common

enactment of just and constitutional laws

lot

and the

for the protection

of the workers, resolutions such as the following being proposed

and unanimously carried
:

That the wretched condition of the working classes

could only be bettered by means of Trades Unions.
(2) That the right of combination is recognised by the
Constitution, and that any measure having for its
object the abolition of such right is contrary to the
(1)

Constitution.
(3)

That the existence of Trades Unions,

far

from con-

stituting an obstacle to economic development, is, as

proved in European countries, a source of prosperity
to a country whose population may by their agency

more favourable economic conditions.

That the Government should offically recognise the
Unions and enact laws with regard to them in conformity with the spirit of the Constitution and the

attain to
(4)

sentiment of a common humanity.

During the past two years the Esnafs of dock labourers
have made their influence felt at various political crises
by patriotically boycotting all imports from
^

the offending states, these strikes being

so stringently enforced that not only cargo but also passengers
could only be landed by the ship's own boats from steamers
arriving from such foreign ports.
The fish-market of the Turkish capital is, perhaps, second
to none in the world in the abundance and variety of the
finny tribe taken with net or hne by the fishers of the Black
Sea, the Sea of Marmora, the Golden Horn, and the Bosphorus.
In the more sheltered reaches of these waters may often be seen

rude httle constructions of wood perched on high platforms,

from which the fishers watch and manipulate their lines
and the crimson glow of their pitch pine fires lighted at night
on the high prows of the fishing boats, and the drumming
;

Urban

163

Life

on the hollow fore and aft decks,

small
hours a weird, if not disquieting,
the
produce during
effect on the stranger housed for the first time in a waterside
of the fishers' bare feet

dweUing

of these Eastern regions.

characteristic of Ottoman

striking

industrial

Ufe

being the strict specialisation of every branch of industry

or commerce, the absence of the middle-man in the generahty
of

transactions

of

existence

is

connected with supplying the necessaries

"
"
Frank
or
conspicuous. Save in the

European
quarters of Smyrna and the Capital, there are as
"
"
or general shops in which goods of various
no
Stores
yet
kinds are collected. The native Ottoman requiring a pair
of shoes goes accordingly to the working shoemaker for them,
and the housewife in want of a new saucepan, kettle, or
coffee-pot, sends her husband or servant to the street of
the bakirdjiler, or coppersmith, where, amid the deafening
tap-tap of a hundred hammers on the resounding metal,
he makes his selection, and the requisite amount of chaffering
"

"

accomplished and the last price paid, carries off the purchase.
The Bazaars constitute in Turkey, as throughout the East
The term
generally, the centre of native commercial life.
"
derived
from
a
Turkish
bazaar," though

"
'^^^^ signifying
to bargain," is apphed
by the Turks to market-places only, such
the Baluk-bazaar or Fish-market, the term Tcharshi

BaSis.

as

being generally applied to streets devoted exclusively to the

one kind of goods
while the same term, or that of
Bezesien, is applied to the great walled and roofed enclosures
which constitute the chief emporiums of retail trade in the
sale of

varying in size and architectural merits with the

importance of the town of which they usually constitute the
commercial centre. The most famihar examples of these
are the Mis'r Tcharshi, or Cairene Bazaar, the great depot
of spices and drugs, and the Bezesten, or Grand Bazaar of
Stamboul. This Grand Bazaar forms, as it were, a city within
a city, containing arcaded streets, tortuous and mysterious
East,

164

of the

Turkey

Ottomans

and alleys, squares and fountains, all enclosed within

high protecting walls, and covered by a vaulted roof studded
with hundreds of cupolas, through which penetrates a subdued
hght more favourable, it must be admitted, to the vendor than
to the purchaser.
Here, as elsewhere, each commodity has
its special habitat.
In one quarter are found embroideries
in gold and silver, brocades and damasks, with gauzes of
in another
silk, cotton, and hnen from the looms of Broussa
are displayed specimens of all the rugs and carpets woven in
lanes

nomad tent, in village hut, and in town

Smyrna and Samarcand while in a third
;

factory between
the jewellers and

dealers in pearls and precious stones conceal, rather than

display, in diminutive shops, their valuable stock-in-trade.
In all the more important cities of the Empire, however,

the great seaports, commerce is by no

to the bazaars and their neighbourhood, and,
as its larger operations are chiefly in the hands of the nonMoslem section of the population, it is outside the bazaars

and especially
means confined

in

that commercial activity

is

greatest.

Temperance may truly be said to be the keynote of Oriental

The use of wine being forbidden to Moslems
social life.
by the Koran, coffee and tobacco are the only
Coffee-houses
stimulants in common use, and these luxuries,
and Clubs.
despite the fulminations hurled against them
in former days by stern and ascetic moralists, have become
not only indispensable adjuncts of civihty and hospitality,
but almost necessaries of existence for the inhabitants of
the Empire generally of all ranks and creeds. The patient
shopkeeper in the bazaar will courteously invite you to
partake of a fragrant cup while you turn over and inspect
wares at your leisure and at every social or official interview, coffee and cigarettes seem to be indispensable. So
many cups of Mocha must of necessity be partaken of in the
course of a day as, but for the special method of preparation,
could hardly fail to have injurious consequences. Coffeehouses are consequently to be met with everywhere, in
his

A HARDWARE MERCHANT

Urban

165

Life

crowded streets, by suburban roadsides, on boat piers and in

market places, wherever, in a word, men resort for business
or relaxation. There is, perhaps, hardly a town in Turkey
which does not possess in its immediate neighbourhood
one or more picturesque spots, to which the inhabitants
such exist in the
resort on feast-days and holidays.
Many
"
"
of
Sweet Waters
neighbourhood of the capital the
others
Europe and Asia, Merdevenkeuy, and numerous
on the shores of the Bosphorus or by river banks and when
want of leisure, or piastres, makes these inaccessible, the
Turk betakes himself contentedly to the nearest cemetery,
where, seated on a fallen turbaned tombstone under the
shade of a cypress, he enjoys with his fellows the amenities
of conversation, flavoured with a cup of coffee and narghile,
supplied from the little kafene, sure to be found at hand.

Tiu^ks of the lower class resort to the coffee-house in the

early morning for a cheering cup and narghile before betaking

themselves to their daily avocations, and repair to them

again at intervals during the day as opportunity may offer.

Most unpretentious, and also by no means very inviting in
appearance, are the majority of these resorts, and few
can boast of any arrangements for the comfort of those who
frequent them. The best are furnished only with mats,
rugs, and cushions, placed on a raised platform smrounding
the interior. Many are mere wooden shanties with an
awning or vine-covered trellis, in front of or under which
the
contemplative Orientals sit contentedly on rushbottomed stools, a cup in one hand, and the stem of a narghile
or tchihouk in the other, these old-fashioned methods of smoking being still preferred by the lower classes to the more

modem

cigarette.

Coffee-houses generally in the East, in default of clubs or

"
Institutes," have hitherto constituted the chief centres

and conversation for the middle and lower

The Revolution of 1908 was, however, the signal
of union

establishment of innimierable clubs for

all

classes.

for the

sorts of objects,

166

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

social and educational, this movement being a natursJ

reaction against the harassing restrictions placed by Abdul
Hamid on assemblies of every kind. To such an extent had

both

these

restrictions

been

gatherings were forbidden

carried

by

that

even

the press censor

periodical published last year a series

pictures

of

Turkish
of illustrations which
!

had been previously condemned for the sole reason that

them crowds were represented, although in one
instance the crowd was attending a funeral, and in another
in all of

consisted of French harvesters who were celebrating the

conclusion of the vintage. These restrictions pressed with

it

on the Moslem section of the public whose

customs oblige men to seek society outside their own homes.
Business clubs of all nationalities, and especially Greek and
Armenian, are now very numerous in all the seaport cities,
and new ones are opened with a degree of ceremony which
testifies
to the importance attached to them.
At the
inauguration of a Greek club in the Capital about two years
ago the Minister of Education and about a dozen Turkish
pashas were present, and one of the speakers of the evening
dwelt on the necessity of the Greeks learning Turkish, so
special severity

as to

promote the unity of the Empire.

The

fact

that

these remarks were applauded by the Greeks themselves

shows that these clubs may prove an important factor in
drawing together the different races of the Empire. They
at all events, afford opportunities for meeting and
comparing notes which business men never enjoyed in the
old days
and more and more their organisation and
management are being based on English models.
Although hotels are now to be found not only in the
European but also in the native quarters of Turkish cities,
and inns and lodging-houses in the quarters
*"*
will,

frequented by foreign sailors, such conveniences for travellers are little used by the trading classes of the
native population, who still, as of yore, betake themselves to
those pecuUarly Oriental establishments termed Khans, of

Urban

167

Life

which the capital contains quite a number. Not a few of these

ancient edifices, which are situated for the most part in Stamboul in close proximity to the bazaars, owe their origin to the
munificence of the pious, this provision for the accommodation
"
"
of the wayfarer being included in the list of
good works
required of Moslems. And to this category belongs, among
others, the

"

Khan

of the

Vahde"

adjoining the

mosque

of that

name, founded by the mother of Mohammed IV, who during

her son's minority acted as Regent of the Empire. The
architecture of this vast caravanserai, which is considered
as a sort of model for such edifices, is quite conventual in
character. A great arched doorway gives access to a quadrangle containing a tree-shaded fountain and surrounded

by

stables for the horses

and camels, and storehouses

for the

merchandise of the traders frequenting the Khan. Above

rise three superimposed cloistered galleries on which open
all
the cell-hke apartments. These primitive lodgings
contain no furniture, as all Oriental travellers carry with

them

their

made

for

own

bedding, rugs, and utensils, and the charge

is
correspondingly small. The
wants of the guests in the shape of comestibles are easily
suppUed at the cookshop and coffee stall on the premises, or in
the numerous establishments of the kind with which the

accommodation

neighbourhood abounds. In this and the other large Khans at

Stamboul, as also at Smyrna, Salonica and elsewhere, may
be found at all times a motley throng of strangers, Moslem,
Christian, and Jew
pilgrims, and traders from not only
every part of the Ottoman Empire, but also from Central
Asia and Northern Africa, and presenting a collection of
racial types hardly perhaps to be met with elsewhere.
Among Moslems at least, personal cleanliness certainly
comes next to godliness, being strictly enjoined by their
sacred law
and to the regular and careful
ablutions requisite for the maintenance of
Baths
the condition of legal purity in which
certain rehgious acts may alone be performed cis also

168

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

their habitual temperance, is probably due

the comparative freedom of the Turks from many of the
ailments which afflict their Christian and Jewish neighbours.
In very large towns are to be found several hammans, as
Turkish baths are termed, and in the capital they are very
numerous. A few of these the mineral baths at Broussa, for
instance, and some of the more ancient in Stamboul^present

no doubt to

examples of

fine

resorted to

by

this

They are
species of architecture.
of Moslems, and in a more or less

all classes

degree by all the races of the country, the charges being

while for the use of the very poor
extremely moderate
there are a number of minor baths attached to mosques and
other pious foundations at which they may perform their
;

These estabUshments have always

gratuitously.
constituted a popular rendezvous for the Turkish section
of the population, a sort of club where news and gossip could
ablutions

be heard and exchanged.

No fewer than three distinct calendars are made use of
The Turks, in common with
in the Ottoman Empire.
Moslems generally, date historical events
^^^^ *^ "^Sht of the Hefraihe 15th-16th
(SSdars
on which the memorable
July, A.D., 622,
Flight of the Prophet from Mecca to Medina took place.

The Moslem calendar is lunar, the year being divided into

twelve months consisting alternatively of twenty-nine and
and
thirty days, and comprising therefore only 354 days
as no complementary days are added to adjust this calendar
;

in

accordance with astronomical events, national anniver-

and Moslem religious festivals make in the course

of every thirty-three years the round of the seasons.
The members of the Greek, Bulgarian, and Armenian

saries

Churches invariably make use of the Juhan calendar, which

"
"
Frank
is thirteen days behind that of their
neighbours
and of Western Europe generally. Moslem newspapers
and events are consequently dated according to the Moslem
era
parhamentary proceedings bear a dual date indicating
;

A CHIMNEY SWEEP

Urban

Life

169

the year and day according both to that era and to the
while native Christian pubUcations, in
Julian calendar
common with business correspondence, take account of both
"
"
"
"
new styles of reckoning by using the
old
and the
the
two dates conjointly.
The hours of the day also continue to be reckoned in
;

Biblical fashion, from sunset to sunset, which is estimated

with more or less exactitude. The dials of many of the
watches and clocks used by Ottomans are constructed with a
double row of figiu-es, one marking Turkish, and the other
and one may occasionally be asked the
European time
"
"
At what time is noon to-day ?
seemingly odd question,
;

CHAPTER XI
AGRARIAN TURKEY

Real
mirie,

Turkey falls into three categories," mulk,

and vakouf, or freeholds, Crown-lands, and Church-

estate in

Freeholds are, as elsewhere, the

absolute property of their owner, and may
be held by foreigners as well as by native
Ottomans, They form, however, no very considerable portion of
the area of the country, owing to the difficulties encountered
in establishing safe titles, as title-deeds are frequently forged,
lands.

Tenure

The Crown-lands
falsified, and otherwise tampered with.
comprise, in addition to the private estates of the Sultan
and the Imperial family, the lands set apart for the support
of the administration, the forests, hill-pasturages, and wastelands, together with the very considerable area originally
granted as military fiefs which reverted to the Crown on the
Portions of these
abolition of that system of land tenure.
waste-lands are allowed to be reclaimed by the peasants
who, after paying tithes on the produce for twenty years,
are entitled to receive from the authorities a tapou, or deed,
constituting them legal owners. But although nominally
safeguarded by special enactments for Turkish laws are

generally excellent on paper,

and

it is

their appUcation only

which has been faulty this reclamation of waste-lands has

not infrequently proved a hazardous occupation, leading to
Utigation and the ruin of the squatter. The holders of these
Crown-lands also labour under the disadvantage of not being
allowed to sell, transfer, or mortgage their fields without
a licence from the authorities, nor may they be converted into vakouf without the express permission of the
Sultan.

Vakouf lands are those which have been dedicated to the

170

171

Agrarian Turkey
service of Allah

in other words, lands the

revenue of which

are applied to the support of mosques and the religious and

charitable institutions generally attached to

Church

them, such
colleges

almshouses, baths,

and fountains.

etc.,

No

and

official

as

medressehs,

which

in

also to the

report

is

the

Moslem law
upkeep

theological
studied,

is

of aqueducts

available as to the extent

of these vakouf lands, but it is roughly estimated to be as

much as two-thirds of the whole area of the country. At the
conquest large grants of real estate were made by the Sultans

not only to the mosques and their dependencies, but also to

the Dervish Sheikhs who accompanied their victorious armies
and private as well as Imperial munifiinto the battlefield
cence has perennially added to these original endowments.
Church-lands have also been very largely increased from a
third source.
As these estates and the tenants living on them
enjoy special privileges, a freeholder, Moslem or Christian,
worried by tax-gatherers, w^ould sell his land to the trustees
of the nearest mosque for perhaps one-tenth of its real value,
;

retaining the right of hereditary lease, and becoming a tenant

at a fixed rental, a transaction by which both he and the

Dean and Chapter were the gainers and only the Government
and its corrupt officials the losers. For the mosque receives
good interest for its trifling investment of capital, and possesses besides the reversion of the lease in default of direct

on vakouf is exempt
from taxation, and equally safeguarded from extortion by
government officials and persecution by private creditors.

heirs of the vendor, while the tenant

This state of affairs has naturally led to considerable abuses

and the Government has already, according to the Constantinople Press, appointed a Commission to report on the vakouf
lands throughout the Empire with a view to ascertaining
their value and the amount of the revenue derived from them,
some portion of which, it has been suggested, might be most
properly applied to various purposes of pubUc utihty and
;

hygiene.

172

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

Inheritance and partition of

hitherto

Crown and Church lands have

been regulated respectively by Imperial firmans,
or

LandT

permits,

ecclesiastical

and
laws

special
;

ordinances

of

but freehold land

the
falls

within the jurisdiction of the local civil courts.

The laws regarding inheritance in Turkey are exceedingly

comphcated, and their complexity is aggravated by the
three different kinds of land tenure above described. The
absence of any law or custom of primogeniture, and the
consequent division of possessions among all the children
of a family, together with the high death-duties on landed
property, have tended to the diminution in extent and

impoverishment of estates in Turkey, which are often hopemortgaged. Previous to the middle of last century,
almost every village had its own common and forest in which
the peasant proprietors had the right to cut wood and burn
lessly

charcoal, and also the right to rent the pasturage annually

to the nomad herdsmen and shepherds
a great resource to

the population, though most destructive to the forests, as

replanting was entirely neglected. All this was, however,
changed with the organisation of the Vilayet system, when

the forests and pasturages were very properly placed under

Government supervision. The new laws made to regulate
these Crown-lands were, as usual, excellent on paper
but the
acts of injustice and the abuses connected with their adminis;

proved most prejudicial to the previously fairly

prosperous rural population. With the establishment of
law and order in the provinces that may now be confidently
looked for, a new era of prosperity may also ere long dawn for
the peasants of all races.
In Asia Minor a considerable portion of agricultural land
is held by peasant and other small proprietors, Turkish for
the most part, but in some localities Armenian, Kurdish and
also Greek.
In Macedonia landed property is less equally
divided than in the Empire generally, great areas being
united in large estates owned either by provincial Moslem
tration

173

Agrarian Turkey

Beys, or by absentee Christian landlords who reside permanently in the towns and are represented by Snbashis, or
stewards. For in Turkey country life has, hitherto, possessed
few attractions for the wealthier classes whether Moslems or

and general
town life imperative for all save
drawn directly from the soil, and
who have consequently no choice of domicile. Compara-

Christians, while the prevalence of brigandage

insecurity have rendered

those whose hvelihood is

tively

few of these landlords are Greeks

but proprietors

belonging to this race will generally be found to have been

educated in France or Germany where they have made themselves acquainted Nvith the newest methods of agriculture.
Their lands are consequently much better cultivated and their
peasants
yeradjis

much
for

better circumstanced than those working as

Turkish landlords, or tilling their own small

holdings.
in

In European Turkey, Greek peasantry are found chiefly

North-Eastem Macedonia, in the vicinity of the capital,
and in the islands. Some of the Greek
Peasant

^TFarm
Labourers.

in Macedonia are, together wiXh

^^^ adjoining lands, both ouned and tiUed
by
peasant proprietors, these being termed
"
Head " or " Free " villages, and many of

villages

them

are tolerably wealthy and prosperous

but the majority
of the agricultural population in these districts of all races are
tenants on what is generally known as the metayer system.
;

These yeradjis, as they are called, receive the seed-grain

from the landlord for whom they till the ground, and share
with him the produce. In Italy and France the peasants
working under this system, are, I beheve, fairly prosperous.
But in Turkey they appear to have, hitherto, laboured under
considerable disadvantages, and are, as a class, very poor,
and their villages present for the most part, a forlorn and
The farmsteads of the Head and Free
pitiable aspect.
villages form a great contrast to those of the yeradjis, being
in

most cases

built of stone,

and of two

stories, enclosed in

174

of the

Turkey

Ottomans

walled yard
and, when the localities are not exposed to
the attacks of brigands and other marauders, they may even
boast shuttered glass windows. Tables, chairs, and bedsteads
are not unknown conveniences among the more prosperous
;

of these peasant farmers

a few pictures hang on the whiteof the living room, together with a rude eikon
or picture of the Virgin and Child before which a lamp is
;

washed walls

while the kitchen will be furnished

kept constantly burning
with a wealth of burnished copper pans of all dimensions,
and the kiler contain an ample store of native oil, wine, rice,
and other winter provisions.
The villages of the Bulgarian peasantry are to be found in
most parts of Macedonia and Thrace, sometimes isolated
and surrounded by those occupied by other races, in others
spreading with their adjoining arable and pasture lands
over whole districts. As among the Greek and Turkish
peasantry, a considerable portion of Bulgarian villagers are
;

freeholders tilling their

on the estates of the

own

lands, others working as yeradjis

Recent pohtical
proprietors.
changes in the north of the Balkan Peninsula having caused
the influx into the neighbouring districts still under Turkish
domination of a large number of Moslem refugees, landowners
large

Macedonia and also in the vilayet of Adrianople

are evincing a tendency to evict in their favour large numbers
of Bulgarian yeradjis whose ancestors have been established

of that creed in

for centuries in those regions and who must consequently

become, in their turn, homeless wanderers. Protests against
these high-handed proceedings have been made in the Turkish
Chamber by Bulgarian deputies, but apparently without
The worldly circumstances of the Bulgarian tillers
effect.
Like the Turks, they are agriof the ground vary greatly.
culturists by instinct, but the circumstances of their lives
present various points of contrast. One of these circumstances is that the women of the family, taking as they do
an equal share with the men in the field and farm work, are
accorded a social co-equality unusual in the East among

BULGARIAN PEASANTS OF YENIKEUY, MACEDONIA

175

Agrarian Turkey

Christians as well as Moslems, though, under the prevailing

patriarchal customs, they are, in common with their

and brothers, subject to the supreme authority of the houseAdded to this, the women marry much
father and mother.
later in life than the generahty of Orientals, and, subject to

husbands

the approval of their parents, themselves choose their husbands. A Bulgarian peasant is naturally in no hurry to get
rid of daughters who take such an active part in all that
concerns the welfare of the homestead, and accordingly
requires from the youth who would transfer the ser\4ces
of any one of them to himself and his family a certain equivalent in money. For although a young husband does not

invariably talce his wife to reside imder his

for
roof, but sometimes builds a cottage

own

parental
the

himself,

cottage wall be on his father's land, and he will remain

associated with him in the farm work as before and still
subject to his rule, while his wife will in future labour for

her

father-in-law

instead

of,

as

hitherto,

for

hfr

own

father.

To

the Greeks of Turkey, on the other hand, agricultural

pursuits offer few attractions unless they can see in them an

opening for enterprise and speculation, as for instance, in

some special important product, such as

which can be sold to advantage either in the
raw state or as manufactured goods. Nor is the whole family
of a Greek peasant, as with his Bulgarian neighbour, wedded
to the soil as the one business of life.
When the paterfamilias
can dispense with the ser\ices of one or more of his usually
large family, his sons quit the homestead in pursuit of more
lucrative employment.
Endowed with a surprising degree
of enterprise, the son of a Greek peasant may become a
doctor, lawyer, merchant, domestic serv^ant, or artisan, in any
of which capacities he will generally manage, by dint of
energy, perseverance and address, to realise, if not a fortune,
at least a modest competence.
Save on the estates of Greeks and foreigners, agricultural

the cultivation of
silk or cotton,

176

Turkey of the Ottomans

machinery is as yet almost unknown in the East, and the implements of husbandry in common use are of a most primitive character, entailing much hand labour and involving a considerable
amount of waste. Arable land is still broken at the present
day, as it was two thousand years ago, by the clumsy onehandled Pelasgian plough drawn by a yoke or team of buffaloes,

and in some places the grain is merely scattered over the

stubbles and ploughed in. Threshing is also accomplished
by the girls of the family with the aid of an implement which

must surely date back to Pelasgian times. It consists of

two pieces of wood joined together in something like the form
of a horseshoe, and studded on the under side with flints.
Or a team of horses or oxen is driven round and round the
threshing-floor, the women and children beating out with
any uncrushed ears that may remain, the corn being
winnowed by being thrown into the air with wooden shovels.
The native press announces from time to time that modern
sticks

agricultural implements have been distributed to the peasants,

but no one appears ever to have seen them in use. Agricultural colleges have been estabhshed in various centres,

Salonica for instance, and periodical agricultural inspections

but they also
are also officially made in the various vilayets
seem to have had hitherto very little general practical result.
It is, however, to be hoped that the cr5dng agricultural needs
;

of the country will ere long receive the attention of the

Chamber of Deputies. According to the report of a corre-

spondent of the Journal de Salonique, himself a former pupil

of the Institut Agronomique of Paris, there is, however,
observable in Macedonia, if not an improvement in the methods
of cultivation, at least a considerable increase in the cultivated area of this important province. The fertile plain
"
"
a
of Serres he describes as
marvellous," and adds that
Forests
of
it."
second and even richer Beauce might be made
are rare in this province, though a few of some extent exist

the vicinity of
clearings have been
in

In these, however, numerous

for cultivation, the laws prohibiting

Drama.

made

WATER-CARRIERS

177

Agrarian Turkey

the practice being, like many other excellent enactments,

more honoured in the breach than the observance.

Agriculture is consequently, notwithstanding the great

of the soil generally and the favourable cUmatic
conditions which allow of the cultivation of the products
of the New as well as the Old World, in a most backward
fertility

state.

The reason

for this is hardly to

liarity of the native character

be found in any pecu-

and propensities

either of the

Turks or the Bulgarians, but in a variety of causes. One

of these is, no doubt, the system of land tenure, other contributing causes being lack of scientific knowledge and of
Deficiency in means of communication is also
capital.
another cause, for there are no great waterways as in Russia
railways are, as yet, few and far between, and leave extensive
provinces untouched. Large tracts of land in Asia Minor
remain uncultivated, or have by degrees fallen out of culti;

the quantity of com actually grown being, it is

computed, but a tenth of what the country might yield
if properly worked.
To take one example out of a tract
vation,

of land, 600 square miles in extent, lying north of the

of Karaman, fifty square miles only are now cultivated.

town
Nor

any regular system of rotation of crops observed by the

peasants, though this may be found in operation on the large
estates ; the ordinary rule for rich lands being two crops of
is

wheat to one of oats, then fallow one or more years, after

which wheat, followed by sesame, is sown. In Macedonia,
however, where arable land abounds, it is allowed to lie fallow
more frequently. The only dressing the fields owned by native
proprietors receive is the treading of the sheep which are
folded in them between crops
but the soil is nattually so
fertile and the grain ripens so early, especially in the southern
provinces of the Empire, that a bad harvest is of rare occur;

Occasionally, however, occurs a long drought, when

the crops in the great open plains perish for lack of moisture,
and the cattle die by hundreds unless driven off in time and
rence.

much

sold

13 (J389)

to

under their value

those

living

in

more

178

Turkey

Ottomans

of the

fortunate localities. Last year only, for instance, notwithstanding the 150,000 liras contributed by the Agrarian Bank
to the Famine Fund, many thousands of unfortunate peasants
are reported to have died of famine in various districts of
Asia Minor, the efforts made by the authorities to supply

wants being greatly hampered by difficulties of communication with the distressed districts as well as by the

their

scarcity of food-stuffs.

On

the ill-paved and often mud-pooled market place which

usually occupies the centre of Turkish villages and small
towns, the peasants collect from the neighCountry

bouring country with their sheep and

cattle,

burden laden
with produce of all kinds for sale or barter Bulgarian weavers
with rolls of cloth, Gypsies with sieves, coarse baskets, and

and

their carts

and beasts

of

other articles for domestic use. Surrounding the square

are the bakal's, or chandler's shop, the butcher's stall, and,
of course, the shanty which does duty as coffee house, at
which the market-folk refresh themselves in frugal fashion
and hear the news of the countryside, perhaps also some
faint echo of political events culled from a stray journal.
Close by stands, in a Turkish village, the little white-washed

cypress-shadowed cemetery. At one end

the threshing-floor, generally of beaten earth,
but sometimes paved, used by all the villagers in turn, and
on feast days by the youths for their wrestling matches. At
the other end is the village well, round which the maidens
collect towards sunset with their large red earthen water-jars,
unchanged in shape since the days of Helen and Andromache.

mosque with
of the green

its

is

Turkey, both Moslem and Christian, is

over by a kodjabashi headman, or mayor, who
settles petty disputes, and is held responsible by the authoriIt is also
ties for the good behaviour of his parishioners.
his business, as inns are non-existent save in large towns, to
provide lodging for travellers and officials who may wish to

Every

village in

presided

spend the night at

his

village,

and to ajrange

for

the

Agrarian Turkey

179

accommodation of troops or gendarmes passing through on their

way from one town to another. The office of kodjahashi
naturally entails considerable responsibility upon its holder
and, under the social and political conditions which obtain

Turkey, is frequently one of no little difficulty. It has,

however, no doubt its compensations, and places its possessor
in a Christian village in a position superior to that of his
in

fellow-peasants, as also to that of the papas, as the parish

priest is termed, whose emoluments are almost entirely

derived from the fees paid by his flock generally in kind

"
for baptisms, weddings, funerals, and
Uturgies."
The hodja of a Turkish village occupies a position somewhat
superior to that of a Christian papas, having probably received
a fair education, according to Turkish ideas, in the Medresseh
of a provincial town, and his mosque possessing an endow-

ment bequeathed by some pious departed Moslem. Generally, however, he has to combine in his own person all the
offices assigned in a town mosque to half a dozen different
Five times daily he ascends his httle minaret
to call the faithful to the performance of their customary
functionaries.

prayers

and

his

duty

it

also is to

wash and prepare

"

for

burial the bodies of his male parishioners, when

the Cup"
bearer of the Sphere
shall have bidden them to partake of
the joys of the Moslem paradise. But whether satisfied or

not with his condition he has

little prospect of changing or

ameliorating it. I remember once hearing a story of an
ambitious hodja of a village in Asia Minor, who, having
some abiUty as a preacher, hit upon the following expedient
for attaining a wider sphere of action than his Kismet had
hitherto assigned him. Travelling to Constantinople, where

he was quite unknown, he represented himself eis a Christian

monk who, convinced of the superior merits of the religion
of Mohammed, desired to be received into the fold of the
True Behevers. The remarkably rapid progress made by
this convert in the knowledge of the Koran and Moslem
theology generally simply astounded his reverend instructors.

180

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

Before long he had passed all the usual examinations and

taken a high degree, and his reputation for learning and
eloquence as a preacher soon obtained for him the post of
Mollah in the town near which stood the humble mosque he

had previously served.

Whatever may be the opinion of European travellers and
residents in Turkey cis to the character of its urban population,
all who have ever come into personal contact
with the Turkish peasantry have been
^^PeJsS!^^
unanimous in praise of their simple honesty
and sobriety, their passive contentment and dignified resignation to the will of Allah and their Padishah, and their passionate attachment to the land which has been bought by
the blood of their forefathers. Physically, a Turkish peasant
well-built, healthy, and, owing no doubt to his habitual
abstemiousness, possesses remarkable powers of endurance.
With him days and seasons succeed each other in a dull round

is

of laborious and frugal monotony, for, unlike his Christian

neighbours, he has no weekly dance, no frequently recurring
village feast, and but little music to vary the uniformity of
his hfe.

His cup of

coffee,

taken before the labours of the

day begin and

at their close, and his poor tchihouk at intervals,

His cottage, often
constitute for him all the luxuries of life.

a mere mud hovel, though clean, is comfortless enough,

cold in winter and hot in summer, and contains little in the
of -furniture beyond a scanty supply of bedding and a
few rugs, stools and cooking utensils. Turkish villages,
indeed, throughout the Empire wear a much more impoverished and much less animated aspect than do those of their
For a Turkish peasant's wife and
Christian neighbours.
daughters take a less active part in field and farm work than
do the Christian women, and are never seen, like them,
spinning, knitting, and sewing at their cottage doors. Moslems
and Christians have certainly suffered alike from the arbitrary

way

actions of their

common enemy

the tax-gatherer.

But the

Turkish peasantry, besides lacking the active aid of their

181

Agrarian Turkey

women-folk, have also been terribly handicapped by the

conscription to which between 1675 and the present year
For the
(1910) the Moslem population were alone subject.
abohtion of the feudal system, and also of the Janissary

the

corps at

beginning of last century, and the placing

footing, created a demand for

army on a European

of the
soldiers

from the peasant

turies

while

the

class

unknown

method pursued

in previous cen-

in

levying conscripts
often resulted in acts of grave injustice to this submissive
and loyal section of the population. The agricultural communities have consequently, during more than two centuries,
laboured under the disadvantage of being deprived of the
;

co-operation of a considerable proportion of their younger

and more energetic members
and when, in time of war,
the majority of the able-bodied were, as reservists, also called
away, the situation became one of real hardship. The old
men past service with the aid of the boys of the family would
;

struggle on for a time as best they could, often finding themselves at length compelled to abandon their holdings and take

some neighbouring town or large village. The

homesteads thus deserted fell into ruin, and their
untilled fields were added to the vast waste-lands of the
refuge in
Uttle

Empire.

