Chapter 4

by

Dr. Nor Nadiah Mohamad Yusof

Chemical Equation
A process in which one or more substances is changed into one
or more new substances is a chemical reaction
A chemical equation uses chemical symbols to show what
happens during a chemical reaction

3 ways of representing the reaction of H2 with O2 to form H2O

reactants

products

How to Read Chemical Equations

2 Mg + O2

2 MgO

2 atoms Mg + 1 molecule O2 makes 2 formula units MgO

2 moles Mg + 1 mole O2 makes 2 moles MgO
48.6 grams Mg + 32.0 grams O2 makes 80.6 g MgO

IS NOT
2 grams Mg + 1 gram O2 makes 2 g MgO

Balancing Chemical Equations

1. Write the correct formula(s) for the reactants on the left
side and the correct formula(s) for the product(s) on the
right side of the equation.
Ethane reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water

C2H6 + O2

CO2 + H2O

2. Change the numbers in front of the formulas

(coefficients) to make the number of atoms of each
element the same on both sides of the equation. Do not
change the subscripts.
2C2H6

NOT

C4H12

Balancing Chemical Equations

3. Start by balancing those elements that appear in only
one reactant and one product.
C2H6 + O2
2 carbon
on left
C2H6 + O2
6 hydrogen
on left

C2H6 + O2

CO2 + H2O

start with C or H but not O

1 carbon
on right

multiply CO2 by 2

2CO2 + H2O
2 hydrogen
on right
2CO2 + 3H2O

multiply H2O by 3

Balancing Chemical Equations

4. Balance those elements that appear in two or more
reactants or products.
C2H6 + O2
2 oxygen
on left

2CO2 + 3H2O

multiply O2 by 7
2

4 oxygen + 3 oxygen = 7 oxygen

(3x1)
on right
(2x2)

C2H6 + 7 O2
2

2CO2 + 3H2O

2C2H6 + 7O2

4CO2 + 6H2O

remove fraction
multiply both sides by 2

Balancing Chemical Equations

5. Check to make sure that you have the same number of
each type of atom on both sides of the equation.
2C2H6 + 7O2

4CO2 + 6H2O

12
4 CO
H(2
(2
6)
14
(7xx2)
2)

4(6
C
2)6)
1412
OH
(4
x 2x +
Reactants
4C
12 H
14 O

Products
4C
12 H
14 O

Example:
Lets balance this equation:
1) AgNO3 + Na2CrO4 AgCrO4 + NaNO3
Answer:

2AgNO3 + Na2CrO4 AgCrO4 + 2NaNO3

2) Al2(SO4)3 + KOH Al(OH)3 + NaNO3

Answer:
Al2(SO4)3 + 6KOH 2Al(OH)3 + 3K2SO4

Questions:
1) C2H5OH (l) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(g)
Answer: C2H5OH + 3O2 2CO2 + 3H2O

2) NH3 (g) + O2(g) NO(g) + H2O(g)

Answer: 4NH3 (g) + 5O2 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)

Mass Changes in Chemical Reactions

1. Write balanced chemical equation

2. Convert quantities of known substances into moles

3. Use coefficients in balanced equation to calculate the

number of moles of the sought quantity
4. Convert moles of sought quantity into desired units

Methanol burns in air according to the equation

2CH3OH + 3O2
2CO2 + 4H2O
If 209 g of methanol are used up in the combustion, what
mass of water is produced?
grams CH3OH

moles CH3OH

molar mass
CH3OH
209 g CH3OH x

moles H2O

grams H2O

molar mass
coefficients
H2O
chemical equation

4 mol H2O
18.0 g H2O
1 mol CH3OH
=
x
x
32.0 g CH3OH
2 mol CH3OH
1 mol H2O

235 g H2O

Limiting Reagents

6 red
green
leftused
overup

Do You Understand Limiting Reagents?

