This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.

0/), which
permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the International Epidemiological Association.
International Journal of Epidemiology 2014;43:116128
The Author 2014. Advance Access publication 6 February 2014
doi:10.1093/ije/dyt215

CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE

Hypertension among older adults in lowand middle-income countries: prevalence,

awareness and control
Peter Lloyd-Sherlock,1* John Beard,2 Nadia Minicuci,3 Shah Ebrahim4 and Somnath Chatterji5
1

School of International Development, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK, 2Department of Ageing and Life Course,
World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland 3National Research Council, Institute of Neuroscience, Padova, Italy, 4London
School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK and 5Department of Health Statistics and Informatics, World Health
Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
*Corresponding author. School of International Development, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7TJ, UK.
E-mail: [email protected]

Accepted

19 September 2013

Background This study uses data from the World Health Organizations Study
on Global Ageing and Adult Health (SAGE) to examine patterns
of hypertension prevalence, awareness, treatment and control for
people aged 50 years and over in China, Ghana, India, Mexico,
the Russian Federation and South Africa.
Methods

The SAGE sample comprises of 35 125 people aged 50 years and older,
selected randomly. Hypertension was defined as 5140 mmHg
(systolic blood pressure) or 590 mmHg (diastolic blood pressure)
or by currently taking antihypertensives. Control of hypertension
was defined as blood pressure below 140/90 mmHg on treatment.
A person was defined as aware if he/she was hypertensive and
self-reported the condition.

Results

Prevalence rates in all countries are broadly comparable to those of

developed countries (52.9%; range 32.3% in India to 77.9% in South
Africa). Hypertension was associated with overweight/obesity and
was more common in women, those in the lowest wealth quintile
and in heavy alcohol consumers. Awareness was found to be low
for all countries, albeit with substantial national variations (48.3%;
range 23.3% in Ghana to 72.1% in the Russian Federation). This was
also the case for control (10.2%; range 4.1% in Ghana to 14.1% India)
and treatment efficacy (26.3%; range 17.4% in the Russian Federation
to 55.2% in India). Awareness was associated with increasing
age, being female and being overweight or obese. Effective control
of hypertension was more likely in older people, women and in the
richest quintile. Obesity was associated with poorer control.

Conclusions The high rates of hypertension in low- and middle-income countries

are striking. Levels of treatment and control are inadequate despite
half those sampled being aware of their condition. Since cardiovascular disease is by far the largest cause of years of life lost in these
settings, these findings emphasize the need for new approaches
towards control of this major risk factor.
Keywords

Hypertension, older people, risk factors, developing countries

116

HYPERTENSION AMONG OLDER ADULTS IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES

Introduction
Populations around the world are rapidly ageing,
and low- and middle-income countries (LMICS) are
experiencing some of the most dramatic increases.1
This demographic transition is closely linked to an
epidemiological shift from communicable to noncommunicable disease (NCD).2 Hypertension, a key
NCD risk factor, appears to be increasing in prevalence,
possibly associated with development, urbanization
and lifestyle changes.2,3 However, there are large variations in reported prevalence, both across and within
countries.4,5 This is particularly apparent in LMICs,
although these discrepancies may be partly due to
variations in survey design and measurement.
Systematically verifying the extent of these national
and sub-national variations using directly measured
blood pressure, and identifying potentially modifiable
causes, may facilitate the development of interventions
to slow the rise in NCD occurrence. Systematic analysis
is also needed to assess the degree to which hypertension is detected, treated and controlled, and assess social
gradients for all these aspects of hypertension.
Hypertension prevalence increases with age, and is a
readily treatable risk factor for the most common
causes of morbidity and mortality in older age:
stroke, ischaemic heart disease, renal insufficiency
and dementia.68 It has been suggested that the
burden of stroke and ischaemic heart disease may
be several times higher in LMICs than in their highincome counterparts.2 Yet, whereas LMICs are experiencing the most rapid population ageing, our understanding of the prevalence and management of
hypertension in these settings remains limited.
Although there is some evidence of high prevalence
in LMICs911 these studies are small, do not always
include older participants, and little is concluded
about the awareness of hypertension, the extent of
effective or ineffective treatment, or the factors that
might influence awareness or treatment in these settings. To fill this crucial gap in our understanding,
this study examines the prevalence and possible
determinants of hypertension and effective treatment
in representative samples of over 35 000 older people
in low- and middle-income settings.

Methods
We use new publicly available data from the World
Health Organization (WHO) Study on Global Aging
and Adult Health (SAGE). This comprises nationally
representative household surveys in China, Ghana,
India, Mexico, South Africa and the Russian
Federation. Respondents were selected using a multistage, stratified, random cluster sampling design with
every individual having a known non-zero probability
of being selected. The primary sampling units were
stratified by region and location (urban/rural) and,
within each stratum, enumeration areas were selected.