The frequent

Saints' Days observed by Eastern Christians

less
no
than the want of modem implements of
generally,
husbandry, make it necessary for them to work doubly hard
on other days in order to accomplish the year's work in twelve
months. During the spring, summer and autumn the whole
of a peasant family will consequently be found at work from
sunrise to sunset, the women and girls, as soon as their
household and dairy duties are accomplished, sally forth
to assist the men and boys in the fields
spinning, weaving
and the other home manufactures, which fall exclusively within
;

the province of the female members of the household, being

carried on chiefly in the winter when they are less called upon
for

outdoor work than at other seasons.

To

the daughters

182

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

of the Christian peasants is also entrusted the care of the

sheep and goats which are led every day to the pasture and
at sunset brought back to the fold.
The voskopoula, or
is
the
one
of
most
shepherdess,
prominent characters in rural
folk-song, and many a charming idyll has been composed
in her honour.
Little time has she, however, for sylvan
dallying, for the sheep and goats must be milked, and the
milk converted into cheese and yiaourt, a particularly wholesome sour curd in great demand in the towns whither it is

conveyed in deep jars of red earthenware, classic in shape,

and having a handle across the narrow opening. After
sheep-shearing, the wool must be bleached and spun by the
women preparatory to being knitted and woven into garments for the family, or cloth for sale. The cotton and flax
grown on the farm are also in their season gathered and
prepared for use. The cotton pods are put through a small
hand machine called the mdngano (jidyyavo) which turns
two rollers in contrary directions and separates the fibre from
the seeds. The instrument next used is the toxevein (ro^eveiv),
a large bow made from a curved piece of wood five or more
,

ends of which are connected by a thick

The cotton is placed loosely on the string which is
made to vibrate by being struck with a stick, producing a
feet in length, the

string.

monotonous but not unmusical sound. This process detaches

the particles of cotton, and the downy pile thus prepared is
now ready to use as wadding for the large quilted coverings
which, with a sheet tacked on the underside, forms all the
bedcovering of the lower order of natives of every race. The
mattresses are also usually stuffed with cotton, and palliasses
with the maize husks. If, however, the cotton is to be converted into yarn for weaving, it is twisted as it leaves the

wound round the distaff, and spun.

the yarn has been dyed or bleached, according to the
use that is to be made of it, the women and girls set to work
at the hand-loom which forms an important part of the furni-

toxevein into a loose coil,

When

ture of every cottage and farmstead, and weave

it

into strong

183

Agrarian Turkey

durable calico, or brightly striped stuffs for dresses and household purposes. A certain amount of yam, both woollen and
cotton, will be reserved for stocking-knitting, and it is most
pleasing to watch the graceful motions and picturesque
poses of the v-illage women as, standing on their roof-terraces
or on the outside landings that give access to their upper
rooms, they send the spindle whirling down into courtyard
or street while twisting the thread for this purpose.

The

knitting is done with five fine curved pins, having ends hke
crochet hooks, and the stocking is worked inside out. This

method produces a close, even stitch, and the work is extremely

The old women usually imdertake this part of the
durable.
"
"
feed
household tasks, and with knitting in hand and the
of the ycim regulated by a pin fastened to their bodices, they
sit in their doorways for homs together, gossiping vvith each
other, or teUing fairy tales (Trapa^vdia)
to the Httle ones of the family.
In nearly all the provinces of both

and crooning old songs

European and Asiatic

Turkey the silkworm industry keeps the women fully occupied
during the spring and early summer months. The long
switch-like branches of the pollarded mulberry-trees are cut
every day and carried to the nurseries of the voracious caterpillars,

and

all

the tedious and laborious details connected with

their nurture are scrupulously carried out in order to secure

a successful harvest of silk. At Adrianople, Dimotica, and

other centres of the silk-growing industry, during a fortnight

of the early summer the silk market is in full swing, rousing
those somewhat sleepy towns to imwonted activity. From
all the country round the producers arrive with their crop,
large or small, of cocoons, which they present at the Mizan
"
Market (or, more hterally,
weighing place ") where it is
and
sold
weighed
by pubUc auction to the manufacturers,
native and foreign, in search of the raw article. Last year
the market opened at Dimotica on the 19th June, when

evidence of a good season might be read in the contented

faces of the country-folk thronging the streets in the vicinity

184

of the

Turkey

Ottomans

of the Mizan.
Cocoons of good quality fetch at these
markets about three shillings per kilo. Silk culture also
constitutes one of the most important home industries of
Crete, where each peasant family raises its own little crop of
cocoons, mainly for the looms of southern France.

In

the vilayet of Adrianople the culture of the rose"

from the blossoms of which the famous
otto," or
"
attar," of roses is made, forms an important
branch of rural industry. The flowers, which
Culture
are of the species Rosa moscata, are grown in

trees

plots or gardens of considerable extent, immense quantities

being required to produce one ounce even of the precious
oil.
The roses are gathered in the early morning in order to
keep in them all the richness of their perfume and as the
;

work

and many hands, large bands of

maidens collect from the neighbourhood to

requires expedition

youths and
reap this fragrant harvest. The occasion seems also to be
regarded as a festive one, for the harvesters don for it
their prasnik, or holiday costumes, the youths appearing
in snow-white shirts and sleeveless vests, the girls in their
picturesque dress of crimson and white. Deft fingers speedily
fill with the
half-opened rosebuds a score of baskets which
the children empty into large receptacles presided over
by the matrons who sit in the shade while they sort the
blossoms.

The harvesting of the grain is accompanied by the Bulgarian peasants with quite Arcadian observances and rejoicings, enlivened with the sound of the bagpipe, and with
The whole family, from the old grandparents down to
song.
the babies, picnic in the fields from morning till night, and the
women work as hard as or, according to some accounts,

harder than the men, until the last golden sheaf has been
"
bound and stooked." Not even the old women long past
field work, are idle, for, while minding the babies, their wrinkled
hands are ever busy with distaff and spindle, or knitting-pins.
When the tax-collector has taken his tithe, and the rest of

185

Agrarian Turkey

the grain has been carried, begins the work of threshing,

previously described. Then follows the %vinno\\ing, and the
com is finally housed in the queer wooden structures that

do duty as granaries. A kind of Har\'est Home is celebrated

Macedonia on the 21st of August (old style), by which time,
"
carried."
in ordinary seasons, the grain ^^ill have been
Attired in their holiday costumes and crowned \rith flowers,
the har\'esters, bearing in their arms sheaves of the golden
grain, repair to the nearest township, where they dance and
in

"
notables."
sing for largesse before the doors of the
When all the summer crops have been safely garnered there
follows the vintage.
The grapes of Turkey, though for the

most part of excellent quahty, are not in their fresh state

exported to any considerable extent o\ring to want of native
skill in

packing this

stitutes,

"

when

fruit.

The white seedless variety conand much appreciated

dried, the well-kno\\'n

sultana raisin

"

which

exported in large quantities to all

parts
Eiurope.
Wine-making forms also an important
branch of rural industry in Asia Minor, as also in other parts
of the Empire.
Smyrna wines, both red and white, are of
is

of

very

good quahty and are

extent.

much

The red

esteemed.

exported

\rines of Niausta, in

The grapes

are also

to a considerable
Macedonia, are also

made

to ^ield, in addi-

tion to wine, a spirit called raki or mastica, which is flavoured

with aniseed, and a kind of treacle called petmaiz, largely
used for domestic purposes in Ueu of sugar. Great quantities
of black plmns are also grown, dried and exported, a con-

siderable proportion of which, after passing through some

mysterious process in France, find their way into England
"
as
French Plums." The figs of Turkey, whether fresh or

and especially those grown in the neighbourhood of

Smyrna, are unequalled anywhere, and the preparation of this
fruit for the European market affords
emplo>Tnent during
the autumn months to great numbers of the working class
of both sexes.
The island of Crete produces for export
abimdance of ohves and ohve-oil, raisins and wine, carobs,
dried,

186

of the

Turkey

Ottomans

and oranges, citrons and mandarines. Olive-oil is also

largely used in the manufacture of an excellent and long
renowned soap much appreciated in Greece and other Medifilberts

terranean countries and, notwithstanding the late unsettled

condition of the island, a marked mcrease in its exports is
The annual yield of oil averages 15,000,000 litres,
noticeable.

more than half of which finds its way to foreign cotintries,

and its wines are appreciated not only in other parts of Turkey,
but in Egypt and Malta, and also in America. Cretan
good quality, are exported to the extent of 5,000,000
and, together with great quantities of the fresh fruits

raisins, of
kilos,

above mentioned, find a ready market in Egypt.

Carob
is also on the increase, the average exportation
from Crete alone for the past five years amounting to no less
than 32,000,000 lbs., the destination being for the most part
the ports of France, Italy and Russia.

cultivation

Cotton, jute and hemp are largely grown in various parts

of Asia Minor, a considerable proportion being exported, and
tobacco also is extensively cultivated in Macedonia, Thrace

and elsewhere, its cultivation and manufacture affording

employment to both peasants and townsfolk, especially in
the neighbourhood of Drama and Cavalla. In these Thracian
towns Moslems and Christians of both sexes may be seen
squatting side by side in the factories of the tobacco merchants, native and foreign, where the leaves of the fragrant
weed are dried, sorted, and otherwise manipulated. For

a more potent factor than even racial and religious

prejudice, and the harvesting of any important product,
tobacco, grapes, olives, etc., often brings together a heterogeneous crowd of labourers having nothing in common but

poverty

is

dire necessity.

The Agrarian Bank, already

in 1889 in place of the

referred to,

which was founded

former Menafi-Sandiklari, or

"

Chests

its headquarters in the capital

of Public Utility," has

branches in the chief towns of

The funds with which

it

with

the agricultural districts.

conducts its useful operations were
all

187

Agrarian Turkey

originally derived from a super-tax on certain land-dues to

be levied until the capital should amount to the siun of ten
million liras, when collection of this super-tax should cease.
This figure was actually reached some years ago
but Abdul
;

Hamid dipped

greedy hand into this as into other public

purses, and more than one half of the Bank's capital found
its way to Yildiz Kiosk.
It w^as necessary, therefore, to seek
his

means

for increasing the capital, and certain taxes have

laid under contribution for this object.
been
The
again
normal capital amounted in 1908 to nine and a half million
liras
but five millions only are available as working capital,
the remainder having been lent to the Treasury and other

fresh

State departments, to the Hedjaz Railway, or consists in

"
credits and mortgages for sums lent by the original
Chests

Pubhc UtiUty." Since its origin the Agrarian Bank has

made advances to no fewer than 1,582,424 agriculturahsts and
to the amount of twelve millions, of which seven and a half
millions have been repaid.
The new Government appears
to realise the importance to the Empire of this Agrarian
of

Bank, and to be disposed, therefore, not only to discontinue

diverting its funds but also to repay the sums already borrowed
from its capital. The Bank accepts deposits at interest,
and engages in various financial operations deahng with

The money deposited at interest is not, however,

agriculture.
allowed to exceed one-half of its actual capital. The loans,
which are made to cultivators only, are (1) either for a term
of three months to a 3'ear, when the capital and interest are
repayable when due, or the whole sum repayable by instalments

and (2) for periods of from one to fifteen years,

repayable by annual instalments. The borrowers give mortgages on their farms as security, or find guarantees for repayment, and are in all cases required to sign an undertaking
that the money will be used for agricultural needs. Threefourths of the profits of the Bank are devoted to the
develop;

ment of agrarian pursuits. According to the report of

March, 1908, the Bank had no fewer than 464 branches or

188

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

but as the Empire contains 571 kazas, or districts,

which taxes are levied for its support, 107 districts still
remain without this resource.
This Bank constitutes at present a Ministerial department
belonging to the Ministry of Public Works. Were, however,
the original rules of its constitution observed, it would possess
an independent financial existence
and it is hoped that it
may hereafter be placed on such a preferable footing. Its
agencies

in

operations are controlled by a council of eight members,

among whom are the Inspector-in-Chief of Agriculture,
and two representatives of the Chamber of Commerce and

Agriculture of Constantinople.

CHAPTER

XII

PASTORAL TURKEY

With

the exception of the Gipsies, the Vlachs are the only

in Europesm Turkey.
As soon as the snow's
have melted they leave their winter quarters in the lowlands,

nomads found

and begin their annual wanderings, travelhng in little communities with their joint flocks and herds, and often traversing
long distances in search of fresh grazing grounds which they
rent from the headman of the adjacent villages, or, in the case

from the Forest-inspectors, When on their

wanderings, these nomads make use of tents of black goats'
hair cloth, and carry their goods and chattels in capacious
saddle-bags of the same substantial material which are slung
across the backs of mules and ponies.
It is no uncommon
of Crown-lands,

thing to see a Vlach community on the march from one pasturage to another, and one of their encampments forms a

most picturesque and interesting scene. The place chosen

"
"
for it is usually the meidan
the common or
found
green
on the outskirts of every Eastern town or village. While
the men pitch the tents and set up the temporary sheepfolds,
the women and girls milk the flocks and prepare the evening

Arrived at their destination,, they build themselves

"
"
sheahngs of branches, set up the stania, as the pens
for their flocks and herds are termed, and into which they are
driven at milking time, and prepare for some months of
strenuous dairy work.
Such an essentially pastoral people are the Vlachs that
their very name has become, among the various other races
meal.

huts or

"

by whom they

are surrounded, a synonym for

In this roving propensity they are singularly unlike
neighbours and co-rehgionists, who, as already
are passionately attached to their native towns
189

shepherd."
their

Greek

mentioned,
or villages

190

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

and to the homes of their fathers. The inborn fondness of

the pastoral Vlachs for this wild and wandering life has given
rise to a traditional belief among their neighbours belonging
to other races that if a shepherd should attempt to adopt a
settled

life

by purchasing a

would inevitably sicken and

field

and building a house, he

die.

The daughters of the pastoral Vlachs are from an early age

accustomed to both domestic and outdoor labour, and in
their capacity of shepherdess figure frequently in the folksongs of their Greek neighbours. The Vlachopoula may
often be seen returning from the mountain-spring, or riverside, bearing on her back the load of wet linen she has been
washing, a barrel of fresh water poised on her head, while
her untiring hands are occupied either v/ith knitting-pins or
Never idle, she finds time while guarding her flocks
spindle.
to embroider in brightly coloured wools the coarse socks she
sells to the shepherds, the proceeds being invested in the

ornaments of alloyed silver which she delights to wear on

Sundays and Saints' days. It requires a sturdy frame to
support the weight of a Vlach gala costume when complete
with belt, collar, bracelets and headgear of this metal, supplemented by strings of silver coins on head and breast.
But such a frame is characteristic of these hardy daughters
of the mountains.
The Highlands of Asia Minor are peopled by a great variety of
nomadic tribes belonging to different races Kurds and Yuruks,
Circassians, Tartars, and Turcomans, who wander in summer
with their flocks and herds over the pastures of the Taurus
mountains, and in winter encamp on the great plain of Cilicia
which runs up into the heart of this range. The most numer-

ous of these races, the Yuruks, may occasionally pitch their

black goats' hair tents as far from their headquarters as the
neighbourhood of Smyrna, and here I have occasionally
come into personal contact with them.
The origin of the Yuruks is still, notwithstanding the
researches of ethnologists, an open question.

The Yuruks

Pastoral Turkey

191

themselves, strange to say, possess no definite traditions or

legends of a former habitat, or of the occasion of their migration

which might give a clue to their

questioned on the subject,
they say that they are descended from the

to Turkey,

origin.

When

who built the splendid

scattered in such profusion
these nomads. Their name

former inhabitants of the countr\'

edifices

the ruins of which

lie

the locahties occupied by

no clue, being derived from the Turkish verb yurumek,
"
to wander."
Their language, too, is merely a dialect of

in

affords

Turkish, but contains many Persian words foreign to the

Osmanh vernacular. Physically, the Yuruks approach more

nearly to the Kurds than to any of the other peoples by whom

they are surrounded. Though their hair is usually dark, their

complexions are fairer, not only than those of the other nomad
tribes of Asia Minor, but also than those of the Persians
and Armenians generally. They are a fine active, hardy race,
insensible to fatigue, tall of figure, with regular features, and
a pleasing expression of countenance.
As among the Kurds, each tribe of the Yuruks has its agha,
or chief, who is held responsible by the Turkish Government for the good behaviour of the people under his jurisAll disputes, or questions requiring arbitration
within the tribe are settled by the chief, whose judicial
decisions are accepted as final, as no Yuruk would think of
referring any matter affecting his race to a Turkish tribunal.
Though the majority of the Yuruks are pastoral, a few
tribes earn their livelihood by wood-cutting, charcoal-burning,
diction.

and the manufacture

of the

kindUng wood,

by the Greeks

dhadhi, torches of which

Ind^i^es
are the only Ught made use of by the
Yuruks themselves. It is made by cutting, low in the trunk
of
a pine-tree, a deep notch, towards which all the
called

After a while the tree is cut do\Mi,

turpentine flows.
the wood surrounding the notch is taken out, cut into httle
slips and sold or bartered in the towns and villages.

192

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

The Yuruks divide the year into three seasons only, spring,
"
summer, and winter. March they call Zembrai, the opening,
an equivalent of the name dvoi^i^ given by
the Greeks to spring, winter being with them
Dwellings.
reckoned as three months. During this
season many of these nomads adopt a semi-sedentary life,
and build huts of reeds or wicker-work, which they set
fire to on leaving, or pitch their black goats' hair tents on the

wide

plain.

Their furniture

is

as simple as

it

is

portable.

The high wooden pack-saddles of the camels form an outer wall,

and within are the mattresses of the family, which are rolled
up in the daytime, and spread on the ground at night. At
one side is the primitive loom, on which rugs and other fabrics
are woven, and on the other is suspended the churn of goatskin
The majority of their
similar to that used by the Kurds.
domestic utensils

water

jars,

mortar

for

pounding coffee or

are of wood, though each

substitute, plates, bowls, etc.
tent generally possesses, in addition, a few copper cooking
vessels, which are handed down as heirlooms from genera-

its

mend these that the gipsy tinker

the tents, setting up his bellows here
and there, until, in return for his services among the pots and
pans, he has collected a mule-load of cheese and butter,

tion to generation.

pays a periodical

It is to

visit to

which he

sells on his return to town.

In their diet the Yuruks are particularly frugal. Their
bread resembles the losh of the Armenians, being a large,
thin cake, baked on copper plates over a
few tezek embers. In times of plenty it is
made of wheaten flour, and in times of scarcity they content

themselves with a substitute

their favourite beverage,
short, the seeds of a kind
fortia,'^
*

So

which grows

le

Levant produise."

acorns.

of thistle

the

Coffee

is

berries fall

Gundelia Tourne-

abundance on the southern slopes

called after the Oriental travellers

"
The latter describes it as

de Toumefort.

que

in

made from

and when the Mocha

Gundelscheime and Pitton

une des plus belles plantes

(Voyage au Levant, torn,

ii,

p. 250.)

193

Pastoral Turkey

Taurus are utilised in its place. The Uquid produced

from these berries, when they have been roasted and pounded,
it is more aromatic and bitter than
is of a light amber colour
real coffee, and possesses medicinal quaUties.
Among their
dehcacies are a kind of pastry mixed with vegetables, and an
of the

imitation of the sweet moustalevtid (jMovcrraXevpia) of the vinegrowing districts. The juice extracted by boiling the cones
of the Juniper us drupacea

must, and

is

mixed with

is

substituted

by the Yuruks for

The rest

flour instead of starch.

of their fare consists chiefly of dairy produce, with very little

meat, and no wine.
The outer dress of the women, so far as I can recollect it,
consists of full Turkish trousers, vest, and quilted jacket, aU
of brightly flowered cotton stuff, with a
"
"
wound round
broad sash of
Turkey red
the waist. A kerchief only protects their heads from sim
and rain, and the use of veils is unknown among them, as

among Moslem nomads generally.

Unhke the Kurds, the Yuruks are polygamous, the number
of their wives often exceeding the hmit of four fixed by
Mohammed. A man of average wealth
Yuruk

marries at least seven helpmates, and he

must be a poor man, indeed, who does not

For, though a plurahty of wives is to the

expensive luxmy, it is to the Yuruk a necessity of
He requires a certain number of female " hands "
existence.
to enable him to pursue his caUing of flock-master, camelbreeder, etc., and as social usage does not allow of his hiring
"
such
hands," he secures their services by marrying them.
Each wife has her separate tent and her special occupation.
The care of the flock will be divided between two or three,
each tending a certain number of goats or broadtailed Qaramanian sheep ^ the fourth looks after the camels the fifth
possess three.

Osmanh an

fat coatained in the tail of this species of sheep is much

esteemed in the East for cuhnary purposes. It appears to have been
bred in these regions from very ancient times, for Herodotus speaks
"
"
of the tails
one cubit in width
(iii, p. 113), and they also figure in
the bas-rehefs of Persepolis.
^

The

13(^389)

194

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

and draws water

the sixth makes butter and
and the seventh weaves, on the loom before mentioned, the brightly coloured and substantial rugs and carpets
which find their way to this country under the names of
collects fuel

cheese

"

"

Qaramanian," etc. Yuruk women generally

owing to the rough hves they lead,
infant mortality is so great among them that they seldom
rear more than two or three. The fittest thus only survive,
and this fact no doubt contributes to the physical excellence
of the race.
Like all Orientals, they swaddle their babies,
after binding round their bodies a piece of cloth containing
Kelim,"

have large

families, but,

earth heated with a stone.

Though the Yuruks are, as far as possible, endogamous,
they do not scruple, when short of wives, to steal them from
other tribes
, ,.
and, the services of the women
:

Vv CQui n^s

being in such request, the husband has to

purchase them from the father with a sum of money. At
the betrothal ceremony a lamb is killed and eaten, and handkerchiefs are exchanged by the parties.
The rejoicings observed
on this occasion consists chiefly in tambourine playing, and
in the peculiarly Oriental diversion of firing off small arms.
The wedding feasts continue for several days, and are enlivened

by music and dancing.

A Yuruk's funeral is a very simple ceremony. The burialgrounds are generally in the vicinity of one of their sacred
trees, which are all the temples required by
these pastoral people.
to the shrine, a passage from the Koran
is committed to the earth close by.

The body

is

carried

read over it, and it

A few stones from the
heap accumulated under the sacred tree form the only
monument of the Yuruk, and epitaph he has none. The
burying-places are always chosen near a pathway, in order
that the dead may benefit by the prayers of the pious
is

passer-by.

The Yuruks, though professing the creed of Islam, enterat the same time an invincible repugnance both to

tain

195

Pastoral Turkey

The Turkish
mosques and to their senators, the hodjas.
Government has made various attempts to induce some of
these nomads to settle in \'illages on the southgj^ slopes of the Taurus by building mosques
I^ligious
for them, and offering them other advanThe hodjas' sermons find no auditors, and
tages, but in vain.
the mosques themselves soon fall into ruins. Their favourite
shrines are sacred trees growing by the side of the moimtain
paths, on which they hang, as votive offerings, bits of coloured
rag,

wooden spoons, and other small

articles

and each wor-

shipper, before he leaves this sylvan temple, adds a stone to

the heap above mentioned.
The folk-beliefs of these simple people do not appear to
differ

much from

those

common

to Orientals generally. They

eye," and, Uke the Turks,
believe in the Peris and Djins who have their
fear

the

"

evil

abodes in streams, mountains, and buildings, but do not

Their
attribute to them anything of a harmful nature.
women, in imitation of the Christians, sometimes mark their
children's foreheads with the sign of the cross, in the belief that
it brings good luck.
They have also among them magicians
and diviners, who read the future reflected in water, and, by
examining the grain of wood, csm tell who has stolen a
missing goat or sheep, and where it is to be found. One
curious behef, which seems, however, to be pecuUar to the
Yuruks, is that, if a civihsed man drink of the water which
collects in the hollows of the rocks after a wild animal such as
an ibex or a bear has drunk of it, he will himself become wild,
like the Yuruks.
And, according to their tradition of origin
above mentioned, they themselves were once a civihsed race,

and became

"

wild men," or Yuruks, in consequence of an

ancestor having thus fatally drunk after wild animals. The

cause thus assigned for their degeneracy must, of course, be

looked upon as a poetical myth. But that they have, in fact,

thus degenerated and were once a civihsed race, or a section of
such a race, and the builders, as they declare, of such

196

of the

Turkey

monuments as
now encamp, is
improbable.

those
held

Ottomans

among the
by scholars

ruins
to

of

be

by

which they
no means

The Kurdish tribesmen, who form but a

fifth,

or even

sixth, of that nationality, are estimated at some thirteen

thousand families of whom some ten thousand are nomad.

Of

their

"

great
cording

tribes,

or clans,
"

three varieties are recognised

"
small tribes," ac-

medium tribes," and

tribes,"
to the number of households they

severally comprise.

These tribes consist of the family of the chief and a number

of other famihes closely connected with it.
In their encampments the tent of the chief is conspicuous among the others
by its size, for it also serves as the council chamber, court of
justice, and general meeting-place of the elders of the tribe,
and in it public hospitality is exercised. Clan feeling and
devotion to their chief are the leading characteristics of these
wild people. The head of the tribe is, however, not an arbitrary ruler, the voices of the elders having great weight, and
even the women are not excluded from their deliberations,
such participation in the councils of the tribe being a pecuFor
liarity of nomad life and of a primitive state of society.
these Kurdish tribeswomen take a lively and intelligent
interest in the political and social affairs of the clan of which
they form a part, its feuds, friendships, plots and conspiracies, and are occasionally called upon to intervene actively
To the women also is generally left the
in public affairs.
business of settling accounts with that regular but unwelcome
visitor to the tents, the tax-gatherer, and many amusing
stories are told of their address and resource in dealing with
this functionary.
In the domestic circle the women are
treated as equals

by

their

menkind, who are most affectionate

in their relations with their parents, sisters and children,

and in the character of husbands most considerate, kind and

forbearing.
*
I am indebted for many of the above details to the kindness of
the late Mr. Theodore Bent.

197

Pastoral Turkey

A Kurdish tribe on the march from one pasturage to another

an exceedingly picturesque sight. The family luggage
is carried on the backs of
bullocks, which
Kurdish
sometimes bear in addition two or three

is

Nomads.

.,

children

and

,,

cradle.

i-

along
Striding
be seen several

company with the other women may

Amazonian figures who appear to be in charge of the party
and to consider themselves much more responsible for its
in

safety than the men who saunter along carrying only their
arms. And beyond guarding the flocks, the men, as a matter
of fact, take no part in the work connected with them, all of

which devolves on the women and children. Kurds seldom

and herds, but content themselves
for the most part with the dairy produce
milk, cheese, and
^
butter, curds and yiaourt, with cakes of bread baked in their
portable ovens, and a kind of pilaf made with wheat instead
of rice.
Butter is churned in very primitive fashion by these
nomadic dairymaids. A large sheepskin filled with cream
eat the flesh of their flocks

suspended horizontally by cords tied to the extremities,

this is swung backwards and forwards until the butter,
"
in dairy parlance,
comes." The cheese called djadjik, made
these
which
is flavoured with some savoury herb,
nomads,
by
is

and

is

much

appreciated in the townships to which

it is

conveyed

for sale.

the various tribes of Tartars leading a nomadic

Eastern Turkey and Northern Persian not the least
interesting are the Bosdans and Afshahs.
^" personal appearance they closely resemble
Tatars
their sedentary brethren above described. ^
"
Their women, who may be described as
short and stumpy,"
wear red Turkish trousers and an embroidered jacket, but

Among
in

life

The use

of this ancient diiiry product of the East is enthusiastiadvocated by Dr. Metchnikofi of the Pasteur Institute. It is
generally made from fermented sheep's milk.
cally
*

p.

16.

198

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

save during the first twelve months of their married

and are generally barefooted, though in some places red
leather shoes are used to preserve the feet from snake-bites.
The great peculiarity of their costume is, however, the long,

no

veils,

life,

thick tail of false hair, or, rather, of plaited silk or cotton,

dyed to the colour of their natural locks, which is fastened
to the back of their heads, and hangs down below their
waists.
On these tails the women hang a variety of little
ornaments, generally of silver, and they also pierce their
noses, and wear in the hole a clove, which gives them a very
odd appearance. Like the Yuruk and other nomad women,

the

women

of these Tartar tribes are very industrious, and,

all the labour connected with the care of

in addition to

cattle and the dairy, they manufacture on their primitive

looms quantities of coarse rugs and carpets. The Afshahs
are also great bee-keepers, and carry their hives which are
long segments of tree-trunks hollowed out with them during
The wax and
their summer wanderings in the mountains.
honey are boiled together, and made into cakes, which they
use as food. Wooden jars of classic form, carved with elegant
patterns, and used as water vessels, together with other
domestic utensils, are to be found in their tents. The encampments of these tribes, which, like those of the Yuruks and

Turcomans in the plains, are often among ancient ruins and

tombs, and are guarded by magnificent dogs of a breed resembhng the St, Bernard. Though fed chiefly on butter-milk, they
are extremely ferocious, and will allow no stranger to come
near their posts. The reed-huts, for which the Tartars often
exchange their tents in winter, are very ingeniously contrived,
and consist of two rooms in one of which the calves are kept

The inside of the walls, after being plastered with

and lime-washed, are decorated with rude patterns,
executed with a preparation of the henna with which the
women adorn their fingers and toes.
The wedding ceremonies of these nomad Tartars generally
at night.

tezek

199

Pastoral Turkey

extend over three days, and the attendant festivities are

often prolonged for weeks if the couple belong to families of
It is customary for a bride to receive
rank.
Wedding
^ portion from her parents, although the
Ceremonies.
,

,r

Moslem marriages, genbridegroom, as

a
erally settles upon her a sum of money, or property to
On the first
certain value, to be paid in case of divorce.
day of the wedding, the houses of the bride and bridegroom
Presents are exchanged with
are thronged with guests.
the
contracting parties, and the bridegreat ceremony by
a ring, which she wears on the
to
his
betrothed
sends
groom
day of the ceremonies. On the second day the bride
taken to the bath, where her companions perform for her
all the mysteries of the toilette, including the staining of her
hands and feet with henna, and the plaiting of the hair into
third
is

the regulation number of minute pigtails. On the third day

she is dressed in the richest apparel her family can afford,
and sits in state to receive the good wishes and presents
of her friends until the hour arrives for her departure to her
new home. The bridegroom, on his side, arrays himself as

magnificently as possible, and on his wedding day receives

the most obsequious attention from all around him, as if

he were a person of superior rank. All who come to his

presence sit below him, gifts are offered to him by his relations,
and are received by his companions, who, on this occasion,
act as his servants.

Two

of these friends, called his right-

hand and left-hand men, Eire in constant attendance upon

him, and carry out his every order. Should the happy man
be bashful, these two do the honours and exert themselves
in every way to promote gaiety and hilarity among the guests.
The bridegroom they address as a monarch, and carry out
his

pretended commands to

flog,

imprison, or fine the rest

company, his subjects. These comedies are generally

preconcerted, and in any case offence is never taken or
ill-humour showTi, as this would be considered as evil
omen.
of the

200

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

When the time has come for the bride's departure, she is
led out, completely enveloped in a scarlet veil and mounted
on a horse. If she be the daughter of a man
Taking
^f importance, all the horsemen whose attendBride.

^.nce her father

can command, assemble at

the door of his house or tent.

The

bridal

party then sets out, accompanied by music and dancing,

often taking a circuitous road to their destination, in order
to prolong this part of the ceremony.
When they appear
in the distance, the bridegroom mounts his horse, and,
attended by his friends, sets out to meet the cavalcade. In
his hand he holds an apple or orange, and, as soon as he has
approached sufhciently near, he throws it at the bride with
considerable force. Much importance appears to be attached
to this act, silence being observed by all the company from
the moment the two parties come in sight of each other until
the apple has been thrown, when all again becomes uproar

and confusion. Immediately upon discharging the missile,

the bridegroom wheels his horse round with astonishing
rapidity, and rides off at full speed to his own tent, pursued
with great ardour by all the horsemen of the bride's party,
emulous to overtake him before he attains his goal, the
winner being entitled to his horse, saddle, and clothes. This
fine is, however, only exacted in full if the fugitive bridegroom
is a man of wealth, a few pieces of silver satisfying, in ordinary
But it being a point of honour
cases, the successful pursuer.
with the bridegroom to escape, he is mounted on the fleetest
horse the tribe can furnish, and, as his friends do all in their
power to favour his retreat, he is very rarely overtaken.
When the bride reaches the tent which is to be her future
home, the women who have accompanied her gather round,

and implore her not to dismount, while those of her husband's

family use all their eloquence to persuade her to do so. This
is the moment of her power.
Every male member of the
family into which she is about to enter brings her a present,
according to his means or his regard for the bridegroom, and

Pastoral Turkey

201

at the Scime time solicits her to renounce her claim to part

dower promised by her husband. This request is

seldom wholly ineffectual, as it would be considered ungracious
on the part of the bride to be altogether inflexible on so joyful
an occasion, and she generally gives up some portion of her
of the

right.

