Commentary

Toward Identifying the Next Generation of Superfund and Hazardous Waste

Site Contaminants
Wendell P. Ela,1 David L. Sedlak,2 Morton A. Barlaz,3 Heather F. Henry,4 Derek C.G. Muir,5 DeborahL.Swackhamer,6
Eric J. Weber,7 Robert G. Arnold,1 P. Lee Ferguson,8 Jennifer A. Field,9 EdwardT.Furlong,10 John P. Giesy,11
RolfU.Halden,12,13 Tala Henry,14 Ronald A. Hites,15 Keri C. Hornbuckle,16 PhilipH. Howard,17 Richard G. Luthy,18
AnitaK.Meyer,19 A. Eduardo Sez,1 Frederick S. vom Saal,20 ChrisD.Vulpe,21 and Mark R. Wiesner 8
1Chemical

and Environmental Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA; 2Civil and Environmental Engineering, University
of CaliforniaBerkeley, Berkeley, California, USA; 3Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, North Carolina State University,
Raleigh, North Carolina, USA; 4Superfund Research Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina, USA; 5Aquatic Ecosystem Protection Research Division, Environment Canada, Burlington, Ontario, Canada; 6Environmental
Health Sciences Water Research Center, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA; 7National Exposure Research Laboratory,
U.S.Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia, USA; 8Civil and Environmental Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North
Carolina, USA; 9Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA; 10National Water Quality
Laboratory, U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, Colorado, USA; 11Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon,
Saskatchewan, Canada; 12School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona;
13Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA; 14National Program Chemicals
Division, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA; 15Public and Environmental Affairs, Indiana University, Bloomington,
Indiana, USA; 16Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, USA; 17Syracuse Research Corporation, Syracuse,
New York, USA; 18Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA; 19Environmental and Munitions
Center of Expertise, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Omaha, Nebraska, USA; 20Division of Biological Sciences, University of Missouri,
Columbia, Missouri, USA; 21Nutritional Science and Toxicology, University of CaliforniaBerkeley, Berkeley, California, USA

Background: This commentary evolved from a workshop sponsored by the National Institute of
Environmental Health Sciences titled Superfund Contaminants: The Next Generation held in
Tucson, Arizona, in August 2009. All the authors were workshop participants.
Objectives: Our aim was to initiate a dynamic, adaptable process for identifying contaminants of
emerging concern (CECs) that are likely to be found in future hazardous waste sites, and to identify the gaps in primary research that cause uncertainty in determining future hazardous waste site
contaminants.
Discussion: Superfund-relevant CECs can be characterized by specific attributes: They are persistent, bioaccumulative, toxic, occur in large quantities, and have localized accumulation with a
likelihood of exposure. Although still under development and incompletely applied, methods to
quantify these attributes can assist in winnowing down the list of candidates from the universe
of potential CECs. Unfortunately, significant research gaps exist in detection and quantification,
environmental fate and transport, health and risk assessment, and site exploration and remediation
for CECs. Addressing these gaps is prerequisite to a preventive approach to generating and managing hazardous waste sites.
Conclusions: A need exists for a carefully considered and orchestrated expansion of programmatic
and research efforts to identify, evaluate, and manage CECs of hazardous waste site relevance, including developing an evolving list of priority CECs, intensifying the identification and monitoring of
likely sites of present or future accumulation of CECs, and implementing efforts that focus on a holistic
approach to prevention.
Key words: contaminants of emerging concern, emerging contaminant, hazardous waste site,
Superfund. Environ Health Perspect 119:610 (2011). doi:10.1289/ehp.1002497 [Online
1October 2010]

During the late 1970s, environmental

toxicologists began to recognize that commu
nities living adjacent to hazardous waste sites
were sometimes exposed to toxic contami
nants. This recognition motivated policy mak
ers to develop regulations intended to reduce
exposures and to prevent similar exposures
from occurring in the future (Acton 1989;
Hird 1994). Increased awareness of risk and
the availability of new funding has motivated
a new era of research on chemical fate, toxic
effects, and environmental remediation. To
prioritize monitoring and research efforts,
environmentalists developed lists of contami
nants that were based on specific factors that
included production volume, toxicity, and the
availability of suitable analytical techniques

(Keith and Telliard 1979). Over the past

30 years, these lists have guided site cleanup
efforts and fundamental research that have
focused almost all attention on a relatively
small number of contaminants that are fre
quently detected at hazardous waste sites
such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs),
halogenated solvents, arsenic, and benzene.
This focus has resulted in the development
of regulations, policies, and remedial actions
that have improved public and environ
mental health proximate to contaminated
sites [U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) 2010a]. However, additional contami
nants that were not included in the original
lists likely pose risks to humans and biota
(Birnbaum and Staskal 2004; Nolan etal.
volume

