Life Processes

Biology is the study of living things. All

living things are called organisms, both
plants and animals are living organisms.
But how we decide whether something is
living or non-living depends on 7 life
processes. If something is living it will
carry out the 7 life processes below.

1. Movement
Both animals and plants have the ability to
move. Plants are rooted and move slowly
as they grow. Their roots move down into
the soil and their stems move up towards
the light. Animals on the other hand move
quickly and can move their entire bodies.
They can move in search of food, shelter
or to avoid danger.

2. Respiration

Respiration is the process of extracting

energy out of the food we eat. All living
things respire because they need energy
to grow, to replace worn out parts and to
move. Respiration takes place in the
mitochondria of the cell. There are two
types of respiration, with and without
oxygen. Aerobic respiration uses oxygen
and releases a large amount of energy.
Anaerobic respiration does not require
oxygen and releases a smaller amount of
oxygen.

3. Sensitivity
All living organisms are sensitive, this
means that they have an awareness of
changes in their environment. Animals
respond quickly to stimuli such as heat,
light, sound, touch and chemicals which
have taste and smell. On the other hand
plants generally appear less sensitive and
their response is slower. Plants respond to
light by moving their leaves towards it, the
flowers of some plants open in the

morning and close at night when it is dark.

Some plants, however, do respond quickly
such as the Venus flytrap response to
touch.

4. Growth
All living organisms grow. Plants continue
growing throughout their lives. Animals
stop growing once they reach adulthood.
Even when growth stops, materials within
an animals body are still being replaced
from its food.

5. Excretion
All living things make waste products
these can be useless or harmful to it and
therefore need to be got rid of. Excretion
is the process of getting rid of metabolic
waste. Plants store waste substances in
their leaves, the waste is removed when
their leaves fall off. Animals breathe out
waste carbon dioxide, other waste
substances leave the body in urine and
sweat. Note: Getting rid of faeces or

undigested food is not excretion but

egestion.

6. Reproduction
All living things must produce offspring
like themselves in order for their species
to survive. This is the process known as
reproduction. Plants produce seeds that
give rise to new plants of the same
species. Animals lay eggs or have babies.
Reproduction can be of two types, Sexual
which involves two parents and the union
of two gametes and Asexual where one
parent can reproduce itself.

7. Nutrition
Nutrition is needed for energy and growth,
both plants and animals need food. Plants
are able to make their own food by
photosynthesis. They use sunlight to turn
simple molecules like carbon dioxide and
water into more complex carbohydrate
molecules. Animals are unable to make
their own food so rely on other plants and

other animals for their nutrition. Animals

take in complex substances and break
them down into small, simple, soluble
molecules which can be used for energy
and growth.

Breathing and Respiration

Many people confuse the terms
Breathing and Respiration and often
breathing is referred to as respiration, but
this is incorrect.
So to be clear:

Breathing is the process of

getting oxygen into the
lungs and carbon dioxide
out of the lungs. It allows for
gas exchange to take
place so that oxygen can be

absorbed from the lungs

into the blood and carbon
dioxide is removed from the
blood and breathed out
from the lungs.
Respiration is the release
of energy from the break
down of glucose in living
cells. Respiration takes
place in every living cell and
all cells need to respire to
produce the energy they
need.

The Breathing System

When we breathe, air moves into and out
of our body. There are two movements
involved in the process of breathing:
1. Inspiration (also known as
inhalation) This is breathing air into
the body.
When we inspire:
The intercostals muscles found
between the ribs contract.
This raises the ribs upwards and
outward expanding the ribcage
diaphragm contracts and flattens,
pulling downwards.
The result is that the thorax
increases in volume, which in turn
lowers the pressure inside it and
consequently air is sucked into the
lungs.

2. Expiration (also known as

exhalation) This is breathing air out
of our body.
When we expire:
The intercostal muscles relax.
This lowers the ribs downwards
and inwards.
The diaphragm relaxes, moving
back upwards.
The result is that the thorax
decreases in volume, which in turn
increases the pressure inside it and
consequently forces air out of the
lungs.

Gas Exchange
In order to see how gas exchange occurs
we need to look further into the lungs.
Firstly we know that air enters the body
through the mouth or nose, from here it
moves to the pharynx (throat), passes
through the larynx (voice box) and enters

the trachea. The trachea splits into two

branches, the left and right bronchus,
each bronchus divides many times into
smaller branches called bronchioles.
Each bronchiole finally leads to a bunch of
tiny air sacs, called alveoli, which inflate
during inhalation, and deflate during
exhalation.
It is at the alveoli where gas exchange
takes place.

Gas exchange is the

delivery of oxygen from the
lungs to the bloodstream,
and the elimination of
carbon dioxide from the
bloodstream to the lungs
and out of the body.

Air enters the body through the mouth and

nose, from here it moves to the pharynx
(throat), passes through the larynx (voice
box) and enters the trachea.

The trachea splits into two branches, the

left and right bronchus, each bronchus

divides many times into smaller branches

called bronchioles.

Each bronchiole finally leads to a bunch of

tiny air sacs, called alveoli, which inflate
during inhalation, and deflate during
exhalation.

Gas exchange is the delivery of oxygen

from the lungs to the bloodstream, and the

elimination of carbon dioxide from the

bloodstream to the lungs and out of the
body. It takes place in the alveoli.

The walls of the alveoli are surrounded by

a network of blood capillaries. In fact the
alveoli walls share a membrane with the
capillaries which allows for oxygen to
diffuse through the alveoli wall and enter
the bloodstream and then travel to the
heart. At the same time it allows for
carbon dioxide to diffuse from the
bloodstream into the alveoli and exhaled
out of the body. Both oxygen and carbon
dioxide move from areas of high
concentration to areas of lower
concentration.

Respiration
Respiration is the process of releasing
energy from the breakdown of glucose.
Respiration takes place in every living cell,
all of the time and all cells need to respire
in order to produce the energy that they
require.