Kno%\ing, however,

the importance to her of the

in the event of a conjugal quarrel, a bride seldom

reUnquishes more than may just ser\-e to grace the occasion.

dowry

Dancing plays a great part in the wedding rejoicings, as in

those of the Kurds. The performance is also of a similar
character, and is accompanied by singing as well as the sound
of instnmients.
The chiefs make a point of assisting at all

which they also materially contribute

and thus maintain good relations with

festivities, to

marriage

by their munificence,
their people.

Although the funeral ceremonies of the sedentary Tartars

little from those of Moslems
generally, among the

differ

tribesmen the funeral of a chief or other

eminent man is made a very imposing specFune^s
tacle.
The favourite horse of the departed,
bearing his dress and arms, accompanies the procession, and
it is

usual for those

who

send a riderless horse,

show respect for the dead to

arms on the saddle, to swell the

desire to

%rith

\\ith us empty carriages follow the

a person of distinction.

mourning cavalcade, as
coffin of

In addition to the Circassians elsewhere described, various

this race have from time immemorial
roamed over the northern and eastern
pro\Tnces of Asia Minor engaged in pursuits

tribes belonging to

Nomatk"

either pastoral or predator\'.

Being less
under surveillance than their countrymen settled in European
Turkey, they are able to evade with impunity the law for-

bidding the sale of their daughters, cind numbers of girls

from these tribes are said to be annually purchased by the
slave dealers always on the look-out for such merchandise in
these remote regions of the Empire,

CHAPTER

XIII

OTTOMAN HOMES AND HOME-LIFE

In the Moslem quarter of a Turkish provincial towrf every
house, even the poorest, has its courtyard, if not garden, and
its

E^*^^ dwelling,
is
too,
completely
detached, so that a considerable space of
covered by a somewhat sparse population. The

DweHhies

ground

is

overshadowing mulberry, plane or acacia

^^^^'

dwellings of the artisan and working classes generally differ

only from those of the same rank of other nationahties in

having wooden lattices on their stree tward windows, being

two-storied cottages with an outsi^fe staircase and broad
landing covered by the pent of the roof. The abode of a
middle-class family is generally surrounded on three sides by
garden and courtyard, the fourth only abutting on the stree t,
over which the upper story projects about a couple of feet.
Tall cypresses, mulberry trees and acacias cast broad shadows
over house and garden, and under them blossom in luxuriant
confusion the rose and jasmine, orange and pomegranate,
tuberose and carnation, side by side with the leek and tomato,
Two_rQQm _on the
brinjal and melon, cabbage and parsley.

ground floor, having a^separate^entrancS) constitute the .silamlii

in which the husband receives his male visitors, t he res t being
oc cupied by a spacious kitchen over which a negress cook
,

generally presides.

and

children,

carpets

country,

and
is

and

rugs,

The upper
its

generally

floor is reserved for the

women

furniture consists chiefly of divans,

Turkish mansion, whether in town or

tile-roofed,

rambling,

irregularly

two stories, surrounded by walled gardens

and courtyards and divided internally in two parts, the
haremlik and the selatnlik. Many of the older houses are

built edifice of

built almost entirely of

wood, and, with their overhanging

202

BROUSSA

STREET

IN

THE TURKISH QUARTER

Ottoman Homes and Home-life

203

upper stories, their projections and recesses, bright colouring

and verdant setting, are most picturesque in appearance.
partiality for light and air characteristic of the OsmanUs
leads them, however, to construct their dwellings with what
appears to Europeans a superfluity of windows. In the uppe r

The

story of a konak or yahli they are often set only a few inches
apart, and the frames, being generally both ill-constructed

and unpainted. become warped by sim and

rain,

and

let in

the draughts in all directions. The lower parts of the ha remlik

windoivs are invariably screened by latticed blin ds of un-

painted wood, and by these a Moslem dwelUng can always be

identified.

The

larger division of the house constitutes the haremlik,

its separate entrance, courtyard and garden, cind

which has

all th private apartments of the

As
in the generality of Eastern
family.
Haremlik
houses, the front door opens into a large
hall, which gives access to rooms on each side of it, and has

contains

several

windows

One of these rooms is

at the opposite end.
"
coffee-hearth ," where an old woman may

the kakve-ojak, or

always be found presiding over a charcoal brazier ready to

moment's notice the others are storerooms

and sleeping apartments for the inferior slaves. The kitchen,
which is very spacious, is generally an outbuilding. One side
boil coffee at a

occupied by the great arched cooking-stove with its

little grates, on which the contents of brightly
burnished copper pans simmer over charcoal fires, fanned with
a turkey's wing by the negress cook. A wide staircase leads
from the entrance floor to the upper hall, the centre of
which is generally occupied by a spacious ante-room, on which
the other apartments open.
In some of the older houses the
divan-khane, or principal reception room, contains a large
alcove, the floor of which is raised about a foot above the level
of the rest of the apartment.
A low divan furnishes its three
sides, and its most comfortable comer is the hanun's habitual
seat.
If the divan-khane has not such a recess, one end and

of

it is

numerous

204

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

sides of the room are usually occupied

and the fourth wall is furnished with a
marble-topped console table surmounted by a mirror and
candelabra, and flanked on either side by shelves in niches,
containing rose-water sprinklers, sherbet goblets, and other

half the

two adjoining

by a continuous

sofa,

few European chairs stand stiffly

and one or two
walnut tray-stools, inlaid with mother-of-pearl, are placed
near the divan to hold cigarettes, ash-trays, matches, coffeecups and other trifles. A few framed yaftas, or texts from the
Koran, may be seen on the walls, but pictures are, generally

ornamental objects.

against the wall in every space left vacant,

speaking, conspicuous

The

by

their absence.

which the service is performed entirely by

men, contains the rooms used by the master for the transaction
of business, Mie purposes of hospitahty, and
selamlik, of

formal receptions. An apartment, called the

"
neutral ground," serves to
mabeyn, or
connect the two divisions. The key of the door leading to
the selamlik is naturally kept by the Effendi, but a kind of
buttery hatch, in the form of a revolving cupboard, called the
dulap, serves for all verbal communication between the two
departments, and for the transmission of dishes from the
harem kitchen when a meal has to be served in the selamlik.
S l^nJ'k

If a man-cook is employed, the kitchen wifl, however, be in

the latter division of the house.
Bedsteads are not used by the old-fashioned Turks. Each
room contains a large cupboard, built into the wall, in which
the bedding is piled during the day, and at

Furniture.

night the slaves come in, when summoned,

make up the beds on the floor. Other

to

bedroom furniture in the shape of washstands, dressing-tables,

and wardrobes is dispensed with as superfluous. For everyday
ablutions there is a small washing-room with a hole in the
floor for the water to escape through, and when it is proposed
to wash the hands and face only, a slave brings in the leyen
and ibrik and pours the water while, for special ablutions,
;

Ottoman Homes and Home-life

205

the private hamtnams or the public baths will be resorted to.

"
The hanun does her hair," or has it done for her, seated
and the quaintly
cross-legged in her corner of the divan
carved and painted walnut-wood chests and coffers in her
;

treasure-room suffice to hold her gauzes and brocades, her

and embroideries. In similar receptacles may also often

silks

be found priceless treasures in metal, porcelain, glass, and

gems, which, were they displayed in the reception rooms,
would add greatly to the cheerfulness of their appearance.
But it has not hitherto been the practice of the Osmanhs to
decorate their apartments with bric-a-brac.
The warming apparatus commonly used by all the races of
a brass or copper pan containing charcoal buried
This is placed either on an elegantly shaped
receptacle of wrought metal, or on a heavy stand of polished
wood from two to three feet square and about eight inches
high which occupies the centre of the room, or forms part of
the tandour, a species of table round which the ladies sit with
its heavy quilted covering drawn over their knees.
The use

Turkey
in

wood

is

ashes.

and
American stoves is, however, increasing every year
the picturesqueness of most of the larger houses and k&naks
is destroyed by the hideous black stove-pipes which make
of

their

way through

the windows or walls, and climb up to the

roofs.

Such a mansion as above described

may be

found in every

provincial town, and is a fair specimen of the average dwelHng

of a Turkish family of good position, though there may now be

found, more especially in the capital and its suburbs, a

considerable number of new houses, handsomely and sohdly

and

in outward appearance not to be distinguished

the
wooden lattices at the windows from the dwellexcept by
of
ings
Europeans. The disposal of the rooms is naturally that
best suited to Osmanli customs, but the furniture will be
built,

rather European than Oriental.

Such being the typical homes of the

population of Turkey,

will

Moslem

now attempt

section of the

to describe the

206

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

organisation of an Osmanli household and the status of its

female members.

The distinctive provisions of Moslem Marriage Law ensure

that there shall be no relations whatever between men and

women

whether slave or free women in

which
the woman, from the very fact of such
Marriage Taw.
relations, shall not have enforceable legal
rights against the man, and for her children as well as for
As to free women, the provisions of Moslem law are
herself.
so enforced by the customs of Moslem society that no relations
other than those of marriage between a Moslem and a free
woman even exist, save most exceptionally. And although
the law of Islam allows a man to marry legally four wives,
and to be the owner of an unlimited number of slaves, it by
no means follows that an Osmanli household is composed of a
large number of women all of whom stand in wifely relations to
their lord and master. Indeed, as a matter of fact, monogamy
is the general rule
among the Turks, and polygamy the

For, besides the other considerations which make

a plurality of wives undesirable and inconvenient, there is,
for all but the very wealthy, that of expense, as
every extra
wife means the provision of an extra suite of apartments, an
extra slave, or train of slaves, according to the rank of the
family, each hanun being entitled to her special attendants,
and an extra allowance of pin money. Lack of progeny by
the first wife is most frequently the reason which induces a Turk
to incur the risk of having his domestic peace disturbed by taking
a second
and, rather than have recourse to this expedient,
he will frequently adopt as his own an orphan, or slave child.
The legal rights conferred upon women by the law of Islam
are, indeed, very considerable, and compare favourably with
those enjoyed either under Judaism or
^
As a daughter, an Osmanli
Christianity.
^M*T
woman
is
on the decease of her
entitled,
Women.
father, to inherit his property in common with
her brothers in a legally fixed proportion, according to the
exception.

Ottoman Homes and Home -life

20"/

of his children. As a wife, she has the uncontrolled

possession and disposal both of the wealth of which she was
possessed before marriage, and of that which may subsequently

number

accrue to her from her father's estate. She can inherit

and dispose
property without the inter\'ention of trustees,
"
"
No doctrine of coverture exists
of it as she pleases.
for her
she can sue, or be sued independently of her
husband, and also sue, or be sued by him. A husband, on the
other hand, is legally bound to support his wife and her
;

attendants according to her rank and his means, and to

furnish her with a suitable residence. And as to the custody
of children, this question was settled at the outset by the
Prophet of Islam, who \\'isely decided that a son must remain
with his mother so long as he required her care, and a daughter
until she reached the marriageable age,

Turkish

women

thus already possess all the legal, personal,

rights necessary to give them a social position
not superior, to that of European women generally ;

and proprietary
equal,

if

their emancipation from harem resconsequently one of custom and prejudice rather

and the objection to

traints

is

than of religious law. Prejudice is, however, still very strong

with reference to the veil. In the first wild outburst of
enthusiasm which greeted the proclamation of a constitutional government for Turkey, a few of the Moslem inhabitants
of the capital somewhat lost their heads and appeared ready
to rush to any extreme.
Customary restraints were disregarded, Osmanli ladies appeared in public unveiled, demanding their share in this new and unlooked-for freedom, and
"
seemed about to use an Oriental simile to
throw down
the lattice into the street." As might have been expected,

however, scandals ensued, and a police order was issued

forbidding Moslem women to go abroad with their faces
uncovered. This decree being at first to a certain extent
disregarded, a second was issued instructing pohce officers to
arrest summarily and conduct to the caracol any woman who
should in future be so hardy as thus to flout pubhc opinion

208

Turkey

The question

of the

Ottomans

of female emancipation will, however, in all

in the not far distant future by

probability have to be faced

Turkish reformers.
Emancipation,

the

Not a few members

Young Turkey party

are, indeed,

of

already

in favour of giving to the women of their

nation the social and industrial freedom enjoyed l^y their
Christian sisters. The wives of members of the diplomatic
and consular services may already be met with in all the
cultured and refined women who in
capitals of Europe
manners and appearance easily pass muster in the circles

frequented by their husbands. These ladies on returning

Turkey naturally doff their Parisian hats and when out

to
of

doors conceal their dresses under the disguising chitcharf

which has of late years almost entirely superseded the yashmak
and feridjeh of the past century. Nor do they usually consider
this a hardship, for the more intelligent among them recognise
how many difficulties of all kinds stand in the way of the
general emancipation of their countrywomen. One of the
most important of these is the fact that the abolition of the
harem must necessarily entail the abolition of domestic
slavery, its inseparable adjunct,/

Under

this

system no free

woman, or girl over twelve yeats of age, may with propriety

appear unveiled before a man who is not a very near relation,
that is to say, before any man who might legally become her
husband

and

as

among Moslems

first

cousins are allowed to

marry, the circle of male relatives having access to a harem

is, strictly speaking, limited to the fathers and grandfathers,
brothers and uncles of its female inmates. For the service
of the family female slaves are, accordingly, still indispensable
as a bondswoman, being the property of her master or
;

mistress,

may appear unveiled before the men of the household.

Even were free Turkish girls available as domestic servants,

their number would be extremely limited owing to the custom
"
advanced"
of early marriages; and though in the harems of
"
OsmanU families. Christian girls, Greek or Frank," may now
not infrequently be found acting as upper servants, this

Ottoman Homes and Home-life

209

innovation can hardly be expected to become general,

pecially in the pro\'inces,
strongly rooted.

es-

where ancient prejudices are more

"

"

slave
Degrading though the status of
may appear to
the European mind, the condition of female slaves in Turkey
may be said to compeire not unfavourably
with that of the generahty of working women
^l*^ery^
in other countries.
For under Islamism they
are protected by many humane laws, and are on the whole,
treated quite paternally.
Being for the most part Circassians,

Georgians, and Yezidi Kurds, and consequently of as good

white blood as their owners, domestic slaves are not looked
upon as a class apart and when at the end of seven years'
service they receive their freedom
and with it, as a rule, a
trousseau and a husband, as they may not be sent adrift
;

in the world unpro\ided for

their origin

is

speedily lost sight

and they become merged in the free native population.

Nor has a slave invariably to serve for seven years before
obtaining her freedom. Moslems on their death-beds frequently bequeath their Hberty to faithful bondsmen and
and the good
women, this being deemed a meritorious act

of,

fortune of those gifted with personal attractions is assured

from the outset, as many Turks prefer, for various reasons, to
marry a woman who has been brought up as a slave. All

Turks many young, and marriage with a free woman being

a very expensive matter for a bridegroom and his parents,
owing to the lavish outlay in presents and entertainments
which custom makes obhgatory on such festive occasions, if
a paterfamihas cannot afford to marry his son to a maiden
of his own rank, he purchases for him a slave girl who has been
brought up in some great lady's harem, and no expense
is
incurred beyond
the purchase money.
Should a
slave, under these conditions, bear a child, she cannot be
re-sold, but has the right to remain and bring up her
offspring in the house of its father who will, in all
14(a.^s?)

210

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

probability, set free his child's mother,

and make her

his legal

wife.

Though
a

man

great facilities appear at first sight to be given to

matter of divorce, women are, on the other hand,
safeguarded from a too arbitrary exercise of

in the

this prerogative

Divorce.

in practice.

on him who

"

by

certain wise regulations

which to a great extent modify such

facilities

The

curse of Allah," said the Prophet, "rests

And besides
capriciously repudiates his wife."

religious and social restrictions, a serious obstacle to divorce

This is the settlement on the wife
is offered by the nekyah.

at the betrothal of a considerable

sum

of

money

to be paid

to her in the event of such dismissal from her husband's roof,

and without the payment of which no divorce can legally take

place.

wife can also claim her release, together with the

of the dowry, for various reasons, among which are

his desertion, cruelty, or refusal to maintain her in the degree
of comfort to which she is entitled.
If, however, the wife,

payment

without such adequate reasons, and contrary to the desire of

her husband, requests a divorce, she obtains it only by
foregoing her dower.
__ In spite of all the social and rehgious conventionaHties
which, as we have seen, surround the lives of Osmanli girls,
love occasionally surmounts the barriers of
f

Marriage

restraint, and romance ends happily

"
"
old maid
in marriage.
It is said that an
does not exist in Turkish society, so rarely is it that a husband
cannot be found for a girl of marriageable age. For the plain

harem

or deformed daughter of a wealthy man will be bestowed

on some needy youth to the furtherance of whose ambitious

and many
schemes the patronage of her father is necessary
pashas of high rank, and even Grand Viziers, have owed their
success in life to the influence and interest possessed by their
;

wives.

who,

in

Early marriages are the rule among the Osmanlis,

common with Moslems generally, hold the estate of

Ottoman Homes and Home-life

211

in great honour. ^
WTien it has been decided that
the time has arrived for a youth to be married, his mother,
if she has not akeady settled upon a bride for him, inquires
among her friends, or of the women who hawk goods for sale
from harem to harem, and act as go-betweens (koidavouz), in
what families pretty and marriageable girls are to be found.

matrimony

This ascertained, she invites the koulavouz and some relative

or relatives to accompany her, and, without troubling about
Outdoor
introductions, drives to each harem in turn.
garments are removed in the ante-room and it is customary
to announce the object of the visit at the moment the slave
;

approaches to remove the visitors' chitcharfs. The mother

receive her
girl, when informed of this, hastens to
visitors with all honoiur in the divan khane, and her eldest
laughter proceeds to dress and adorn herself with the utmost
care in order to make a favourable impression onihe gueriidjis. *
The two mothers meanwhile exchange conventional comphments until the portiere is raised and the maiden enters the
room, when all eyes are turned upon her. She approaches,
kisses the hands of all the guests, and then serves them in
turn with the coffee which has been brought in at the same
time.
As the cups are emptied the maiden takes them from
of the

the guests' hands, salaams, and disappears. After some

half-dozen girls have been thus inspected, the mother returns
home to describe them to her husband and son and, the
;

selection
*

said

made, intermediaries are despatched to the family

"

Mohammed

It is related in the Hadith, or

Traditions," that
"
When the servant of Allah marries, he perfects half of his reU-

On one occasion, the Prophet hav-ing asked a man if he was

gion."
married, and being answered in the negative, he asked again, "Art
"
"
"
thou sound and healthy ?
Yes," was the reply.
Then," said
"
the friend of Allah,
then thou art one of the brothers of the devil."
In consequence of the injunctions of the
(Mishkat, bk. xiii, ch. I.)
Prophet concerning marriage, members of the ceUbate Orders of
Dervishes as a rule ultimately marry.
"

The viewers," from guertmh, to view. Among all Oriental

peoples. Christian as well as Moslem, daughters are married in order
of seniority.
*

212

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

maiden to settle the preliminaries. If no

hitch occurs during these negotiations, the bridegroom sends
to the bride the betrothal presents, which consist, as a rule,

of the fortunate

a silver

of

sites

and

jewel-box, hand-mirror, and other toilet requireceives in return a jewelled snuff-box, cashmere

shawl, etc.

few days afterwards the bridegroom sends to his future

father-in-law the aghirlik, a sum of money which is practically
his
contribution to the expenses of the

dughun; and eight days

CeAmony

the

after the betrothal

marriage takes place. According

to the law of Islam, marriage is not a religious but a civil
act
and though prayer forms part of this as of every other
ceremonial, the Imam, or priest, attends in his legal capacity
only, the validity of the contract consisting in its being
legal

attested

the

at least

by

groom and

two

his friends

selamlik

of

which

On this day the bridethe house of the bride, in

the amount of the nekyah to be
witnesses.

proceed to

paid to the bride in the event of divorce, or on her husband's

death is discussed and settled. The contract drawn up, the
bridegroom formally declares three times his desire to wed the
daughter of So-and-So, upon which the Imam proceeds to the
door of the haremlik, behind which the bride and her friends
are assembled, and, after declaring the amount of the nekyah
money agreed upon, asks the maiden if she accepts such an
one for her husband. When the question and the affirmative
answer have been thrice repeated, the Imam returns to the
selamlik and attests the consent of the maiden, the contract
is forthwith signed, and the parties are legally married. They
do not, however, see or hold any communication with each
other until the conclusion of the dughun, or wedding festivities, which may not perhaps take place for some months.
This wedding festival extends over a week, and however ill
a father can afford the expenses inseparable from its celebraSuch festivities
tion, he is obliged by custom to incur them.
it is a
in
the
and
of
OsmanU
women,
arc,
fact,
point of
delight

Ottoman Homes and Home -life

213

honour with a mother to celebrate the dughun of her daughter

with as

much

eclat as possible.

attending dughuns, promenading, dri\^ng,

shopping, and going to the bath, are the chief amusements
Before
of the general run of Osmanh women.
Harem
out %vith any of these objects, a
setting
"
Diversions.
,
/
,
hanun must first obtain the permission of

Paying

calls,

If the Effendi is inclined to be jealous and

to seeing his family often out of doors,
object
may
permission may sometimes be withheld. But in the

her husband.
strict,

and

he

majority of households this is merely a polite formality, and

leave for an expedition is granted as soon as requested.
and
OsmcUili women are passionately fond of the open air
the number of charming resorts within easy reach of the
capital, added to the most magnificent cUmate in the world,
offer every facihty for the indulgence of this taste.
Nearly
;

every provincial city and town also possesses in its \acinity

a choice of dehghtful situations, where the eye can drink its
full of beauty from verdant earth, azure sky, and sunht sea
and it is ahnost impossible to visit any of these spots without
"
finding there a group of Osmanli women
taking their
;

kaif."

An Osmanli,

observed, never, under any circumstances,

company with the women of the household.
Little girls, before adopting the yashmak, are constantly seen
in public with their fathers and brothers, and are also allowed

goes abroad

be

it

in

But the veil once donned, a girl

womanhood, and is thenceforward amenathe law of namekhran, under which she must submit
the restrictions of the harem. The reason of this

free access to the selamlik.

enters the ranks of

ble to

to

all

separation of the sexes out of doors is sufficiently obvious.

For a father or brother could not frequent the pubUc promenades and drives in company with his womenkind without

them directly under the notice of his male friends

and acquaintances, and thus infringing the fundamental

bringing

principles of the haremlik.

214

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

Going to the hamman, as the Turkish bath is called, has

always been made by Osmanli women the occasion of great
festivity and ceremony, and forms part of
the customary ritual attending weddings and
The Bath.
similar family events.
On these occasions a
complete outfit of garments for each lady is carried by a
the primitive
slave, tied up in a square boktcha, or wrapper
and universal portmanteau made without of silk, and often
richly embroidered, these garments being donned after the
bath together with their possessors' most handsome jewellery,
for the admiration
and perhaps envy of the acquaintances
they may meet at this favourite rendezvous. Other slaves

carry, in addition to fruits and refreshments of all kinds,

a variety of rugs, bath wraps, brass basins, and the multitude

to the uninitiatedmysterious

articles considered necessary to the due performance of this important ablutionary

And for the best part of the day the hanuns, with
rite.
their children and attendants, remain at the hammam, eating

of

drinking, singing, frohcking, and gossiping in the

intervals of the oft-repeated soapings, rinsings and rubbings,
the application to the hair of crushed laurel berries to make

and

it

glossy,

finger and toe nails of henna,

impossible to enumerate.

and to the

toilet details

and other

The Turks indulge in but two meals a day the karvaltd,

a luncheon, or rather dejeuner, eaten about eleven o'clock,
and the yemek, or dinner, partaken of about
Turkish

sunset, and varying accordingly between six

o'clock in winter and eight in summer. Ladies
generally invite their friends to the karvalid, as Moslems are
rarely abroad after nightfall, and occasionally large luncheon

which the most rigid etiquette is observed.

announced, the hostess leads the way into
the yemek-oda, or dining-room, where, in an old-fashioned
house, the covers will be laid on a number of sofras circular
tables, or, rather, stands, raised only some ten inches from
the floor, and accommodating at the most eight persons
parties are given, at

When

the meal

is

Ottoman Homes and Home-life

215

and at these the guests are distributed according to their rank.

The covers at a genuine Turkish table consist only of a spoon
and a piece of bread. Roiind the leather pad which occupies
the centre of the sofra are grouped small saucers containing
'

hors d centres, consisting of oUves, cubes of melon or cucumber,

radishes, ancho\aes, etc., together with a salt cellar and pepperbox. As the ladies sit down cross-legged on the low cushions,
slaves approach bearing soap, water and towels. One holds the
leyen, or metal basin, made \Wth a httle stand in the centre on
"
which the ball of soap is placed, and a well," into which the

water disappears through a perforated bottom another pours

the water over the hands from an elegantly shaped ibrik ;
while a third tenders the embroidered towel on which to dry
them. Other towels with embroidered ends the chevres
of which the East has been almost emptied by the demand
for them in Europe
are handed round to ser\'e as tablenapkins, and the repast commences. A tureen of soup is
first placed on the sofra, very thick, rich, and noiuishing,
and containing a certain amount of meat and vegetables.
The hostess pohtely invites with a wave of her hand and a
;

"

Boyourn, Effendi," the principal guest to dip in her spoon.

the guests are of inferior rank to herself, she takes precedence and dips hers in first. \Mien the spoons have returned
a few times to the tureer, it is removed at a signal from the
hanun, and replaced with other dishes in succession. The
hors d'ceuvres, and various sweets, fill up the inter\'als between
the courses until the pilaf is placed on the table. This
If all

is composed chiefly of rice and butter, and is,

others, eaten with the fingers, which may sound a

national dish

Hke the

But

"

"

makes perfect
and one is
often surprised to see with what neatness and dexterity the
loose grains of rice can be picked up by the henna stained
fingers and thumb, and conveyed from the dish to the mouth.
Hochaf, a dish prepared from stewed fruits, and iced, is the
difficult

last to

The

feat.

practice

be placed on the table.

dwellings of the Albanians are in general entirely in

216

Turkey

of the

keeping with the character and

Ottomans

mode of

Ufe of their inmates.

customs approximate more

to
those
of the Greeks, the houses
closely
Albanian
have a gloomy aspect, being shut in from
massive courtyard gates,
the street by
and having no visible windows on the ground fioon Like
the majority of Oriental houses, they consist but of two
stories, the upper, which contains the living rooms of the
family, being reached by an outside staircase and landing
under the broad pent of the roof. In more remote towns, such

Even

at loannina,

as Prizrend

and

where

local

Pristina, the streets look dreary

in the extreme, besides being very narrow

paved at all and the bazaars and shops

mean and

poor.

The

and deserted

and

ill-paved if
are exceedingly
household furniture of a family of

moderate means consists of Uttle beyond a low divan furnished

with rugs and hard cushions, a few chairs and a mirror. The
lime-washed walls may perhaps be decorated with a frieze in

monochrome representing a landscape executed

in the crudest

style of art, while a high shelf holds the ibriks and other
domestic utensils, all of copper, above it being suspended the
rich

assortment

of

arms which

is

the

pride

of

every

family.

In the mountain districts the houses of the Beys are complete fortresses, being surrounded by high walls pierced with
loopholes for musketry. Only in times of open hostility,

however,

is it

necessary to take precautions against possible

an Albanian's notion of honour does not allow him

to slay a man in his own house, deadly as may be his feud with
him. The villages in these districts are generally remote
from each other, perched in high and inaccessible situations.
The furniture of their rude stone cottages is limited to a few
home-made mats and rugs, a sofra, a well-scoured copper-pan
to mix the bread in, a wooden bowl or two, a few horn spoons,
a brass coffee-pot and lamp. One of the two rooms is used
foes, for

as a storehouse for the winter provisions, the other serves as

general hving and sleeping room.

Each house has

its

garden

Ottoman Homes and Home-life

plot well stocked with fruit trees

217

and vegetables, and

its

and
tobacco patch, all surrounded by a high loop-holed wall
each \dllage has its green, in one corner of which is the communal threshing-floor where the grain is trodden out by the
;

feet of horses.

The
district

social status of AlbEinian

and

women

varies according to

The Liaps and the Christians of Southern

Albania and Epirus generally occupy the

creed.

Albanian

Women.

j^^^ enviable ^
position, all the hard out-ofi-i
^t
door work devolvmg on them. The rsorthem
'

Albanians and also the Tosks, on the other hand, treat their
wives with much greater consideration, consult them wiUingly
in their affairs, both pubhc and priv^ate, and accord them a
And well
position in the family almost equal to their own.

do they merit the respect of their husbands and brothers.

For often have they proved themselves to be fit companions
for men, unmindful of fatigue, danger, and even death in
the cause of liberty. The Albanian code of honour makes it
impossible for a man to attack a woman, whether armed or
unarmed, and this sacredness attached to their persons
extends also to those whom they may take under their protection.
Escorted by a girl only, travellers may pass through
the wildest parts of the country, and a man may cross, without
fear, the lands of one ^vith whom he is at feud, if he have the
safe-conduct of a woman belonging to his enemy's family.
To such an extent, indeed, is respect for women carried by the

Albanians, that

contrary to their notions of propriety ever

the subject of jokes or hmnorous stories.
Insult or annoyance offered to a girl, or carrying off one
without the consent of her parents, almost invariably results
in bitter vendettas between famiUes, or fierce feuds between
to

it is

make women

tribes.

The
mother

highest aspiration of an Albanian wife is to be the

of boys, and she is less proud of her owti beauty and

the rank of her family than of the

their valour.
For the mother of

number

many

of her sons

sons

is

and of

sure of the

218

Turkey of the Ottomans

lasting affection of her husband, enjoys the respect and consideration of the rest of his family, and wields great authority

which she has come as a stranger. As her

sons seldom permanently leave the paternal roof, she may look
forward to their support and affection in her old age, and to
in the household to

see their children growing up around her. When a'young

husband leaves his home for a sojourn at a distance, custom
requires that his wife should manifest no grief at his depart-

Instead of accompanying him to the threshold, and

watching his familiar figure disappear in the distance, or
going to meet him on his arrival, she hides herself at both
the moment of his arrival and the moment of his departure.
A woman's grief must not, say her elders, soften a man's
heart when his duty lies before him. Neither must she
ask for news of him at any time during his sojourn abroad.
Yet in the depth of their hearts no wives more regret the
absence of their husbands, as the touching little superstitious
observances with which they console themselves testify.
Unknown to their partners, they sew in their clothing small
ure.

objects which they themselves have worn, as talismans to

ensure their safe return and during their often protracted
absences they resort to various methods of divination, either
with or without the aid of a professional wise-woman, in order
;

how their beloved spouses fare, where they sojourn,

and how they are occupied. The men, on their side, are not
free from home-sickness, and many are the pathetic little
exile-songs, in which their longings for their native mountains,
and for the beloved ones from whom they are for a time
to discover

separated, find expression.

The Turkish veil and cloak are

townswomen,

as also

worn out of doors by Moslem

by the Christian women domiciled in
But the countrywomen both of moun-

their neighbourhood.
tain and plain, and whether Christian or

Moslem, go about

their daily avocations unveiled.