2009; Richardson 2009). This article provides

an overview of issues related to previously
unrecognized contaminants relevant to haz
ardous waste sites and identifies research needs
to address these particular contaminants of
emerging concern (CECs).
Recent monitoring of municipal waste
water effluent, urban surface waters, and biota
has documented the occurrence of groups
of previously unrecognized contaminants.
Much of the interest in these CECs can be
traced to advances in analytical chemistry
that have enabled the analysis of polar and
thermally labile compounds by liquid chro
matography coupled with mass spectrom
etry and tandem mass spectrometry (Kolpin
etal. 2002; Schultz etal. 2004; Ternes 1998).
Improvements in sample preconcentration
(Mitch etal. 2003) and detection (Motzer
Address correspondence to W.P. Ela, 1133 E. James
E. Rogers Way, P.O. Box 210011, University of
Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721 USA. Telephone: (520)
626-9323. Fax: (520) 621-6048. E-mail: wela@engr.
arizona.edu
Support for the workshop, from which this article
evolved, was provided by the National Institute of
Environmental Health Sciences Superfund Research
Program (P42-ES04940).
This article includes the the work of an employee
of the National Institute of Environmental Health
Sciences (NIEHS), National Institutes of Health
(NIH); however, the statements, opinions, or con
clusions contained in this article do not necessarily
represent the statements, opinions, or conclusions of
NIEHS, NIH, or the U.S. government. Any views
or opinions expressed herein are those of the authors
only and do not necessarily reflect those of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). This arti
cle was reviewed by U.S. EPA and U.S. Geological
Survey and approved for publication.
P.H.H. works for the nonprofit organization
Syracuse Research Corporation. The remaining
authors declare they have no actual or potential com
peting financial interests.
Received 27 May 2010; accepted 1 October 2010.

119 | number 1 | January 2011 Environmental Health Perspectives

Next-generation Superfund contaminants

2001) also have contributed to the identifica

tion and quantification of novel CECs.
Because of their widespread use and
environmental persistence, some CECs are
ubiquitous and transported far from their
sources where they may bioaccumulate. For
example, polybrominated diphenyl ethers
[PBDEs; e.g., decabromodiphenyl ether
(DBDE), shown in Figure 1], which are flame
retardants widely used in furniture and elec
tronics, are known to accumulate in house
hold dust and undergo long-range atmospheric
transport (Hites 2004). In industrialized coun
tries, PBDEs are routinely detected in human
blood at concentrations of concern to environ
mental toxicologists (Birnbaum and Staskal
2004; Johnson etal. 2010). They also have
been detected far from their sources in polar
bears and gulls in the arctic (Verreault etal.
2005). Production and use of PBDEs have
been restricted in the European Union and
in some U.S. states. However, other bromi
nated flame retardants with similar transport
properties are now being used as replacements
(Stapleton etal. 2008), and other halogenated
flame retardants with similar properties con
tinue to be produced in large quantities (Muir
and Howard 2006). PBDEs and other hydro
phobic CECs partition into organic phases
(e.g., biosolids from municipal sewage treat
ment plants) and may consequently accumu
late at land disposal sites (U.S. EPA 2009;
National Research Council 2002).

Contaminants of Concern at
Hazardous Waste Sites
Relatively little attention has been directed
toward the occurrence of CECs at existing
hazardous waste sites or to the possibility that
the use or disposal of CECs may create new
hazardous waste sites. Nevertheless, increased
monitoring has identified cases in which the
contamination of CECs has been linked to
industrial use and to the disposal of chemi
cals (Phillips etal. 2010). For example, in
a German study, Skutlarek et al. (2006)
reported that land disposal of organic waste
that contained perfluorinated compounds
caused elevated concentrations of perfluoro
octanoate (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sul
fonate (PFOS) (Figure 1) in the Ruhr river
that were considered harmful to human
health. In another study, Hoh etal. (2006)
noted that CECs that were discovered dur
ing routine monitoring were later traced back
to industrial sites where the flame retardant
Dechlorane Plus (Figure1) had been released
near Niagara Falls, New York, USA. In an
earlier report, Motzer (2001) found that per
chlorate had been introduced into the lower
Colorado River near Las Vegas, Nevada, USA
(Motzer 2001).
In some cases, CECs have been detected
after remediation of priority contaminants,

which has delayed or prevented site closure.