117

Details are available on the SAGE website (www.who.

int/healthinfo/systems/sage). The six countries comprise a total study population of 35 125 people aged 50
years and over. The period of data collection varied by
country, ranging between 2007 and 2010. Overall individual response rates among those eligible within
households and agreeing to participate in the survey
varied from 52.4% in Mexico to 92.3% in China
(Table 1). Supplementary Table A1 (available as
Supplementary data at IJE online) provides more
detailed information about response rates to different
questionnaire items. Ethical clearance was obtained
from local research review boards at each participating
SAGE site and the WHO Ethical Review Committee.
Informed consent was obtained from each respondent
prior to interview. Further information about the
SAGE survey design and methods is available from a
published data resource profile.12
Blood pressure (BP) was measured using a Boso
Medistar Wrist Blood Pressure Monitor Model S.
Validation studies of similar wrist blood pressure
monitoring devices indicate that they are capable of
providing accurate measurements13,14 but that the
position of the arm in relation to the heart is critical
(http://www.bhsoc.org/bp-monitors/bp-monitors/).
Respondents were asked to remain seated and
relaxed, and the importance of positioning their
arm level with their heart was emphasized. BP was
measured three times, with 1 min between each measurement. Participants were asked to self-report: Have
you ever been diagnosed with high BP (hypertension)?
Those answering yes were further asked: Have you
been taking any medications or other treatment for it
during a) the last 2 weeks? b) the last 12 months?
Height was measured using a stadiometer and weight
was measured using an electronic weighing scale that
was periodically calibrated. All interviewers were provided with a week of training, including demonstrations and audiovisual aids. Before launching the main
phase of the study, a pretest was carried out on 1446
respondents, with 5% of respondents being retested
within 7 days with an identical instrument. The
SAGE main study also included a retest component
on 5% of respondents. These studies show a moderate
reliability in these measures with trained lay interviewers (kappa for obesity 0.8; for hypertension 0.5).
Hypertension was considered to be present if the mean
of the last two measurements was 5140 mmHg (systolic blood pressure) or 590 mmHg (diastolic blood
pressure) or if respondents were currently taking antihypertensives. Hypertensive participants were classified
as controlled (i.e. on antihypertensives and blood pressure <140 or <90 mmHg). Those who were aware of
their hypertension were classified into controlled and
uncontrolled. Finally, among all those who were currently on treatment for hypertension, respondents
were classified into those who were effectively treated
(normotensive on measurement) and those who were
not effectively treated (hypertensive on measurement).

118

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EPIDEMIOLOGY

Table 1 Distribution (%) of characteristics, overall and by country

Age (years)

Sex
Education

BMI

Smoking

5054
5559

23.6

23.3

19.4

25.3

21.7

22.1

21.5

6064

15.7

17.1

14.8

16.5

14.3

11.5

16.9

6569

13.8

14.6

12.5

14.0

11.2

13.1

13.7

7074

10.5

11.1

14.3

10.6

7.8

10.4

8.3

75

13.2

12.1

18.0

10.0

18.6

19.8

11.2

Male

48.0

49.8

49.7

51.1

46.8

38.9

44.0

Female

52.0

50.2

50.3

48.9

53.2

61.1

56.0

None

28.9

23.8

54.0

51.2

17.2

0.7

25.2

Primary

30.2

39.5

21.3

24.8

62.4

6.8

46.4

Secondary

15.5

19.7

4.0

10.2

9.9

20.2

14.2

Higher

25.4

17.0

20.7

13.7

10.5

72.3

14.2

Normal

45.9

60.5

55.3

48.3

21.4

23.8

24.7

Underweight

15.6

4.3

15.3

39.0

0.6

1.1

3.3

Overweight

26.1

29.5

19.7

10.6

49.4

40.8

26.9

Obese

12.4

5.7

9.7

2.1

28.6

34.3

45.1

Never

64.6

64.2

77.3

61.6

60.6

69.6

69.0

3.0

2.5

2.7

3.9

6.9

1.2

3.4

24.1

26.7

5.4

28.1

13.3

20.1

17.8

8.2

6.6

14.6

6.3

19.1

9.0

9.7

Life time
abstainers

76.8

74.2

57.8

92.5

64.3

44.7

84.5

Non-heavy
drinker

18.4

18.2

39.5

6.9

29.3

47.6

11.5

Infrequent
heavy
drinker

1.9

1.2

1.2

0.4

6.2

6.3

3.0

Frequent
heavy
drinker

2.8

6.3

1.5

0.2

0.1

1.4

1.0

High

48.7

44.1

61.7

52.2

39.6

57.7

28.0

Moderate

22.8

27.5

12.6

22.9

22.8

15.7

12.6

Low

28.5

28.3

25.7

24.9

37.6

26.6

59.4

Urban

48.1

47.6

40.6

29.4

78.8

72.7

64.9

Rural

51.9

52.4

59.4

70.6

21.2

27.3

35.1

Poorest

17.0

16.3

18.4

17.9

15.3

16.2

20.7

Q2

19.4

18.2

19.4

19.3

24.7

19.6

19.9

Q3

19.3

20.5

20.7

18.8

16.8

19.1

18.2

Less than
daily
Daily
Ever (not
current)
Alcohol
consumption

Physical
activity

Location
Wealth
quintile

Health
insurance
Response
rate (%)

Russian
South
Overall
China
Ghana
India
Mexico Federation
Africa
(n 35 125) (n 13 348) (n 4716) (n 7238) (n 2281) (n 3763) (n 3820)
23.1
21.7
21.0
23.5
26.3
23.1
28.3

Q4

20.8

23.3

20.0

19.5

16.6

20.5

19.8

Richest

23.5

21.7

21.5

24.4

26.6

24.6

21.4

Insured

56.0

89.6

38.0

3.9

66.6

99.6

20.5

Uninsured

44.0

10.4

62.0

96.1

33.4

0.4

79.5

92.3

78.4

87.3

52.4

82.3

77.7

HYPERTENSION AMONG OLDER ADULTS IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES

All data analysis was weighted, using individual

weights that were post-stratified based on the UN
Population Standards data.15 All analyses were age
standardized. Analysis was carried out using SAS 9.3
(Statistical Analysis Software, SAS Institute).
Multivariable logistic regression models were used to
examine the association of a range of characteristics
with the following outcomes: hypertension, awareness
of hypertension, use of antihypertensives and control.
Models were applied to each country sample individually, and to the total pooled sample. All characteristics
were retained in the final forced multivariable
model, with complete data on all variables. The adjusted model included: age, sex, education, body mass
index (BMI, kg/m), location (rural/urban), wealth
quintiles at the household level, and household
heads membership of a health insurance scheme.
Details of classification of variables are presented in
Appendix 1 (available as Supplementary data at IJE
online). For those receiving treatment, we applied
similar models (adding inadequate physical activity
and heavy alcohol consumption) to determine the factors that were associated with effective treatment (i.e.
treated but with normal measured blood pressure)
compared with ineffective treatment (detailed definitions of these variables are provided in Appendix 1,
available as Supplementary data at IJE online).