In one process, 124 g of Al are reacted with 601 g of Fe2O3
2Al + Fe2O3

Al2O3 + 2Fe

Calculate the mass of Al2O3 formed.

g Al

mol Al

mol Fe2O3 needed

g Fe2O3 needed

OR
g Fe2O3
124 g Al x

mol Fe2O3
1 mol Al
27.0 g Al

mol Al needed
1 mol Fe2O3
2 mol Al

Start with 124 g Al

160. g Fe2O3
=
x
1 mol Fe2O3

g Al needed
367 g Fe2O3

need 367 g Fe2O3

Have more Fe2O3 (601 g) so Al is limiting reagent

Use limiting reagent (Al) to calculate amount of product that

can be formed.
g Al

mol Al

mol Al2O3

2Al + Fe2O3
124 g Al x

1 mol Al
27.0 g Al

1 mol Al2O3
2 mol Al

g Al2O3

Al2O3 + 2Fe
102. g Al2O3
=
x
1 mol Al2O3

234 g Al2O3

Theoretical Yield is the amount of product that would

result if all the limiting reagent reacted.
Actual Yield is the amount of product actually obtained
from a reaction.
% Yield =

Actual Yield
Theoretical Yield

x 100

Example:
Carbon tetrachloride was prepared by reacting 100 g of carbon
disulfide with 100 g of chlorine according to the reaction.
CS2 + 3CI2

CCI4 + S2CI2

(Molecular weight : CS2 =76.2 , CI2=71.0, CCI4=154 )

Calculate the percentage yield if 65.0 g of CCI4 was obtained

from the experiment

g CS2

mol CI2

mol CI2 needed

g CI2 needed

OR
g CI2

mol CI2

100 g CS2 x

1 mol CS2
x
76.2 g CS2

Start with 100 g Al

mol CS2 needed

3 mol CI2
2 mol CS2

71.0 g CI2
x
1 mol CI2

need 140 g CI2

However we have only 100 g CI2

so CI2 is limiting reagent

g CS2 needed
=139.76 g CI2

Use limiting reagent (CI2) to calculate amount of product that

can be formed.
g CI2

mol CI2

mol CCI4

CS2 + 3CI2
100 g CI2 x

1 mol CI2
x
71.0 g CI2

1 mol CCI4
3 mol CI2

g CCI4

CCI4 + S2CI2
154 g CCI4
x
1 mol CCI4

= 72.30 g CCI4

Calculate the percentage yield if 65.0 g of CCI4 was obtained

From the experiment

Percentage yield =

Actual yield

X 100 %

Theoretical yield

65.0 g
Percentage yield =
72.3 g
= 90.0 %

X 100 %

Question:
Methanol (CH3OH), also called methyl alcohol, is the simplest alcohol. It is used as
a fuel in race cars and is a potential replacement for gasoline. Methanol can be
manufactured by combination of gaseous carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
Suppose 68.5 kg CO (g) is reacted with 8.60 kg H2(g).Calculate the theoretical
yield of methanol. If 3.57 x 104 g CH3OH is actually produced, What is the
percent yield of methanol?.

Answer:
2H2(g) + CO(g) CH3OH(l)
H2 is limiting reagent.
Using the molar of CH3OH(32.04g/mol) , we can calculate the theoretical
yield in gram = 6.86 x 104 CH3OH
Theoretical yield : 52.0 %

Chemical
Bonding

General Features of the Atom

An atom can lose or gain electrons to become an ion, or it can share electrons with
another atom to become molecule.

Cont
When atoms interact to form chemical bond, only
their outer regions are in contact.
For this reason ,when we study chemical bonding,
we are concerned primarily with valence
electrons.
To keep track of valence electrons in a chemical
reaction, and to make sure that the total number
of electrons does not change, Chemist use a
system of dots devised by Lewis and called Lewis
dot symbols (Lewis symbols).

What is a Valence Electron?