For example, the hydrophilic compound
1,4-dioxane, commonly used as a stabilizer
for 1,1,1-trichloroethane, may remain in
groundwater after bioremediation or soil
vapor extraction. Failure to initially recognize
this compounds presence in trichloroethanecontaminated groundwater necessitated addi
tional remediation of several sites that were
presumed to be clean (Zenker etal. 2003).
Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), a compound
for which the detection limit using standard
analytical methods is relatively high, required
additional remediation at sites when more
sensitive analytical methods were employed
(Mitch etal. 2003). Currently, no fixed screen
ing list of chemicals has been developed for the
U.S. EPA and the Department of Defense sites,
and only a few hundred chemicals are screened
during site characterization. Thus, screening is
focused on a small list of contaminants or relies
on less sensitive analytical methods than are
currently available. These factors are counter
productive to remediation and, in some cases,
may increase exposure to CECs.
The cases cited above suggest that
research on the fate, effects, and remediation
of contaminants at hazardous waste sites be

expanded to include CECs. However, it is the

opinion of the authors that simply expand
ing the priority list by including additional
contaminants as they are discovered is an
inefficient way to protect public health. In
fact, developing a proactive strategy to address
waste-siterelevant CECs requires a better
understanding of the properties of chemicals
that may cause the greatest threats to public
health near waste sites.
For insight into the process of identifying
candidate CECs, numerous scientists recently
have attempted to prioritize chemicals classi
fied as persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic
(Arnot and Mackay 2008; Brown and Wania
2008; Howard and Muir 2010; Mitchell etal.
2002). Because data on the physical and chemi
cal properties of most chemicals in commerce
are lacking, environmentalists generally priori
tize candidate chemicals using quantitative
structureproperty relationships (QSPRs) to
predict key environmental fate and distribution
indicators such as octanolwater partitioning;
airwater partitioning and bioconcentration;
and rates of biotransformation, hydrolysis,
atmospheric oxidation, and photolysis (Howard
and Muir 2010). Data on production volume
also can guide the prioritization process (Arnot
Cl

Polyhalogenated flame retardants

Br

Cl
Br

Br

Br

Br

Br

Br

Br

Br

Cl

Cl

DBDE

Cl

Cl

Cl

Br

Cl

Cl

Cl

Cl

Cl
Dechlorane Plus

Perfluorinated chemicals
F F

F F

F F

F F

F F
O

F F

F F

F F

O
S

F
F F

FF

F F

F F

F F

PFOA
Siloxanes
H3C

O
Si

O
Si

H3C

PFOS

CH3
Si

H3C

F F

CH3

H3C

Si
H3C
D4

CH3

CH3

O
CH3

Si

CH3
O

CH3

Si

CH3

CH3
HMDS

Figure 1. Some potential CECs relevant to the Superfund. Abbreviations: D4, octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane;
DBDE, decabromodiphenyl ether; HMDS, hexamethyldisiloxane; PFOA, perfluorooctanoate; PFOS,
perfluorooctane sulfonate.

Environmental Health Perspectives volume 119 | number 1 | January 2011

Ela et al.

and Mackay 2008; Howard and Muir 2010).

Data on toxicity, measured or predicted from
quantitative structureactivity relationships
(QSARs), provide additional insight (Arnot
and Mackay 2008).
Because of the limitations of QSPRs and
QSARs, expert judgment is relied upon to
identify data gaps and to further prioritize
CEC research and monitoring. Although this
reliance on subjective judgment often is at
odds with efforts to remove potential bias, it
is an effective way to bring new research find
ings into the prioritization process.
Similar approaches may be useful in iden
tifying CECs relevant to hazardous waste sites,
provided they differentiate between contami
nants that are widely dispersed at low concen
trations and those that are localized at field
sites (Table 1). This is especially challenging
for existing algorithms that prioritize chemicals
on the basis of persistence, because conditions
in groundwater and sediments at hazardous
waste sites (e.g., absence of light and oxygen)
can enhance CEC persistence that may lead
to long-term exposure to compounds that
might be classified as degradable by more gen
eral testing protocols. For example, NDMA
persists for decades in groundwater but when
exposed to sunlight, it undergoes photolysis
and aerobic biotransformation on a time scale
of just days (Mitch etal. 2003).