What is the energy is used for?

The energy produced during respiration is
used in many different ways, some
examples of what it is used for are:
Working your muscles
Growth and repair of cells
Building larger molecules from smaller
ones i.e. proteins from amino acids
Allowing chemical reactions to take
place
Absorbing molecules in active
transport
Keeping your body temperature
constant

 Sending messages along nerves

Types of Respiration
There are two main types of respiration,
aerobic and anaerobic we will look at
each one of these in detail now.

1. Aerobic
Respiration
Aerobic means with air. This type of
respiration needs oxygen for it to occur so
it is called aerobic respiration. The word
equation for aerobic respiration is:

Glucose + Oxygen
Carbon dioxide + Water +
Energy
The chemical equation is:

C6H12O6 + 6O2
6CO2
+ 6H2O + 2900 kJ/mol

It is important that you learn both

the word and chemical equation.
In the above equations we see that
glucose is broken down by oxygen to
release energy with carbon dioxide and
water being produced as by-products of
the reaction. Approximately 2900 kJ of
energy is released when one mole of
glucose is broken down. The released
energy is used to make a special energy
molecule called Adenosine triphosphate
(ATP). ATP is where the energy is stored
for use later on by the body.
Aerobic respiration occurs in plants as
well as animals. Oxygen enters plant cells
through the stomata. Plants produce their
food via photosynthesis and release
energy from it through the process of
respiration. Below is a reminder of what
the equation for photosynthesis is:

(Energy via sunlight)

Carbon dioxide + Water

Glucose + Oxygen
Comparing the two equations we can see
that aerobic respiration works in the
opposite way to photosynthesis. During
the day both photosynthesis and
respiration are taking place at the same
time, though photosynthesis is occurring
at a faster rate. At night when there is no
light only respiration takes place.

2. Anaerobic
Respiration
Anaerobic means without air (an means
without). Sometimes there is not enough
oxygen around for animals and plants to
respire, but they still need energy to
survive. Instead they carry out respiration
in the absence of oxygen to produce the

energy they require this is called

anaerobic respiration.

a) In animals
Our muscles need oxygen and glucose to
respire aerobically and produce the
energy they require, these are carried to
the muscle via the blood. However if we
were to carry out vigorous exercise our
heart and lungs would not be able to get
sufficient oxygen to our muscles in order
for them to respire. In this case muscles
carry out anaerobic respiration. The word
and chemical equation for anaerobic
respiration in is:

Glucose

Lactic acid +
Energy
C6H12O6
2C3H6O3 +
120 kJ/mol

As you can see anaerobic respiration is

not as efficient as aerobic and only a
small amount of energy is released. This

is because glucose can only be partially

broken down. As well as this inefficiency
a poisonous chemical, lactic acid is also
produced, if this builds up in the body it
stops the muscles from working and
causes a cramp. To rid the body of lactic
acid oxygen is needed, the amount of
oxygen required to break down the lactic
acid is referred to as the oxygen debt.

b) In Plants
The oxygen supply to plants can also run
out, this happens for example if the soil
gets waterlogged. In this case they have
to obtain their energy via anaerobic
respiration. Below is the word and
chemical equation for anaerobic
respiration in plants:

Glucose
Ethanol +
Carbon dioxide + Energy
C6H12O6
2C2H5OH +
2CO2 + Energy

When the above reaction occurs in yeast

cells it is referred to as
fermentation. Fermentation is the
process used for baking bread and
brewing alcohol.

Breathing and
Exercise
When we are at rest on average we take
about 16 breaths per minute. But our
breathing rate increases considerably
when we start to exercise. Not only does
our rate of breathing increase, so does the
depth of breathing and heart rate. This all
occurs in order to deliver more oxygen
and glucose to the muscles at a faster
rate and to remove carbon dioxide more
rapidly.
How much our breathing rate and heart
rate increase during and after exercise
can be a good indication of our fitness. A
fit person recovers much faster than
someone who is unfit. The time it takes for

the pulse rate to return to the resting

rate (what it was to begin with) is known
as the recovery time or recovery
rate.

Note that an unfit person will tend to

have a higher pulse rate before, during
and after exercise.

Respiratory
Diseases
1. Smoking

Smoking severely damages your health

and contributes to thousands of deaths
every year. Cigarettes contain lots of
harmful chemicals and these cause
damage to the lungs and the heart. See
the table below for a list of the main toxic
chemicals.

Toxic Chemicals contained in

cigarettes and their effect
Chemical

What it is

Long term
effect on the
body

00Nicotine Nicotine is a Affects

drug. It is
highly
addictive
which is why
smokers find
it so difficult
to give up.

the CNS and

brain
Makes
the heart
beat faster
Narrows
blood

vessels
Causes
heart disease
Raises
blood
pressure
Stomach
ulcers
Stomach
cancer
Lung
disease

Tar

This is a
brown and
treacly
substance.
It collects in
the lungs
when the

Mouth,
lips, throat
and lung
cancer
Smoker's
cough

smoke
Bronchitis
cools. It

contains
Pneumonia
thousands of
chemicals
some of
which are
carcinogens.

Carbon
monoxide

This is a
poisonous
gas. It is
taken up by
the blood
instead of
oxygen.

Reduces
the body's
capacity to
carry oxygen
as carbon
monoxide
combines
with
haemoglobin
more easily
than oxygen,
Deposits

fats in
arteries
which can
lead to a
heart attack
or stroke
Poor
circulation
can lead to
gangrene
and limb
amputation
Chemicals
Irritants
and toxic
substance
s

Effects
the
respiratory
tract
Causes
bronchitis
Poor

health
Reduced
energy

Smoking and
Disease
Smoking increases the risk of developing
of other diseases. These range from fatal
diseases to others that may not be fatal,
but can cause years of suffering and
unpleasant symptoms. Below are some of
the main diseases associated with
smoking.