Results
Table 1 shows the distribution of variables potentially
associated with hypertension by country and for the
SAGE sample as a whole. Table 2 shows there were
high rates of hypertension for all the SAGE countries,
albeit with large national variations. The prevalence of
hypertension ranged from 78% in South Africa to 32%
in India, with consistently higher levels for women.
Adjusted individual-level multivariable analysis
showed positive associations with increasing age and
body mass index (BMI) consistently across countries.
Women had higher odds of hypertension in all countries but China. Increasing BMI was strongly associated with hypertension. This was consistent across
countries, and the large variations in the prevalence of
overweight/obesity across the SAGE countries (16.6%
in India, 83.5% in the Russian Federation) were a key
determinant for the national variations in prevalence
reported in Table 2. The inverse association with
higher education was found for all countries except
India, where education had no effect, and Ghana,
where only people with no education were less
likely to have hypertension. The effects of smoking
and physical exercise were inconsistent across countries and point estimates were small, with wide confidence intervals. The effect of alcohol consumption
was very inconsistent, which partly reflects the very
low numbers reporting heavy drinking.
There were large national variations in the proportion of hypertensive participants who were aware of

119

their condition (Table 3) and who were adequately

controlled (Table 4). The Russian Federation was the
only country with a high percentage of people aware
of their status (72%); in none of the other five countries were more than 45% of hypertensive people
aware. Factors consistently associated with awareness
across the six countries included increasing age, being
female and being overweight or obese. Having health
insurance was positively associated with awareness in
three countries, but the strength of this effect varied
from very strong in the Russian Federation to more
marginal in Ghana. With the exception of Mexico
and the Russian Federation, urban residence was
associated with awareness. Higher wealth quintiles
were associated with awareness in every country
other than Mexico. The effect of higher education
status was less consistent, with positive associations
in four countries.
Table 4 shows large national variations in the proportion of hypertensive subjects whose condition was
effectively controlled, ranging from 4% in Ghana to
14% in India, and the extent to which awareness led
to control, ranging from 18% in Ghana to 37% in
India. Our adjusted model shows that older age was
associated with higher rates of control in five of the
six countries, and female sex, urban residence and
higher wealth quintiles in four countries. Being overweight or obese had no consistent effect on control
across the study countries, except in the Russian
Federation. Health insurance was positively associated
with control in just two of the six countries.
Supplementary Table A2 (available as Supplementary
data at IJE online) shows large national variations in
the effective treatment of blood pressure among
people taking antihypertensive medication, ranging
from 24% in South Africa to 55% in India.
Supplementary Table A2 (available as Supplementary
data at IJE online) shows that effective treatment of
blood pressure was inversely associated with increasing BMI in three of the six countries. For the other
factors there was no consistent pattern of association
across the SAGE countries.
Figure 1 summarizes the national data for hypertension, prevalence, awareness and treatment, as presented in the main data tables.

Discussion
This study examines the factors associated with prevalence, awareness and treatment of hypertension for
large nationally representative samples of older people
in LMICs. This analysis focuses on people over the age of
50 years, since people over this threshold have markedly
increased risks of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and will
derive greatest benefit from drug treatment in terms of
numbers needed to treat. WHO guidelines for prevention of CVD also indicate that people aged 50 and over
are the age range of highest risk and therefore of relevance for intervention with a polypill.16 Preventive

Physical activity

Alcohol
consumption

Smoking

BMI

Education

Sex

Age (years)

Odds Ratios

3.67 (3.324.05)

75

Higher

1.06 (0.991.13)
1.13 (1.061.21)

Low

1.88 (1.582.23)

Frequent heavy
drinkers
1

1.07 (0.871.31)

Infrequent heavy
drinkers

Moderate

1.05 (0.981.14)

Non-heavy drinker

High

0.96 (0.891.03)

Daily

Life-time abstainers

1.11 (1.011.22)

Less than daily/ever

(not current)

Obese
1

4.09 (3.734.49)

Overweight

Never

0.44 (0.400.48)
1.91 (1.792.03)

Underweight

0.94 (0.871.01)

Secondary

Normal

0.93 (0.871.00)
1.01 (0.931.09)

None

Primary

1.16 (1.081.24)

2.80 (2.533.09)

7074

Female

2.26 (2.072.47)

6569

1.79 (1.651.95)

6064

Male

1
1.44 (1.341.55)

55.9 (55.156.6)

Female

5559

49.5 (48.750.3)

Male

5054

52.9 (52.353.4)

Total

Prevalence of Hypertension (%)

Overall
(n 27 376)

1.06 (0.961.17)

1.05 (0.951.16)

1.72 (1.432.07)

1.10 (0.771.59)

1.02 (0.911.15)

0.82 (0.720.92)

1.14 (0.981.34)