The peasant costumes vary
extremely in detail, but are generally composed of stout
homespun and felt, and in form resemble those of the Greek

Ottoman Homes and Home-life

219

and Bulgarian peasants of Macedonia, the leading features

which may be described as two aprons worn under a coat.
Tribal and family pride may be said to be the leading feature

of

And though the Schkyipetar chieftains

"
"
neither
nor armorial
family trees
possess
their
matrimonial
aUiances
between
bearings,

families are arranged with rigid regard to

of Albanian character.
Marriage
Customs.

rank and precedence. The \nves and mothers of the Moslem

Beys, Hke well-bom women generally, are intimately acquainted with the genealogies of all the neighboming famihes,

and the preHminaries of a betrothal are usually settled by

them in the privacy of the harem before formal proposals are
made to the head of the maiden's family. Differences in
reUgious behef form, generally speaking, no bar to social
intercourse between Albanians.
Christian men wed Moslem
maids, and vice versa ; the sons will be brought up in the faith
of the father, and the daughters in that of the mother. Exogamy is the general rule in the affairs of marriage, and by the

Roman

Catholic Mirdites

carrying off

by

force a

it

is

observed to the extent of

one of the neighbouring

woman from

Moslem tribes. The wives of the principal inhabitants of

Oroshi are said to be invariably acquired in this way
and far
from resenting, or being ashamed of the circumstance, they
deem that an honour has been conferred upon them, and
their relatives
after a conventional protest
accept the situation after payment of the usual dowry.
And although these
unwooed brides may not embrace with enthusiasm the faith
into which they are usually baptized as a prehminary to marriage, they scrupulously observe its external forms, and prove
;

devoted wives.
tribes, succession is, as a rule, in
however, there are no surviving sons,
and a daughter chooses to remain a spinster,
^^^ ^^^ enjoy the usufruct of her father's
the^Le^rate
property which, on her death, reverts to her
nearest male relatives.
If a man die childless, his estate is

Among

these

the male hne.

exogamous
If,

220

of the

Turkey

divided

among

his

male

relatives

Ottomans
who pay

to his

widow a

pension, she remaining in his house, or returning to her own

people, as she pleases, and retaining all that she has received
or inherited from her parents. As among the OsmanUs, the
children of Moslem Albanians by slave mothers have an equal
right with those by a wife to succeed to their father's estate.
The custom of the Levirate is also observed by the Albanians.
If a deceased husband has an unmarried brother, the latter
has a right to marry the widow, will she or nill she, otherwise
she may not re-marry in the same village without the consent
of her husband's family.
If, however, a widow return to her

and marry into another family, her father pays

she have one, or to her first husband's
her
should
to
son,
half
the
heirs,
dowry promised at her second betrothal.
If a betrothed man che, his brother has also a
right
father's house

the

to

bride,

dowry.
Divorce

is

to

whose

parents he

pays

an

additional

uncommon among Moslem Albanians who

not

follow in this respect the custom of their Osmanli neighbours,

the husband paying to the discarded wife the

sum ^
promised

in the marriage contract in

^.
t-i,
jIhe divorce
View of such a contmgency.
the
generally takes place at the instance of the husband, but

m^^^^J^^Albania.

wife

may

also claim

it

for certain reasons

if,

for instance,

home and does not return within the

the
who administers the Sacred Law
fixed
Kadi,
by
period
the
dealing with the affairs of marriage. The Albanian, like
Osmanh Moslem, is bound to provide his wife with food,
a husband has

left his

and shelter in keeping with his position and means,

and cannot require her, as a Christian husband may, to earn
money for him by her labour. She, on her part, is bound to
obey him and study his wishes, abstain from anything hkely
to annoy or vex him, and to watch over the interests of the
If her husband is poor, she will also perform all the
family.
household work, attend to the dairy, and spin and weave the
wool and flax for domestic use.

clothes,

Ottoman Homes and Home -life

221

striking illustration of the freedom from Moslem molestation enjoyed of late years by the subject races as compared
with their position at the beginning of last
Dwellings of
Christians.

century
'

style

of

is

by the difference in the

town houses, especially at

afforded
their

'

Smyrna. The dwellings of more ancient date are, externally,

gloomy in appearance, often having no windows on the
ground floor beyond a few small grated openings near the
ceihngs, while the low-arched entrance door

is

faced with

and defended within by massive bars and bolts. The

upper stories overhang the streets, and in the narrower
thoroughfares, as in the streets of Old London, one might
almost from their casements shake hands with one's opposite

iron,

neighbours across the street this style of architecture premany advantages when the dwellings of the Christians
were exposed to the attacks of the insolent and turbulent
senting

The interior, however, of many of these old

Janisseries.
town mansions is the reverse of gloomy. The heavily barred
portals opened, one descends a few steps into a spacious haU,
comfortably furnished, and divided only by a glazed partition
from a pleasant flower-filled garden. This spacious entrance
is also a general feature of the more modem
dwellings of
the Armenian townsfolk.
In these the wide doorways, which

hall

are above, instead of below the level of the street, are approached by handsome steps of white marble, and the hall

within is paved with squares of the same material. In the

smaller abodes in Smyrna often of one story only, on
account of the frequent and severe earthquakes the windows
of the salone, or drawing-room, alone overlook the street,
nearly all the other rooms receiving their Hght and air from
the hall. This apartment, which is used as a general sittingroom, often terminates in a species of conservatory with

But whether
creepers, choice plants in vases, and a fountain.
ancient or modem, the abode of a wealthy Armenian of the
seaboard cities is a palatial edifice, replete with European
comforts and elegancies. The choicest fruits of that fruitful

222

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

clime flourish in their paradisaical gardens which are fragrant

with flowers all the year round. On the raised tessellated
footpaths for the gardens are watered by irrigation canals
saunter the almond-eyed daughters of the house in loose
Oriental robes and with slippered feet, or in the latest Paris

fashions, according to circumstances, season,

of day.

The dwelhngs
class

hammals,

of the

or

and the time

urban Armenians, even of the poorest

boatmen, and fishermen are,

porters,

though, of course, small, not without a certain amount of

decent comfort, suited to the mode of life of their inmates.

There

is

Turkey

also very little overcrowding

as

siveness of Oriental family

life

among

the poor of

and the excludoes not admit of much

compared with Europe

generally,

sub-letting to lodgers.

In the Armenian highlands, however, a rigorous climate

and primitive social conditions have necessitated dwellings
and in the
of a very different description
-pj^g
towns of Armenia proper even the habitations
Highlands of
Armenia.
Qf ^jjg leading citizens lack the comfort and
cheerfulness of those above described. At Erzeroum, for
instance, the one-storied houses present a most gloomy appear;

ance, being constructed of stone of a dark colour, with tiny

double glazed windows like port-holes. This town is situated
at the foot of a mountain up the lower slopes of which it
appears to climb, each room being built like a separate house
with a flat roof which communicates with those above and
below it by means of steps. One may accordingly walk
along these terraces from house to house over a great part
of the town, and when stopped by an intersecting street, a
moderate leap will easily clear the chasm, so narrow are the
thoroughfares. The space occupied by the dwelling of a man
of means is consequently prodigious, and its top, which is
covered with vegetation, resembles a meadow. Many of the
houses are either wholly or partially subterranean, and the
dwellings of the peasantry are generally mere burrows in the

Ottoman Homes and Home-life

223

The front is formed by cutting away perpendicularly

the surface of a convenient slope for the space of a few yards
the room, or rooms, are excavated in the hill, and the soil
dug out is thrown against the outer wall and on the roof,
hillside.

A thick crop of grass

is supported by strong beams.
soon covers all, and here the lambs are left to graze when the
wind is not strong enough to blow them away. To the roofs
come, too, in the brief simimer time, the women and children,
with their mattresses and cushions, to bask in the balmy air
"
and the whole family may occasionally sleep here
at the
moon's iim," without disturbing the storks who, every
succeeding spring, build on the broad mushroom-shaped
chimneys. With them come also the household pets the
beautiful white cats with long silky fur, the tame lemmings and
"
black eyes," pretty httle creatmres with soft
karaguez, or
hke the lemmings, hybemate in winter and are
fur,
which,
grey
easOy domesticated.
which

The

internal arrangements are

more or

less similar in all

these abodes, the floors of which are, as a rule, below the level
of the roadway.
A low door gives access to
a passage, on one side of which is the byre.

^ImSoI^^

or ox-stable, and on the other the kitchen,

storeroom, and private apartments of the family. Each
room has a rude stone fireplace, in which tezek, the common
fuel of those regions, is burnt.
Some of the wealthier houses
may boast chairs and tables and perhaps a gilt-framed mirror
but as a rule the furnishings consist of a low divan round three
sides of the room, covered with stuffs of native manufacture,
and some Kurdish or Persian rugs spread over the thick felt
;

The walls are whitewashed, and the wooden

ceihngs often curiously carved and painted. The ox-stable
is the most characteristic part of the
It contains
dwelling.
floor-covering.

sometimes scores of cattle whose animal heat during the

winter months contributes considerably towards the warmth
of the interior.
One end of this division of the house has a
raised floor, like a dais, railed off from the rest and used by the

224
men

of the

Turkey

Ottomans

of the family as a sort of selamlik for the transaction of

Like the family rooms, it is furnished with divan

on the walls are suspended the saddlery and
weapons. Under this platform the dogs have their abode,
and on the divans, safely out of their reach, repose the beaubusiness.

and

rugs, while

"

tiful so-called

Persian

"

or

"

"Angora
come from the Armenian town of Van.

cats, which,

however,

Patriarchal customs are

still rigidly adhered to in Armenia,

a great extent, in the Turkish towns of the interior,
"
"
such as Broussa and Cassarea, where the
housefather
gathers beneath his own roof-tree his sons and their descendants to the third or fourth generation, one household often

and

also, to

consisting of

some

thirty or forty persons,

all

of

whom must

necessarily be subject to his supreme authority.

The absolute indissolubility of marriage imposed by the
Armenian religious law, together with special social and

The
"

Subjection of

the Daughter-

political conditions,

combined, in the past, to

make expedient
of

women.

the seclusion, if not subjection,

In former times girls were married

very young, often when only twelve years

In order to ensure harmony among the numerous
into the house as wives for these successive
"
the subjection
generations, a practice which may be termed
of the daughter-in-law," is resorted to, the wisdom of which,
under the circumstances, cannot but be recognised. On the
Saturday after a bride hsis been brought to her new home she
performs the ceremony of kissing the hands of all her husband's
relatives who are older than herself.
Preparatory to this
a
she
dons
veil
of
crimson
wool, which partly
formality
obscures her features, and which she does not thenceforward
lay aside until she has the housefather's permission to do so.
The young wife must now not venture to address her husband's
parents or any of his relatives save those who are her juniors,
neither must she speak to her husband in the presence of his
parents until such time as the patriarch of the family may see
fit to give her permission, which he does by removing her veil.
of age.

women brought

Ottoman Homes and Home-life

225

This, however, seldom happens until she has borne a son

"
a wife sho%\-s her character
for, as the native proverb sa}'S,
"
at the cradle
and the restriction may not be removed for

many

years.

The Armenian proverb,

"

I speak to thee, my daughter,

that thou, my daughter-in-law, mayst hear," well illustrates
the attitude of a mother towards her son's \nfe, and suggests
that, though the new-comer is not spoken to, she is none the
"
less
talked at."
house wiH not be found convenient

"A

if

two women command

in it," also

shows the wisdom, imder

the patriarchal system, of assigning the daughter-in-law a

subordinate position. National etiquette also forbids a yoimg
wife to go abroad during the first year of her married life, even
to church, save at Easter and at the feast of the Assimiption,
no doubt a wise restriction, as this prevents her canydng

every little trouble to her mother, who during this period

pays her only an occasional formal \'isit.
In the inland towns of Armenia, Cappadocia, and Cilicia
girls are kept almost as much secluded from intercourse with
the other sex as are their Moslem sisters,
^^^ ^ betrothed couple are consequently, as
I *o^tio
a rule, comparative strangers to each other.
This

is, however, not the case in Smyrna or Constantinople,

where European manners are more or less cultivated by the
better class of Armenians, and where marriages of affection
are not uncommon, nor in all the villages, where a certain

amount

But national prejuany but the most

between the betrothed couple, and all the
the auspicious event are made by the

of courtship often takes place.

towns of Armenia, forbids

dice, in the

formal intercourse

arrangements for

respective parents.
All these patriarchal customs are, however, in the cities of
the iEgean and in the towns of European Turkey, things
of the past.
And the contrast between the manners and social
of the inhabitants of the chilly' highlands of Armenia and

life

those of the dwellers on the sunny coasts of the JEgean

and

226

Turkey

the Bosphorus

is

now

of the

Ottomans

as great as

is

the difference in their

Western education and ideas are

with every succeeding generation more and more permeating
every class, and though a good many of these apparent changes
are merely superficial, and present strange and sometimes
ridiculous anomalies, inevitable in a period of transition from
Eastern to Western habits and modes of thought, real progress
is no doubt being made
by this section of the nation. An
Armenian bride in Western Turkey now becomes the mistress
of her husband's house, his parents merely receiving her on her
arrival according to the ancient etiquette in matters of marand she
riage, which is still to a great extent adhered to
enjoys the same freedom of action as the European ladies
physical

surroundings.

with

whom

she

may

be acquainted.

All the usual facilities

for social intercourse are at her disposal, and she may, if

philanthropically disposed, spend some of her leisure time

amehorate the condition of those of her

countr5rwomen less favoured by fortune. She has her box at the

in endeavouring to

theatre, and attends the balls given at the casinos of the different
nationalities as well as those more exclusively Armenian.
social status of the women of a community being
determined by the law of marriage of the established
rehgion, the status of Greek women,' in^comGreek*Women "^" ^^^^ ^^^^ ^ *^^ women of all the "other
Christian races of Turkey, is determined first
of all by that Christian marriage law which abolished the old

The

chiefly

rights

privileges enjoyed by the women of the Roman

substituting for them the subjection of the wife to the

and

Empire,

husband

in an indissoluble marriage.
By the Greek Church,
however, this general Christian law was modified as early as
the eleventh century, when the Patriarch Alexis permitted
the clergy to solemnise the second marriage of a divorced
woman if the misconduct of her first husband had occasioned

the divorce. And at the present day little difficulty is

experienced in dissolving an incompatible union without
misconduct on either side, eind whether the suit be brought by

Ottoman Homes and Home-life

husband or

wife, divorce cases being tried

227

by a Council

of

Elders, presided over by the archbishop of the diocese, who

hear all the evidence in camera, thus avoiding the scandal
attaching to such cases in the West.
It

must, however, be said that this privilege of divorce is,

Greeks, rarely made use of without good and serious

among the

both social opinion and pecuniary considerations

and in all my long acquaintance
weighing strongly against it
with persons of this race, two cases only have in Turkey come
to my knowledge. For though Greek matches are, to a great
reasons,

manages de convenance, marital dissensions are, among

the respectable classes, extremely rare. Greek men, besides
being good sons and brothers, are also on the whole exemplary
extent,

husbands, and Greek women in their turn prove most devoted

wives.
There still also survive among the Greeks, as among
the other races of the East, considerable remains of patriarchal
One of these is that
(Customs, even among the upper class.
the sons, on manying, often bring their wives to the paternal
home. In such cases the husband's mother, on the death of
"
her husband, is not, as with us, banished to the
dower
house," but retains the place of honour in the household, and
continues to receive every mark of attention from her sons
and their wives who consider it no indignity to kiss her hand,
when receiving her morning greeting or evening benediction.

And

in these irreverent days it is very refreshing, on

visiting a Greek family, to see the widowed mother at the
head of her table, and mark the deference paid to her

by the whole household.

The degree of seclusion observed by the
of

of^Women

women

rather

to

to

necessitated
of alien race

and

considerations

for

their

safety

their position among peoples

creed than to any desire on the part of men

by

"
and that this is really the case is,
subjection
think, proved by the fact that the women of Greece, since

for their
I

Christian

have varied according to external

circumstances, and would appear to be due

Turkey appears always

"

228

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

their emancipation from Turkish rule, have enjoyed the same

freedom as other women of Southern Europe, and that in

towns such as Smyrna, where the Moslem element

is in the
a thing of the past. The more
remote the community, however, and the more isolated from
contact with the outer world, the more rigid generally is found
to be the code of social morals, whatever the reUgious creed

minority, this seclusion is

now

In the mountain villages of Crete, for example,

is still visited with the severest penalties,
and was formerly, and even so late as the beginning of the last
"
Whenever," wrote Mr.
century, punishable with death.
professed.

female misconduct

"
a married woman was suspected of unfaithfulness,
Pashley,
or a maiden of frailty, her hours were from that moment numbered, and her end was so tragical and shocking to all the
feelings of natural affection, and, indeed to all ordinary notions
of humanity, that one can hardly beUeve such a practice to
have been observed on the very confines of civilised Europe,

Her
in the nineteenth century, by any Christian people.
nearest relatives were at once her accusers, her judges and
and

her executioners."^
Greek wives are, however, generally speaking, honest and
industrious, the most affectionate, if not always the most
judicious, mothers to be found in any country,
and their devotion is well repaid by the
.^"".^y
dutiful and tender regard of their sons and
daughters. Indeed it would be difficult to find a people in
whom family affection is more strongly developed, or with
the ties of kindred are held more sacred. The young
leave their native towns and villages to seek fortune
in a distant city or foreign land generally return home to
marry the wives chosen for them by their parents, and when
they retire from commercial or professional pursuits, en-

whom

men who

deavour to spend the

rest of their

days amid their kindred.

When a youth is leaving home for the first time, it is customary

for his relatives
*

and

Travels in Crete.

friends to

accompany him some distance

Ottoman Homes and Home-life

229

on the road. Before taking her final leave of her boy, his
mother laments his departure in song, and the youth responds
bewailing the hard fate which drives him forth from his home.
These farewells are sometimes extemporary effusions called
forth by the circumstances which compel or induce the youth
to leave his home.
Others, more conventional, describe the
condition of an exile in a foreign land without mother, wife, or
sister to minister to his wants or cheer him in sickness and sorrow.

As

girls of

the peasant class can usually find plenty of

occupation at

home, they seldom go out to service, save when

there happens to be more girls in the family
than a father can afford to portion, as

^eke*^

a general prejudice exists against allowing

to
leave
the
girls
paternal roof until they are married, a re"
proach being implied in the expression, So-and-So's daughter
has gone from home." There are, however, certain districts

which form an exception to this rule, and some of the Greek

islands are famous for their cooks, who can always command
good wages in the towns of the mainland. From the islands
come also the nurses, bringing with them their quaint costumes, their charming lullabies and fairy tales. The girls

who

enter domestic service save their wages for a marriage

dowTy, and, in the pro\incial towns, wear the gold and silver
coins strung round their necks, a fashion formerly common
to all classes when flourid, or Venetian sequins, were in great
demand for this purpose and are frequently mentioned in
^
The amount of a girl's dowry is
folk-song and folk-tale.
thus easily estimated by pallikars on the look-out for a
"
"
weel-tochered
bride.

As an instance, in this dancing song, from which

antistrophes.
"
By three wide oceans girt about.
Stands secure a lofty castle ;
*

High within

And
"

it sits

a maiden,

she golden coins

is

stringing.

Stringing and unstringing

ever.

Strings a dozen she has finished

Six around her neck she's twisting,

Six among her tresses twining."

omit the

230

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

Among the Greeks especially, a portionless girl has, indeed,

Uttle chance of finding a husband.
Greek parents, consequently, however poor, make it their first
POTticms^

duty to save a dot for their daughters, and

brothers, in a father's place, consider it

incumbent on them to see their sisters satisfactorily settled

in life before taking wives unto themselves.
Social opinion
is very strong on this point among this race with

whom

fraternal affection, like charity, is held to cover a multitude

of sins.
Marriage being thus looked forward to as a matter

of course, the preparation of a girl's outfit is often, especially

among the peasant and artisan classes, begun by the careful
is still a child.
The parents purchase by
materials
to their means,
the
according
degrees
necessary,
and the maiden herself performs a considerable part of the

mother while she

them into wearing apparel and articles

The daughter of a well-to-do peasant will
receive as her portion a sum of money from ;^30 to 100,
a good stock of house linen and home-made rugs and carpets,
several articles of furniture, and two or three suits of clothes,

task of converting
for domestic use.

including a gala costume for Sundays and holidays. This

last varies in style according to locality, but in its main
of
a
resembles more or less
that
closely
contadina, with the addition for outdoor wear
of a long coat of fine cloth worked round the borders with

features

Roman

gold thread in coloured silks, and invariably lined with fur.

The ceremonies observed by the Greeks in connection with
death and burial are almost everywhere identical, and include
Greek

many

archaic

customs and time-honoured

traditions in association with the rites of the

Eastern Church. Greek women have in all

times played a conspicuous part in funeral
from the days of Antigone the fulfilment of
and
observances,
the rites of sepulture has been observed by them as one of
the most sacred duties. Homer describes how Andromache
chanted a dirge to her dead husband and her son Astyanax
Ceremonies.

Ottoman Homes and Home-life

231

how

the mother and sister-in-law took up the lament, the

burden of which was repeated by a chorus of other women.
Such scenes as this may be witnessed at the present day in the
cottage of the humblest peasant.
is exhausted, the body
washers of the dead."
The customary ablutions performed, it is anointed wdth oil
and wine, and sprinkled with earth. A clean mattress and
bed linen are spread on a long table and the dead person,
dressed in his hohday garments, is laid out on it with his feet
pointing towards the door and his hands crossed on his
breast.
The female relatives of the deceased, with dishevelled

After the
left

is

first

burst of natural grief

"

to the ministrations of the

dress, now come in to perform the duty of

Seated round the room on the floor, they take
it in turn to chant dirges
(jivpioXoyla) for the dead, lamenting
his loss, extolling his virtues, and, in some cases, describing
the cause of his death. These myriologia are essentially pagan
in sentiment.
They contain no assurance that the dead are

hair

and disordered

watchers.

and no hope of a happy meeting in Paradise.

son
can
comfort
his sorrowing mother only by directdying
"
herbs of forgetfulness." The
ing her to a hill on which grow
fond brother would build for his sister a mausoleum in which
she could sit at ease, look forth on the green earth, and hear
the birds singing. And the young wife complains that her
"
husband has abandoned her, and wedded instead the black
as
earth."
a rule, the lost ones are mourned as carried
But,
in a state of bUss,

off

by the \indictive and remorseless Charon from home and

and all the joys and pursuits of the upper world, to his

friends

dreary realm of Hades. This lower world is generally pictured

as a tent, green or red outside, but black within, under which
are held dismal banquets on the bodies of the dead. Charon
goes out hunting on his black horse, and returns laden with

human
'

spoil of both sexes and all ages

The young men he before him drives, and drags the old behind him.
While ranged upon the saddle sit with him the young and lovely." *
*
A number of these Dirges will be found among my translations

of Greek Folk -poesy, Vol.

I.

232

Turkey

of the

Though crudely expressed

Ottomans

in the

dialects of the various localities to

death-ballads are

and poetic

mixed and ill-pronounced

which they belong, these

by no means devoid

of finely imaginative

no doubt, of considerable
antiquity, and have been transmitted as heirlooms from
mother to daughter through countless generations. 'Every
ideas.

woman knows by
occasions

and

if

Many

are,

heart a considerable number suited to all

these are found insufficient to express the

feelings of a bereaved mother, daughter, wife

or sister, her grief will find vent in an improvised myriologos,
less measured and rhythmical, perhaps, than the conventional

overwrought

but equally marked by touching pathos and poetic

dirge,

imagery.

The mourning worn by Greeks of both

Ornaments are rigidly

austere character.

sexes

is

most
and all

of a

set aside,

articles of dress are of the plainest black materials, cotton or

and made in the simplest fashion possible. In

woollen,

some

on the death of a near relative,

their wardrobes, not excepting underlinen and pocket
handkerchiefs, to the dyers, the result, as may be supposed,
send

districts the Greeks,

all

being funereal in the extreme. Women, too, frequently cut

off their hair at the death of their husbands, and bury it with
them men, on the other hand, allow their beards to grow
as a sign of sorrow.
Mourning is also worn for a considerable
Girls, after their father's death, do not abandon
period.
;

their

mourning

until they marry,

and widows and

elderly

women invariably retain it as their permanent attire. For in

many country districts custom does not allow women to enter
a second time into wedlock, and a widow who ventured thus
pubUc opinion would be treated with scant
by her neighbours for the rest of her days.
to violate

respect

CHAPTER XIV
EDUCATION AND CULTURE

The

printing of books in the Turkish language was first

undertaken by the Hungarian convert to Islam, Ibrahim
"
Ibrahim the
Muteferrika, also known as
details
^^
some
^0"!
origin,
^^^SY^'"
S^Prlnting"
been
whom
have
concerning
lately
published by

the Hungarian Academy of Science. ^ This Ibrahim, who had

studied for the Calvinist ministry, had the misfortune when
eighteen or twenty years of age to be captiued and enslaved
by the Turks about the year 1693. Falling into the hands
of a cruel master, he found hfe so hard that in order to better

renounced his faith and embraced that of

then apphed himself, probably as a Medresseh
student, to the study of the Turkish language and Moslem
law in which he became so proficient as to attract the notice
of the then Grand Vizier, Niuhmasi Kiuprih.
The enhghtened
attitude of this minister induced Ibrahim Effendi to propose
to him the establishment at Constantinople of a printing
press, and the Vizier not only approved of the project but
entrusted him with its execution. The innovation, however,
met with strong opposition from the Conservative Ulema
his condition he

He

Islam.

body who presented

petitions to the Grand Vizier in which
"
it was set forth
that the art of printing had never been
made use of by Moslems, that this invention might become
most dangerous as it would introduce more books than ought
to be read if the public tranquillity and the true and only
religion estabhshed by Mohammed, the Messenger of Allah,
were to be maintained."
Vizier
*

la

These Effendis, seeing that the

was resolved to protect and continue the work

of

Lettres de Turquie et notices de Cisar de Saussure, Gentilhomme de

S. A. S. le Prince Francois Rakoczi II.
(Budapest, 1909.)

Gourde

233

234

of the

Turkey

Ottomans

printing, then attempted to raise a revolt against him among

the people. But, in spite of the murmurs of the Ulema and
the rioting of their factionaries, the press, which had been set

dweUing of Ibrahim in 1728, began its work. The

some Turkish and Arab histories
and a dictionary of these two languages, which were followed
by other works, of which the most important was perhaps
the first published Turco-French dictionary, compiled by
M. de Laria, an interpreter of the French Embassy, under
the direction of a Jesuit, Father Olderman,
in the

up

first

sheets issued consisted of

The Osmanlis, however, still appear to this day to prefer

a beautifully written manuscript to a printed book. They
have indeed always cultivated and esteemed
Calligraphy.
calHgraphy more than Europeans at least
since the invention of printing, and even
more than other Orientals, save, perhaps, the Persians. Nor
has copying books as a profession yet completely died out
for books of a religious character
in Turkey, as with us
have only of late years been allowed to be printed, and the
Koran is invariably used in manuscript form.

For the last half century two distinct systems of State

education have in Turkey existed side by side the ancient,
instituted at the Conquest and common to
all
Moslem countries, and the modern,
^Ed^"*^f^*^*^
initiated towards the middle of the last

century, and greatly developed during the last fifty years.

to the first class
or
the
Mahallah-Mektehs,'^
parish schools, and the
comprise

The educational establishments belonging

Medressehs, or mosque colleges, both supported by the funds

of the mosque of which they are generally dependencies.
is perhaps no country in Europe in which primary
education was provided for at so early a date as in Turkey,
or so many inducements held out to poor parents to allow
The Mekiebs
their children to participate in its benefits.

There

afford
*

rudimentary instruction to children of both sexes,

Mekteb

is

an Arabic word which

"

signifies

writing."

Education and Culture

235

who

usually begin to attend them at a very early age, paying

the privilege a nominal fee amounting to about two
shillings a year, though at some of these mosque schools
for

each pupil is entitled to receive annually two suits of

clothing,
while at others free meals and pocket-money are distributed.

The masters
of the

of these schools are at the

mosques

to

same time functionaries

which they are attached, and the instruction

given in them is chiefly of a rehgious character. Squatting

in rows on the matted floor, the children learn
partly from
their books and partly by rote,
reciting the lessons in imison,
while the hodja, sitting cross-legged at a low desk,
expounds
to them the Koran, and teaches the Arabic
in which

language

it is

written.

The first day of a Turkish child's school hfe is considered

so important an event that it is celebrated with a httle
ceremony as interesting as it is quaint. Dressed in his
hohday suit and bedecked with all the jewels and personal
ornaments which

his parents possess or can borrow for the

occasion, his little fez almost concealed with strings of gold
coins, pendants, and pearl tassels, and various httle
objects
worn as charms against the " evil eye," and his
finger tips

with

mounted on a sup)erbly caparisoned

henna,
tinged
horse, and led in pompous procession through the streets
of the neighbourhood.
In front of him his future instructors
he

is

walk backwards, slowiy and gravely, as if to

prolong the
ceremony. Behind him one boy carries on a silken cushion
a copy of the Koran, to know which
holy book by heart
entitles a youth or maiden to the honourable title of
hafiz ;
another bears his folding bookstand of wahiut wood inlaid
with mother-of-pearl, on which the sacred volmne is
placed
when open a third holds his chania, or writing-case of velvet,
embroidered with stars and crescents in
gold thread. Behind
these come all his future schoolfellows,
walking two and
two, and chanting verses said to have been composed
by
the Prophet extoUing the pleasures of
knowledge, exhorting
to love of one's neighbour, and
These
inciting to industry.
;

236

Turkey

canticles conclude with

of the

Ottomans

good wishes

for their

new companion,

eulogies of his parents and teachers, and finally, glorification

of the Sultan, all the bystanders loyally joining in the refrain
On returning to the boy's home his
of Amin ! Amin !

father distributes coppers to his schoolfellows, and also to

all the poor folk sure to be collected round the gateway.

This ceremony is repeated when the boy passes his first

examination, his hodja being presented at the same time with
a Turkish lira (18s.) and a suit of linen.
Previous to the middle of last century, the Moslem population of Turkey might be said to be divided into two distinct
"
learned," and the
classes, the ulema, or
Moslem
unlettered, the former comprising only the
graduates of the Medressehs, or Mosque
which
constitute the Universities of Moslem
Colleges,
countries, these graduates being at the same time the
exponents of religious dogma and the administrators
of the Sheriat or Sacred Law, which then constituted
the general law of the Empire. The subsequent changes
in the legal administration referred to in a previous
chapter deprived, however, these Medressehs of much of
and their graduates at the
their former importance,
now
consist
chiefly of those who aspire to
present day
become permanent members of the Ulema, professors in their
turn in the Medressehs, or legal practitioners in what may
be termed the Ecclesiastical Courts, of which the Sheikh-ulIslam is the head. At the present day the main subjects
of study in the Medressehs may be classed under the two
"
heads of Theology" and "Language," the former including,
besides knowledge of the Koran and the Sheriat, the Hadis
or Traditions, with the commentaries thereon, all of which
exist only in Arabic, and the latter comprising grammar,
These Medressehs still
rhetoric, poetry, and calligraphy.
resemble in some respects the Universities of Continental

Europe

and owe their origin

and grandees of former

as they existed in mediaeval days,

to the munificence of the Sultans

Education and Culture

centuries,

237

whose endowinents of the mosques supported

and charitable foundations attached to

also the educational

them, the lectures being very frequently given in the mosque

The revenues of the majority of these religious
itself.
foundations have, however, of late years, owing to changes
and the students
in their administration, greatly diminished
who in olden days invariably received, in addition to free
;

certain daily rations from the college kitchen

and oil for their lamps, now enjoy such free commons only
on special days, and even the fabric of many of these ancient
The residential
edifices can hardly be saved from ruin.

quarters,

quarters occupied by the students are usually built in the

form of a quadrangle surrounding a courtyard, and the
arrangements are quite mediaeval in character, several youths
often occupying one apartment in which they study, sleep,

and do

their

own
"

frugal cooking.

"

The

latest

freshman

is

who

supervises the
which he belongs. In the Capital
alone there are said to be no fewer than a hundred Medressehs,

also required to
fag
studies of the class to

for the tutor

and one or more may be found in every provincial town.

The number of softas, or undergraduates, accommodated in
the Medressehs of the Capital at the present day is estimated
about six thousand, the majority of whom are quite
and in such great reHgious centres as Konieh
impecunious
are
also
they
very numerous. Limited though their curriculum now is, and antiquated as their methods undoubtedly
are, these Mosque Colleges constituted in former days important centres of learning, affording as they did not only
theological teaching, but also instruction in all the branches
of knowledge then available.
Let us now turn from indigenous education to the modern
system of national schools more or less borrowed from Europe.
In addition to the Mektebs above described.
at

primary schools called Rushdiyeh are now

to be found in all the cities and towns of the
'
in
which
Empire
boys are taught gratuitously, besides the
State Schools,

238

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

three R's," such usual elementary subjects as Turkish history

and geography. In the Idadyeh or secondary schools, which
are also State supported, but as yet very inadequate in
number, older boys receive more specialised instruction

while qualifying for admission to one of the modern superior

schools and colleges of the Capital, These establishments
are modelled on the system of the educational institutions
of France and
Germany, and in them are taught all the

necessitated by modern requirements. Among

them may be mentioned the Military and Naval Schools and
and there
Colleges, the Medical Colleges, civil and military

subjects

various institutions specially devoted to the

Contraining of civil servants, lawyers, civil engineers, etc.
are

besides

stantinople possesses also an Imperial Lyceum organised

on the model of such establishments as they exist in France.

In no department of education is the progress made of

more apparent than in the military colleges whose

late years

efficiency

increases

yearly.

Elementary

military education is afforded in the thirtyColk es

six State-provided schools known as Mektebi-Rushdiyeh to boys between the ages of ten and fourteen,
who, on pcissing into the Idadiyeh, or secondary schools,
have already attained a fair degree of proficiency in the
French language, and in certain military subjects. The
system of education pursued in the seven Idadiyeh military
schools is especially adapted for youths intending to make
the army their profession
and, after three years or so
of further study the pupils, if they can satisfy the examiners,
may enter one of the six superior military colleges, those
;

possessing any special aptitude for mathematics entering

the Artillery Academy on the banks of the Golden Horn.