Lung
cancer

Smoking is one of the

biggest contributors to lung
cancer. More than 8 in 10
cases are directly related
to smoking.

Heart
disease

About 1 in 7 of these
deaths are due to smoking.

Other
cancers

Of the mouth, nose, throat,

larynx, oesophagus,
pancreas, bladder, cervix,
blood (leukaemia), and
kidney are all more
common in smokers.

Chemicals in tobacco
damage the lining of the
blood vessels and affect
the level of fat in the
bloodstream. This
Circulation increases the risk of
atheroma forming (small
fatty lumps). Atheroma is
the main cause of heart
disease and can also
causes strokes.

Ageing

Causes ageing of the skin

and wrinkles.

Fertility

This is reduced in smokers

(both male and female).

On average, women who

Menopaus smoke have a menopause
nearly two years earlier
e
than non-smokers.

Smokers lungs
Non Smoker

Smoker

Passive smoking
Smoking is not only harmful to the smoker
but can also have a detrimental effect on
those around them. Inhaling other
peoples' cigarette smoke is called
passive smoking. Passive smoking
affects people of all ages. It has been
linked with the following health problems
in:

Children and babies

More prone to asthma

 More prone to ear, nose and chest

infections
Suffer from wheezing and chronic
coughs
Have an increased risk of dying from
cot death
Are more likely than average to
become smokers themselves when
older
Are at an increased risk of developing
cancer as adults

Adults
Have an increased risk of lung cancer
Have an increased risk of heart
disease
Can make asthma worse
Causes irritation to the eyes, nose and
throat

Smoking and pregnancy

Smoking is also extremely harmful during
pregnancy and can lead to:
Miscarriage

 Bleeding during pregnancy

Premature birth
Low birth weight (Premature and low
birth weight babies are more prone to
illness and infections.)
Congenital defects in the baby
Stillbirth or death within the first week
of life

2. Asthma
Asthma is a chronic condition which
affects the respiratory system. It causes
inflammation of the bronchioles, which
in turn constricts them and makes it more
difficult for air to pass through. Excessive
amounts of mucus is also secreted which
further blocks the bronchioles.

Symptoms
The typical symptoms are:
Wheezing
Cough
Chest tightness
Shortness of breath

Asthma triggers
Asthma symptoms flare up from time to
time and there are certain things that may
trigger asthma symptoms in a sufferer.
Some of these triggers are listed below:

 Infections e.g. colds, coughs, chest

infections.
Irritants or allergens - substances
which induce an allergic reaction such
as house dust mite, pollen, perfumes
Exercise This can exacerbate
asthma, nonetheless exercise is good
for asthma sufferer. if necessary
patients can use an inhaler before
exercise to prevent symptoms from
developing.
Certain drugs 1 in 50 people with
asthma are allergic to aspirin
Smoking and cigarette fumes
Other fumes and chemicals - E.g.
from paints, solvents and air pollution.
Emotion - Stress, emotional upset, or
laughing may trigger symptoms.
Allergies to animals - Such as pet
cats, dogs, and horses.

Controlling and treating asthma

Some patients use peak flow metres to
keep an eye on how their lungs are

performing. A peak flow meter is a small

device that the patient blows into. It
measures the rate of airflow that can be
blown out of the lungs and records this in
litres per minute. Patients record a pattern
of peak flow over a period of weeks in the
form of a graph. This helps them to
understand when their airways are under
stress and their peak flow is most
affected. This can also go onto highlight
any factors that may be triggering the
asthma.

Doctors may also prescribe medicine in

the form of inhalers to treat asthma.
Some patients record their peak flow after
using the inhaler to the see the
effectiveness of the medication.

There are two main types of

inhalers used to control asthma:

1. Preventers (anti inflamatories)

These need to be used every day for
maximum benefit and act over a longer
time by reducing the inflammation within
the airways. With the correct dosage and
type of preventive medicine there is little
need for reliever medicines.

2. Relievers (bronchodilators)
These are fast acting medicines that relax
(dilate) the muscles of the airways. They
are used when an asthma attack has
started. They open the airways making it
easier to breathe. They are used to relieve
symptoms.

Transport in
plants
Small unicellular organisms such as
amoeba and paramecium, and small
multicellular organisms like flat worms and

sea anemones have a large surface area

to volume ratio. Such properties allow
them to transport food and gases around
their cells by the process of diffusion.
Their large surface areas allow gases to
travel into their cells by diffusion, and
once inside the cell diffusion is sufficient
to cover the small distances from one part
of the cell to the other.
Multicellular organisms like plants and
animals have a small surface area to
volume ratio. They are made up
of tissues, organs and organ systems. In
addition, the more complex organisms
may be covered by shells, scales,
feathers, skin or hairs which do not allow
diffusion. Such organisms therefore need
a transport or circulatory system because
diffusion alone is not capable of meeting
the transport requirements for survival.
The transport system in plants is made up
of a network of thin tubes which carry
liquids all around the plant. Collectively
these tubes are bundled together and
form the vascular bundles. The vascular

bundles reach all the tissues and organs

of the plant.
There are two different types of thin
tubes or transport tissues which make
up the vascular bundles in plants.
Xylem
Phloem

Xylem
The xylem vessels transport water and
minerals from the roots to the shoots and
leaves.
This movement of water and minerals
through the plant is called transpiration.
Xylem vessels are hollow tubes or lumen
with a thick strengthened cellulose cell
wall.
The hollow tubes act like pipes allowing
water and dissolved minerals to flow
through them. They develop from
cylindrical cells arranged end to end, in

which the cytoplasm dies and the cell

walls between adjoining cells breaks down
leaving a dead empty tube.
The cell walls in xylem vessels contain a
substance called lignin which strengthens
the cells and gives structural support.