2.74 (2.283.30)

2.02 (1.852.21)

0.47 (0.390.57)

0.85 (0.750.96)

1.03 (0.931.15)

0.96 (0.861.07)

0.94 (0.851.05)

3.47 (2.964.07)

2.83 (2.433.29)

2.29 (2.002.61)

1.76 (1.561.99)

1.30 (1.161.45)

60.1 (58.961.3)

58.8 (57.660.0)

59.5 (58.460.6)

China
(n 11 964)

1.09 (0.921.30)

1.02 (0.831.25)

1.24 (0.662.33)

0.80 (0.401.59)

0.80 (0.690.94)

0.83 (0.611.12)

1.24 (1.021.49)

2.30 (1.763.00)

1.77 (1.482.12)

0.65 (0.540.79)

0.96 (0.781.18)

0.76 (0.531.10)

0.82 (0.690.98)

1.16 (1.001.35)

1.28 (1.021.61)

1.32 (1.041.67)

1.53 (1.211.95)

1.24 (0.991.56)

1.12 (0.911.38)

59.9 (57.862.0)

54.6 (52.556.7)

57.1 (55.159.1)

Ghana
(n 3923)

1.21 (1.031.43)

0.99 (0.831.17)

7.46 (1.4937.3)

1.53 (0.504.69)

1.39 (1.031.87)

0.97 (0.801.17)

1.20 (0.951.51)

1.86 (1.252.77)

1.55 (1.261.92)

0.54 (0.470.64)

1.06 (0.841.34)

1.09 (0.851.40)

1.03 (0.871.23)

1.38 (1.151.65)

2.34 (1.793.06)

2.20 (1.712.82)

2.03 (1.622.54)

1.51 (1.221.88)

1.60 (1.321.94)

35.0 (33.336.7)

30.3 (28.731.9)

32.3 (30.334.3)

India
(n 4474)

1.15 (0.891.48)

1.66 (1.262.20)

Not estimable

1.66 (1.002.77)

0.34 (0.260.45)

0.82 (0.601.13)

1.32 (1.011.74)

3.38 (2.474.62)

2.83 (2.143.74)

0.43 (0.111.67)

0.70 (0.491.00)

0.53 (0.370.76)

1.68 (1.212.33)

1.17 (0.921.48)

5.42 (3.727.09)

4.73 (2.977.52)

4.52 (3.026.76)

2.52 (1.793.54)

1.69 (1.252.27)

60.9 (58.063.8)

55.2 (52.158.3)

58.2 (55.461.0)

Mexico
(n 2010)

1.07 (0.851.34)

1.07 (0.841.37)

0.77 (0.341.76)

1.02 (0.651.59)

1.34 (1.091.65)

1.25 (0.971.63)

0.75 (0.551.02)

7.05 (5.509.03)

1.77 (1.442.16)

0.27 (0.130.59)

0.52 (0.330.84)

0.56 (0.340.91)

0.17 (0.050.55)

1.17 (0.941.46)

6.81 (4.839.60)

4.04 (2.845.74)

2.13 (1.602.83)

2.45 (1.803.33)

1.57 (1.241.99)

74.5 (72.676.4)

65.9 (63.468.4)

71.7 (69.973.5)

Russian
Federation
(n 3191)

(continued)

0.77 (0.610.97)

0.91 (0.661.26)

0.45 (0.171.15)

0.41 (0.250.67)

0.66 (0.470.91)

1.07 (0.811.42)

1.05 (0.781.42)

1.85 (1.432.39)

1.57 (1.202.06)

0.96 (0.581.59)

0.67 (0.480.93)

0.77 (0.571.04)

1.11 (0.851.43)

1.29 (1.051.59)

1.83 (1.252.68)

1.53 (1.022.29)

1.50 (1.072.09)

1.53 (1.132.07)

1.31 (1.001.73)

80.3 (78.682.0)

74.7 (72.676.8)

77.9 (76.479.4)

South
Africa
(n 2583)

Table 2 Prevalence and odds ratios (95% CI) for hypertension by various characteristics across all sites; odds ratios are adjusted for all of the other variables in the
table

120
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EPIDEMIOLOGY

0.92 (0.711.20)
2.46 (0.629.67)
0.86 (0.691.08)
0.71 (0.520.98)
1.08 (0.941.25)
0.85 (0.750.97)
0.55 (0.520.59)
Uninsured

1.26 (0.881.80)

1
1
1
1
1
1
1

1.26 (0.901.78)

0.86 (0.790.94)
Richest

Insured
Health insurance

0.77 (0.581.01)
1.43 (0.982.09)
1.44 (1.151.82)
1.16 (0.911.48)

1.03 (0.751.42)

0.98 (0.901.07)

0.93 (0.811.08)

1.51 (1.132.02)
1.16 (0.781.71)
1.12 (0.891.41)
1.77 (0.941.47)

0.87 (0.641.17)

Q4

1.00 (0.871.14)

1.27 (0.941.70)

1.16 (0.871.56)
2.93 (2.044.21)

0.92 (0.621.36)
1.09 (0.871.37)

0.97 (0.771.23)
1.11 (0.901.38)

1.77 (0.951.45)
0.90 (0.781.02)
0.92 (0.841.01)
Q3

0.88 (0.771.00)
0.98 (0.901.07)
Q2

1.04 (0.831.31)

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Poorest

Rural

Location

Wealth quintile

0.92 (0.751.13)

1
1

0.97 (0.741.27)
1.13 (0.971.32)

1
1
1

1.11 (1.051.18)

Urban

0.73 (0.630.85)