In these higher colleges the course of study pursued is purely

professional and lasts for three or four years, the graduates
being then gazetted lieutenants in the army corps to which
Ten per cent, of the cadets of each
their college is attached.
year are, however, retained for a further three years' course

Education and Culture

239

of study, at the end of which those who have successfully

passed their examinations are gazetted to the Staff of the

Army

The drawback

as captains.

to this system is that the

ignorant of regimental work, and
cope with the many difficulties

staff officers are entirely

consequently unable to
which confront the regimental

officer as well in

peace as during

a campaign.
Considerable progress has also been made in the department of Medical Science during the present century. A
Naval and MUitaxy Medical College has
Medical
^^^^ estabUshed in the Capital, devoted
Science,

^
rrmedical officers
for the United Services, and the Civil Medical College at
Stamboul, which is open to all Ottoman subjects without
,

solely

the

to

trammg

of

distinction of race or creed, also affords instruction to 1,200

students preparing for a medical career. Its teaching staff
includes a number of fully qualified German professors,
and the training obtainable here being much appreciated,

the College is usually filled to overcrowding with eager

students. The course of study lasts six years, at the end
of which period the most promising graduates are sent to

France or

Germany

for

courses

post-graduate

in

further instruction, or to attend

special departments of medical

science.

to be now doing their best to

requirements in medical science, and

The Ottomans appear indeed

keep abreast of

modem

At Mecca effective sanitary

especially as regards sanitation.
are
now
taken
at
the
time
of the annual pilgrimage
precautions
to prevent such epidemics as have in former years decimated
the pilgrims. This has not, however, been accomplished
without considerable opposition on the part of the loccd

Even

authorities.
of Mecca,

taken
^

so late as 1896 the hostiHty of the Governor

Ralib Pasha, to the sanitary measures

by the sanitary

Author

1909.)

Ahmed
of

Le Cholera

et

officer,

Dr.

Cassim

I'Hygiene d la Mecque.

Izzedin,

(Paris, Maloine.

240

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

distinguished member of the central Council of Public Health,

resulted in the recall of this efficient and zealous official,

and in the two following years the pilgrims during their sojourn
Hedjaz died by hundreds. Happily other governors
even under the " Red Sultan" have been more enlightened
and humane, and for the future a Constitutional Government
may be trusted to safeguard the interests of the multitudes
of pilgrims to the Shrines of Islam against both Ottoman
governors and Arab Emirs.
in the

it

Immediately after the establishment of the Constitution

appeared as if a great advance might be looked for
in the near future in the department also
^ Turkish female education, as it was proEducat on
posed to establish at Constantinople an

Imperial Lyceum, or

"

High School," for girls, in imitation

of French institutions of that kind.
The palace at Kandili
the
late
Princess
Adile Sultana was
formerly occupied by
placed for that purpose by Sultan Abdul

Hamid

at

the

disposal of the Committee of Administration, which included

Ministers of State, Deputies and eminent educationahsts,
his Majesty also undertaking the expense of its furnishing

and equipment. It was proposed also to form a consulting

committee composed of Turkish ladies, presided over by
the Princess Nail6 Sultana, and an architect was commissioned
to prepare plans for converting the palace to its new purpose
and adding to the present structure. Oriental prejudice,

however, proved stronger than educational

zeal,

and the

opposition raised by the Ulema and other influential members

of the more Conservative among the Moslem inhabitants

unfortunately caused the project to be, for the present at

For the girls of the middle classes there
least, abandoned.
now exist day schools in the Capital and all the larger proand one of these institutions in Stamboul
vincial towns
has developed into a training school for women teachers,
who are in great demand throughout the country. The
pupils of these schools are fairly well grounded in the Turkish
;

Education and Culture

241

language, and a few have distinguished themselves either

as original authors or as translators of French works of
In the provinces generally, however, the instruction
fiction.
afforded has been hitherto but elementary, and the attendance, in proportion to the population, lamentably small.
For in the country districts, even more than in the towns,
harem restraints still stand in the way of girls over twelve
attending school, and until these are at least modified, the

higher education afforded to Osmardi girls must continue to be

As is well known, a
of a more or less private character.
considerable number of Turkish girls of the wealthy and
official classes of the capital have for many years past been

educated at home by foreign resident and visiting governesses,

and have become very proficient in modem languages and

and

accompUshments

a certain number
;

families attend the classes at

"

Mission Laique."

some

Salonica, for instance

places
"
"
to
the
more
advanced
belonging
in

But

the

Lycemn

facilities for

of the

French

the higher education of

generally are few in nmnber.

novel, Les Desenchaniees, has unfortimately
been taken by the majority of the numerous readers of

Turkish

Pierre

girls

Loti's

many respects deUghtful book as a

typical picture of the hfe of the educated
" Osmanli woman of to-day. By all who
that in

Loti's

^**ff^
Desenchantfees.
life

this

work

possess an adequate knowledge of Eastern

is,
however, condemned as presenting an

entirely false \dew of the aspirations and ideals of representative OsmanU womanhood.
There are no doubt in Turkey,
in every nation, a certain number of frivolous and
fooUshly sentimental women, but they are not regarded
as typical of their countrywomen generally, nor must the

as

type depicted by this brilliant French writer be looked

upon in any degree as representative. The reforms desired
by Turkish women are of a sensible and thoroughly practical
character, and the attitude of the leaders of society has
invariably been characterised by moderation, the action
i6{2389)

242

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

the few extremists who made themselves conspicuous

during the general effervescence which marked the early
days of the Revolution having met with general disapproval.
They reedise that the great need of the women of their race
is education, and that this must be the preliminary to any
of

social reforms.

The movement

education of Turkish

women

in favour of the more,general

has consequently been largely

spontaneous, and owes little of its force to foreign influence.

Most ready, however, are they to benefit by the experience
and knowledge of Western teachers. On the invitation of

a group of Turkish ladies, one of our own eminent educationalists. Miss Isabel Fry, went to Constantinople early in
1909 to consult with them as to the best means of giving
practical effect, in conformity with Eastern conventions,
to

these

new

educational

proposals,

and her suggestions

appear already to have had promising results. Among these

may be mentioned the formation of a weekly class for women
at the American College for Girls at Sentari for the study
of preventive medicine, household sanitation, the care and

management of children, and other

The class already numbers eighty
lecturers are medical

men whose

subjects of home hygiene.

or more women, and the

profession exempts

them from

the conventionalities observed in the relations of the female

sex with men generally. Private classes dealing with a
variety of subjects have also been formed under the auspices

above mentioned, and are largely

and women of the higher and middle classes.
Mahmoud II, "The Reformer" (1808-1839),

of the various committees

attended by

girls

The reign of
constitutes the great transitional period of Ottoman UteraFor
ture, as it does also of Ottoman history.
during this reign, in which the West entered
latest stage of its struggle with the
of the successive changes
first
the
indications
we
find
East,
which have during the past ninety years completely revoluIn the works of writers belonging to the
tionised Turkey.
first half of the nineteenth century the old Persian manner

T^^k^T

on the

Education and Culture

243

predominates, and only an occasional attempt at

composition in the new style is discernible. Pre-eminent
among the poets of this time were Fazil Bey, Izzet Mollah,
Pertev Pasha, and Wasif the last named having broken new
ground in a not entirely unsuccessful attempt to throw off
ancient conventions by wTiting verse in the vernacular
The more intimate relations cultivated with
of the Capital.
from
which
naturally resulted acquisition of the
Europe,
French language and study of its literature, combined with

still

the steady progress of the reforming tendency initiated under

Mahmoud II, resulted in the latter half of the century in

new hterary

the birth of a
tion

of truth

school,

and simplicity

whose aim was the substituthe ancient inflated and

for

grandiloquent style of diction. The first clear note of change

is to be found in the political writings of Reshid and of
Akif Pashas
but the man to whom more than to any other
;

owed its success was Shinasi Effendi,

modern method of composition to poetry
And this method, though it was not
prose.

this literary evolution

who appUed
as well as to

the

established without violent opposition from hterary conservatives, is at the present day alone used by writers of repute,

anything now written according to the ancient Persian

standards of composition being merely as a sort of scholarly
tour de force.
The whole tone, sentiment, and form of
Ottoman Hterature has consequently changed
poetical
forms hitherto unknown have been adopted from European
prosodies, and a form of literature altogether new to the
East the Drama has arisen. Thousands of new words
have during this period been adopted, or adapted, from
other languages to express the wants of modem civiUsation
and the language has been thereby greatly enriched,
At the present day, however,
simplified, and modernised.
the movement is rather in the direction of ehminating from
the language all unnecessary foreign words and replacing
them by the Old Turkish forms. These, it is interesting
to note, have to be sought for among the women of the
;

244

Turkey

nation who, unaffected

of the

by

in their domestic folk -speech.

"

Ottomans

culture, have preserved them

For, as Plato truly remarked,

women who

retain the old forms of speech." ^

the
heterogeneous character of the new Ottoman
Considering
nation, it would have been surprising if difficulties had not
arisen with reference to the important question of "general
It is the

national education.

The

linguistic

question especially,

in

a country in which at least seven literary languages are

spoken, besides dialects innumerable, was not easy to settle,
and indeed at one moment seriously threatened to disturb
of inter-racial relations established by the
The Osmanhs desire to make Turkish the
national tongue, and as there must be one common language

the

harmony

Constitution.

for general intercourse and State business, there is much

Some of the other
to be said in favour of their contention.

claimed, however, that their respective languages

should also be taught in the State schools, to the support
Ever since the Ottoman
of which they so largely contribute.
conquest the non-Moslem communities had been allowed
to have their own schools in which instruction was imparted
It was with a
in the language spoken by the community.
view to putting an end to educational systems, the one great
aim of which had been in the past to instil into the minds
of the rising generation nationalist ideas and aspirations
inimical to Turkish rule, that, immediately after the Revoluraces

tion, a uniform system of education was proposed which

would abolish these old sectarian establishments. And as
it was advisable at once to make a clean sweep of all the
imported Greek, Armenian, and Bulgarian school-books
written with an anti-Turkish bias, hitherto in use in these
Christian schools, it was at first proposed that instruction in
all the schools of the Empire should be given exclusively in
the Turkish language. This proposal was, however, successmembers
fully opposed by the religious heads and leading
*

Tuj-oiKts of vff> fxd\i<jra ri/y apxi>' ^>'V''C*'<"' (KplTuAoi,74

torn, iv.)

Bekker,

Education and Culture

245

the various Christian communities, and the measure

has been wisely appHed only to the State schools and colleges,
the primary objection to separate schools ha\ing been removed
by the placing of all educational estabUshments under the
supervision of the Minister entrusted with that department
It was at the same time resolved that the professors
of State.

of

and

masters

in

these

establishments,

whether

Moslem,

Christian, or Jewish in faith, should be, whenever possible,

of Ottoman nationality, and conversant with the Turkish
language which it is desired to make the common means of

the diverse elements of the populaotherwise have no tongue in

undoubtedly to the advantage of the rising

intercourse between
tion,

many

common.

of

It is

all

whom would

generation of Ottomans to possess a thorough knowledge

of the official language of their country, such a knowledge

being required from

who

seek government emplo\Tnent

a great impulse has thus
been given to the study of Turkish by the Christians of the
Empire, there should now be little danger of their native

in

any capacity.

all

And though

Greek, Armenian or Bulgarian tongue falling into disuse,

as in previous centuries, before the advance of the more
generally spoken Turkish.
One branch of the missionary work which the Young

Turks have so enthusiastically undertaken consists in the

formation of local societies throughout the country for the
promotion of education and the inculcation of feelings of
fraternity among the diverse, and too often hitherto, mutually
hostile

elements

of

the

population.

Under the auspices

of the patriotic members of these various committees the

children from all the schools of a district or village, Moslem,

Jewish and Christian, boys and

girls, are collected to take

part as Ottomans in national rejoicings, and every effort
is made to inculcate in the minds of the
rising generation
sentiments of patriotism to their common country. In

localities

where neither Rushdiyeh nor sectarian schools

made to establish mixed Mektehs

as yet exist, efforts are

246

of the

Turkey

Ottomans

in which all the children of a village or neighbourhood are

and arrangements are made
gathered irrespective of creed
by which sectarian instruction is separately given when as
many as ten children of one religious creed attend the school.
In addition to the sectarian schools which have long been
established among the majority of Christian commoinities
;

of

Turkey, a number of educational establish-

" High ^hools " "^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ years been founded by
foreign societies interested in the intellectual
advancement of the various races of the East. Among these
"
are the Lyceums, or
High Schools," founded by the French

"Mission Laique," which have for some years past afforded an

excellent education to the rising generation of both sexes and
all creeds, in the more important provincial cities.
Various
"
French religious agencies the
Freres des Ecoles Chreinstance

have

also
established in certain
tiennes," for
locaUties a number of educational agencies.
Another sectarian educational agency of French origin
has also during the past half century founded schools in all

the
Jewish

great

Empire.

Jewish centres of the Ottoman

This is the "Alliance IsraeUte," a

some fifty years ago in Paris,

headquarters and training college for
teachers, for the purpose of providing education for the Jews
The organisation and equipment of these
of the East.
schools, which now number over a hundred, leave nothing
The headmasters and mistresses are of French
to be desired.
society founded

where

it

still

has

its

nationaUty, and though the assistant teachers are for the most
part native Jews, they have all been trained at the head"
AlUance." Instruction is consequently imquarters of the
parted in French but the languages of the country, of which
a knowledge is essential, are also taught. These sectarian
schools, like those of the Congregationalist Fathers, are also
;

open to non- Jewish children

but though young Moslems

may

occasionally avail themselves of this privilege, it is seldom

that Christians find it necessary to enter their class-rooms.

Education and Culture

Already

sufficiently

in

them

is

the

Hamidian

doubt,

under the

under

prosperous

regime, these Alliance Schools will no

Constitution, achieve important results.

247

The teaching given

indeed marked by such a broad

spirit of tolerance

as to give umbrage both to Consers^ative Rabbis and to

"
Zionists," the latter accusing their directors of seeking to
assimilate the Hebrew youth of both sexes to their Christian

and Moslem neighbours instead of imbuing them with tribal

sentiments and aspirations towards an independent political
"
The attitude of the " Alhance towards Zionism
existence.
constitutes, howe\er, as great an argmnent in favour of its
establishments from the point of view of the Young Turks
as from that of the previous government.
For both deem
that the Ottoman Empire already includes a sufficient number
of diverse races and nationahties with cispirations towards
autonomy, and neither desires to see a new nationahty
composed not only of Ottoman but also of foreign Jews
establish in Syria either a Jewish republic or a Jewish kingdom.
By the private munificence of a few wealthy Hebrews
other schools for both sexes have also during the past half
century been established in such great Jewish centres as
Salonica, where the Diinmehs have also not been behinds
hand in this respect. The school for Jewish girls so long
conducted by the ladies of the Scottish Presbyterian Mission,
withdrawn some years ago, has been replaced by a Communal
"
Vardar," from the quarter
primary school known as the
in which it is situated.
A French headmistress here directs
the studies of some 250 girls of the poorer class, this school
being supplemented by a number of smaller ones distributed
throughout the City. The French language, which has long
been in general use among the educated classes in Tiu^key,
is now, owing to all these various French educational
agencies,

spoken by ever-increasing numbers

and French ideas and

influence are consequently more and more permeating every

class of society in the Ottoman Empire.
Educational clubs in connection with the government

248

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

and colleges are now also becoming very numerous,

one of the best being that formed by the old students of
the Mulkieh School. This Mulkieh Club, which has a membership of 1,600, has established itself in commodious quarters
and even the youths in
nearly opposite the Sublime Porte
the schools devoted to the study of the Sheriat or Religious
Law, who have hitherto been looked upon as somewhat
schools

conservatives, following the example of their

fellows in the secular colleges, have formed similar associa-

fanatical

tions with the assistance and approval of their professors.

Before the Revolution an Englishman would have had some
difficulty in carrying out investigations in these Moslem
but whereas
schools, and to-day the difficulty is still great
in the former case it was due to brickbats, is is now due to
intense Anglophilism, for wild demonstrations of enthusiasm
in every class-room tend to annoy the investigator, if he is
at all diffident.
As the object of these school clubs is
;

invariably study, debating and mutual help, it is hardly

fair to hold them responsible for the want of discipline which

has led the pupils of a school to drive out an unpopular professor

incidents which have, unfortunately, occurred.
For
though immediately after the Turkish Revolution, everybody
quoted, with a shake of the head, the saying about
"
new wine in old bottles," the old Turks seem to have
stood the new wine of constitutionalism as if they had been

accustomed to it all their lives, while, if any bottle gave

way here and there it was invariably a new bottle. About
six

months

after the establishment of the Constitution the

"

300 pupils of the Dar-ul-Haii school

went," in the words
"
of a local newspaper,
to find their director, Abdi Bey,
and declared to him that they were dissatisfied with the
conduct of one of the professors." His lectures, they said
were entirely ineffective. The offending pedagogue, having
been warned of the boys' attitude towards him, hastened
to disappear
but, on returning two days later to seek
some papers which he had forgotten, his former pupils
;

Education and Culture

discovered and beat him.

In the same

way

249

the cadets in the

school, having decided to reform radically their

whole programme of studies, eliminated all modem languages,
together with several of their teachers, with the result that
cavalr>'

the school was garrisoned by troops and eighty of the boys

were placed under arrest. But even if such occurrences
as these
serious.

had been frequent, they would have meant nothing

As a matter of fact, they are quite exceptional

with regard to the schoolboys, as with regard

the Revolution in
the Ottoman Empire has had an effect quite contrar\' to
that of the late Revolution in Russia. The Russian Duma
recompensed the victims of the Revolution and punished
the revolutionaries
but the Turkish Parhament recomin

Turkey

for

to every other class of the population,

pensed the victims of despotism and punished the despots.

In Russia the Revolution led to the emptying of the univerIn Turkey it has, on the contrary', led to their being
sities.
overcrowded. When freedom of the Press was for a time
given to the Russiajis the bookshops became at once crammed
with prurient literature
while in Turkey, as forty years ago
in Japan, freedom of the Press immediately created a great
;

demand for school-books and scientific treatises.

The American Protestant Missions to the Armenians, which
were established in the earlier half of the last century at
Erzeroum, Aintab, Kharput, Cesarea, Sivas, Van, and subsequently at other centres, have done much for the education
of the Armenians of those districts, female as well as male.
Their converts have, since 1846, constituted an independent
church, though this secession from the National Gregorian
Church does not appear to have been either designed or
desired by the original workers, whose object was rather
that of showing the absurdity of popular superstitions while
teaching a more purely evangeUcal doctrine. The immediate
cause of the separation was the f)ersecution to which the
"
"
verts
were subjected by the Armenian Catholicos and his
clergy, persecutions

which

finally

became

so vexatious that

250

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

recourse was had to Turkish intervention, when the Porte

officially recognised the Armenian Evangelical Church, and

forbade any further interference with its members. The

enmity of the Armenian Patriarchate has now, however,
almost, if not completely, died away, and native Evangelical
pastors not infrequently exchange pulpits with their colleagues
of the Gregorian creed.
This new church now numbers some
60,000 adherents, whose native pastors have all been trained
in the various missionary colleges and are established wherever
there seems a demand, or an opening, for Protestant teaching.
Some thousands of converts have also, under the auspices
of the missionaries, emigrated with their families to America.
But while in point of culture the Armenians dwelling in
the cities of the ^gean may compare not unfavourably with
Europeans, the inhabitants of the remote Fatherland have
naturally advanced more slowly. For not only among the
Greeks of Asia Minor, but also among the Armenians, the
use of the Turkish language had in some districts entirely
replaced that of the mother tongue, which was no longer
understood, and only heard in the liturgies of their church,
even the sermons being preached in the language of the
With the re-birth in these regions of national
ruling race.
sentiment which marked the nineteenth century, a reaction
naturally set in, and national schools were estabHshed in
ever-increasing numbers in the remoter centres of Armenian
population! These efforts were in the first instance directed
almost exclusively to the foundation of boys' schools, and
female education still remained in a lamentably backward
condition.
During the past fifty or sixty years, however,
great progress has been made in this respect also, and a
variety of educational agencies have been organised, as, for
"
Philomathic Society of Armenian Ladies,"
instance, the
"
"
United
the
National Society of Armenian Women," the
"

Societies for the

Promotion of Education," and others.

These

number among their members many ladies belonging to

the more fortunately circumstanced communities at Smyrna

bodies

Education and Culture

and Constantinople, under whose auspices have
established

for

women

251
also

been

besides

teachers,
training colleges
girls' schools in localities where the need for

a niunber of

them was

greatest, all being supported

by the voluntary

contributions of the community.

The schools of the Greeks, Bulgarians, and Vlachs of Turkey
being more or less connected with the educational systems
Greek and
Schools.

respectively of Greece, Bulgaria, and Roumania,

^f ^ very high order, especially the first.

g^j-g

including,

as

it

does,

besides well-equipped

primary and secondary schools in all the

"
villages and towns inhabited by Greek communities,
High
"
Schools
for both sexes on the most approved French and
German models. The educational progress made by the
Bulgarians during the past century appears the more remarkable when we consider the immense difficulties with which
they had to contend. The greatest of these was presented
The language brought by the
by the language itself.
Bulgarians from their original home on the Volga, has been
almost

lost sight of in the successive admixture of Slav,

Greek, and Turkish, and the result is a curious mixed
dialect difficult to reduce to grammatical form.
The first
Bulgarian school worthy of the name was opened at
Gabrova in 1835, but after that date schools increased so
rapidly that before the last Turco-Russian war they numbered
347
and at the present day the Bulgarians of Macedonia
and Thrace are now, in the towns at least, educationally
much on a par with their Greek neighbours. Formerly in
;

districts where Bulgarian national schools did not exist, the

children attended the schools belonging to the Greek communities.
But since the Principality acquired its autonomy,

the

movement, which had been pre\4ously

has succeeded to a great extent in substituting
Bulgarian for Greek education in the Turkish provinces.
Teachers for these schools are suppUed from the training

set

Anti-Hellenic

on

schools

foot,

of

Bulgciria

proper,

where education has already

252

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

been made compulsory, and where the schools are organised

on the newest and most approved European systems. There
is at Phillipopohs a girls'
Lyceum, established some eight years
"
ago, at which a hundred and fifty girls receive a
High
"

education, many of whom eventually become

mistresses of Bulgarian schools in Thrace and Macedonia.

School

Hundreds

of Bulgarian

boys have also passed through Robert

College on the Bosphorus, and the daughters of the wealthy

provincial Bulgarians are frequently sent to Constantinople to be

educated, and, it would appear, with very satisfactory results.

The Vlachs of the burgher class are, taken as a whole,
equally well educated with their Greek neighbours and coreligionists, but the pastoral section of the community are
naturally far beneath them in this respect.
Previously to
the union of the PrincipaUties of Moldavia and Wallachia
in 1861 under the name of Roumania, the Greek language

was alone taught in the schools of the Vlachs and used in

their churches
and close contact and everyday intercourse
with the Greek population of the country generally had also
;

the men of certain villages to such an extent

that they had abandoned the use of their own language
for that of their neighbours.
But the Vlachs generally, though
also conversant with Greek, still clung to their nationaJity and
continued to use their soft native tongue which differs little
hellenised

from that of Roumania, save for the admixture of a certain

number of Greek words referring chiefly to the innovations
A year after Roumania had become
of modern civilised life.
a separate State, a propaganda was set on foot with the
object of substituting the Roumanian for the Greek tongue
The leader
in the Vlach settlements south of the Danube.
of this movement was a Macedonian Vlach, educated at
Bucharest,

by name Apostulu Margharitu, who,

Greek opposition and

exciting national
to such a degree that

in

their

schools,

despite

intrigue, succeeded in various localities

feeling among his fellow-countrymen

Roumanian

substituted

for

teachers were, in

Greeks.

The

many

of

propaganda

Education and Culture

253

received a fresh impulse on the elevation of Roumania to a

kingdom in 1877 by the appointment of a Consul- General
to represent that nation at Salonica, which city speedily
became the headquarters of an acute rivalry between repre-

two races. Education is, in fact, becoming

more general year by year, and the pohtical rivalries between
the various nationalities of Macedonia has during the past

sentatives of these

three decades formed a powerful incentive to intellectucd

progress in this pro\"ince.

"
without hterature,
It has been said that the Albanians are

without art, and almost without a history." ^ The grammar of

Albanian is simple, but irregular. The language, however,
to learn and difficult to pronounce, and presents
a confusing mosaic of fragments borrowed from various
sources, Itahan, Slavonic, Greek and Turkish, though a native
element naturally predominates. It is also averred that many
Albanians who can read and write foreign languages cannot
decipher their owti. This may be explained by the circvmistance that no special alphabet has ever been exclusively
adopted for general use, no fewer than four different systems
ha\ing been in vogue in the country, one employing the
Greek character, another a compoimd of Greek and Roman
letters with an abundance of diacritical marks, and so forth.
For this confusion the Porte is to a great extent responsible,
as it has always opposed the printing of Albanian books and
the teaching in schools of the Albanian language. The
total neglect of the mother tongue would, however, seem
rather to be attributable, first to the sterility of native

is difficult

authors, and, secondly, to the profession of three creeds by

the people, Turkish being taught in the Moslem schools,

Roman Catholic, and Greek in those of the

"
Orthodox
The only section of the Albanians
Christians.
who have in the past been able to boast of any degree of culture
are the Khams, and even this is not indigenous, but borrowed
from the Epfrote Greeks of loannina and its neighbourhood.
Itahan in the
"

Dozon, Manual de

la

Langue Chkipe, pp.

and 163.

254

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

"

Native Literature," says another recent writer on the

"
is almost non-existent
even the popular
songs and stories are strangely meagre and devoid of national
the songs seem to have been composed
colour
under Moslem influence." ^ Yet in the ballads of the
Albanians,
.

Schkyipetars, as in those of the Greeks, the later histbry of

the country is preserved
and in those of the Ghegs more
be
the
found
record of how they obstinately
particularly may
their
resisted, yard by yard, the Turkish advance into
mountains, and were only subdued at last by the overwhelming numbers and equal pertinacity of the foe. The
;

record, too, of civil broils,

and of early insurrections against

Ottoman domination, and they have been many, has thus

from 1572 downwards been orally transmitted from generation
to generation, keeping alive in the memory of the Albanians
the heroism of their ancestors, and inciting them in their turn
to similar deeds of daring. The songs certainly vary greatly in

Uterary merit, and poetical talent would seem now to have

almost died out in the country, though formerly Albania
had her national poets, the last of them so far as I can
Hussein Mollah, a Gheg, having hved in the
ascertain
These older ballads
latter half of the eighteenth century.
are consequently far superior to those of more recent date,

chiefly of detached couplets and are very

though
they describe with sufficient accuracy the
episodic,
events they profess to record. In the more remote highlands

which consist

historical ballads are said to be still orally

but
unfortunately they have not yet been collected
preserved,

some very ancient

by folk-lorists.
One of the most

striking songs of the Schkyipetars comof 1572 under Ibrahim Pasha of

memorates the revolution

Skodra. The result of this insurrection was the recognition

by the Porte of its leader as Pasha of Skodra, he being the
been
first Albanian since the Turkish Conquest who had
is
to
too
The
assume
that
title.
to
allowed
long
give
song
^

Odysseus, Turkey in Europe,

p. 393-4.

Education and Culture

in full,
lines

but the following translation of

may give some idea

"

Who

its
:

'

opening

and

but our country should we Mother call ?

For on her breast she us has nourished all;
She is the wife we to our bosoms press,
Who wakes within our hearts love's tenderness.
'

"

of its spirit

255

'

closing

'

Where

is the man, love of such Mother, Wife,

holds within his heart, counts not his life
As naught, as naught whatever he
May sacrifice, to keep his loved one free ?

Who

"

Come Oh, ye vahant sons, brave children, come

And you, ye cherished husbands, hasten home.
Come to the arms of those who, with you fall.
Would have lost loved ones, country, home and all
Come back and rest from war's dread strife "and din.
And teach your sons a hero's name to \'nn
!

After a century or more of literary torpor, a new intellectual

day seemed about to break upon Albania when, about
thirty years ago, two brothers of the name of Frascheri, who
had received a Western education, set on foot a hterary
movement, the primary object of which was the cultivation
of the national language.
The Latin alphabet being simpler
and more fitted to express the sounds of Albanian than
either the Arabic or the Greek, was adopted in preference,
and it really seemed as if the Albanians might finally come
to possess a written language common to all.
As it proceeded,
this hterary movement was favoured and encouraged by
"
"
the
Young Turkey party, who maintained most friendly

with the progressive Albanians so long as the

rule lasted.
Meanwhile native schools had been
founded both by private munificence and with municipal
funds in which the Albanian language and Uterature were
taught by means of the Latin alphabet, these institutions
being of course quite unconnected with the State-supported
Moslem schools, in which all subjects of the Porte are entitled
relations

Hamidian

to receive education.

When, however, the Young Turkey

Party came into power with the Constitution of 1908, the

256

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

use of the Latin alphabet was by them formally prohibited.

These high-handed proceedings, combined with other real
or fancied grievances, led to the serious revolt of last year,
which was not suppressed without considerable bloodshed.

The obnoxious

restriction has

now, however,

it

appears, been

withdrawn, in common with others affecting the languages

of the non-Turkish element of the Ottoman nation.
j

Turkey has had this year to mourn the death of one of

her most distinguished sons. His Excellency Hamdy Bey,
Director of the Ottoman Museums, Sent at an early age to

Hamdy Bey appUed himself seriously to study. Art

and archaeology were his favourite subjects, and his knowledge
of the first was gained in the ateliers of the French masters
G6rome and Boulanger. Desirous of giving his own country
the benefit of the culture he had acquired during his residence
in la Ville Lumiire, his first efforts on his return to Constantinople were directed towards the creation of an Ottoman
National Museum on the lines of the Paris Louvre. At such
a period of intellectual discouragement this might well have
appeared an impossible task. But the enthusiasm and
perseverance of this enUghtened young Ottoman surmounted
Paris,

An Imperial Museum finally arose within

obstacles.
the very precincts of the Old Palace of the Sultans, and in
it was speedily gathered and duly arranged a collection of
native historical and artistic treasures of the utmost value.
In order to supplement theory with practice, a School of
all

Art was subsequently added to the Museum organised on the

"
Ecoles des Beaux Arts." Himself a
model of French
painter of considerable merit, Hamdy Bey exhibited both
"

"
The Tortoise
The Magic Spring,"
and London,
"
Tomb of Shahzad^ " being among
Charmer," and the
his most successful canvasses.
Nor did Hamdy Bey's achievements lack European recogniin Paris

On the twenty-fifth anniversary of his Directorate,

the Universities of Aberdeen, Leipzig, and Harvard respecthe
tively conferred upon him their honorary degrees
tion.

Education and Culture

257

French Government made him Grand Officer of the Legion

Honour
the French Institute, of which he had long
been a member, had a special commemorative medal struck
in his honour
and two years later the degree of LL.D. was
conferred by the University of Oxford upon this distinguished
Ottoman. A brother of the late archaeologist now fills the
of

post of Director of the Imperial Museums, his son,

Bey, being Sub-Director.

Edhem

No

country in the world offers a richer field for archaeobut hitherto this work has been
logical research than Tmrkey
;

abandoned to foreigners, the operations of the Ottoman

Government having been chiefly limited to super\dsing, or
The most regrettable
interfering with, their operations.
acts of vandahsm have, on the other hand, been permitted

by the authorities, ancient monuments of the

greatest historical and archaeological interest having in many
cases been irreparably injured or completely destroyed.
I
or carried out

lately read in a Salonica

newspaper an appeal from a French"

to prevent the proposed
Young Turks
demoUtion of the remaining ancient wails of that city, from
two sides of which they have already disappeared. The

man

to

the

"

pretext for this work of destruction is that the walls are in

in a dangerous state.
To pull them down appears
to the Oriental mind the only solution, keeping ancient fabrics

some parts

having hitherto formed no part of Ottoman

pubhc economy, as is abundantly evidenced by the state
of even religious foundations throughout the Empire.
The patriotic hymn adopted by the Ottomans as a sort of
National Anthem forms part of the Turkish dramatic poem,
"Sihstria," by Kemal Bey, which deals \nth incidents of
the Crimean War. During the past reign its performance was
but for what reason I have not been able to ascertain
in

repair

rigorously forbidden, and some young officers who, allowing

patriotic zeal to outrun discretion, had taught the music to
their bandsmen, are said to have mysteriously disappeared
by the agency of the Red Sultan's emissaries. Immediately
'

'

i; (2389)

'

258

Ottomans

of the

Turkey

"

"

on the proclamation of the Constitution the air of Sihstria

was, however, everywhere performed by mihtary bands
to enthusiastic crowds composed not only of Turks but of
Ottomans generally and errand boys, realising that the day
of Hurriet
Freedom had dawned, filled the streets with

its

whistled strains.