Phloem
Phloem tubes carry food substances like
sugar and amino acids produced in leaves
during photosynthesis to every part of the
plant.
The movement of food substances
through the plant is called translocation.
Phloem tubes are made up of columns of
living cylindrical cells. The cell walls
between adjoining cells develop holes like
a sieve allowing transport through the
tube.
The image below shows the structure
of the xylem and phloem

The table below summarise the main

points about the xylem and phloem

Tissue

XYLEM

PHLOEM

Diagra
m

Transp Water and

ort
mineral from
the roots to the
shoots and
leaves

Sugar and
amino acids
produced in
leaves during
photosynthesis
to every part of
the plant.

Proces Transpiration
s

Translocation

Structu Cylindrical cells Phloem tubes

re
arranged end to are made up of
end, in which
columns of
the cytoplasm living cylindrical
dies and the
cells. The cell
cell walls
walls between

between
adjoining cells
breaks down
leaving a dead
empty tube with
strengthened
cell walls.

adjoining cells
develop holes
like a sieve
allowing
transport
through the
tube.

Transport into
roots and up
to the leaves
Water and dissolved minerals from the
soil enter plants through their roots. Many
of the cells on the surface of the root
contain root hairs. These projections
increase the overall surface area
increasing the ability of the root to take up
more water.

The process by which water enters the

root is osmosis.
Osmosis is the movement of water
molecules from an area of high water
concentration (weak/dilute solution) i.e.
the soil to an area of low water
concentration (strong/concentrated
solutions) i.e. the plant cells through a
partially permeable membrane (the cell
membrane).
For an explanation of osmosis, click here!
Once water enters the root from the soil it
travels to the xylem vessels in the middle
of the root. The xylem vessels transport
the water up through the stem and into the
leaves of the plant. The leaves have a
high concentration of dissolved minerals
produced from photosynthesis and an
overall low water concentration. Water is
thus transferred from the xylem vessels to
the cells in the leaves via osmosis.

Transpiration
and the
Transpiration
Stream
Transpiration is the loss of water from
a plant by evaporation.
The leaves of a plant are adapted for
efficient photosynthesis. As a result of
this, they have a large surface area to
absorb more sunlight. It is the energy from
this sunlight that changes water in the
leaves from a liquid state to a vapour
state. The leaves also contain tiny pores
called stomata which allow carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere to enter the

leaf for use in photosynthesis. These

pores also allow for water vapour to exit
the leaves.
Most of the evaporation occurs in
the spongy mesophyll cells in the leaf.
The water vapour produced fills the empty
spaces between the mesophyll cells and
exits the leaf through the stomata via the
process of diffusion.
Diffusion is the net movement of
molecules from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower
concentration. So in the case of
transpiration, there is a high concentration
of water vapour in the leaf compared to
the air outside. Thus water vapour
diffuses out of the leaf into the air.
The water lost from the mesophyll cells
increases the concentration of the cell sap
within the cell. This results in water from
the leaf xylem being transported to the
cells via osmosis. Water drawn from the
leaf xylem is in turn replaced by the water
that flows upwards from the stem xylem,

and this is replaced by the water from root

xylem which is replaced by the water
drawn from the root hairs. This movement
of water through the xylem is called the
transpiration stream.
Thus transpiration explains how water
travels against the pull of gravity to reach
the upper regions of plants without the
use of a pump.

Measuring
Transpiration
Transpiration can be measured by an
instrument called a potometer.
The diagram below shows the apparatus
set up for a potometer. Vaseline is applied
around the rubber bungs to ensure an
airtight seal, thus the only water loss from
the apparatus is via transpiration. The

function of the reservoir is to allow the air

bubble to travel back to the start of the
measuring scale on repeating the
experiment. As water moves up through
the plant the air bubble moves along the
scale giving a measure of water absorbed
by the plant over time and hence the
transpiration rate.

Factors
affecting the
Transpiration
Rate
The list below gives the factors which
affect the transpiration rate. Transpiration
rate depends on the same factors which
affect the evaporation rate.

Temperature
An increase in the air temperature warms
the water inside the leaves more quickly
causing it to evaporate quicker. It also
increases the capacity of the air to absorb
more water.

Sunlight
Direct sunlight has the same effect as
temperature as it warms the leaves up
quicker. It also cause the stomata to open,
thus more transpiration occurs during the
day and the rate is higher on a sunny day
compared to a cold dull day.

Wind
Transpiration relies on diffusion. Windy
conditions cause the air molecules to be
blown away from the leaves preventing
the air around the leaves becoming
saturated with water molecules.

Humidity
Humidity is the concentration if water
vapour in the air. At low humidity there is a
lower concentration of water molecules in
the air around the leaves. This
concentration gradient helps the transport
of water molecules from the leaves by
diffusion. High humidity means the air
around the leaves is already saturated
and has a higher concentration of water
molecules than inside the leaves.

Importance
of
Transpiratio
n
Photosynthesis:
It provides the water needed for food
manufactured by photosynthesis in the
leaves.

Cooling:
Transpiration involves the evaporation of
water. The cells in the leaves are exposed
to direct sunlight. Energy from the sunlight
can be transferred from the plant cells to
the water causing it to evaporate. This

causes the plant cells to cool down and

prevents direct sunlight from damaging
the delicate cells.

Support:
The cells in a plant absorb water via
osmosis and swell up. This results in a
build-up of pressure called turgor
pressure and the cells are said to
be turgid. The cell wall surrounding all
plant cells is made up of tough inelastic
cellulose which stops the cells from
swelling up too much. Turgid cells are firm
and give the plant support. If the cells lose
too much water, they shrink and become
flaccid and the plant becomes soft and
has less support. The stem no longer
remains upright and the leaves wilt.

Movement of Minerals:
The water transported upwards from the
roots to the leaves also contains dissolved
mineral salts which are used to produce a
variety of substances such as proteins in
the plant.