Valence electrons are the outer shell
electrons of an atom.
The valence electrons are the electrons that
participate in chemical bonding.
The number of valence electrons of an atom
is deduced from its electronic configuration.

What is a Lewis Symbols?

Lewis dot symbol consist of the symbol of an
element and one dot for each valence
electron in an atom of the element

Cl

Li

The Octet Rule

Atoms of other element attained stability either by gaining,
losing, or sharing electrons until they have duplet (two) or
eight(octet) valence electrons.

The order in which atomic sub shells are filled in a atom start with the 1s
orbital and move downward, following the arrows.

Order of orbitals (filling) in multi-electron atom

1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s

Example:
The electronic configuration of an oxygen atom is:

(a) O (Z=8)
Answer:
(a) 8 O: 1s2 2s2 2p4 (The number of valence electron=6)
1s 2s

2p

The Lewis symbol is O

What is the electron configuration of Mg?

Mg 12 electrons
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s
1s22s22p63s2

2 + 2 + 6 + 2 = 12 electrons

Abbreviated as [Ne]3s2

[Ne] 1s22s22p6

What are the possible quantum numbers for the

last (outermost) electron in Cl?

Cl 17 electrons
1s22s22p63s23p5

1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s

2 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 5 = 17 electrons

Last electron added to 3p orbital

n=3

l=1

ml = -1, 0, or +1

ms = or -

Valence electrons are the outer shell electrons of an

atom. The valence electrons are the electrons that
particpate in chemical bonding.
Group

e- configuration

# of valence e-

1A

ns1

2A

ns2

3A

ns2np1

4A

ns2np2

5A

ns2np3

6A

ns2np4

7A

ns2np5

4f
5f

ns2np6

ns2np5

ns2np4

ns2np3

ns2np2

ns2np1
d10

d5

d1

ns2

ns1

Ground State Electron Configurations of the Elements

Example:
State the number of valence electrons and write the Lewis
symbol for:

(a) Al (Z=13)

(b) N (Z=7)

Answer:
(a) 13 Al:1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 (The number of valence electron=3)
3s 3p

The Lewis symbol is Al

__ __

(b) 7 N: 1s2 2s2 2p3

1s 2s

(The number of valence electron) =5

2p

The Lewis Symbol is

Classification of the Elements

Electron Configurations of Cations and Anions

Of Representative Elements
Na [Ne]3s1

Na+ [Ne]

Ca [Ar]4s2

Ca2+ [Ar]

Al [Ne]3s23p1

Al3+ [Ne]

Atoms gain electrons

so that anion has a
noble-gas outer
electron configuration.

Atoms lose electrons so that

cation has a noble-gas outer
electron configuration.

H 1s1

H- 1s2 or [He]

F 1s22s22p5

F- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]

O 1s22s22p4

O2- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]

N 1s22s22p3

N3- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]

Question:
State the electronic configuration for the cations /anions
following element:
(a) Al : 1s22s22p63s23p1

(b) F : 1s22s22p5

Answer

Answer

Al3+

F-

: 1s22s22p6

: 1s22s22p6

of the

-1

-2

-3

+3

+2

+1

Cations and Anions Of Representative Elements

Na+: [Ne]

Al3+: [Ne]

O2-: 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]

F-: 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]

N3-: 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]

Na+, Al3+, F-, O2-, and N3- are all isoelectronic with Ne

What neutral atom is isoelectronic with H- ?

H-: 1s2

same electron configuration as He

Electron Configurations of Cations of Transition Metals

When a cation is formed from an atom of a transition metal,
electrons are always removed first from the ns orbital and
then from the (n 1)d orbitals.