The

following

is

a Uteral translation

"

To

the glory of our country dear are all our efforts vowed
Oirthe^^ShfeS of IrersOTis is b uil t each f roii t lei -f ui Lioss proud
Yea, as Ottomans we live, or tiie;-our badge-the. firimson.ed.shroud.
;

'^

Chorus :
niJirtyrs on the battlefield, our hearts' desire we gain
We're Ottomans, our lives we give high glory to attain
"

As

II

"

the blood stained sword unscabbarded our banners blazoned bear

The fear of death upon our hills and valleys walked hath ne'er
But a lion at each comer of our Empire watcheth e'er.
Still

Chorus

"As

martyrs,

etc.

Ill
"

Foes are seized with sudden dread who hear of Ottoman the name
For the deeds of our forefathers filled the wide world with their fame
Nor are we of other nature the race is still the same.

Chorus

"As

martyrs,

etc.

IV
"

Let roar the guns, and volley forth their deadly fire around.
For aye welcomed are in Paradise who have death in battle found
And what joy hath Life compared unto a Death with glory crowned
;

Chorus

"As

In addition to this Patriotic

whose musical

tastes

martyrs, etc."

Hymn,

Sultan

Mohammed,

have already been referred

to,

desired

nation to possess a distinctively "Ottoman" MiUtary

March. The virtuosi of the Capital lost no time in complying
with the Imperial desire
and among the various excellent
compositions submitted to the Sultan, his Majesty selected
In addition to
that of the Constantinople Maesto, SilveUi.
its other merits, this Imperial March possesses that of being
the

new

thoroughly Oriental in character, and has already become

Education and Culture

almost as popular as the noble

sovereign to

259

whom

it

is

dedicated.

The present Sultan being, as already mentioned, an accom"

Conserplished musician, it is probable that the Ottoman
vatoire," inaugurated before his accession
under the auspices of his eldest son, Prince
^^^Y^
Music.

Ziaeddin Effendi, will be honoured with the

Imperial patronage. WTiether the organizers of this
Stamboul,
tion, which is located at Lalih, in
creating an Oriental national school of music, or
merely to follow the lead of other countries, does

institu-

aim at

propose
not yet
must be admitted, is

Native Ottoman music, it

very primitive in character. The airs are generally either
wild and plaintive, or sentimental and melancholy, presenting Uttle variety and in common with the folk-music
of Southern Europe generally
they are invariably pitched
The popular idea of singing among all the
in a minor key.
races of the country has been not inaptly described as
"
For the repetition of
pirouetting around a single note,"
the Turkish words Aman ! Aman I
which may be translated
appear.

still

as

"

Oh

dear," or

"

Have

"

appears

sufficient to express
pity
the sentimental feelings of the lower classes ; and the muleteer on the road, the fisherman in his boat, or the town
prentice taking his kaif at a coffee-house by the seashore,
will, for hours together, make nasal excursions up and down
the scale from the keynote on which he enunciates his
Aman ! Aman ! The wild native marches, as played by

mihtary bands, are, however, not unpleasing but both

mihtary bands and barrel organs now produce for the most
part airs from French and ItaHan hght opera.
;

The musical instruments

in ordinary use

among the populace

are the rebeck, or lute, the kanoun, a kind of zither, the reed
flute, and the doubana, a small hemispherical drum which,

most primitive form, consists of an earthen jar with

a piece of sheepskin stretched over the mouth. But the
favourite instrument of the Oriental rustic generally is the

in its

260
bagpipe

Turkey

not

the

of the

complicated

Ottomans
instrument,

be

it

under-

stood, of the Scottish Highlanders, but a much more simple

contrivance made from the skin of a sheep and fitted with a

mouthpiece and single reed pipe by means of which the

notes are produced.
chest of the player,

The inflated skin is held against the

who moves his fingers over the holes,

producing sounds discordant enough to Western ears, but

pleasing in the extreme to the unsophisticated Turk, as also
to

the

Arab,

accompanied, as
doubana.

Bulgarian,
is

or

Armenian,

generally the case,

especially

when

by the equally primitive

CHAPTER XV
TURKEY AT PLAY
Before the Revolution, no
Ottoman Empire in which all
" Constitution

festival

was celebrated

the races composing

its

in the

popula-

The majority
tion could equally participate.
^^ feast da3-s. being of a more or less religious

character, naturally affected only the members

and such ci\nl
of the particular cult enjoining the holiday
festivals as the Sultan's birthday could hardly, in former
;

days, be expected to excite any great degree of enthusiasm

among the subject populations. Such a general national
festival has, however, apparently now been spontaneously
established by the celebrations which attended the anniversary^ of

"

now knoNNH throughout the Empire

July 23rd, 1908

Constitution Day." And for the first time probably in

the history of these Eastern lands, their inhabitants, from the
Adriatic to the Euphrates, with one accord decorated the
as

thoroughfares of their cities, townships and villages with

every available sjinbol of rejoicing. Trade Guilds representing all creeds, Turkish troops, Moslem, Christian and
JeNsish school children, took an equal part in the processions
which paraded the streets, and were acclaimed with equal
enthusiasm by the spectators who meanwhile chanted hjTnns
to the common fatherland, the mixed crowds being in many
places addressed in turn by Turkish governors, Arab sheikhs,
"
Greek notables, and Armenian Bishops,
Peace and Good"
will
being the text of all. And as the second anniversary
"
was celebrated with, if possible, even greater fers'our,
Con"
stitution Day
has apparently taken firm root as the great
national festival of the Ottoman people.
For Moslems the greatest of all reUgious festivals is the
"
Qurban Bairatn, or Feast of Sacrifice," which lasts for three
261

262

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

days, and, besides forming part of the rites of the pilgrims

while at Mecca, is observed equally in every part of Islamiyeh.
Though there is nothing in the Koran to

connect this annual sacrifice with the story of

Ishmael, it is generally held by Moslems to
have been instituted by the Prophet in
commemoration of Abraham's willingness to offer up his son
as a sacrifice at the Divine command, Ishmael being substituted for Isaac in the Mahommedan version of the story.
For some days prior to this feast the great open space skirting
the beautiful mosque of Bayazid in Stamboul resounds with
the bleatings of thousands of prospective victims tended by
a motley throng of nomad shepherds. Here each head of
a household selects beforehand a lamb, which is led about
by the children of the family until its day of doom, its fleece
stained with henna or cochineal, and its budding horns
covered with gold leaf. When the lamb has been sacrificed
on the first morning of the festival, its flesh is divided into
three portions, one being given to the poor, another to relatives, widows and others, the third being kept for home

_^^

Sacrifice."

consumption.
At an early hour on this day, the Sultan, attended by
ministers and officials civil and military, proceeds in state to
one of the Imperial mosques to celebrate the opening of the
feast, greeted as he passes along the public thoroughfares
"
with loyal cries of Mashallah Padishah ! and
Long hve
"
our Sultan
from the assembled spectators. On returning
!

1
Sacrifices, which are a common practice in the East, are performed outside the mosques, or in private. Various events are cele-

brated by sacrifices of sheep, lambs, or cocks,

commencement of any new undertaking such as

for instance, the

building a house, a
Before setting out from Constantinople to quell
bridge, or a railway.
the Albanian rising a few months ago a number of officers visited the
"
monument on the Hill of Liberty " which commemorates the slain
heroes of 13th April, 1909, taking with them several sheep which they
there sacrificed. The flesh of such sacrificed animals is usually given
either to the poor, or, if the ceremony is performed at a mosque or
a dervish tekki, to its guardians.
as,

ENTRANCE TO
MOSQUE OF THE VALIDE (INTERIOR)
THE sultan's private APARTMENTS
;

Turkey
to the Palace the

at Play

263

Sultan holds a grand

dignitaries of the Empire attend to do

of the various embassies and other
to offer their congratulations.
in honour of the Bairam
by rich

levee, at which the

homage, and members

distinguished foreigners
garments are donned

New

and poor ahke, and gifts and

Cheap toys are on this day exposed
great quantities, and ever>' \isitor
who arrives to wish his friend " A happy Bairam " is laden
with these gifts for the children. The
open spaces in the
^acinity of the mosques are accordingly lined with the stalls
of the Christian and Jewish vendors of such
toys, and also of
while all the favourite suburban resorts
fruits, sweets, etc.
will be found thronged with
happy and orderiy hohday makers,
for whose delectation are assembled the
various caterers
for their amusement elsewhere described.
As evening fades
into night the whole of Stamboul
begins to gUtter with the
hghts of m>Tiads of tiny oil lamps, hung round the windows
ahns

lav-ishly bestowed.
for sale in the streets in

of houses, festooned from minaret to

minaret, or encircUng
in double or
triple coronals their surrounding balconies and
pinnacles.
Along the banks of the Bospho'rus an endless

range of lambent flames, interspersed with lamps and cressets

innumerable, and here and there a bonfire, are reflected
in
the
to
waters,
darkening
the
natural
adding
charm of the scene an effect which ahnost savours of
enchantment.
The festival of the Lesser Bairam, with which the conclusion
of the fast of Ramazan is
also lasts
celebrated,

three da}^,

which are obser\-ed as a general

hohday. On the first of
these days, in addition to a considerable donation
to the
poor,

and

all

well-to-do persons

officials

ordinate

and employers

make
to

presents to their slaves,

aU those occup>Tng sub-

positions under them.

Congratulatory^ visits are
exchanged; and after the mid-day service in the
mosques, the days are given up to rejoicing and amusement.
Three other important festivals are the Khirka
"
Shereef or
also

Feast of the Prophet's Mantle," the Mevlud or

anniversary

264

of the

Turkey

Ottomans

of the Prophet's birth, and that of the Leilu- l-Miraj or

"
Night of Ascension," when Mahommed was carried up to
,

Heaven on a winged
The Feast

of

Qf ^^g

fjj-st it

is

steed.

customary

On

the occasion

for the Sultan to

proceed in state to the "Old Palace." The

private veneration by the Sultan of the ProOn the day
phet's mantle has already been referred to.
of its special festival this devotional act is accompanied
by great ceremony. The princes and princesses of the
^Mantle?

Imperial family and all the grandees of the Empire, together

with their wives and daughters, repair to the mosque in the
grounds of the Old Palace where the sacred relic is enshrined.

Here, after the performance of the mid-day namaz, the

Padishah, surrounded by the Imperial princes and the
Gentlemen of the Imperial Household, with great solemnity
"
"
which
Mantle
unfolds from its forty silken wrappers the
is represented by a small fragment of cloth of a greenish
hue. Having performed the act of veneration, he then, in
his capacity of Khalifeh, or Successor and Representative
of the Prophet, takes his seat on a sort of throne facing the
reUc to receive the homage of his subjects. Passing before
him in single file, the pashas, beys, and effendis in turn vene-

rate the

"Mantle" and

offer their

homage

to their Padishah,

who presents to each from a pile at his right a square of white

mushn on which a passage from the Koran is inscribed.
When all the men have passed the Presence and withdrawn,
the ladies are introduced.

First

come the

Imperial princesses,
the old court dresses
of rich brocade,

of
a
loose
with
embroidered
special shape
elaborately
dressed in traihng intaries

veils

thrown over their heads. Their homage paid to the Prophet

and his successor, they group themselves on either side of
the throne where they stand while the hanuns with their
in the regulation court dress, but
from those of the Sultanas, make their
The faces of all are, however, uncovered, as a

young daughters,
wearing

also

veils different

obeisances.

Padishah enjoys the privilege of seeing his female subjects

Turkey

265

at Play

Court etiquette also requires that no jewels should

be worn on these occasions save such articles as may have been
On all these festivals,
gifts from the Sultan to the wearers.
as also during the entire month of Ramazan, the mosques

unveiled.

and pubUc buildings are illuminated cis above described

on the preceding evening in the case of single day
festivals, as the Moslem, Uke the Hebrew day, begins at
sunset.

The

Eastern Christians

religious festivals of the

already remarked,

much more numerous than

Moslem neighbours.
F

ti^jd"

^^'

Among

are,

as

those of their

city folk there

however, nothing verj^ distinctive in the

manner

of

their

celebration.

PubHc pro-

menades, pleasure resorts, and open-air cafes will on these

days be found crowded \nth family parties in startUng toilettes,
eating ices or raJiat lokoum, and listening to the strains of comic
In the remoter towTis and \'illages, however, many
opera.
old customs connected with special days are obser\'ed. Bands
of children go from house to house singing odes in honour
of the saint whose day it is, which, however, generally conclude
with some complimentary lines addressed to the occupants,
and suggesting the bestowal of largesse. On New Year's
Day, for instance, which is dedicated to St. Basil, such songs
as the following are sung in his honour, tliis Saint being
invariably described as a schoolboy, whose touch quickens

inanimate objects with new

life

"The month's first day, the year's first day, the first
The circumcision day of Christ, and hkewise of St.

of January,
Basil.

St. Basil, see, is coming here, from Cappadocia coming,

paper in his hand he holds and carries pen and inkhom.

With pen and inkhom doth he

'
'

'

write, and reads he from the paper.

Say, Basil, say, whence comest thou, and whither art thou wending ?'
I from my home have now come forth, and I to school am going.'

down and eat, sit down and drink, sit do%vTi and sing thou for us.'
'Tis only letters that I learn, of singing I know nothing.'
O, then, if you j'our letters know, say us your Alpha, Beta,'
And as he leant upon his stafif, to say his Alpha, Beta,
Sit

'

'

Although the
etc."

staff

was dry and dead,

it

put forth freshest branches,

266

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

For the Christian peasantry generally, especially in European Turkey, dancing and singing constitute the chief
holiday amusements. Laborious as are their
lives, Sundays and Saint's Days make frequent
breaks in the monotony of toil, and constitute holidays duly
observed and thoroughly enjoyed. The working ^ess of
plain dark homespun is now laid aside, the picturesque gala
costume donned, and the whole family attend early Mass
in the little whitewashed church, summoned thereto by the
sound of the primitive symandra the suspended board struck
with a mallet, already described. Returning home, the simple
morning meal is prepared and despatched, the cattle and
poultry are fed, and the rest of the day is given up to wellearned repose and amusement. In the afternoon the peasants
resort en masse to the green, or common.
The village fathers
retire under the rustic vine-embowered verandah of the coffeehouse
the matrons with their little ones gather in the shade
of the trees to gossip
while the youths and maidens take their
.

the "long drawn"

places in the syrto, or hora {aupro^ %po9)
classic dance.
Each youth produces a handkerchief which

he holds by one corner, presenting the other to his partner.

She in her turn extends her own to the dancer next to her
"
"
and the line thus formed, Romaika's dull round is danced
to the rhythm of a chanted song, with or without the accom;

paniment of pipe and viol, until the lengthening shadows

send the villagers home to their sunset meal. The kerchiefs
of the youths used on these festive occasions are frequently
love tokens from their sweethearts.
Dancing songs with us have completely disappeared, save
perhaps as an accompaniment to children's games. But
among the Christian peoples of the Balkan
Dancjng

Peninsula they

still

constitute the principal

and the national poetry is

Most of the dancing songs
learnt in the school of the dance.
are sung antiphonically by two sets of voices, one set beginning the song, and the other adding to each line in turn a kind
social diversion,

Turkey

267

at Play

of parenthesis extending it, or the end of the line is repeated,

In some of
or shghtly altered, by the second set of voices.

the islands the syrtd has a more pantomimic character. The

leader of the dance, who occupies one end of the line accompanies the words of the song ^^^th appropriate gestures and
facial expression, and the words of the chorus or antistrophe
are similarly represented by the dancer at the other end. ^
Unlike the Greeks, who dance only at appointed times and
seasons, the Bulgarian peasantry are always ready for this

nationcd pastime. At the first discordant soimd of the

gaida the native bagpipe, the young men and girls form a
circle, holding each other by the girdle, and enter enthu-

and untiringly into the dance, which, as with the

invariably accompanied by song. The Bulgarian
is
language
particularly rich in folk-poesy, as proved by the
volvuninous collections made by native and foreign folk-lorists,
nearly all ha\-ing been taken do^^'n from the Ups of women
and girls. This folk-Uteratm-e is also extremely varied in
character, and illustrates almost ever^'^ phase of domestic
and social hfe. But the most interesting from the folk-lorist
point of view are the long narrative mjrthological ballads

siastically

Greeks,

is

recounting the adventures of mortals \nth the Fates, dragons,

The Samodjins, tellesiims, and other m^'thological beings.
diva

who

figures in the following ballad closely resembles the

Greek Lamia in allowing herself to be married to a mortal,

and also in her professed inabihty to perform any house\nfely
The incident of stealing the magic dresses is met
function.
with in the folk-lore of other nations
St.

John

as best

man and

godfather
pecuMar to the Bulgarian variant
:

"

my

is,

so far as I know,

Stoian led his flocks to pasture

In the haunts of Samodivas,
Where they dance, and play the reed-flute.
There had met three Samodivas,

And
'

but the introduction of

in

merry round were dancing

these Greek dancing-songs may

Specimens
translations of Greek Folk-poesy, VoL I, Part II.
of

be

found

in

268

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

gaily, and, when wearied.

soared and lightly floated
Far above the dark green fir-trees.
Where the forest fountains bubble
Far above the flowering meadows.
Then on the green plain they 'Ugh ted.
They would bathe them in the river.

Danced they

Upward

So they doff their dainty

dresses.
their gold embroidered kerchiefs
Doff, too, their green virgin girdles.
And their Samodivas' bodice.

And

him

Stoian drove his flock before

Down the hill-slopes to the valley

He surprised the Samodivas,
And he stole away their dresses.

Come

the fair ones from the water.

of clothes among them
And all three did pray of Stoian
Stoian, O thou youthful shepherd,
Give us back our clothes, O Stoian
Give us back our magic dresses
Not a thing would Stoian give them.

Not a thread

'

'

Then the

eldest thus conjured

him

Give me back my dress, O Stoian,

For I have but a step-mother,
A step-mother who would kill me.'
Stoian made to her no answer
Back to her her clothes he rendered.
Then the second said to Stoian
Give me back my raiment, Stoian,
For I have at home nine brothers
Who would kill thee, who would kill me.
'

'

'

Not a word to her said Stoian,

But he gave her back her garments.
Spake the third one then, Marika
Thus and thus she said to Stoian

'

Give me, Stoian, back my garments,

Give me back my magic raiment
I'm my mother's only darling,
I'm to her both son and daughter.
;

Hear my words, O Stoian

For thy wife a Samodiva
Samodivas are not thrifty.

seek not

Know not how to tend the children.'

Gently then to her says Stoian
Such a one have I been seeking,
Who's her mother's only daughter.'
:

'

Turkey

269

at Play

his own abode he took her,

Dressed her in the garb of mortals
Wedded, too, the Samodiva,
With St. John to be the best man.

To

"

Full three years they'd hved together.

When was bom a son to Stoian,

Who

John had for his sponsor.*

the christening was ended.

St.

When

sat down smd feasted.

John then took a fancy.
And he turned and said to Stoian

Every one

Good

St.

'

Stoiane
'
Play for me upon the gaida ;
Dance thou, dance thou, my kytnitza*
The gay dance of Samodivas.'
Stoian played upon his gaida.
And began to dance Marika,
But she danced the mortals' hora.
Said St. John
My dear kytnitza.
Why dost not thou dance, Marika,
In the Samodiva fashion ?
Good St. John, my worthy kymtchi.
Ask, I beg of thee, my husband
That he give me back my raiment.
My own Samodiva garments.
Else I cannot dance their measure.'
Stoian let St. John persuade him.
For he deemed not she would leave him,
Was she not his young son's mother ?
So he gave her back her garments.
Stoiane, kymtchi,

'

'

'

Then Marika

pirouetted.
the chimney swift ascended.
the roof she poised a moment.
Whistled, Samodiva fashion.
Turned, and thus addressed poor Stoian
Said I not to thee, O Stoian,
Samodivas are not housewives ?
And she clapped her hands together.
Sprang aloft, and ids she sailed
To the deep, green forests lonely.
To the haunts of Samodivas."

Up
On

'

'

r
*

With the

Bulgarians, as with the Greeks, the

"

best

man

"

at a

wedding becomes the godfather of the children of the marriage.

*
The relationship between a sponsor and his godchild's father,
for which the Enghsh equivalent is "gossip" = God-sib.
*

The Bulgarian bagpipes.

Diminutive of ky*na, the feminine of kymtchi.

270

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

Dancing, though not indulged in by the Osmanlis, conhowever, a favourite recreation of the Albanians,
Kurds, and other Moslem highlanders. The
former have preserved what is known as the

stitutes,

D^^"

"

Pyrrhic dance," in which men are the sole

while the tchopee of the Kurds plays an important
part in their wedding and other ceremonies. This national
dance of the Kurds is somewhat similar to the Greek hora.

performers

The performers, sometimes to the number of thirty, join

hands and balance their bodies backwards and forwards,
with one foot and then with the other,
movements at intervals with wild cries.
The step is, however, less animated and varied than that of
the Hellenic dance, and has been described as "a soft
undulating movement of the whole circle in harmony
with the music, Uke a field of corn set in motion by the
wind."
During the performance of the tchopee, a Kurdish warrior
will affect the most sentimental and romantic expression of
countenance, especially when dancing with

marking time,
accompanying

^^cS^?^

first

their

his betrothed,

which

is

customary at small

family gatherings when no

strangers are
other and formal occasions the men and women
dance separately, though the latter always lay aside their
present.

On

performance, no matter how great the crowd of

At weddings the tchopee is kept up for
spectators may be.
hours by relays of performers, the men dancing first and after
them the women, resplendent in gold spangles and particoloured silks. Dancing also appears to form part of the
religious ceremonies connected with pilgrimages to the tombs
of Kurdish saints, shrines which are held in great reverence by these mystically rather than religiously disposed
mountaineers. The music to which they dance is chiefly
that of the bilwan, a kind of reed-flute, several of which are
played in unison. The tones are soft and pleasing, though
veils for the

somewhat monotonous, Kurdish music being

in

general.

Turkey

at

271

Play

and Persian, characterised by regular modulagrave and melancholy, and would

seem to be inspired by sentiments which one would hardly
expect to find in the breasts of wild clansmen whose name has
become famiHar to Europeans only in connection with
violence and rapine.
The hours passed by Ottomans in the social clubs and
unlike Turkish
tions.

The

airs also are

coffee-houses or their vicinity are frequently beguiled ^vith

various sedentary games, such as draughts,

Ottoman

Cards are
dominoes and backgammon.
,r
seldom resorted to by Moslems, games of
Nor can gambhng
hazard being forbidden by the Koran.
be said to be at all a popular vice in the country, the stakes
Folk-tales.

played for by Christians or Jews, save in the casinos of the

cities, seldom exceeding the price of a glass of raki, or a rahai
lokoum. Orientals generally are of gregarious habits and
excessively fond of hearing and teUing stories in places of
pubhc resort, a pastime pecuHar to people at once iUiterate
and imaginative
and the tales they interchange, seated
imder a spreading patriarchal plane-tree near some bubbUng
;

fern-fringed spring will include mythical stories of the magical

"
"
Saint
exploits of King or as he is more generally termed

Solomon, charming animal

tales

and

fables, together with

The folk-tales

comic and humorous anecdotes innumerable.

among the Ottoman races are, as might be expected,

not only very numerous, but exceedingly varied in character.
current

The best known collections of so-called Turkish tales, such as

"
"
"
The Forty Viziers and the Tales of a Parrot," are not
characteristically Turkish, but for the most part adaptations
of Arabian and Persian stories.
For genuinely Turkish tales

possess a pecuhar flavour of

telling something dreamy
as a faint distant echo

their o\mi

there

is

in

their

and vast which may be looked upon

from the days when their remote

ancestors led adventurous lives on the wide plains of Central

Asia.
Grave visaged burghers and peasants listen enthralled
to tales of magic and enchantment, of princes who, at the

'

272

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

recommendation of dervishes and old women, descend wells,

"
finding at the bottom
fairy lands forlorn," of wicked djins,
of fiery dragons and distressed princesses, whom they of

The hero of such adventures is also frequently

a poor and nameless youth who, by his bravery and wit, and
with or without the aid of some supernatural being, ^accomplishes wonders and rises at a bound to the highest position
in the land.
For to those living under the Ottoman social
system above described, the story of Joseph presents no diffiand any youngster possessed of ambition and
culties,
"
The World's mine
capacity may truly exclaim with Pistol,
course rescue.

oyster."

Buried or hidden treasure also constitutes a favourite feature

by all the races of Turkey. Valuables were
no doubt frequently concealed by their owners during foreign
invasions and racial conflicts and never reclaimed, accident
in the tales told

only revealing to posterity the existence of these secret hoards.

In folk-tale such treasure is usually represented as guarded
by serpents, dragons, djins or other agencies, or the possession of a magic word or charm is necessary to discover and
obtain possession of it. Not infrequently it is a Dervish
who holds the secret of the treasure and the talisman by means
of which it may be secured.
Dervishes, who are credited by
the populace with magical powers, are also represented as
possessing a variety of magical objects, such as vessels which,
at their owner's desire, are filled with delicious meats
jackknives which slay of themselves, and turbans which render
their wearers invisible.
And it is often a Dervish who
instructs the adventurous youth to descend the well at the
bottom of which he finds a wondrous world peopled by wicked
;

magicians, enchanted princesses, djins and peris.

Occasionally also among a crowd of holiday folk

may be

descried the picturesque figure of a professional musician

and story-teller whose repertoire of songs and stories has been

handed down from generation to generation of his family.
"
Many of his tales, like those of the Thousand and One

A TURKISH MUSICIAN AND STORY-TELLER

Turkey

at

273

Play

Nights," will also be found to deal with peris and djins the
race of beings created before Adam with wondrous Magicians,
"
"
distressed Princesses,
Cloaks of Darkness,"
Shoes of

Swiftness," and
of such stories

vaUant and ready-witted heroes.

The best

of too great length to allow of their

being given here, but of the magical class the following may
serve as a specimen.

are

The Magician and

his Pupil

There once lived in the city of Cairo a woman, and that woman
had a worthless son, who, no matter to what trade she put
him, did no good. One day the woman said to the youth
"
"
?
My son, to what trade shall I put thee
"
"
Let us go out together," he replied,
and whatever trade
:

my fancy, to that do thou put me."

So the woman and her son went to the bazaar, and as they
were walking about they saw a magician, and the youth took
a fancy for his trade, w^hereupon his mother made him over
to the man.
The magician took the youth, and began to
takes

him in the magic art.

"
After some days the master said to his pupil,
To-morrow
I will become a ram.
Thou must sell me, but take heed

instruct

thou give not the rope with me."

"
Very good," repHed the youth.
The master became a ram, and the youth took him, and led
him to the bazaar and sold him for a thousand aspres. ^ But
and when
he gave not the rope, but took it away with him
it was evening his master reappeared.
"
After some days the master said,
Now^ my boy, to-morrow
I will become a horse.
Take and seU me, but see that thou
give not the headstall with me,"
And he became a horse and the youth took him to the
bazaar and sold him
but he gave not the headstall. And
he took the money and went to his mother's house. When
it was evening his master returned home, and when he found
;

An

obsolete silver coin of small value.

i8(2:S9)

274

Turkey

Ottomans

of the
"

He will come in the mornthe youth was not there he said,

The
to
bed.
went
and
youth on his side went to his
ing,"
"

mother and said to her, O mother, to-morrow I will become

a dove sell me, but take heed not to give my key."
And he became a dove without peer. The woman put the
dove up to auction, and the bidders began to raise their bids
But the fame of this dove, which
at the rate of five piastres.
;

spoke the language of the people of that city, being noised

abroad, the master heard of it, and he came thither. As soon
as he saw the dove he knew it to be the youth, and crying
"
Out on thee, misbegotten wretch, doest thou such a deed
while I am still alive ? Now, see what I will do to thee!"
he went and bought him from the woman, and cisked her for
:

the key.

"

The woman said, I will not give the key."

"
Quoth the master, Take fifty piastres more, and go and
buy another key such as thou pleasest." And he gave her
the whole sum.

and she
The woman was greedy, and took the money
drew the key from her girdle and threw it on the ground.
As soon as the key fell, it became a pigeon and began to fly,
and the master became a hawk and pursued the pigeon.
While they were flying about, they came to where the king was
seated in the plain taking his kaif ; and the youth, after looking
about and seeing no way of escape, became a red rose, and
Then the king wondered and said
fell in front of the king.
"
"
What means arose out of season ? and he took it in his hand.
a
Then the master became
minstrel, and he came to the
a
mandoline
in
his hand, and sang a stave in
with
king's party
a sweet voice. And the king marvelled, and said to the
"
"
The minstrel
What desirest thou of me ?
minstrel,
"
What I desire from thee is but the rose that is in
answered,
"
The rose came to me from
Said the king,
thine hand."
ask something else." But the minstrel was silent.
Allah
"
He then sang another stave, and again the king said, What
"
desirest thou from me ?
;

Turkey

275

at Play

and this time the

for the rose
his
hand
to
it
to
him
stretched
out
give
whereupon the
king
rose fell to the ground and was changed into millet-seed.
Then the minstrel became a cock and began to pick up the
Again the minstrel asked

But one grain of the millet was hidden under the

and that grain became a man, who seized the
knee,
king's
cock and tore off its head. And the king and his nobles

millet.

wondered, and they asked the youth of these matters, and

he explained them.
Perhaps the most original quality of Turkish popular

humour, for the average Turk is a

merry man and loves a joke. Of wit he has
little, and of refinement less, but he possesses
^ Strong sense of the ludicrous and a sjjecial

literature is its peculiar

Turkish
Stories.

fondness
generally
"

associated

for

with

that

species

Irishmen

and

of

absurdity
as
a

known

large proportion of the stories of this class have

hero Nasr-ed-Din Hodja, a Turkish parson who
became chief jester to the terrible Tamerlane during his
invasion of Asia Minor. Many of these stories are probably,
bull."

for

their

however, of greater antiquity than the end of the fourteenth

or beginning of the fifteenth century-, the date assigned to
this famous Oriental buffoon whose tomb at Ak Shekir, where
he hved, is still shown.
In character these anecdotes
<ire most varied.
Domestic and social manners and customs
are depicted in many
the weaknesses and shortcomings
of the female sex form the subject of others
and underlying
the majority is a vein of fine Oriental irony. The following,
which I have often heard related, have not, I believe, so far
;

appeared in EngUsh:

The Adventures of a Cooking Pot

One day the Hodja borrowed a cauldron (kasan) from his
neighbour. Now^ this neighbour was a bad man, and the
Hodja did not like him. After the cauldron had remained

276

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

some days with him, the owner knocked at the Hodja's door
and redemanded his property. The Hodja placed a smaller
pot in the cauldron, and handed it to him. When the owner
observed
"
This

this,
little

he said to Nasr-ed-Din
pot is not mine."

"

The Hodja replied,

Thy cauldron has given birth to a
young one take them both, I do not want thy goods."
At this the owner of the cauldron rejoiced greatly, and
;

"

Allah kerim

! (Allah is great !) with the Almighty

and
so saying, he took the pots and
impossible,"
went his way.
A month or two afterwards the Hodja again went to this
neighbour to borrow a cauldron. The man brought out the
"
But that is too big," objected
biggest he possessed.

exclaimed,

nothing

is

Nasr-ed-Din.
"
I haven't a smaller one to lend you," said his neighbour.
"
What does it matter ? If this one should bring forth, surely
its child will be a big one."
So the Hodja carried the cauldron home, and put it on the
The cauldron not being returned, the owner, after
odjak.
a month or so, went to ask for it. At the sight of him the

Hodja wept.
"
a great misfortune has happened.
"Aman," he cried,
it is dead
was
a
beautiful
cauldron
but Allah
Thy cauldron

be praised
thou art in good health."
"
How can a cauldron die ? " retorted the other incredu"
Thou art mocking me, Hodja."
lously.
"
"
My heart," replied the Hodja, when I informed thee
that thy cauldron had brought forth a young one, Allah was
and now, when I tell thee that she is dead,
all-powerful
thou sayest that I mock thee. Out upon thee, thou art but
"
a hypocrite
!