What is
Photosynthes
is?
Green plants are also called producers.
This is because they have the ability to
produce their own food from the raw
materials around them by a process called
photosynthesis.
During photosynthesis radiant energy
from the sun (sunlight) is absorbed by
green plants. The energy is used to
convert carbon dioxide, water and
minerals the plants take in from their
surroundings into sugar and gaseous
oxygen.
Photosynthesis is critical to life on Earth.
Without photosynthesis the food supply

would finish and the Earths atmosphere

would lose its oxygen.

Photosynthesis
Reaction
The chemical equation for the process of
photosynthesis is given as:

carbo
n
wat light gluco oxyg
dioxi
er energy
se
en
+
+
de
6CO2

chloroph
6H2
C6H12
yll

O6

6O2

The photosynthesis equation is a simple

representation for a very complex natural
process. Within the photosynthesis
process there are two distinctly separate
stages, a photochemical stage followed by
a biochemical stage.

The photochemical stage involves the

radiant energy supplied by sunlight and
involves reactions called light dependant
reactions. Green plants contain a light
absorbing pigment called chlorophyll.
When a molecule of chlorophyll absorbs
light it uses the energy to boost electrons
to a higher energy level and the molecule
is said to be excited. The electrons at the
higher energy levels are transferred along
chains of electron carrier molecules. The
energy transfers of the electrons are

responsible for the formation of key

energy carrying molecules along with the
splitting of the water molecule to oxygen
and hydrogen.
These molecules then undergo the
second stage of photosynthesis, the
biochemical reaction. Here they react with
hydrogen formed from the splitting of
water in the photochemical stage and
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere with
the presence of enzymes to form the
organic glucose molecules. The reactions
in this stage are referred to as lightindependent reactions because they do
not require light as they use the energy
already provided by the light in the lightdependent reactions. Thus,
photosynthesis has transferred the energy
from light to chemical energy in the sugar.

The structure
of a leaf
The leaves are the organ
for photosynthesis. It is where
photosynthesis takes place. The
structures of leaves are adapted for
efficient photosynthesis as shown in the
table below.

Adaptation

Function

Large surface Most leaves

area
are broad and
so have a large
surface area
allowing them
to absorb more
light.
A thin shape

A thin shape
means a short
distance for
carbon dioxide
to diffuse in
and oxygen to
diffuse out
easily.

Chlorophyll

This chemical
gives the

leaves their
green colour
and transfers
light energy to
chemical
energy.
Veins

Networks of
veins support
the structure of
the leaf and
transport
substances to
and from the
cells in the leaf.

Stomata

These are
small holes on
the underside
of the leaf that
allow gases to

diffuse in and
out.

The cellular
structure of a leaf

Layer &
Function
Adaptati
on
Cuticle:
The cuticle is a
Waterproo waxy, waterproof
f
layer which cuts
down the water lost
by evaporation and
protects against
parasitic fungi.
Upper
Epidermi
s:
Transpare
nt

A single layer of
cells that are
transparent and
contain no
chloroplast allowing
light to pass straight
through.

Palisade
Layer:
Contains
chloroplas
ts

This layer is made

up of palisade cells
which contain
chloroplasts. This is
where most of the
photosynthesis

The
importance
of
photosynth
esis
Without plants, life as we know it would
not exist on our planet. Green plants play
a vital role in the following areas.

Atmospheric gases
During photosynthesis plants take in
carbon dioxide and give off oxygen as a
by-product. Photosynthesis can therefore

be considered as the reverse of

respiration. Without green plants
performing photosynthesis there would be
no way for nature to replace all the
oxygen being consumed in processes
such as respiration and combustion.
Furthermore the levels of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere would increase. Thus,
the balance of atmospheric gases is kept
stable by photosynthesis.

Food
Green plants are called producers
because they produce all their own food
from the raw materials around them via
photosynthesis. Animals and humans on
the other hand are consumers and all the
food they eat comes directly or indirectly
from plants. Most of the worlds population
obtains more than 80% of their food
directly from plants, for e.g. rice, potatoes,
wheat, corn etc. The remaining source
comes from animals and these animals

are part of the food chain which always

begins with plants.

Clothing
Many plants have cells which are long and
thin with thick cell walls. These properties
allow the cells to form fibres, which can be
spun and woven into fabrics. Examples of
these include the cotton plant used to
make cotton and the flax plan used to
make linen.

Medicines
Plants contain a vast range of chemicals
which are extracted and used in the
production of medicines. Aspirin the drug
used as a pain reliever and to reduce
blood clotting in heart patients is derived
from salicylic acid, a chemical extracted
from the bark of the willow tree. Much
stronger pain killers (analgesic drugs)
such as morphine and codeine are
produced from opium, the dried sap
derived from the seeds of the poppy plant.

To date the number of plants tested for

medicinal properties number only in their
thousands. There are still a vast number
yet to be tested including many of the
species sourced from the tropical
rainforests. The unknown medicinal
properties of these plant species adds to
the importance of protecting natural
habitats such as rainforests.

Wood
Wood for use as a building material, a fuel
for combustion and in the manufacture of
paper is sourced from trees.

Pesticides
Many plants produce chemicals as a
defensive mechanism to protect them
against attacks from pests. These
chemicals can be extracted from the
plants to produce natural pesticides to
protect crops and plants.