Russian
Federation
(n 3191)
Mexico
(n 2010)
India
(n 4474)
Ghana
(n 3923)
China
(n 11 964)
Overall
(n 27 376)

Table 2 Continued

1.35 (1.221.49)

South
Africa
(n 2583)

HYPERTENSION AMONG OLDER ADULTS IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES

121

measures such as attempts to reduce salt use in the

whole population will clearly have impact on people at
younger as well as at older ages. WHO SAGE includes a
comparison group of 7344 people aged between 18 and
49 years. A separate analysis of hypertension for the
SAGE population as a whole reports similar levels of
prevalence, awareness, treatment and control to those
reported here.17
We found high prevalences of hypertension in all
countries, with the highest being 78% for South
Africa. Around half those sampled were aware of
their condition, but only a very small proportion
(4.1% to 14.1%) achieved blood pressure control.
The prevalence levels of hypertension observed in
this study are broadly consistent with those reported
by previous national surveys of older adults conducted
in China and Mexico.18,19 National hypertension
survey data have not previously been available for
India, the Russian Federation or Ghana, either for
their adult populations in general or for older people
more specifically. A 2003 national survey in South
Africa, using similar methodology to SAGE, found a
prevalence of hypertension of only 31% for men aged
65 years and over and 37% for women in the same
age group.20 Reported rates had fallen sharply since
the previous 1998 survey (52 and 60%, respectively).
The survey authors themselves doubt the credibility of
their finding, and report that it is likely that measurements were incorrectly taken by fieldworkers.
With the exception of India, the prevalence of hypertension in the SAGE countries is comparable to that
of older people in high-income countries.2123 Indeed,
South Africas prevalence is the highest ever reported
by a nationally representative survey of people aged
50 and over for any country. It is substantially higher
than recently published estimates for South Africa
and 11 other sub-Saharan African countries.24
In common with most epidemiological assessments
of hypertension prevalence, blood pressure was measured thrice, at intervals of 1 min. In clinical practice
blood pressure would be measured on at least three
separate occasions spaced over longer periods of time
before a diagnosis of hypertension was made and, if
this is done, lower prevalences will be found due to
regression to the mean.25,26 However, measurements
made within a single measurement session do have
strong predictive power for cardiovascular disease.27
For all six countries, prevalence increased sharply
with age, although this effect was more notable in
some countries (such as Mexico) than others (such
as Ghana). This is in keeping with the findings of
the other national studies in China and Mexico.18,19
The observed international variation suggests that,
although chronological age is a significant risk
factor, increases with age are not inevitable, indicating that age may be acting as a marker of long-term
exposure to other risk factors. For five of the
six countries, prevalence was higher for women
than for men. The consistency of this finding is at

53.9 (52.954.8)

Female

Wealth
quintile
1.13 (1.011.26)
1.32 (1.181.47)
1.39 (1.251.55)
1.76 (1.581.97)

Q2

Q3

Q4

Richest

2.04 (1.882.20)

Secondary/
higher
1

0.90 (0.820.99)

None

Poorest

Primary

0.74 (0.690.79)

Rural

Education

Urban

Location

1.32 (1.101.59)

1.30 (1.091.54)

1.20 (1.011.43)

1.15 (0.971.37)

1.31 (1.161.48)

1.01 (0.881.16)

0.44 (0.390.49)

1
0.93 (0.781.11)

1.70 (1.541.89)

1.83 (1.701.96)

Overweight/
Obese

0.70 (0.510.96)

1.39 (1.251.54)

2.36 (1.992.79)

2.30 (1.932.75)

1.65 (1.391.97)

1.33 (1.131.57)

0.81 (0.750.87)

1
0.61 (0.530.70)

Underweight

1.72 (1.611.84)

Normal

2.56 (2.312.83)

70

Female

2.03 (1.812.27)

6569

Male

1.42 (1.271.59)

6064

47.2 (45.648.8)

38.0 (36.439.6)

42.7 (41.643.8)

China
(n 7167)

Health
Insured
insurance Uninsured

BMI

Sex

1.30 (1.171.44)

5559

Age (years) 5054

1

41.5 (40.442.5)

Male

Odds Ratios

48.3 (47.549.0)

Total

Prevalence of Awareness (%)

Overall
(n 17396)

2.35 (1.533.60)

1.98 (1.313.00)

1.39 (0.912.13)

1.01 (0.641.58)

1.51 (1.122.02)

0.66 (0.500.88)

0.59 (0.470.74)

0.67 (0.540.83)

1.57 (1.251.98)

0.78 (0.531.15)

2.00 (1.592.50)

2.49 (1.793.47)

2.00 (1.382.90)

1.46 (1.002.13)

1.29 (0.911.83)

27.5 (25.030.0)

19.2 (17.021.4)

23.3 (21.625.0)

Ghana
(n 2314)

2.08 (1.4130.6)

1.99 (1.352.92)

1.61 (1.082.39)

1.94 (1.312.88)

2.10 (1.572.81)

0.80 (0.611.04)

0.72 (0.580.90)

0.70 (0.451.07)

1.98 (1.532.56)

0.50 (0.390.65)

1.79 (1.402.27)

2.13 (1.562.92)

1.43 (1.021.99)

0.93 (0.651.32)

1.12 (0.831.52)

39.9 (36.942.9)

35.6 (32.638.6)

37.8 (35.739.9)

India
(n 1962)

0.97 (0.601.56)

0.88 (0.541.44)

0.90 (0.551.46)

0.39 (0.250.60)

1.12 (0.761.65)

1.03 (0.711.50)