Nasr-ed-Din and the Beggar

One day the Hodja went up to the

and while he was busy putting it in

terrace roof of his house,

order, a

knock was heard

Turkey
On

opening

his

business.

at the street door.

stranger,

and

and asked
the

tell

at

Hodja

to

come

277

Play

the Hodja's wife saw a

it

The man
hither

"

replied,

quickly,

as he

Go
is

wanted."
"

But he is up on the roof, and is busy," objected the

Hodja's spouse.
"
No matter," was the reply, " call to him to come quickly."
"
So the Hodja's wife called from below,
Effendi, there is
come down quickly,"
a man at the door who wants you
"
I have mounted a thousand steps to get
Said the Hodja,
here
ask
the
what he wants, and then tell me."
man
up
But the man insisted on the Hodja's coming down to him
at once, so the good woman again went to call him.
Finding
"
the caller so persistent, the Hodja said to himself,
Perhaps
he comes on some business matter, I had better go down."
Hurrying down the staircase, he fell and hurt himself, and,
coming" to the door out of temper, found there a beggar, who
said
For Allah's sake, give me an aspre."
"
Come this way," repUed the Hodja, and he led the man
;

up the staircase. When they had mounted

forty steps,
"
the Hodja turned to the beggar and said,
Go, and may
Allah send thee one."
"

You might have

said that to

the beggar,
"

me

downstairs," grumbled

"

thou didst bring me down

a thousand steps to hear thee say, Give me an aspre,' and
hast been the cause of my fall and my hurt. I bring thee up
but forty steps to hear me say,
May Allah give it

Man," rephed the Hodja,

'

'

thee,'

"

One day
man came

Nasr-ed-Din Hodja and the Corpse

Hodja was at home washing his clothes, a
to request him to perform the ablutionary rite
as the

for a corpse, so that

"

am

clothes.

it

might be buried,

"I am washing my
busy," rephed the Hodja
Go, bring the corpse, lay it on this table, and I
;

278

Ottomans

of the

Turkey

have plenty of warm water, * and then

and
you
bury it."
may
"
Very well," said the man, and he went to fetch the body.
The Hodja placed it on his table, and then said to the
will

wash

it

here, as I

take

"

it

bearers,

Remain

corpse."
So the

man went and

outside with
sat

my

wife while I see to the

down

The Hodja

outside.

"
I
locked the door and fell a-thinking. Said he to himself,
I
want
for
clothes."
the
warm
which
water,
my
begrudge
A small stream flowed past the back of the house, and the
Hodja finally decided to let it carry the dead man away
unwashed. So, seizing the corpse by the legs, he threw it
into the stream, which was swollen, and it was soon borne out
of sight.
"

I must now be wily with these men," said the Hodja to

"
What has the Hfe
himself, and, opening the door, he asked,
"
of the dead man been ?
"
He was a rogue, a thief, and a cheat," was the general

reply.

"

"
No," said the Hodja, that cannot be. You are mistaken.
man must have been a good man. When I had washed
him on the table he opened his eyes and sat up. A silver
chain then came down from heaven, angels came and took
"
him up, and they said, This was indeed a man.'
The simple villagers believed the words of the Hodja.
"
It was the will of Allah," they piously said, and returned
to their homes.
When, however, the corpse had been in the
water for three or four days, its further progress down the
stream was arrested by the overhanging branches of a tree,
and was observed by the country people. A peasant presently
"
You told
came to the Hodja, and reproached him, saying
us, Hodja, that the dead man had been taken up to heaven,
and there is his corpse in the stream all swollen."
"
Then he has been thrown down again from heaven,"
"
You said he was a rogue, a
replied the unabashed Hodja.

This

'

Washing

the.

dead

is

one of the duties of a Hodja's

office.

Turkey

279

at Play

thief, and a cheat, and who knows what he may not have
been doing up there ? He has probably stolen something,
and they have cast him down again. Go quickly and bury
him, or he may again come to Hfe and rob you of something."

How

THE HoDjA Lost his Quilt

when the Hodja and his wife were
men
two
snugly asleep,
began to quarrel and fight under the
window. Both drew their knives, and the dispute threatened
to become serious.
Hearing the noise, the Hodja's wife got
out
of
the
looked
window, and seeing the state of affairs,
up,
"
woke her husband, saying,
Great heavens, get up and

One

winter's night,

separate them, or they wUl kill each other."

"
But the Hodja only answered sleepily,
Wife, dear, come
to bed again
on my faith, there are no men in the world.
;

wish to be quiet
I am an old man,
it is a winter's night.
and perhaps if I went out to them they might beat me."
The Hodja's wiie was a wise woman. She kissed his hands
and his feet. The Hodja was cross and scolded her, but he
threw the quilt about him, went doNMistairs, and out to where
"
the disputants were, and said to them
For the sake of
my white beard, cease, my sons, your strife."
The men, in reply, puUed the quilt from the Hodja's
I

shoulders,
"

and made

off \\ith it.

observed the good man. He re-entered,

"
locked the door, and went upstairs. Said his wife
You
did very well to go out to those men. Have they left off

Very

well,"

"

quarrelling
"

"
"

They have," repUed the Hodja.

"

What were

they quarrelling about, Hodja ?

"
Fool," replied the Hodja,
they were quarreUing for

quilt.

Henceforward

my

"

motto

'

shall

be,

Beware

my
of

serpents.'

Nasr-ed-Din Hodja
stories told

is

also a favourite hero of the

by the Kurds

in their tents.

humorous

Their folk-tales

280

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

also generally contain the usual Oriental incidents of buried

treasure guarded by djins, of magical objects possessed by

but the
dervishes, of enchanted palaces, etc.
more characteristic consist of tribal legends,
some of which appear to be connected
;

Kurdish

with the crusading age of Saladin who, according to the Kurds,

was a prince of their race. The Sultan Murad, who figures in

the following story, is probably the fourth of that name

a padishah who reigned early in the seventeenth century
and resembled the famous Khalif Haroun el Rashid in his

fondness for going about his capital in disguise. His adventure with the shepherd is almost identical with that related
"
"
The Gudeman of Ballenquich
of James V of Scotland

with the farmer Donaldson.^

Sultan Murad and Siso the Shepherd

Once upon a time a shepherd named Siso, of the

tribe of

Beru-Berakan, led his sheep to Constantinople for sale. His

shoulders covered with a goatskin, as is the custom among
shepherds, he grazed his sheep in the neighbourhood of the
capital.

One day Sultan Murad and his lala,^ both disguised as

Dervishes, were walking in the suburbs, and they came to the
Now Sultan Murad
spot where Siso was with his sheep.
in such a
having never in his hfe seen Kurds nor shepherds
"
race of
his
What
and
said
to
was
lata,
astonished,
costume,
men is this who resemble in no respect the people of Stamboul,
"
with their heads and their eyes covered with goat-skins ?
The lala replied that it was a Kurd from AnatoUa, who had

brought his sheep for sale.

"
Let us approach this strange creature," said the Sultan,
"
and see what manner of man he is."
Then the Sovereign and his lala in their Dervish disguises
^

'

W. Scott's Poems,
(Black's Edition, 1865.)

See Sir

p. 260.

Appendix to the Lady

Tutor or confidential servant.

of the Lake,

Turkey

at Play

281

He returned their
to the shepherd and saluted him.
"
father
are
Dervishes,"
You
welcome,
salutation, saying,
The Sultan and the lala sat down. The shepherd had a pipe
came up

with a short stem which he filled and offered to the Dervishes,

who were much surprised by this act of courtesy. He then
"
I have bread and milk, and will bring you some."
said
"
We
Sultan Murad wished to decline his offer, saying,
But the shepherd
are not hungry, and have no need of food."
insisted upon sharing his bread \vith them, and quoted the
"
Arab proverb,
Whoso visits a hving person and eats nothing
at his house might as well visit a dead man."
"
"
I am w^ell," he added,
and refuse to be called a dead
man, so you must not leave me without breaking bread."
The Sultan was charmed with the shepherd's remark, and
accepted his offer of bread and milk. Siso unslung the skin
bag which hung on his back, took from it a wooden cup, went
to milk one of the sheep, and returned, bearing also in his
hand a loaf, which he placed before his guests. The Sultan
and the lala ate a little, and the shepherd then asked the
Dervishes if they lived at Stamboul.
"
"
we belong to the capital.
Yes," repUed Sultan Murad,
For the love of Allah, shepherd, if thou comest into town
come and see me."
The shepherd asked his visitor's name, and where he might
be found.
His Majesty replied that his name was Baba (Father)
"
Come
Murad, and that he lived near the Sultan's palace.
"
to that place," he added,
and thou wilt find me."
The two Dervishes took leave of the shepherd, and returned
to Stamboul. The Padishah stationed a man outside the
gates with orders to look out for a shepherd dressed in a
certain fashion and covered with a goatskin, who would
as soon as he appeared, to say to him
present himself there
that he belonged to the house of Baba Murad, and then to
conduct him to the apartment prepared for him, seat him
there, and inform the Sultan of his arrival.
:

282

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

few days afterwards, the shepherd took three of his

fattest sheep, drove them before him, and traversed Stamboul,

inquiring for the house of Baba Murad. Everyone laughed

and made fun of him, but at last he arrived at

the palace gate, when the man who had been posted there
order of the Sultan went forward to meet him, and^asked,
by
"
"
in his face,

Whom

seekest thou

The shepherd rephed that he was looking for the Dervish,

Baba Murad, his friend, and that he had brought the sheep
and a token of his friendly regard.
The man replied that he belonged to the household of
Baba Murad, and offered to conduct him to his master's
abode, giving the sheep into the charge of a servant. The
shepherd's costume was enough to frighten one, with his
as a present to him,

goatskin covered with hairs standing on end, and in this

costume he entered the sumptuous apartment, took off his
shoes, and sat down, while the attendant went to inform

the Sultan that the shepherd had arrived, and that, according
to his orders, he had conducted him to the apartment
specified.

The Sultan put on again his Dervish's dress. The lala

did the same, and both entered the room where the shepherd
was.
"

Salaam aleikum, peace be upon thee," they said.

The shepherd had still no idea that he was in the presence
of the Sultan. The Padishah ordered the black coffee, which
served in findjanes,^ to be brought.
"
My brother," ^ cried the shepherd, why is thy milk
so black and so bitter ? and these cups, why are they so
small ? It scalds my mouth, and I can't drink the milk.
Let them fill my wooden cup, and I will put in some pieces

is

"

of bread

and eat them."

>
Turkish coffee-cups. Though coffee has long been known in
Kurdistan, it is Uttle used by the nomad Kurds, and is unknown to
many shepherds even at this day.

Kurds always address each other by this term.

283

Turkey at Play

The Sultan smiled, and ordered coffee to be brought in a

coffee-pot.
They filled with, it the cup of Siso the shepherd,
gave him a piece of bread, and he ate it with a spoon. Then
addressing his Majesty, he said
"

By Allah, my brother, thy milk is bad, it is too bitter."

Then looking at the cushions and mattresses covered with
gold brocade which decorated the room, which he thought
was printed cotton, he added, "Brother, buy me a httleof
that stuff for

my

I will

children.

repay you when

have

my sheep."
Willingly," rephed the Sultan.
Siso continued to look about the apartment, which was
full of magnificence and luxury, inspected the beautiful

sold
"

furniture,

"

it

to

and again addressed the Sultan.

brother, who built this house for thee

"
left to thee by thy father ?

My

was

The Sultan rephed that

him by his father.

it

doubtless

had, indeed, been bequeathed

"

I knew that it could not be

a Dervish's property," and a few minutes afterwards he asked
permission to leave, in order to look after his sheep, which
had been left without a keeper. The Sultan told an attendant
to send someone to look after the sheep and sell them, adding

Shaking his head, Siso

cried,

"
to the shepherd,
I will not let thee depart."
ordered them to take Siso to the bath and give

His Majesty

him a robe of
that Baba Murad was his

and thus only did Siso learn

Padishah. When again conducted into the presence, he fell
at the Sultan's feet and implored his pardon for ha\dng been
so wanting in respect for him. But Murad overwhelmed
Siso with benefits and favours, had his sheep sold, granted

state,

him many
the

fief

favours, and finally

of several villages

bestowed upon him by berat^

in the Asian province of

Bayazid.
In the following Circassian story may be found an interesting
The Turkish equivalent of " Royal Letters Patent."

284

Turkey

of the

illustration of the influence

Ottomans
Shia doctrines on nominal

of

by orthodox Sunni Moslems.

The Poor Man

in

the Country of Ali Vahshi

In the days of Moses the Prophet of God, there Uved a

poor man and his wife. For you must not think that poverty
belongs only to our days it has always
existed, and the hero of our story knew some-

Fol?tale"

thing of it. He rose at dawn and went to

work, took little rest during the day, and came home after
but all in vain, for never could he succeed in
nightfall
^
gaining more than two paras a day.
"Great Allah!" he would sometimes exclaim, "how
wretched I am I am worked to death, and yet gain but two
paras a day
Help me in my misery, and have pity on Thy
his

servant."

But, alas Allah was in His paradise,' and did not even hear
him, and the peasant remained in his misery.
The Prophet Moses one day came to the village where this
poor man lived. Seeing him pass his door, the peasant
ran up and fell on his knees before him.
"
"
"
he cried,
thou who hast free
Prophet of Allah
access to Him, thou whose prayers are granted, thou who
"
!

good and great, just and charitable

Come, finish, for my time is precious. What is thy
"
desire ?
interrupted the holy man.
"
Great Prophet, I am the most unfortunate of men.
Despite all my labour, I gain but two paras a day."
"
Address thyself to Allah."
"
O incomparable Prophet, I have addressed myself to
Him, but He hears not those who are so poor and miserable
as I.
He pays attention only to the rich and powerful."
art

"

"

"

say est thou, O man ?

The truth. But say thou only a word to the Eternal
One, and fortune will favour me."

What

"

About

half a farthing.

THE

MARBLE TOWER, WITH PART OF THE ANCIENT

WALLS OF STAMBOUL

Turkey at Play
The Prophet
on

smiled,

and promised

285

to intercede with Allah

Accordingly, a few days afterwards, Moses

repaired to the throne of the Almighty. After fulfilling the
nmnerous commissions with which he had been entrusted
his

behalf.

by" mortals, he thought

of the peasant.

has just occurred to me, O Lord," he said, " that

other day a poor man asked my help.
He is

It

the

frugal, and pious, and yet Thou forgettest

him, and he gains but two faras a day. GDuldst Thou
"
not
"
Moses, My servant, art thou ignorant of the immutable
laws which govern the destinies of mortals ? And how comes
it that this
peasant dare question My justice ? Say to him,
The Lord, in giving thee hfe, decided that thou shouldst
never gain more than two paras a day. Cease to beseech
Him, for thy lamentations cannot change that which is
"
written in the Book of Fate.'

industrious,

'

Moses carried this message to the poor WTetch, and advised

to be content with his lot.
"
"
"
said the man to himself.
Ah, is it so ?
Well, then, I
will no longer remain in Allah's
country. I will wander
through the world till I find a more generous master. Two

him

It is preposterous."
paras a day
This decision taken, the jjeasant prepared for his
journey.
He sold his poor belongings, which reaUsed a few piastres,
and then said to his wife
"
My dear, we are going to leave the coimtry this morning."
"
Where are we going ? "
"We are going to leave the land of Allah, for He is not a
good master."
"
And then ? "
"
We shall seek a better master."
"
Art thou mad, my dear ? Knowest thou not that Allah
"
is the lord of all the earth ?
"
Thou art mistaken. Allah is not the only master. There
must be a land in the world over which He is not lord, a land
!

286

of the

Turkey

Ottomans

which is not His, but belongs to another.

and let us start."

Come, follow me,

the poor man set out with his wife.

After tramping several days, the pair arrived in a fertile
country, where all the choicest plants grew in abundance.

And

The

meeting some

travellers,

questioned them
"
"
"

"
"
"

Whose

are these mountains

the

of

thus

inhabitants',

"
?

Allah's."

And

these

and these houses

fields,

"
?

Allah's."

And these villages, and

AU are Allah's."

these towns

"
?

"

Then this is not the land we seek. Good-day."

The couple continued their way, and journeyed for a whole
month. At last they came to a new country even richer
than the
"

"AH
"
"
"
"

last.

Whose mountains

And

are these

"
?

asked the poor man.

Vahshi's."
these

fields,

and these houses

"
?

Ali Vahshi's."

And these villages,

AU Vahshi's."

these towns,

and these people

"
?

"
we have
Wife," said the peasant, turning to his spouse,
in
are
the land
no longer
arrived at the end of our journey, we
"

of Allah."

The pair entered a neighbouring town, and were

at all the marvels which surrounded them.
They
about

had
"

till

amazed
walked

sunset, admiring the city to which their journey

led them.

"

all at once the man

Your baby will soon be born,
asked of his companion.
and you must have a house to rest in."
The travellers were still undecided, when the voice of the
"
"
House to sell house to sell
public crier was heard
he was calhng up and down the streets and squares of the town.

Where

shall

we

pass the night

"

Turkey

287

at Play

"

Here is what we seek, my dear," said the poor man, and

he went up to the crier, saluted him, and said
"
Show me the house in question I may wish to buy it."
The crier saluted him in return, and conducted him to
:

the house.
"
This is the house which
cry for sale
"

see

if it

nstU suit

cannot decide at once,

have been commissioned to

you."
I will

pass the night here, and

accommodation."
said
the
and went away.
crier,
Agreed,"
He was no sooner gone than the peasant's wife gave birth
The troubles of the poor people seemed to
to a fine baby.
increase.
WTiere were they to cradle the baby ? There was
in the house no nail to hang a hammock on, so the father
took a pointed piece of wood and tried to fix it in the
wall.
At the first strokes the wall gave way cmd suddenly
in the cleft was one of those enormous
opened, and behold
earthen jars which are used in the islands to hold oUves.
"
"
what vessel is this ? cried the poor man
Great Allah
and he tried to move it from its place. But the jar was so
But here was
heavy that he had great trouble in doing so
a wonder
for it was full of gold coins.
"
Wife
look at this treasiu-e
Now we are the richest

pay
you to-morrow
"

for the

people in the town. Were we not right to leave the country

of Allah to settle on the lands of Ali Vahshi ?
And we only
too
\Mien
was
the
time
when
I
gained but
just arrived,
"
two paras a day ?
It is hardly necessary' to say that the next morning the
peasant bought the house in which he had found the jar of
gold pieces. But this house was not in keeping with his
fortune, and he soon purchased another more commodious.
Thenceforward, he was considered the richest man in the
country, and continued to Uve with his wife and child in the
greatest ease, surroimded by a crowd of servants, and respected
by all, imtil the joumeyings of the Prophet Moses brought
him at last to the country of Ali Vahshi. We may imagine
!

288

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

man when

the astonishment of the holy

he recognised in the

town the poor wretch for whom he

had fruitlessly interceded with the Most High.
"
"Is it possible ?
cried the Prophet.
"Is it indeed the
"
same person the two paras man ?
richest inhabitant of the

And

the servant of Allah hastened to report the' matter

to the Eternal Father.
"
rich

Allah
"

The man

of

two paras has become enormously

"

Indeed ? Go and tell him that the fortune does not

belong to him, but to his son. I will that he content himself
with the two paras which have been assigned to him in the

Book of Life."
The Prophet came again
"

to the rich

man.
"

thou whom I find again rich and powerful ?

asked the man of God.
"
"
It is indeed I, O Moses
"
Allah has sent me to say that thy fortune and happiness
are not thine own, but belong to thy son.
Thou must content
thyself with the two paras which have been assigned to thee in
Is it really

the
"

Book of Fate."
Has Allah, indeed,

sent thee, O Prophet ? But Allah

no longer my master I live in the country of Ali Vahshi
it is he who has given me wealth, and it is his only to command
me. I care very little for what Allah says, for I shall never
return to His land."
And the Prophet Moses had to return, sad and ashamed,
to report the strange news before the throne of Allah.
The rich man was right, and the Eternal One, who is
Supreme Justice, was obUged to leave him alone.
is

The following story

among the Greeks.

of

"

The Three Precepts

"
is

current

Once upon a time there was a man, and he was so poor

One day this man says to his

that he had nothing to eat.

Turkey

289

at Play

"

Wife, I \vi\\ go to the City ^ to seek work, so that I

may earn my bread and send you (something) now and again,
so that you may live."
^*^ ^^^ "^^^ ^^^ ^^' ^^^ ^^'^T^t to the City
" TtT'^^h^
as he knew no trade to work at, he
^^t,
Precepts."
hired himself as servant to a gentleman,
wife,

and worked every day with a right good\\Tll. His mistress

was kind to him, and every now and again would give him
but his master was nigsomething to send to his wife
gardly and never gave him anything. So he was patient
and waited until his master should give him his hire. He
waited a yesir, two years, three years, four years, ten years,
but his master did not pay him. ^ Then one
twenty years
he went and said
day
"
Master, pay me my wages, because I want to go home
;

my

to

wife."
^

The master
for

twenty

his

name

pulls out and gives him three hundred piastres

\Vhen Phrindirikos for that was
years' service.

saw

his

how

niggardliness,

labour, look you, he gave

him but

for

twenty years'

three hundred piastres,

he said nothing, but wept. He took the money and was

going away when his master called after him.
"

Phrindirikos, Phrindirikos, come here,"

"
turns him round and says,
At yoiu orders, master

He

"

Says he,

Give

me back

a hundred piastres, and

give thee a precept instead."

"
But, Master, I don't want
"
"
No," said his master, give

What

could he do

them back

to me."

back, and the master

gave him this precept

"
Ask no questions about what does not concern
:

i.e.,

will

"

He gave them

"
?

thee."

Constantinople.

As

About 12

customary' in the East for servants to be supplied with

clothes and all other necessaries by their employers, their wages are
often allowed to accumulate for years.
it is

19(2389)

U%

290

Turkey

of the

Again" he was going away when

Ottomans

master called him back,

another hundred
piastres, and I will give thee another precept."
He gave back another hundred.
"
Change not the direction in which thou hast set out."

saying,

Come here, come here,

his

give

me back

He was

going away again, sore at heart, when his^master

"
Give me back the other
him a third time, saying,
hundred piastres, and I will give thee another precept."
called

He

gave "them. Said the master

Anger that thou feel'st at night,
Keep until the morning light."
Well, what would you ? he went away without a para,
and wept as he went. When he got out into the country,
he saw a withered tree, and a Negro who was covering it with
gold sequins instead of leaves. It seemed to him a very
:

extraordinary

thing

but,

recollecting

his

master's

first

precept, he went about his business without saying anything.

When he had gone a little way, the Negro called to him,

"

Come here. Come here."

"
What do you want ? " he asked.
"
Said the Negro,
It is now two hundred

years that I have

anyone would pass by without asking me
what I am doing
and I said that whosoever should pass
without questioning me, I would give him all these sequins,
and whoever should question me, I would take his head. I
have built a tower of heads, and I had hoped that thou also
would question me, so that I might finish it, for only one is
But as it was written that it is not to be finished,
lacking.
take these sequins and go."
He takes and loads forty camels with the sequins and goes
his way.
On the road he overtook forty other camels
laden with money, and these were carrying the tithes. Says
"
he to the men who were in charge of them,
Good day,

been here to see

if

boys."
"

Well met, my pallikar."

"
Said he,
Where are you going

"
?

Turkey
"

We

291

at Play

are taking the tithes to the King," they rephed.

together.
Presently they came
was a tavern. Said they who
Let us go and drink a glass."

and they went along the road

to a cross-road, near which
"

had the tithes,

But Phrindirikos

recollected his master's second precept

"
and
Change not the" direction in which thou has set out
Well was I repaid, and so it may be a second
said to himself,

"

"

I will not go,"

So he rephed,
"
said
to
Then
take care of our camels while
him,
They

time."

we

go."

So they went. But there they met with two robbers,

who killed them and fled. And our man took all the camels
and went home. He knocked at his wife's door, and she
she did not know him, but he knew her. Said he,
Will you do me the favour to let me lodge here to-night,
"
for I am a stranger ?
"
Said she,
My husband is absent, and I cannot take you
into the house
but you are welcome to sleep in the stable."

opened

"

So he went to the stable and sat down. As he was taking

out his bread to eat, he saw a man come up and enter his
wife's house.
Presently he comes dowTi to the stables,
leaves his sack there, and returns to the house.
Said
Phrindirikos to himself,
"
Bre ! my \nfe is decei\dng me
Eh ? She would not
let me into the house, and he is going in to sleep there."
He took up his gun and was getting it ready to shoot them
both, when his master's third precept came into his mind
"
Anger which thou feel'st at night.
"
!

Keep

until the

morning ligJtt
and he put do\\-n his gun and lay do\\Ti to sleep. In the
morning he rises and comes out of the stable, and sees a youth
"
of twenty, and hears him say to his wife,
Nene (Mother),
I am going out, and at noon I wUl send
you some beans to
cook." And the youth rose and went out. And then our
man made himself known to his wife, and from that time
they Hved happily. And may we Uve more happily still
!

292

Turkey

of the

Ottomans

In the capital and the more important towns and

of the

Empire

theatrical representations are

regularly

cities

more or

less

provided by travelling European

companies representing for the most part

French or Italian. Cafes Chantants have long
been introduced, and Pathe Cinematographs appear^ to be
as popular with the subjects of the Sultan as elsewhere.
Turkish drama is represented by the company of the energetic
actor-manager, Burhaneddin Bey (a former pupil of Silvain),
the female members of whose troupe are recruited from among
the Armenians of the capital. The special performances
light opera,

"

"
only
given at the theatre of Ortakeuy by this
company have, it appears, been frequently attended by the
princesses of the Imperial family, though, on the other hand,
such performances in the cities of Asia Minor were forcibly
prevented by the more fanatical section of the Moslem
population. Armenian and Greek native drama is also
occasionally represented, the latter sometimes taking the form
of pieces written in some of the various local dialects, such, for
instance, as the Epirote poet Valaoritis' Ali Pasha, which I saw
represented at Salonica in an open-air theatre.
Of the various manly sports and athletic exercises at which
the men of all races in the Ottoman Empire were once so
"
wielding
expert archery, tennis, quoits,
"
the mace,"
5^*"!^
putting the stone," wrestling,
leaping, and throwing the djereed, the three
last only are practised to any extent at the present day.
WrestHng has, indeed, in the provinces, remained a popular
pastime with all nationahties and creeds, and Turk, Greek,
and Bulgarian, Armenian, Kurd, and Gipsy freely enter the
lists against each other, continuing the contest for hours,
untiringly watched by a large crowd of undemonstrative
for

women

The game of
critical spectators.
now
I
more
beUeve,
and,
peculiar to the
djereed
exciting,
Turks and to Asia Minor, the land par excellence of legendary
"
"
celebrated in ballad
deeds of derring do
champions and
but deeply interested and
is

Turkey

at

Play

293

have never seen or heard of it in Europlayed on horseback, and affords opportunities for the display of aU those tricks of horsemanship on
which Osmanli youth pride themselves. A number of players,
perhaps twenty on each side, armed with long, heavy sticks,
take up positions about fifty yards from each other on some
open space, preferably near some rising ground from which
the game can be watched without danger to the spectators.
One of the horsemen dashes forward and hiu-ls his djereed
at an opponent, who endeavours to intercept him before he
can return to his place. It is then the turn of the other side.
Sometimes a player mounted on a swift horse will, instead
of returning to his place, create a diversion by riding off to
a distance after making his throw, when several of the other
A player
side pursue and endeavour to overtake him.

and story at
pean Turkey.

who has

least I
It is

got rid of

all his

sticks

is

at hberty to appropriate

any found lying on the ground, which he does without dismounting, often dexterously bending down and snatching

The rules of the game

it.
and no unfairness or unnecessary
roughness is permitted. The sticks, which should not be
aimed at the head of an opponent, may be dodged by any of
the expedients at the command of expert horsemen, some

up a djereed
are

as his steed gallops past

strictly

observ-ed,

appearing to leave their saddles when ducking to avoid a

As is inevitable in a game of this description,
flying djereed.
there are frequent mishaps and coUisions, and horses and
struggle together on the groimd in dangerous confusion.
"
"
"
"
or
Putting the stone
throwing the boulder is also still

men

a favourite rural pastime, and

is

often alluded to in the Greek

folk-songs recounting the exploits of brigand bands, as is

also the exercise of sword-play.
It is probably, however,

more than doubtful whether the Ottoman youth of the

present day are capable of emulating the feat of the son of
Andronikos, the Byzantine hero, who, according to an old
Greek ballad, leaped over the backs of nine horses, alighting

on the tenth,

his

own

steed.

294

Turkey

One remarkable

Ottomans

of the

result of the revival of British influence

"

"

boom

in the domain of
modern form.
and athletics
Modern
week now passes without some football
-^ ^
Athletics.
f
or cricket match bemg played, and mstead of
massacring one another, the Turkish, Armenian, Gredc, and
Bulgarian youth play Rugby football, and confine themselves
to an occasional (metaphorical) massacre of the referee.
For the craze for athletics which has sprung up in Turkey

in

Turkey

is

the extraordinary

in

sport

their

since the proclamation of the Constitution tends chiefly in

the direction of this universally popular diversion.

During the winter of 1908-9 Captain Selim Serri Bey, a

Turkish officer who has made a special study of athletics,
preached by invitation in crowded club rooms in various
parts of the capital the gospel of games. This Ottoman
Eustace Miles has already opened two very successful athletic
clubs in Constantinople, one in Stamboul and one in P6ra
;

as the better class youths are enthusiastic members of

these clubs there is every probabiUty that similar institutions

and

be opened all over the Empire. Considering what

famous athletes Ottomans, from Sultans downwards, have
been in the past it will not be surprising if, in a few years'
time, a Turkish eleven is seen batting at Lord's, or an Ottoman
football team giving a good account of itself in Yorkshire.
At Smyrna an athletic club, established about a dozen years
"
which include aquatic
ago, holds annual "Pannonian Games
will

sports in addition to the usual

cricket,

football,

tennis,

fencing, etc.

Nor

will it

probably be long before Ottoman" jockeys are

the Ottomans are splendid horsetheir horses are of the true Arab
breed. Moreover, their old love of racing
and hunting has recently revived in a very

seen at the Derby, for

men, and
Hunting

General Izzet Fuad, a pasha famous for

his knowledge of horseflesh, has lately founded in Constantinople a hunting club, of which both Ottomans and foreigners

remarkable manner.

Turkey
are members.

And

despite the

ally in the winter season,

each other in long rides

do

at Play

bad

295

state of the roads, especi-

Turkish cavalry officers \-ie with

and forced marches that would

credit to Cossacks, prizes of value

being presented to the
In order to improve the breed of horses in

winners.

Turkey,
which has now to import its cavalry chargers from other
countries, a commission has been formed for the purpose of
establishing race-courses as in England and France.
The
members of this commission include a number of general
officers, and as the scheme has already received the
approval
of the Government, it has a fair chance of
being carried into
operation.

INDEX
Abdi Bey, 248
Abdul Aziz, Sultan, 48
Abdul Hamid, Sultan, 14,

Archaian, 2

Armenians,

Deposition of, 47, 53, 54

at Yildiz Kiosk, 68
Accession Ceremonies, 56
iEgeaxi Sea, 118
Afshahs, The, 197
Agrarian Bank, The, 186
Deposits and Loans, 187
Controllers of, 188
land tenure,
Agriculture, 170
,

arv movement, 32
massacres
of,'
34,
40;
34;
loyalty.
their
126
Uniat
reUgion,
129
national
Armenians,
;

h\Tnn, 131
their
132;
the
clerg>-,
legends, 134
137
tions,

Vakouf

lands.

171

172
Crown-lands,
Metaj^er
System of, 173 head and free
villages, 173 ; female labour,
175
primitive methods of,
176
reason for baclnvard
state of, 177
famine fund,
178;
labouring under disadvantages, 181
sheep- shearing,
182
the
harvesting
grain,
184
The Harvest Home, 185 ;
;

bv Agrarian Bank

advances
for,

feasts.

churches,
133;
133;
strange
Paradise tradi-

their

dwellings,

222; interior of, 223; hiUside

their customs,
shanties, 223
224
restrictions
of wives.
225
progress made by, 226
missions to, 249
Evangehcal
Church of, 250
reforms, 93
Army. The, 93
new uniform, 94
conscription, 95
pay and rations, 96
barracks, 97
mihtar\'
'
pubUcations, 97
clubs, 99
Arj-an Tartar, 25
Ashkenazim, 35
Asia Minor, 5, 15, 16, 23, 30. 172
Kurds found in. 13
Uncultivated land in, 177
Highlands of. 190
;

187.

Ahmed

and

fasts

170

early

30; moral and physical features,

30
their talent, 31
their
31
relations
communities,
with Moslems, 32
revolution-

161

85,

29

The,

historj', 29; traditional history-,

15, 83.