Fe:

[Ar]4s23d6

Fe2+: [Ar]4s03d6 or [Ar]3d6

Fe3+: [Ar]4s03d5 or [Ar]3d5

Mn:

[Ar]4s23d5

Mn2+: [Ar]4s03d5 or [Ar]3d5

Ionic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction between a positive ion (Cation) and a
negative ion (anion)

Li + F
1 22s22p5
1s22s1s

e- +
Li+ +

Li+ F 22s22p6
[He]
1s
1s2[Ne]

Li

Li+ + e-

F -

F -

Li+ F -

Electrostatic (Lattice) Energy

Lattice energy (E) is the energy required to completely separate
one mole of a solid ionic compound into gaseous ions.
Q+QE=k
r

Q+ is the charge on the cation

Q- is the charge on the anion
r is the distance between the ions
cmpd
MgF2

Lattice energy (E) increases

as Q increases and/or
as r decreases.

lattice energy
2957 Q= +2,-1

MgO

3938

LiF

1036

LiCl

853

Q= +2,-2
r F < r Cl

Born-Haber Cycle for Determining Lattice Energy

o
DHoverall
= DHo1 + DHo2 + DHo3 + DHo4 + DHo5

Covalent bonds are formed when atoms share their valence electrons to complete
their octet

A covalent bond is a chemical bond in which two or more

electrons are shared by two atoms.
Why should two atoms share electrons?
F

7e-

F F

7e-

8e- 8e-

Lewis structure of F2
single covalent bond

lone pairs

single covalent bond

lone pairs

F F

lone pairs

lone pairs

Lewis structure of water

H

O +

single covalent bonds

H O H

or

2e-8e-2eDouble bond two atoms share two pairs of electrons

O C O

or

double bonds

- 8e8e- 8ebonds
double

Triple bond two atoms share three pairs of electrons

N N
triple
bond
8e-8e

or

triple bond

Lengths of Covalent Bonds

Bond
Type

Bond
Length
(pm)

C-C

154

CC

133

CC

120

C-N

143

CN

138

CN

116

Bond Lengths
Triple bond < Double Bond < Single Bond

Comparison of Ionic and Covalent Compounds

Polar covalent bond or polar bond is a covalent

bond with greater electron density around one of the
two atoms

electron poor
region

electron rich
region

e- poor

H
d+

e- rich

F
d-

Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract

toward itself the electrons in a chemical bond.
Electron Affinity - measurable, Cl is highest
X (g) + e-

X-(g)

Electronegativity - relative, F is highest

Classification of bonds by difference in electronegativity

Difference

Bond Type

Covalent

2
0 < and <2

Ionic
Polar Covalent

Increasing difference in electronegativity

Covalent

Polar Covalent

share e-

partial transfer of e-

Ionic
transfer e-

Classify the following bonds as ionic, polar covalent,

or covalent: The bond in CsCl; the bond in H2S; and
the NN bond in H2NNH2.
Cs 0.7

Cl 3.0

3.0 0.7 = 2.3

Ionic

H 2.1

S 2.5

2.5 2.1 = 0.4

Polar Covalent

N 3.0

N 3.0

3.0 3.0 = 0

Covalent

Classify the following bonds as ionic, polar covalent,

or covalent:
(a) MgO
(b) Cl2O
Answer

Answer

Mg =1.2
O =3.5
3.5 1.2 = 2.3

Cl =3.0

Ionic

Polar Covalent

O =3.5
3.5 3.0 = 0.5

Writing Lewis Structures

1. Draw skeletal structure of compound showing
what atoms are bonded to each other. Put least
electronegative element in the center.
2. Count total number of valence e-. Add 1 for
each negative charge. Subtract 1 for each
positive charge.
3. Complete an octet for all atoms except
hydrogen
4. If structure contains too many electrons, form
double and triple bonds on central atom as
needed.

Write the Lewis structure of nitrogen trifluoride (NF3).