1.02 (0.731.43)

0.41 (0.300.56)

2.26 (1.593.22)

1.39 (0.1711.4)

1.95 (1.472.57)

8.69 (5.3214.1)

6.83 (3.9911.6)

7.69 (4.5013.1)

6.47 (3.8510.8)

48.7 (44.952.5)

39.3 (35.243.4)

44.6 (41.847.4)

Mexico
(n 1159)

3.30 (2.354.62)

1.57 (1.162.13)

1.98 (1.442.72)

1.70 (1.242.32)

1.56 (1.072.26)

2.78 (0.6312.3)

1.19 (0.941.50)

0.19 (0.050.70)

1.83 (1.442.32)

0.24 (0.070.87)

2.37 (1.942.89)

1.62 (1.192.21)

1.32 (0.931.89)

0.85 (0.601.20)

0.99 (0.731.35)

78.2 (76.280.2)

61.4 (58.264.6)

72.1 (70.373.9)

Russian
Federation
(n 2260)

1.60 (1.162.21)

1.28 (0.941.75)

1.35 (1.001.82)

1.05 (0.781.42)

0.82 (0.651.03)

0.93 (0.741.18)

0.77 (0.620.95)

0.83 (0.661.06)

1.50 (1.181.90)

1.84 (1.073.16)

1.58 (1.301.91)

2.60 (1.973.42)

2.93 (2.173.95)

1.65 (1.232.20)

1.71 (1.302.25)

41.8 (39.444.2)

32.8 (30.135.5)

38.0 (36.239.8)

South
Africa
(n 2147)

Table 3 Prevalence of awareness and adjusted model for being aware of the presence of hypertension by country (odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals)

122
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EPIDEMIOLOGY

11.1 (10.511.7)

Wealth
quintile

Education

Location

Health
insurance

BMI

Sex

Age (years)

Odds Ratios

1.49 (1.231.80) 1.40 (1.011.96)

1.78 (1.482.14) 1.72 (1.252.39)
1.82 (1.532.16) 1.53 (1.122.09)

5559

6064

6569

70

Female

0.95 (0.841.07) 0.93 (0.771.12)

0.81 (0.690.94) 0.90 (0.631.28)

Underweight

Overweight

Obese
1.44 (1.281.62) 1.16 (0.901.51)

Uninsured
0.51 (0.450.58) 0.17 (0.130.22)

Rural
1.15 (0.981.34) 1.01 (0.761.33)
1.40 (1.241.59) 1.39 (1.131.71)

None

Secondary/
higher
1
1.14 (0.931.40) 1.22 (0.851.74)
1.41 (1.161.73) 1.24 (0.881.75)
2.02 (1.672.44) 1.30 (0.931.83)
2.28 (1.892.75) 1.00 (0.701.42)

Poorest

Q2

Q3

Q4

Richest

Primary

Urban

Insured

1
0.83 (0.661.03) 0.81 (0.451.47)

Normal

1
1.22 (1.091.36) 0.86 (0.711.04)

Male

1
1.45 (1.221.73) 1.39 (1.011.93)

5054

8.3 (7.49.2)

9.1 (8.59.7)

Female

8.2 (7.39.1)

10.2 (9.710.6)

Male

8.3 (7.78.9)

China
(n 7152)

Total

Prevalence of Control (%)

Overall
(n 17 366)

2.83 (1.107.28)

1.17 (0.443.11)

0.93 (0.332.64)

0.50 (0.141.69)

1.10 (0.612.01)

0.77 (0.421.41)

0.42 (0.230.74)

0.67 (0.431.05)

0.68 (0.361.29)

0.79 (0.471.34)

0.59 (0.231.53)

1.36 (0.852.18)

2.60 (1.205.62)

2.69 (1.176.15)

0.95 (0.342.66)

1.93 (0.864.32)

4.3 (3.25.4)

4.0 (2.95.1)

4.1 (3.34.9)

Ghana
(n 2303)

3.11 (1.715.63)

2.88 (1.605.20)

1.51 (0.792.88)

1.37 (0.712.62)

1.46 (0.992.15)

1.08 (0.751.56)

0.73 (0.540.97)

0.49 (0.310.78)

1.71 (0.943.11)

1.37 (0.971.93)

0.72 (0.491.03)

1.41 (1.011.96)

2.47 (1.583.86)

1.49 (0.922.42)

1.32 (0.802.15)

1.30 (0.852.00)

15.1 (12.917.3)

13.1 (11.015.2)

14.1 (12.615.6)

India
(n 1962)

1.29 (0.652.58)

1.77 (0.873.60)

1.39 (0.682.82)

0.48 (0.231.01)

1.22 (0.682.20)

2.01 (1.163.48)

1.52 (0.942.45)

0.34 (0.190.59)

1.14 (0.612.12)

1.45 (0.822.56)

3.97 (0.3642.9)

2.66 (1.644.31)

5.74 (2.2114.8)

4.91 (1.7613.7)

4.56 (1.6212.8)

11.7 (4.4231.2)

15.9 (13.218.6)

6.5 (4.48.6)

11.8 (10.013.6)

Mexico
(n 1159)

2.51 (1.484.25)

2.23 (1.323.77)

1.36 (0.792.36)

1.36 (0.792.35)

0.73 (0.431.24)

0.17 (0.015.19)

0.57 (0.400.83)

0.67 (0.076.41)

0.50 (0.330.74)

0.67 (0.470.97)

<0.001
(<0.001- 4999)

1.79 (1.292.49)

1.18 (0.721.93)

1.60 (0.962.66)