Gas
Exchange
Gas exchange in plants takes place in the
leaves. Gas exchange in plants is
required for two critical processes.
1. Respiration
2. Photosynthesis

Respiration
Respiration is the release of energy from
the breakdown of glucose in living cells.
Respiration takes place in every living cell
and all cells need to respire to produce
the energy they need. Respiration
involves the intake of oxygen and giving
out of carbon dioxide. Respiration takes
place all the time.
The equation for respiration is:

gluco
se
C6H12
O6

oxyg
en
+
6O2

carb
on
wat ener
dioxi
er
gy
+
+
de
6CO2

6H2
O

Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process in which
green plants produce glucose. It involves
the conversion of carbon dioxide gas,
water and minerals the plants take in from
their surroundings into sugar and gaseous
oxygen.
The equation for photosynthesis is
given as:
carbo + wat light gluco +oxyg
n
er energy
se
en

dioxi
de

chloroph

6CO2

6H2
O

yll

C6H12
O6

6O2

Photosynthesis involves the intake of

carbon dioxide and the release of oxygen.
As it requires radiant energy it only takes
place in the light.
The table below summaries the two
process involving gas exchange in
green plants.

Proce Respirat Photosynt

ss
ion
hesis
Gas In Oxygen

Carbon
Dioxide

Gas
Out

Oxygen

Carbon
dioxide,
water
vapour

Time

At all
times
day and
night

Requires
sunlight
daytime
only

Equati glucose
on
+
oxygen

carbon
dioxide +
water
glucose +
oxygen

carbon
dioxide +
water +
energy

TipPhotosynthesis can be
considered as the opposite or reverse
to respiration in green plants. Thus, if
you remember the equation for one of
the processes you can easily recall the
other.

TipThe movement of gases in and

out of green plants is via a process
called diffusion. The route of the gases
in and out of the leaves is regulated by
the stomata.

The structure
and function
of Stomata
Stomata are small holes or openings
primarily situated on the underside of the
leaf which allow gases to diffuse in and
out. Stomata is from the Greek word for
mouth which makes perfect sense when
one considers it is the through the
stomata that the leaf communicates from

the internal to the external environment

via the exchange of gases.

Food and
Digestion
Why we need food
We all enjoy and eat food but why do we
need it and what does our body do with it?
Below are some of the main reasons why
we need food.
For energy
You need food to work your muscles
and other body organs. Food is the
bodys fuel that keeps it going, without
it the body would not work.

 For growth and repair

In order for your body to grow you
need to make new cells. New cells are
also needed to replace old or
damaged cells. Your body makes
these new cells from the chemicals in
your food.
To stay healthy
There are lots of reactions taking place
in the cells of your body to keep you
healthy and keep your body working.
Certain chemicals are needed for
these reactions which can only be
taken in from the food you eat.

A Balanced Diet
In order to maintain healthy our body must
have a healthy and balanced diet. This
means we must eat sufficient food and
also eat a variety of foods, this way our
body gets all the different nutrients it
needs.

There are seven nutrition groups found

in the food we eat, these are:
1. Carbohydrates
2. Proteins
3. Fat
4. Fibre
5. Vitamins
6. Minerals
7. Water
A balanced diet is made up of all of the
above nutrients.

Carbohydrates
We need carbohydrates to give us energy.
Starch and sugars such as glucose,
sucrose and lactose are all carbohydrates.
Starch is a large molecule made up of lots
of smaller glucose molecules joined
together.

Plants turn their glucose into starch and

store it for when they need it.
Glycogen is a large carbohydrate
molecule like starch. It is also made up of
glucose molecules joined together.
Animals store glucose as glycogen in our
liver and muscles, our body turns
glycogen into glucose when we need it for
energy.
The foods below are a good source of
carbohydrate.

Proteins
Your body is made up of millions of cells.
These cells are mostly made up of
protein. Our body needs protein to make
new cells during growth and to replace old
or damaged cells. Proteins are made up
of lots of smaller amino acids joined
together; there are about 20 different

types of amino acids. The foods below are

rich in protein.

Children especially need a lot of protein in

their diets as they are growing, however
there are many children around the work
whose diets are deficient in protein and as
a result they suffer from illness.
Kwashiorkor is a protein deficiency
disorder in many developing countries.
This occurs because peoples diets manly
consist of starchy vegetables and in
particular they do not get enough animal
protein which contains the essential amino
acids required by the body.

Fat
Fats are made up of 3 fatty acids joined to
a single glycerol molecule.

We need fats to give us energy. In fact

fats contain more energy than
carbohydrates. Our body uses fat as a
store of energy. Fat is stored under the
skin and around the heart and kidneys.
Fats are also needed for warmth
(insulation) as they reduce heat los from
the body. Below are the foods which are
high in fat.

However fats can also be bad for us.

There are two types of fats, saturated fat
and unsaturated fat. Fat that comes from
animals is saturated fat and that which
comes from plants is unsaturated.

Cholesterol is a fatty deposit which is

made in the liver and found in blood. The
level of cholesterol in blood is influenced
by the amount and type of fat in our diet.
Saturated fats increase blood cholesterol
levels and unsaturated fats reduce blood
cholesterol levels. If we eat too much
saturated fat, levels of cholesterol
increase and this cholesterol will begin to
stick to the lining of our arteries and over
time build up. This makes the arteries
narrower and our heart has to work harder
to push the blood through the narrow
vessel. This in turn can lead to an
increase in the risk of heart disease and
heart attacks.

Genetic factors, smoking and alcohol

consumption also contribute to the effects

of cholesterol and also increase the risk of

heart disease.

Fibre
Fibre or roughage comes from plants, it is
essentially the cellulose from the plant cell
walls. Foods that are high in fibre include
bran cereals, Sweetcorn and celery.

Fibre cannot actually be digested,

however, it is an important part of our diet
for various reasons:
As it remains undigested it passes
through the entire gut from mouth to
anus and thus keeps food moving
smoothly through our system.
It prevents constipation.
The fibre absorbs poisonous waste
from the digesting food.

 High fibre diets are believed to reduce

the risk of heart disease, bowel cancer
and cholesterol in the body.

Vitamins and Minerals

We only need a small amount of vitamins
and minerals in our diet but these are
essential for good health. If they are
missing we can become ill. Deficiency
diseases are caused when the body does
not have enough of a certain type of
vitamin or mineral e.g. anaemia is caused
by lack of the mineral iron. These
deficiencies are easily cured by eating the
right kinds of food. Vitamins and minerals
can be found in fruit, vegetables and
cereals.