Step 1 N is less electronegative than F, put N in center
Step 2 Count valence electrons N - 5 (2s22p3) and F - 7 (2s22p5)

5 + (3 x 7) = 26 valence electrons
Step 3 Draw single bonds between N and F atoms and complete
octets on N and F atoms.
Step 4 - Check, are # of e- in structure equal to number of valence e- ?
3 single bonds (3x2) + 10 lone pairs (10x2) = 26 valence electrons

Write the Lewis structure of the carbonate ion (CO32-).

Step 1 C is less electronegative than O, put C in center
Step 2 Count valence electrons C - 4 (2s22p2) and O - 6 (2s22p4)
-2 charge 2e4 + (3 x 6) + 2 = 24 valence electrons
Step 3 Draw single bonds between C and O atoms and complete
octet on C and O atoms.
Step 4 - Check, are # of e- in structure equal to number of valence e- ?
3 single bonds (3x2) + 10 lone pairs (10x2) = 26 valence electrons
Step 5 - Too many electrons, form double bond and re-check # of e-

C
O

2 single bonds (2x2) = 4

1 double bond = 4
8 lone pairs (8x2) = 16
Total = 24

14 ves

H O
Cl

HOCl

24 ves

Cl
C
Cl

COCl2

Drawing Lewis Structures

CH3OH

26 ves

14 ves

ClO3

O
Cl
O

H C O
H

Two possible skeletal structures of formaldehyde (CH2O)

H

An atoms formal charge is the difference between the

number of valence electrons in an isolated atom and the
number of electrons assigned to that atom in a Lewis
structure.
formal charge
on an atom in
a Lewis
structure

total number
total number
of valence
of nonbonding
electrons in electrons
the free atom

total number
of bonding
electrons

The sum of the formal charges of the atoms in a molecule

or ion must equal the charge on the molecule or ion.

-1

+1

formal charge
on an atom in
a Lewis
structure

C 4 eO 6 e2H 2x1 e12 e-

2 single bonds (2x2) = 4

1 double bond = 4
2 lone pairs (2x2) = 4
Total = 12

total number
total number
of valence
of nonbonding
electrons in electrons
the free atom

formal charge
= 4 - 2 - x 6 = -1
on C
formal charge
= 6 - 2 - x 6 = +1
on O

1
2

total number
of bonding
electrons

H
H

0
C

formal charge
on an atom in
a Lewis
structure

0
O

C 4 eO 6 e2H 2x1 e12 e-

2 single bonds (2x2) = 4

1 double bond = 4
2 lone pairs (2x2) = 4
Total = 12

total number
total number
of valence
of nonbonding
electrons in electrons
the free atom

formal charge
= 4 - 0 - x 8 = 0
on C
formal charge
= 6 - 4 - x 4 = 0
on O

1
2

total number
of bonding
electrons

Formal Charge and Lewis Structures

1. For neutral molecules, a Lewis structure in which there
are no formal charges is preferable to one in which
formal charges are present.
2. Lewis structures with large formal charges are less
plausible than those with small formal charges.
3. Among Lewis structures having similar distributions of
formal charges, the most plausible structure is the one in
which negative formal charges are placed on the more
electronegative atoms.
Which is the most likely Lewis structure for CH2O?

-1

+1

H
H

0
C

0
O

Resonance Structure
A resonance structure is one of two or more Lewis structures
for a single molecule that cannot be represented accurately by
only one Lewis structure.
+
+
O
O
O
O
O
O
What are the resonance structures of the
carbonate (CO32-) ion?

O
-

O
-

Exceptions to the Octet Rule

The Incomplete Octet

BeH2

BF3

B 3e3F 3x7e24e-

Be 2e2H 2x1e4e-

Be

3 single bonds (3x2) = 6

9 lone pairs (9x2) = 18
Total = 24

9.9

Exceptions to the Octet Rule

Odd-Electron Molecules

NO

N 5eO 6e11e-

The Expanded Octet (central atom with principal quantum number n > 2)

SF6

S 6e6F 42e48e-

S
F

6 single bonds (6x2) = 12

18 lone pairs (18x2) = 36
Total = 48