Riza Bey, 58

Albania, Flora of, 8

Independence of, 9
native
Tribes, 10
revolt of,
7
proverb, 10
serious causes of, 6 ; attempt
to end, 8; blood feuds, 11.
Albanians, Converted to Islam,
1 1
their
12
occupations,
;

their dwellings,

216

mountain

homes of, 216 social status of

women, 217; respect for, 217;
;

uncommon customs
their language, 253

of,

Tribes inhabiting, 190

Athletics, 294
,

Atonement,
Daj' of, 148
"
Awakeners," The, 107

218;

love for

270
dancing,
"
The Merciful," 101
Allah,
Antivari, 27
Arabian Nights. The. 217
.\rarat, Mt., 134

Bagdad, 90
Native.
Schkyipetars, 254
254
ary
song,

254

Ballads,

257;
folk-songs, 267

h>Tnn,

297

The

revolution-

patriotic

Silvelli.

258;

298

Index

Baths, Turkish, 167

Bazaars, 163
Belgrade, Shabatei Shevi at, 44
Berat, 27
Bessarabia, Tartars settle in, 16
Beyrout, 90
Black Mohammed of Skodra, 9
Black Sea, The, 22, 24, 98, 162
Block, Sir Adam, 78
Blood Feuds, Albanian, 11
Boatmen's Guild, The, 160
Objects of, 160
Bosdans, The, 197
Bosphorus. The, 61, 68, 74, 105,
160
Boycottage, 162
Broussa, 50
Mineral Baths at, 168
,

Bulgaria, 17

Bulgarian Church, The, 124

,

Paganism

20;

(contd.)

costume of women, 21

tribes
belonging
folk-lore of, 283

Clubs, 99
Institution

of,

great number
Business, 166
Coffee-houses, 164
,

to,

201

two ethBulgarians, The, 24

the
nological elements, 25
peasantry, 174
agriculturing
instincts of, 174
educational
progress made by, 251.
Burhaneddin Bey, actor-manager,
;

292

165
166

of,

[84

Union and Progress,

Conscription, 95
special exemp-

Committee

of

tion from, 95
Constantinople,

1,
23, 31, 39,
40, 47, 56, 79. 82, 90, 98, 104,
160, 179, 225

Life in, 153

Latins settled in, 156
Training Colleges at, 251
Constitution, The, 70, 161
Advance in Education by,
240
"Council of The PubHc Debt," 77
Organisation of, 78
Country Markets, 178
bad condition of, 178
Courts of Justice, 87
Reforming the, 87
Supplementary Councils, 89
Crete, Exports of, 185
,

Calendars, Ottoman, 168

Capitulations, The, 156
/
Question of Abolishing, 137
,

Cappadocia, 225
Central Macedonia, 27
Chaldeans, 13

severe

punishment

female misconduct

at,

of

228

Crimean War, 17
Crown-lands, 172
Prejudicial Laws, 172
Customs Reform, 82

Chamber

of Deputies, 86
Child Tax," 3
Christianity in Turkey, 112
of the Vlachs, 121
of the Bulgarians, 124

"

Daily Prayers, 102

Damascus, 83
Dancing, 266;

their privileges, 171

225

Circassians, The,
sions of, 20
;

266;
Songs for,
"
267 The Pyrrhic
The Kurdish
Dance," 270;
Tchopee, 270
Danube. The, 25
"
Darkness of Adam," The, 139
passion

Dwellings of, 221

magnificence of interior, 221
exclusion of women, 227
rehgious festivals of, 265
tenants and
Church-lands, 171
Christians,

Cilicia,

174

in,

The

Circassians,

two divi19;
characteristics.

for,

Derder, Office of, 134

Dervish Sheikhs, 171
Devil Worshippers, 16
Dimotica, 183
Silk Market at, 183
,

Index
Divorce, Jewish, 41
Serious obstacles

Eski Serai, 66
Etchmiadzin, Monastery
Eumer Hilmi, Prince, 47
Exports, Increase in, 186
Statistics of, 186

210
usually on male side, 220
among Albanians, 220

299

tx),

Djakova, 7

134

of,

Dobna Bakhtche,

description

Palace

51

"

Faithful," The, 44
Expected Second Advent, 45
Family Names, Lack of, 6

61

of,

-,

of,

Dominican Order, The, 129

Dora d'Istria, 30

Dowager Sultana, The, 63

Elevation of, 64
their belief,
Dunmehs, The, 44
45
poverty non-existant, 45
Dwellings of Albanians, 216
Armenians, 222
Christians, 221
,

Dzon Marku,

10

Fast of the Jews, 147

Fates, The, 119
Fazil Bey. 243
Feast of Kings, 122
the Passover, 148
the Prophet's Mantle. 264
Purim, 151
Tabernacles, 149
"
261
Constitution
Festivals,
Moslems' Religious
Day," 261
Fast of Ramazan.
Feasts, 262
263
Feast of the Prophet's
Mantle. 264; Religious Festivals
of Christians. 265
Finance, 75
Unsatisfactory state of, 77
Fish Market. The, 162
"
Flight of Eve," The, 140
Flowers of Eden, 138
an uncommon
Folk-lore, 267
pastime, 271
pecuUarity of,
271
favourite
feature of,
272
humorous stories, 257279; Kurdish tales, 280-283,
A
Circassian tales, 283-288
;

Eden, Garden

of,

137
138

Flowers of,
Education, t\vo distinct systems
The Mektebs, 234;
of, 234;
initiating ceremony of, 235
main subjects of study, 36
Medressehs, 236
description
national schools, 237
of, 237
medical science, 239
training
,

'
{

schools

for

women

teachers,

240; private character of, 241;

great need among women for,
242
of
national
question
244
uniform
education,
system of, 244 The Lyceums,

'

'

French schools, 246;

246;
AUiance schools, 248, school
Abdi Bey, 248;
clubs, 248;
revolutionary effect on, 249
foundation of boys schools,
250
Bulgarian schools, 251
"
High School" education, 252
;

Emir Osman, 56
Ertoghrul, 2
Erzeroum, 137
157 ;
internal
Esnafs,
The,
traditional
organisation, 158
laws, 158; behefs of merchants,
159
recruits for, 160
special
;

privileges of,
by, 162

161

boycott^ge

Greek

fable, 268-291

Foreigners, Protection of, 156

Funerals, 109
interrogation of
the dead, 110; gifts from the
deceased, 110; signs of mourn111
Rites observed by
ing,
the Greeks, 230
;

Future

Life,

BeUefs respecting the,

119

Galata. 153
Gendarmery, The New, 90
Zaptieh Force, 90
Gershom, Rabbi, 42
Ghazi Osman Pasha, 50

The

300

Index

Ghegs, The, 10
Characteristics

13

of,

Golden Horn, The, 66,

Grape Industry, 185

238

153,

Gregorian Church, The, 125

Legendary history
Doctrines, 132
Gregory, St.. 127
,

of,

126

Hedjaz, 6
Railway, 77
Hellenes, The, 24
Hilmi
Grand Vizier,
Pasha,
85
Hodja, A. 178
his duties. 179
Home Life, 202 Mosleiji dwellthe Haremlik, 203
ings, 202
furniture
the Selamlik, 204
of, 204
warming apparatus,
205
home occupations, 229
House of Parliament, 74
275-279
Humorous
stories,
Nasr-ed-Din Hodja, 275
,

Greek

Church, The Orthodox,

112; Parish Priests, 112; their
fear of Reform, 113;
Freethinking, 113
Greeks, The, 22; loyal subjects,
24
155
influence,
great
the peasantry, 173
Christian
226
women,
marriage of
of
227
divorce,
privilege
strong family affections, 228
marriage portions, 230 funerals, 230
preparation for burial,
231
232
death
ballads,
austere character of mourning,
232
Guilds, Trade, 158
Boatmen's, 160
;

Ibrahim of Magyar, 233

Ibrahim Pasha of Skodra, 254
Imperial Standard, The, 51

Household, 62

Harem, 63

Hakki Pasha, 84
Halil Bey, President, 84

Hamals, 160

Hamdy Bey, 256

his early efforts,

256; European recognition, 257
the
Harem, The Imperial, 63
;

64
66
Superintendents of,
Diversions in, 213
Haremhk, The, 203
Decoration of, 204
Hebrew Ottomans, 35
their
da'iras,
,

Treasury, 67
Villas, 69

Imports, Boycottage

162

of,

Inheritance, Complicated laws of,

172
Investiture of the Sultan, 53, 54 ;

ceremonials attached to, 55

loannina, 10
Ipek, Import town of, 7
Irade, Meaning of an, 50
Albanians conIslam, 9, 42
Tenets of, 100
verted to, 11
slaves
pilgrimages to, 103
;

protected by, 209

Izzedin, Dr. Cassim, 239
Izzet Mollah, poet, 243

quarters, 36; insanitary living,

37
hate of Christianised, 37
persecution of, 38
position of
;

women,
divorce,

42

40
41

marriage

and

early marriages,

female
polygamy, 42
The Dunm6hs,
labour, 43
;

44

strict in food matters, 144

147
feasts,
148,
fasting,
151
149,
education among,
;

247

schools. 247

{see Hebrew Ottomans)

The
Judaism in Turkey, 143
Mosaic ordinTalmud, 143

Jews

145
the
Sabbath,
ances,
146
the
145
traditions,
146
eve of the Sabbath,
;

147
curious
ceremony,
The Day of
147
fasting,
The Feast
Atonement, 148
The
148
of the Passover,
Feast of the Tabernacles, 149;

Index
Judaism in Turkey (contd.)
The Booth, 150
Feast
;

151
Purim,
Story, 152

301

Literature,

of

Talmndist

243

Complete change

Izzet

Fazil

of

poems

Petrev

MoUah,

in,

Bey,
Pasha,

Wasif, 243
hterary evolution
by Shinasi Effendi. 243 native
literature non-existent,
254 ;
Turkish humour, 275
his false view
Loti, Pierre, 241
of Osmanli womanhood. 241
;

Kakki Pasha. Grand

Vizier, 84

Kalyaries, 27

Kemal

Bey,

positions,

257
257

his
com"
Sihstria,"

258

Kemaleddin Pasha, Field-Marshal,

50

Macedonia,

5. 27, 90,

172

Sultan, 44. 48
Mahmoud, 1 1
The Reign of. 242
Maimonides, Hebrew Commenta;

Kiamil Pasha, first Grand Vizier, 85

Khans, 166
of the VaUde, 167
Khosref Purveez, Legend of, 138
Konairs, The, 4
Koniek, Ceremony at, 56
Koran, The, 40. 68, 108, 110,
164, 262, 271
Extracts from, 100, 103
used at Yuruk funerals. 194
,

the,

235

Teaching
Kossovo, vilayets of. 10
relations with
Kurds, The, 13
Armenians, 14; characteristics,
15; the women, 15
marriage
of, 16
variety of tribes, 196
on the march, 197
national
dance of, 270
MounKurdistan. Risings in, 6
.

tains, of, 15

Lamia,
The, 118
"
Land of the Rocks," 8

Land Tenure, 170

Language, The Question

of,

244

innumerable

244 ;
dialects,
common means of intercourse.
245
language of the Vlachs.
;

252
Laurent.

M.

French

Charles.
Financier, 75
of Succession, The Ottoman,

Law

48

151

tor,

Mameeni, The, 45
of Greeks,
Marriage of Jews, 41
173
of Bulgarians. 174
of
Turks, 179; of Tartars, 199;
convenience of, 210; selecting
;

the bride, 211

the betrothal
presents, 212; the legal cere212
mony,
superstitious
;

observances, 218
exogamy,
the general rule in, 219
the
220
Greek's
Levirate,
preparations for. 230
customs at,
Meals, Turkish. 214
115
;

Mecca, 83
seinitary precautions
at, 239
Medical Science, 239
Medina, Pilgrim's Railway at, 83
Mekhitar, Pioneer of Uniates, 130
Mezzove, Picturesque town of, 27
Military pubhcations, 97
clubs, 99
;

10

The,

Miridites,

Roman CathoHc
Mixed

88

courts.
failure of. 89

embrace

faith, 10
;

complet

Mohammed
of.

47

V, Sultan. Accession
his talents, 49 ; liberal

accession oath, 55 ;
\'iews, 50
The Girding of the Sword. 56
speech from the throne. 59;
takes Oath of Fidehty, 60;
the sacrifice, 61
His Imperial
The Imperial
Household, 62
;

Laws

for Protection, 162

Legends of the Creation, 138

Levant, Seaports
Levirate.

Custom

of,

of the, 220

302

Index

Mohammed
Harem,

His Treasure
musical tastes,

House,
258
his duties at
264
;

festivals,

Mohammed
Monastery

Oath

V, Sultan (contd.)

63
67

of Fidehty. The, 60
Occupations of Turks, 43
O'Conor, Sir Nicholas, 82
"
Old Palace," The, 67
Ornamentations in, 68
CereOld Serai, Palace at, 60
.

Ziaeddin, 54

of St. James, 136

mony

Etchimiadzin, 134
Monastir, 10, 27, 28, 83
Monetary System, The, 80
Mongols, Invasions by, 2
Moslems, The, 10;
Armenians,
32
revolution
with,
pre;

tended Moslems, 46
mosque
reverenced by, 57
worship
of,
funerals,
110;
101;
164
forbidden use of wine,
their
cleanliness among, 167
identification
dwellings, 201
The Haremlik, 203;
of. 203;
The Selamlik, 204
marriage
of
law, 206
rights
legal
women, 206; universities, 236
reUgious feasts, 262
Mosque of Eyoub, 57
Mulkieh School, 248
Club, 248
The object of, 248
Murad I, Sultan, 51, 52
Sultan Mohammed's
Music, 257
Kemal Bey, 257
love of, 49
"
258
Silistria,"
patriotic
SilveUi,
258;
258;
Hymn.
"
The Conservatoire," 259
musical instruments, 259
Muteferrika, Ibrahim, 233
;

at, 61

Orchan, The Emir, 3

Orthodox Greek Church,' 112

The Tribe of,
Turks, 2
3; the women, 16; inheritance
chief amuseof property, 206
ments of, 213
separation of
At the hamman,
sexes, 213;

OsmanU

214

Ottoman

Turkey)

{see

National Gregorian Church, 249

249
Anthem, 257
Naval Clubs, 99
reorganisation
Navy, The, 98
of, 98
Nedjim-Eddin, Prince, 47
Nereids, The, 117; superstitions
attached to, 117
converts

to,

Nomads
201

Turkish, 4
Kurdish. 197

Non-Moslem

Circassian,
Tartar, 201

Soldiers, 94

of, 137
Parliament, The first Turkish,
70
70
elections,
general
unique method of counting
Elections
71
the
votes,
the electors, 73
Board, 72
74
the Parliament House,
the first budget,
finance, 75
75
the second budget. 76
customs reform, 82
Pasha, Title of, 5
meaning and

Paradise, Traditions

honour

of,

Paspati, Dr., 159

Passover, Feast of the, 148
Patron Saints, 159
Peasantry, The, 180
physical
costume of,
condition of, 180
domestic service, 229
180
Personal Names, Christian. 24
Petrev Pasha, Poet, 243
departure for,
Pilgrimages, 104
to Mecca,
104
to Islam, 103
;

239
83
The,
Railway,
Construction of, 83
Road, 105
School for, 91
Police, The, 91
Polygamy, Jewish, 42
Porte, The, 14, 19, 34, 88, 155
Confusion of, 253
Prayers, Daily, 102
The Teraveh, 107
Pilgrim's

Index
Ibrahim
Printing of Books, 223
Muteferrika, 233; revolt against
234
preference for reading
manuscript books, 234
Prophet's Mantle, Feast of, 264
PubUc Debt, The Council of the,
177
Pubhc Worship, 102
Purim, The Feast of, 151

Seraskierat, 54
Sexes, The Separation

19
Schkjipetars, Ballads of the, 254
Silkworm Industry, 183
The
price of silk, 184
;

Sirens,

The

The Vilayet

Slaves, 65

153

209

Pilgrim's, 83

Smyrna,

Construction of, 83
Concessions, 84
Ramazan, The Fast of, 105, 263
The
the opening of, 106
The
Teraveh Prayers, 107
"
107
The
Awakeners,"
"
Night of Power," 108
The Turkish,
110;
Religion,
agglomeration of superstitious
of
survivals
rites, 114;
pagan1 14
fairs,
ism,
rehgious
sacred
fountains, 116;
115;
The Nereids, 117; the after
life, 119;
Vampirism, 120
Revolution, The Turkish, 47
Ricault, Sir Paul, 113
Roman CathoUc Faith, The, 10

of,

to the,

10

condition of female,

marriage among, 209

31, 44, 90, 108, 167, 190.

221

Social Intercourse, 154

Life,

Keynote

164

of,

Sonica, Training Schools at, 90

Sports, Manly, 292
Wrestling,
292
The Game of Djereed,
the
292, 293
Stone,
Putting
293
craze for, 294
splendid

horsemen, 295
Stamboul,
104,
167,
Pilgrims
assemble at, 104 Moslems of,
107
Feasts
at, 263
Rehgious

Processions, 141
Romeots, 24
Roses, Cultivation

Legends relating

118
Skodra,

Rabbinical Court, 41
of. 1,

213

of,

Shabatei She\'i, Followers of, 44

Sheik Schamyl, Circassian leader,

Races, Variety
Railways, 82

303

Stoicheion, The, 116

Succession, Ottoman
Suleyman Shah, 2

Law

of,

48

SuHemanieh, 15
Superstitions, Turkish, 116

Talmud, The teaching

184

of,

of, 143-4
the tvvo classes,
Tartars. The, 16
16 ; important characteristics,
17
industry' of women, 18 ;
their reUgion, 19 two tribes of,
197
pecuharity of costume,
198
marriage festi\-ities, 199,
200 funeral ceremonies, 201
;

RoumeUa, 184

Sabbath, Adoration
,

Eve

of the, 145
of the, 146

Sacred Fountains, 116

Salonica,
,

Jews

of, 35, 36, 148,

Great numbers

in,

167

Sanitation, Good state of, 254

Sardi, Mgr., 142
Sea of Marmora, 84, 98
Seclusion of Princes, 48
Sefardim, Race called, 35

Selamhk, The, 204

Seragho Point, New Senate House
at,

75

38
j

'

Tcheragan, The Palace of, 74

Temperance, Importance of, 64
Teraveh Prayers, The, 107
Theatres and Amusements, 292
popularity of cinematographs,
292
Tiridates, Conversion of, 128
Tosks, The, 10
reputation for
;

bravery"

and rapacity, 13

304

Index
Vlach Communities

Toughra, The, 51
Legendary origin

of,

Trade Guilds, 157

Unionism, 161

Laws

162

for Protecting,

34

characteristics,
22
distrust
of,

Christians

towards

190
well-educated class, 252
native tongue of, 252
Vlacholivadia, 27

Voskopolis, 27

Armenians,
revolution of 1908, 47
law
of
48
nationsuccession,
;

his
Wasif, Poet, 243
attempts, 243
Watches, Turkish, 169
Waterside Mansions, 160
men engaged by, 161
Ceremonies
Wedding
;

Parliament, 70,
National Bank, 79; The
90
The Police,
Gendarmery,
91
109
urban
funerals,
industrial life, 163
life, 153
baths, 167
temperance, 164
168
women and
calendars,
their
207; repasts,
rights,
214
;

Wine making,

87;

boat(See

185

different qualities of, 185

of, 207
Status of Armenian, 224
Bulgarian, 174,
Greek, 226
Jewish, 40
Moslem, 206
Emancipation of, 208
Seclusion of. 227

Ulema, The, 89
Uniates Armenian, 129
Urban Life, 153
Turks, 155
Universities, Moslem, 236

Women, Rights

literary

Marriage)

flag, 51

al

Trained Officials, Lack of, 85

Treasure House, Ornamentation
in, 68
Treasury, The Imperial, 67
Turkey, heterogeneous population
of, 1
early history, 2; aristocratic

(contd.)

their wandersurvivals, 123

ings, 189; essentially pastoral
189
daughters of,
people,

52

[16

"

Yezidis or

Devil Worshippers,"

Yildiz Kiosk, 50, 62, 93. 187

,

Abdul Hamid

Young Turk

68
The,

at,

208;
formation of societies by. 245
with
Albanrelations
friendly
ians, 255
Youssouf Izzedin Effendi. 48
Yurks. The, 4
origin an uncertainty, 190; language of, 191
Party,

Vakouf Lands,
171
171

170

privileges

extent

of

of,

tenants,

VaUde Sultana, 64

Vampirism, 120
Veils,

Laws respecting

of, 207,

divisions of the
their food, 192
year,
duties
plurahty of wives. 193
of. 193; matrimonial rejoicings
funerals of, 194
194
of,

the wearing

leader

208

192

Venice. 130

Vilayets, System, The, 88

Vlach
25
Communities,
22,
mountain homes, 26
villages
men and women, 28
of, 27
;

folk-belief,

195

their
Christianity of the, 121
122
birth
and
122 ;
death,
mythological
;

customs,

of, 191

Zaptieh Force, The, 90

Ziaeddin Effendi. Prince. 47
musical tastes, 259

Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman

(2389)

&

Sons, Ltd., Bath

his

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2s. 6d. net.

ALIEN IMMIGRATION:

Should Restrictions be Imposed? By

Frederick Bradshaw, M.A., and Charles Emanuel, ALA. In
crown Svo, cloth, 23. 6d net.

A Scheme for Providing and

:
Securing Religious Liberty in England and Wales. By J. Fovargub
Br.\dley. With Introductions by the Rev. Dugald Macfadyew,
In demy Svo, Is. net.
M..\., and the Rev. T. A. Lacey.

RELIGIOUS LIBERTY IN ENGLAND

FREE TRADE OR TARIFF REFORM?

JLP.

By

J.

M. Robertson,

6d. net.

TARIFF REFORM OR FREE TRADE

By

L. M. S.

Amery.

NONCONFORMITY AND POLITICS.

6d. net.

By a Nonconformist Minister.
Cheap Edition. In crown Svo, Is. net.
"
It is in fwery way a serious and notable work."
Daily News.
FAMOUS SPEECHES. Selected and Edited with Introductory
Notes by Herbert Paul. Demy Svo. cloth, 470 pp. 7s. 6d. net.
"
A remarkable and valuable compilation of masterpieces in

the oratory of government."

Scotsman.
19

PITMAN'S CATALOGUE OF GENERAL LITERATURE

SCIENCE
GREAT ASTRONOMERS. By

Sir

Robert Ball, D.Sc. LL.D.,

F.R.S.

With numerous

In demy 8vo,
full-page and other illustrations.
cloth gilt, gilt top, 3s. 6d. net.
"
Sir Robert Ball's gifts as a nsirrator are very great.
He is, of
The most earth-bound mortal
course, a master of his subject.
who opens this book must go on with it." Daily Chronicth.
.

IN

STARRY REALMS.

the same Author. The Wonders of the

In
full-page and other illustrations.

With numerous

Heavens.

demy
"

By

8vo, cloth

gilt, gilt top, 3s. 6d. net.

style of popular exposition adopted throughout is indeed
admirable, the illustrations are excellent, the binding is tasteful,

The

and the print good."

IN

Saturday

THE HIGH HEAVENS. By

the

Review,

same Author.

popular account

of recent interesting astronomical events and phenomena, with

numerous full-page and other illustrations. In demy 8vo, cloth gilt,
gilt top, 3s. 6d. net.
"
"
It has," says The Scotsman,
the freshest knowledge and the

best scientific thought."

ASTRONOMY FOR EVERYBODY. By

Professor

Simon Newcombe,

Illustrated.
Sir Robert Ball.
popular exposition of the wonders of the Heavens. In demy Svo,
cloth gilt, gilt top. 3s. 6d. net.

LL.D.

With an Introduction by

BY LAND AND SKY. By

the Rev.

John M. Bacon, M.A., F.R.A.S.

With four illustrations.

of a Balloonist.
Svo, cloth gilt, gilt top, 3s. 6d. net.
The Record

In

demy

SOCIOLOGY
By Professor Robert Flint, LL.D. New, Revised and
In demy Svo, cloth gilt, 6s. net.
Edition.
Cheaper
"
A new, revised and cheaper edition of Professor Flint's masterly
study will be generally welcomed. The revision has been carefully
carried out, but the original text has been as far as possible preserved.
References show that the additional notes are well up
to date."
Daily Mail.

SOCIALISM.

ABYSS. By Jack London. A study of the

and economic conditions of life in the East End of London.
By the author of The Call of the Wild. With 24 illustrations from
In crown Svo, cloth g^lt, 6s.
actual photographs.
"... Mr. Jack London, who is already known to the British
public as a fine descriptive writer, has done for the East End of
London what he did for the Klondyke has described it fully and

THE PEOPLE OF THE

social

faithfully, looking at it as intimately as dispassionately."

Chronicle.

20

Daily

SOCIOLOGY, TRAVEL, TOPOGRAPHY, ETC.

WHAT IS SOCIALISM

By

"

Scotsburn."

the principles and policy propounded

In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 78. 6d.

An attempt

by the advocates

to examine

of Socialism.

TRAVEL, TOPOGRAPHY, AND SPORT

THE ADVENTURER

IN SPAIN. By S. R. Crockett. With 162

by Gordon Browne and from photographs taken by
the Author.
In large crown 8vo, cloth gilt, 6s.

illustrations

AROUND AFGHANISTAN. By

Major de Bouillane de Lacoste.

Translated from the French by J. G. Anderson. With five maps
and 113 illustrations. In super royal 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt top,
10s. 6d. net.

"

This beautifully illustrated book of travels takes the reader

through Persia, to Yarkand, and other famous cities of Turkestan,
ncluding Samarkand, with its majestic tomb of Tamerlane. A
valuable photographic record of little-trodden regions."
Evening

Standard.

CASTLES AND CHATEAUX OF OLD TOURAINE and the Loire

Country. By Francis Miltoun and Blanche McManus. With
seventy illustrations reproduced from paintings made on the spot,
and maps, plans, etc. In large crown Svo, cloth richly gilt, gilt top,
7s. 6d. net.

"
One of the most delightful travel books that
across for some time."
Country Life.

we have come

CASTLES AND CHATEAUX OF OLD NAVARRE and the Basque

Provinces.
By the same Authors. With 63 illustrations (some in
colour),

maps, plans,

etc.

In large crown Svo, cloth richly

gilt,

gilt top, 7s. 6d. net.

"

The book is

well worth reading, not merely as a travel handbook,

sympathetic, social and historical review of a very
Irish Times.
interesting section of the French people."

but for

its

CASTLES AND CHATEAUX OF OLD BURGUNDY and the Border

Provinces.
By the same Authors. With 59 illustrations (some in
colour),

maps, plans,

etc.

In large crown Svo, cloth richly

gilt,

gilt top, 7s. 6d. net.

"

Their new volume strikes the reader as the most readable and
most instructive they have yet given us." Nottingham Guardian.

IN

THE LAND OF MOSQUES AND MINARETS.

By the same Authors.

and black and white, maps, plans,
In large srown Svo, cloth gilt, gilt top, with cover of charming

With 75
etc.

illustrations, in colour

design, 7s. 6d. net.

"

comprehensive account of Morocco, Algiers, and Tunis, and

art, culture, and French

of Mussulman government, reUgion,

influence.
Picturesquely illustrated."

Times.

21

PITMAN'S CATALOGUE OF GENERAL LITERATURE

Countries and Peoples Series

Each in imperial 16mo, cloth
plate illustrations, 6s. net.

ITALY OF THE ITALIANS.

gilt, gilt

top,

with about 30

full- page

By Helen Zimmern.

"

The knowledge and judgment displayed in the volume are truly

astounding, and the labour the author has expended on it has made
it as indispensable as Baedeker to the traveller, as well as invaluable
to the student of modern times." Daily Telegraph.

FRANCE OF THE FRENCH. By E. Harrison Barker.

" A
book of general information concerning the life and

genius

French people, with especial reference to contemporary

of the

France. Covers every phase of French intellectual

Times.
players, science, and invention, etc.

SPAIN OF THE SPANISH.

life

architecture,

By Mrs. Villiers-Wardell.

"

Within Uttle more than 250 pages she has collected a mass of
ordered information which must be simply invaluable to any one
who wants to know the facts of Spanish life at the present day.
Nowhere else, so far as we are aware, can a more complete and yet
Pall Mall
compendious account of modern Spain be found."

Gazette.

SWITZERLAND OF THE
"Mr. Webb's account
and

By Frank Webb.

SWISS.
of that

unknown country

intimate

is

It is an attempt to convey a real knowinteresting.

ledge of a striking people an admirably successful attempt."
faithful,

Morning Leader.

GERMANY OF THE GERMANS

By Robert

Berry

"

'

Mr. Berry abundantly proves his ability to write of Germany

of the Germans in an able and informing fashion.
What he does
is to state so far as can be done within the scope of a single handy
volume, particulars of all aspects of life as lived in Germany to-day."
Daily Telegraph.
'

TURKEY OF THE OTTOMANS.

By Lucy M. Garnett.

shortly.
*,,*

Other Volumes in this Series in preparation.

22

Ready

TRAVEL, TOPOGRAPHY, AND SPORT

TRAVEL, TOPOGRAPHY, AND SPORT

The "

All

Red "

(conid.)

Series.

Each volume is in demy 8vo, cloth gUt, red edges, with 16 full-page
plate illustrations, maps, etc., 7s. 6d. net.

THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA.

"

the Hon.

By

RiNGRosK Wise (formerly Attorney-General

of

New

Bkrnhard

South Wales)

The All Red Series should become known as the Well-Read

Series within a short space of time.
Nobody is better qualified to
write of Austraha than the late Attorney-General of New South
Wales, who kno^v-s the country intimately and writes of it with
enthusiasm. It is one of the best accounts of the Island Continent
desire to give a hearty welcome
that has yet been published.
Globe.
to this series."
'

'

We

THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND. By

Sir

Arthur

formerly Under-Secretary for Defence,

previously a Lieutenant, R.N.
Bt.,

New

P.

Douglas,

Zealand, and

" Those

who have failed to find romance in the history of the

Empire should read The Dominion of New Zealand. Sir
Arthur Douj,las contrives to present in the 444 pages of his book an
admirable account of life in New Zealand and an impartial summary
of her development up to the present time.
It is a most alluring
picture that one conjures up after reading it." Standard.
British

Other volumes in preparation.

THREE YEARS' SPORT

IN MOZAMBIQUE. By W. Vasse. Transfrom the French by R. Lydekker, F.R.S., and H. M.

Lydekker. With 80 illustrations. In super royal Svo, cloth gilt
lated

8s. 6d. net.

"

The book is full of movement, adventure, and sensational

incidents, and should fascinate those who love a plain tale of
travel and all the excitements which await the intrepid huntsman."

Daily News.

SERVIA AND THE SERVIANSk

(See page 10.)

NATIVE LIFE IN EAST AFRICA.

THE ENGLISH

IN CHINA.

(See page 10.)

(See page 12.)

23

PITMAN'S CATALOGUE OF GENERAL LITERATURE

CATALOGUES, ETC.
&

Pitman
Sons, Ltd., have pleasure in calling attention to
the following Catalogues of Books published by them.
They will be
pleased to send on application any of these Catalogues, all of which

Sir Isaac

have been brought up to date.

[B]

A Ust of Books suitable for

use in Evening Schools and Classes and for Reference in Business

PITMAN'S COMMERCIAL SERIES.

Houses.

40 pp.

[D]

PITMAN'S EDUCATIONAL BOOKS

[E]

PITMAN'S LIST FOR INFANT SCHOOLS.

and the Teacher.

[F]

Illustrated.^

SOME TEXT-BOOKS
mercial Schools.

[G]

[H]

[N]

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(Primary).

Books for the Child

20 pp. with Supplement.

specially adapted for

48 pp.

Evening and Com-

Illustrated.

PITMAN'S BUSINESS HANDBOOKS.

16 pp.

PITMAN'S SHORTHAND, TYPEWRITING, STATIONERY AND

COMMERCIAL LANGUAGES CATALOGUE. 40 pp.

CATALOGUE

OF

LITERATURE.

THEOLOGICAL

AND

RELIGIOUS

16 pp.

PERIODICALS
The
Pitman's Shorthand Weekly
The Magazine of Commerce and British
United Empire
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Exporter
;

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"

etc., etc.

United Empire.")

Any who may happen to be in the neighbourhood of St. Paul's

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Room, at 14 Warwick Lane, where their pubhcations may be examined
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Sit Isaac Pittnan

S-Som,

Ltd.,

London, Bath, and

Ntw York.

JUN 2 2

1992