Salt is sodium chloride and is required in

small amounts in our diet. On average an
adult needs 6 grams per day, however
many people are consuming 60% more

than this. Salt is naturally found in many

types of food but particularly high levels
can be found in processed food such as
biscuits, crisps and cereals. Too much salt
on the diet is linked to heart disease, high
blood pressure and strokes.

Water
Water makes up roughly 65% of our body
weight. We take in water when we eat and
drink. Water is important because:
Chemical reactions in our cells take
place in water.
Waste products are passed out of our
bodies in water.
Our blood transports substances that
are dissolved in water
Water is in sweat that cools us down

Digestion
Now that we have discussed the different
categories of food we now need to
understand what happens to that food
once we have eaten it.

In order for the food that we have eaten to

be useful to our body it needs to be
broken down into small molecules which
can then easily be absorbed. Large food
molecules such as starch, protein and fat
are insoluble and cannot dissolve, thus
they are unable to pass through the gut
wall. On the other hand small food
molecules such as glucose, amino acids,
fatty acids and glycerol are soluble and
can dissolve, thus they are able to pass
through the gut wall.
The breakdown of large food molecules
into small food molecules is
called digestion. Once the food has been
digested it dissolves and can then be
absorbed through the gut wall into the
blood stream. The definition of digestion is
as follows:

Digestion is the break down

of large, insoluble food
molecules into small,

soluble food molecules so

that they can be absorbed
into the blood stream

The
Digestive
System
The digestive system also known as the
gut is essentially a long tube about 9
metres long. It starts at the mouth and
ends at the anus. There are many
different parts to the digestive system but
each part has its specific function.

Oral Cavity (Mouth)

Teeth
Food enters the mouth and digestion
begins with the teeth breaking down the
food into smaller pieces. This serves 2
purposes:
1. Makes the food easier to swallow
2. Gives food a large surface area for
enzymes to work on
A full set of adult teeth consists
of 32 teeth. But not all teeth are the same
and are shaped and designed for different
jobs. There are four different types of
human teeth:
1. Incisors are used for cutting and
biting.
2. Canines are pointed and used for
piercing and tearing.
3. Pre-molars are used for grinding
and crushing.
4. Molars are like pre-molars and
used for crushing and chewing.
In a full set of adult teeth there are 8
incisors, 4 canines, 8 pre-molars and 12
molars which makes 32 in total.

All teeth have similar features as shown in

the diagram below:

Salivary glands
The salivary glands secrete saliva which
mixes with the chewed food. Saliva has
two functions:
1. Saliva contains the
enzyme amylase which is a
carbohydrase and breaks down starch
into sugar.
2. Saliva also contains mucus which
lubricates the food and helps it pass
down the oesophagus.

Pharynx &
Oesophagus
Swallowing
Swallowing is a reflex reaction and
happens without us thinking about it.
Before swallowing the tongue rolls the
food into a soft ball and pushes it to the
back of the mouth. The food pushes the
soft palate upwards which blocks the
upper pharynx and stops food going into
the nasal cavity. Voluntary muscles in the
face, neck and tongue push the food
through the pharynx. As the food is

swallowed it passes over the epiglottis

which covers the opening of the
respiratory system and prevents food
entering it. Food passes the epiglottis and
into the oesophagus which connects the
pharynx to the stomach.
Now the food enters the oesophagus and
is called a bolus. The oesophagus has
circular muscles in the wall. These
muscles contract behind the bolus to push
it along and the muscles in front of the
food relax. This way food passes along
the oesophagus to the stomach. This
movement is known asperistalsis.

Stomach
The bolus enters the stomach. The
stomach cells makes gastric juices which
mix with the food.
The gastric juices contain
a protease enzyme
called pepsin which breaks down
proteins into amino acids.
The juices also contain hydrochloric
acid, this is because pepsin works
best in an acidic environment of pH 2.
The acid in the juices also kills any
germs.
The muscular walls of the stomach churn
the food and mix it well with the
secretions. After 2-3 hours of churning the
food is a thick liquid called chyme.

Small Intestine
The small intestine is about 6 metres
long. Chyme leaves the stomach via the
pyloric sphincter and enters the small

intestine. The small intestine consists of

three parts, the duodenum,
jejunum andileum.
In the small intestine 3 important juices
are added to the food.
BILE: The liver produces bile which is
stored in the gall bladder and enters
the small intestine via the bile duct.
Bile has 2 important functions:
1. Bile is alkaline and neutralises
the acid which was added to the
food in the stomach. This provides
the best pH for the enzymes in the
small intestine to work at.
2. Bile emulsifies fats, that is it
breaks large molecules of fat into
smaller droplets which increases
the surface area of fats for the
enzyme lipase to work on.
PANCREATIC JUICE: The pancreas
produce pancreatic juices which
contain carbohydrases, proteases and
lipases. These enzymes empty into

the duodenum to further continue

digesting the food.
INTESTINAL JUICE: The glands in
the wall of the small intestine produce
intestinal juice. This also contains
carbohydrases, proteases and
lipases. These enzymes complete the
digestion of the food.
In addition to digestion the small intestine
has another important job and this
is ABSORPTION. The small intestine is
ideal for absorption because it has:
A thin lining
Plentiful blood supply
Very large surface area
The surface area of the small intestine is
around 9 square metres! This is possible
because the small intestine is very long
(around 6 metres) and it is lined with tiny
finger like projections called villi. Each
villus in turn is covered with even
smaller microvilli. The villi have very thin
walls and a good blood supply which
means that the digested food can be

easily absorbed from the gut into the

blood. There are millions of villi which
provide a massive surface area to
maximise the rate of absorption.