1.71 (1.032.84)

0.99 (0.601.61)

11.5 (9.913.1)

8.8 (7.010.6)

10.5 (9.311.7)

Russian
Federation
(n 2256)

(continued)

3.91 (1.947.85)

3.64 (1.837.27)

2.11 (1.044.31)

3.03 (1.545.96)

1.34 (0.882.03)

1.63 (1.052.53)

0.74 (0.491.12)

0.80 (0.531.22)

1.50 (0.902.49)

0.99 (0.561.74)

5.52 (2.3812.7)

1.70 (1.162.48)

1.56 (0.932.61)

3.11 (1.885.16)

0.69 (0.361.33)

1.39 (0.802.38)

9.2 (7.810.6)

5.8 (4.57.1)

7.8 (6.88.8)

South
Africa
(n 2129)

Table 4 Prevalence of control and adjusted model for effective control of hypertension in hypertensive participants (odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals)

HYPERTENSION AMONG OLDER ADULTS IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES

123

2.18 (1.363.49)

2.29 (1.264.16)
1.05 (0.711.55)

0.74 (0.501.10)
1.02 (0.611.70)

1.41 (0.812.45)
0.91 (0.651.28)

0.74 (0.521.05)
0.91 (0.801.04) 1.12 (0.901.41)
Low

1.98 (1.003.92)
1.17 (1.031.32) 1.31 (1.061.62)
Moderate

2.78 (1.654.68)

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
High

Physical
activity

<0.001
(<0.001- 4999)
0.10 (<0.00165.3)
<0.001
(<0.001- 4999)
<0.001
(<0.001- 4999)
0.34 (0.190.61) 0.53 (0.280.97)
Frequent
heavy
drinkers

<0.001
(<0.001- 4999)

0.80 (0.213.04)
2.34 (1.144.80)
0.22 (0.050.89)
<0.001
(<0.001- 4999)
0.88 (0.591.31) 0.62 (0.231.64)
Infrequent
heavy
drinkers

<0.001
(<0.001- 4999)

1.30 (0.931.83)
0.47 (0.191.15)
0.52 (0.251.07)
1.57 (0.942.63)
0.78 (0.660.91) 0.70 (0.530.94)

1
1
1
1
1
Alcohol
Life-time
consumption
abstainers

Non heavy
drinker

1
1

Russian
Federation
(n 2256)
Mexico
(n 1159)
India
(n 1962)
Ghana
(n 2303)
China
(n 7152)
Overall
(n 17 366)

Table 4 Continued

0.28 (0.100.75)

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EPIDEMIOLOGY

South
Africa
(n 2129)

124

odds with other studies from LMICs which show

varied gender effects.2831 It is also at odds with a
systematic meta-analysis of global blood pressure
trends, which showed that men had higher average
blood pressure than women in all world regions other
than West Africa.32
Although only a few studies have examined awareness, treatment and control for older people in LMICs,
the findings that are available broadly concur with
those we report. For example, the 2000/01 China
national survey reported that 46% of people aged
60 years and over were aware of their condition and
9% had it controlled.18 Studies of people aged 60 and
over in rural districts of India and South Africa report
control rates of 4%.33,34 A survey of adults in the former
Soviet Union, who had been prescribed hypertension
treatment, found that only 26% were taking it every
day.35 A multicentre study of people aged 60 years
and over in India and Bangladesh, conducted in
1999/2000, reported awareness rates of 45% and
control of 10%.36 Levels of control in high-income
countries are generally higher, but these also vary considerably, ranging from 20% in England to over 50% in
the USA.21,22 The SAGE data show that awareness,
treatment and control were usually higher for women
and people at older ages. Few other studies specifically
assess sex and age variations within older populations
for awareness, treatment and control. The Chinese national survey does not find a strong age effect, with
little overall variation in age deciles aged 45 years
and over.18
Associations between wealth, education and health
insurance status, on one hand, and prevalence, treatment and control, on the other, are more complex and
challenging to interpret. Whereas the pooled data
show that poorer groups are just as likely to experience hypertension as richer ones, there are varying
patterns of social gradient across the six countries.
Standard models of epidemiological transition posit
that the strength and direction of social gradients
will be related to a countrys general level of socioeconomic development.37 The national level SAGE
data do not fit neatly into this predicted pattern,
and reveal complex variations across the five wealth
quintiles. For example, in India only the wealthiest
quintile is positively associated with prevalence,
whereas in Mexico only the second poorest quintile
is so associated. Similarly, in China higher education
is negatively associated with prevalence, whereas in
Ghana having no education is negatively associated.
Results for awareness and the effective treatment of
hypertension are more consistent, with urban groups
performing better in five countries and the highest
wealth quintile in four. The only clear exception to
this trend is Mexico, which may reflect potential
bias from the low response rates. Another explanation
of high rates of rural awareness may be the effectiveness of health interventions targeting rural groups,
notably
Mexicos
Popular
Health
Insurance

HYPERTENSION AMONG OLDER ADULTS IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES

125

Figure 1 Summaries of the national data for hypertension, prevalence, awareness and treatment, as presented in the main
data tables

Programme, in screening and treating hypertension.38

For other countries and for the pooled data, health
insurance coverage is often a poor predictor of treatment and control. In India, despite having the lowest
health insurance coverage (4%), levels of awareness
and treatment are both notably higher than in the
other study countries. This may be due to disproportionately high prevalence among richer groups in
India who are better placed to access effective treatment regardless of their insurance status. In the case
of Indias poorest wealth quintile, only 5.3% of hypertensive people are controlled, compared with 23.5% of
the richest. The lack of association between health
insurance coverage and treatment or control at the
national level among the SAGE countries may reflect
large variations in the extent and quality of services
offered by different schemes. Other studies have
found these to be highly variable.38,39
Studies show that similar automated wrist devices
to measure blood pressure compare well with goldstandard measurements using sphygmomanometers
and trained health personnel.13, 40 A possible limitation
of our study is that we relied on lay trained non-clinician
interviewers for the measurement of blood pressure.
Data suggest that trained personnel actually underestimate the prevalence of hypertension as compared with
clinicians.40 Our classification of hypertension was
based on an average of two measurements and not on
more regular monitoring. This may have contributed to
overestimation of hypertension prevalence. These two
sources of opposing bias may result in our hypertension
estimates being close to the true prevalence.