Large Intestine

Any indigestible or non absorbed chyme

passes into the large intestine. Excess
water and salts are absorbed and the
remaining chyme is converted into faeces.
The faeces is stored in the rectum until it
is excreted through the anal canal.

Enzymes
and
Digestion

As we know enzymes are important

molecules, they are particularly important
in digestion as they help break down
large, insoluble food molecules into small,
soluble molecules which can be easily
absorbed. Enzymes work best at
their optimum pH. So for example if the
stomach does not produce enough HCl,
the enzyme, pepsin, will not work properly,
(remember the optimum pH for pepsin is
2). There are 3 main types of enzymes in
our gut: Protease,
Carbohydrase, andLipase.

Protease

Protease enzymes are secreted by the

stomach, pancreas and small intestine
and their job is to digest proteins. An
example of a protease is pepsin which is
secreted in the stomach. Proteins are long
chains of amino acids, and protease
enzymes break them into peptides
(smaller chains of amino acids molecules)
and eventually into individual amino
acids, which are small and easily
absorbed in the small intestine. The word
equation for the protease reaction is:
proteins
amino acids

Carbohydrase
Carbohydrase enzymes are secreted by
the mouth, pancreas and small intestine.
The carbohydrase enzyme, amylase is
secreted by the mouth and found in saliva.
It starts to work as soon as we begin to
chew our food. Amylase digests long,
complex starch (polysaccharide)
molecules, into smaller,
simpler maltose (disaccharide)

molecules. As maltose is a disaccharide it

still needs further digestion before it can
be absorbed. The
enzyme maltase breaks it down into
glucose. The word equation is:
starch
maltose
glucose
Other dietary sugars such
as sucrose and lactose (both
disaccharides) are broken down further by
different carbohydrase enzymes. The
word equations are:
sucrose
glucose + fructose
lactose
glucose + galactose

Lipase
Lipase is secreted by the pancreas and
the walls of the small intestine. It digests
complex fat (orlipid) molecules into
simple, soluble fatty
acid and glycerol molecules. The word
equation for this reaction is:
Lipids
fatty acids + glycerol

NOTE: Its important you

recall the main digestive
enzymes, the food types
they break down and where
they are produced.

Summary Table of
the Digestive
Enzymes
Digestive
enzyme

Produced
in

Reaction
catalysed

Stomach,
Protease (e.g. pancreas Protein Amino
Pepsin)
and small
acids
intestine
Carbohydrase Salivary Starch
(e.g.
glands,

Glucose

Amylase)

pancreas
and small
intestine

Lipase (e.g.
Gastric
lipase)

Pancreas
and small
intestine

Fats (lipids)
Fatty acid and
glycerol

Enzymes
What are
Enzymes?
Enzymes are proteins made up of long
chains of amino acids. They control
chemical reactions that take place in all
living things such as digestion, respiration
and photosynthesis. They are knows
asBiological catalysts as they speed up
chemical reactions allowing them to occur
at a faster rate. During this process,
however the enzymes themselves do not

get used up and so can continue

catalysing the reaction.
Each enzyme has its own specific 3dimensional structure and is folded into a
unique shape which allows other
molecules to fit into it. The area where
these molecules fit into is known as the
enzymesactive site. The molecules
which fit into the active site are knows as
the substrate. The enzyme and the
substrate fit together using a lock and
key mechanism.

Enzymes
How Enzymes work
Enzymes work by intervening in chemical
reactions by locking onto the substrate at
their active site and speeding up the
reaction. Enzymes can work in different
ways, some enzymes help to break down
large molecules into smaller ones, others
build up large molecules from smaller
ones whilst there are some that help
change one molecule into another.
One of the fastest enzymes knows
is catalase. Catalase is found in many
living cells and breaks down hydrogen
peroxide into water and oxygen. Hydrogen
peroxide is often formed as a product of
reactions in cells, and can be poisonous if
it builds up it is the job of catalase to
remove the harmful hydrogen peroxide.

The substrate (hydrogen peroxide) and

the enzyme (catalase) are continuously on
the move. Every so often they collide so
that the substrate molecule fits into the
enzymes active site. Once in the active
site the reaction takes place between the
substrate and enzyme, the substrate is
broken down into the two products (water
and oxygen). When the required product
has been produced, the enzyme releases
itself and moves on. The enzyme is not
used up in the reaction and so is ready to
work again! No matter what job an
enzyme does it will work in this similar
way.

Optimum
conditions for
enzymes
Enzymes are sensitive and work best
under specific conditions. Enzyme activity

is affected by several things and each

type of enzyme has its own
specific optimum conditions under which
it works best.

1. Substrate concentration
Enzymes work best when there is a high
enough substrate concentration for the
reaction they catalyse. If too little
substrate is available the rate of the
reaction is slowed and cannot increase
any further.

Sometimes, if there is too much product

accumulating, the reaction can also be
slowed down. Therefore it is important
that the product is removed regularly.

2. Temperature
Enzymes are affected a great deal by
temperature. If the temperature is too cold
the enzymes move around too slowly to
meet the substrate and for a reaction to
occur. As the temperature increases
though, so does the rate of reaction. This
is because heat energy causes more
collisions between the enzyme and the
substrate. However as you will remember
all enzymes are proteins and at too high
temperatures the proteins break down.
The active site of the enzyme becomes
distorted and so the substrate no longer
fits and hence the reaction does not occur.
We say that the enzyme has
beendenatured.

3. pH
The pH must be correct for each enzyme
to work at its best. Different enzymes work
best at different pH values.
The optimum pH for an enzyme depends
on its site of action. For example,
enzymes in the stomach have an optimum
pH of about 2 because the stomach is
acid, but intestinal enzymes have an
optimum pH of about 7.5. If conditions are
too alkaline or acidic for that particular
enzyme then its activity is affected. This
occurs because the enzymes shape,
especially the active site, is changed so
can no longer bind to the substrate

molecule. We say that the enzyme

is denatured.