Conclusions and policy

implications
High prevalence among older adults in South Africa and
Ghana raises the possibility that all countries across

sub-Saharan Africa may already be experiencing globally unprecedented rates of hypertension. This corresponds with the results of a synthetic estimate of the
global mean blood pressure trends which found highest
levels in sub-Saharan Africa.32
National variations in hypertension do not correlate
with economic and social development, based on
indicators such as wealth, education and urbanization
(Supplementary Table A3, available as Supplementary
data at IJE online).This shows the need for a more
nuanced appreciation of relationships between development and NCDs than is often made in the general
literature.2,41 High BMI was a key determinant of
national variations although, as with hypertension,
BMI did not correlate with general development indicators at the national level. The reasons for these discrepancies have not been systematically researched
and require further analysis.42
The SAGE findings indicate that hypertension
affects poorer groups just as much as the rich, if
not more. Even so, only 16% of hypertensive people
in the wealthiest quintile had effectively controlled
their condition. The failure to control hypertension
cuts across all social strata, which may increase the
political leverage to develop meaningful responses.
Better access to healthcare among the urban population has a positive effect on controlling hypertension
and may be a benefit of urbanization. As such, the
simple causal link that is often made between urbanization and NCDs requires qualification.
The prominence of NCDs, and metabolic risk factors
such as hypertension, in global health and development agendas has risen quickly. Nevertheless, there
remains a large gap between discourse and policy
practice. It has been estimated that NCDs accounted
for only 3% of total global health assistance between
2001 and 2008.43 Given the close association between
hypertension and BMI, interventions targeting diet
and exercise should be given the highest possible

126

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EPIDEMIOLOGY

priority. Salt restriction through voluntary food industry changes in food processing and advice to reduce
salt intake should be promoted as a means of shifting
the overall distribution of blood pressure downwards.44 However, the barriers against the rapid success of such interventions are formidable. These
include resistance from powerful economic interests
as well as cultural reluctance to embrace behaviour
change.3,45 In the short term, the most effective strategy to reduce the burden of hypertension is through
use of simple medication.46 Cost-effectiveness studies
demonstrate the affordability of such interventions,
although reaching at-risk groups with affordable
treatment and persuading them to adhere to lifetime
drug regimens still represents a significant challenge.
This is demonstrated by the gap between awareness
and control reported by the SAGE survey, and highlights the need for innovative delivery mechanisms.
For example, in the case of rural populations in
South Africa, there may be opportunities to link treatment of hypertension and other common NCDs with
the monthly delivery of social pensions to villages.
More generally, interventions will require a reorientation of primary healthcare services towards the primary
prevention and management of NCDs and the needs of
older adults. As with other major epidemics such as
HIV/AIDS, responding to the global crisis of hypertension requires multiple strategies including awareness
raising, primary prevention and medication. If global
and national efforts are not transformed with immediate effect, the potential consequences for the health and
well-being of people in LMICs will be catastrophic.

Supplementary Data
Supplementary data are available at IJE online.

Funding
This work was supported by the National Institutes of
Health (grants OGHA 04034785; YA1323-08-CN-0020;
Y1-AG-1005-0 (R01-AG034479), which funded the
WHO Study on global AGEing and adult health
(SAGE) on which this analysis is based. Part of the
analysis was funded by the Economic and Social
Research Council (grant ES/K003526/1).

Acknowledgements
We would like to acknowledge the principal
investigators at the SAGE sites: P. Arokiasamy
(India), R. Biritwum (Ghana), Wu Fan (China),
R. Lopez Riadura (Mexico), T. Maximova (Russian
Federation) and N. Phaswanamafuya (South Africa).

Author contributions
N.M., P.L.S. and S.C. analysed the data; P.L.S. wrote
the first draft of the manuscript; J.B., N.M., S.E. and
S.C. contributed to the writing of the manuscript.
The views expressed in this paper are those of the
author(s) and do not necessarily represent the views
or policies of the World Health Organization.
Conflict of interest: None declared.

KEY MESSAGES
 Nationally representative data for people aged 50 years and over in China, Ghana, India, Mexico, the
Russian Federation and South Africa demonstrate high prevalences of hypertension, between 2007
and 2010, ranging from 52.9% in India to 77.9% in South Africa.
 In all six countries, national prevalence is strongly associated with age and BMI.
 India achieved the highest rate of control (14.1%) and treatment efficacy (55.2%); the lowest rate of control
was in Ghana (4.1%) and the lowest rate of treatment efficacy was in the Russian Federation (17.4%).
 There is no clear social gradient for prevalence, but being in the highest wealth quintile was
associated with higher rates of awareness in five countries and higher rates of control in four.
 The national variations in prevalence, awareness, treatment and control indicate there is considerable
scope for some LMICs to improve their performance in these areas.

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