Research Needs
The authors of this article met at a workshop
in August 2009 that was sponsored by the
National Institute of Environmental Health
Sciences (NIEHS) to identify CECs relevant
to the Superfund and to other hazardous waste
programs (NIEHS 2009). The group discussed
potential classes of CECs (Figure 1) and pro
cesses that may lead to future hazardous waste
Table 1. Attributes of CECs of Superfund relevance
High-volume production (surrogate for occurrence
quantity)
Persistence in a compartment with likelihood of
exposure
Bioavailability and bioaccumulation
Toxicity
Localized accumulation with likelihood of exposure
Table 2. Research needs identified.
Detection and quantification
Final disposition of CECs
Bioassay-directed methods
Environmental fate and transport
Transformation processes
Fate and transport models
Health effects and risk assessment
Unconventional responses and impacts
Bioaccumulation models
Site investigation and remediation approaches
Epidemiologically and ecologically focused
geospatial analysis
Remedial technologies

sites. The discussions also identified knowledge

gaps that hinder our ability to identify, charac
terize, avoid, or remediate these CECs.
Research needs fall into four broad areas:
detection and quantification, environmental
fate and transport, health effects and risk
assessment, and site investigation and reme
diation approaches (Table 2). The following
descriptions of research gaps are illustrative,
not exhaustive.
Detection and quantification. Final disposition of CECs. The end-of-life disposi
tion of CECs and CEC-containing products
is mapped poorly, and screening at disposal
sites is inadequate to assess potential risk.
Particularly relevant sites include electronic
waste (e-waste) recycling or disposal sites,
municipal solid waste landfills, and biosolids
disposal sites. For example, PBDE, Dechlorane
Plus, and PCB levels are elevated at e-waste
recycling sites (Luo etal. 2009; Ren etal. 2009;
Yuan etal. 2008). Similarly, consumer prod
ucts (food packaging, cookware, textiles, and
carpet) that contain fluorochemicals are com
monly disposed of in landfills. Fluorochemicals
have been detected in landfill leachate, which is
typically treated in wastewater treatment plants
(Busch etal. 2010). Some fluorochemicals or
their degradation products either are unattenu
ated during biological treatment or partition
to biosolids that may be applied to the land
(Higgins etal. 2005; Schultz etal. 2006).
Bioassay-directed methods. More effort
is needed to measure potentially toxic con
taminants in complex environmental matrices.
Enhanced and expanded arrays of bioassaydirected methods and bulk chemical screen
ing methods can be coupled with chemical
identification, and when a positive response is
observed, instrumental techniques can be used
to identify the novel compounds (Furuichi
etal. 2004). The bioassay-directed fraction
tion and identification methodology used to
identify CECs can be linked to a particular end
point (Gracia etal. 2008), such as mortality, or
to a specific biochemical effect, such as estro
genicity (Snyder etal. 2000). This approach
may be facilitated by recent developments in
microarrays (Poynton and Vulpe 2009).
Environmental fate and transport.
Transformation processes. Some CECs are
transformed readily into compounds with
toxicities, bioavailability, and environmental
mobility substantially different than the parent
compound. Often only a single or small num
ber of the possible transformation products are
evaluated. Thus, exposure and effects related
to contaminant releases at waste sites may not
be well correlated with the parent compound.
For example, the behavior and estrogenic
potency of nonylphenol ethoxylates depend
on the length of the ethoxylate chain and
presence of carboxylate moieties (Routledge
and Sumpter 1996; Teske and Arnold 2008).
volume

Transformation by natural and engineered

processes shortens the ethoxy chain, which
alters the compounds transport and toxicity
(Montgomery-Brown and Reinhard 2003).
There are many similar examples for other
CECs (Kolpin etal. 2009).
Fate and transport models. Current fate
and transport models are not applicable to
several classes of the CECs. For example, the
unique chemical properties of perfluorinated
chemicals that promote their use as stain
blockers in fabrics (i.e., the strong tendency
for the fluorinated alkyl chains to aggregate)
also prevent the use of typical physicochemical
properties (e.g., octanolwater partition coef
ficient) to accurately predict their mobility
in aquatic ecosystems. The properties of sev
eral other classes of CECs make it difficult
to measure their physicochemical properties.
For example, the accurate measurement of the
molecular properties of the organosilicones
(e.g., Henrys law constant) is difficult because
of their high volatility and hydrophobicity
(David et al. 2000). Similarly, commonly
used models for predicting environmental fate
and transport are not adequately developed to
address the unique properties of nanoparticles
that may exhibit properties midway between
particulate and dissolved contaminants.
Health effects and risk assessment.
Unconventional responses and impacts.
Research gaps in Superfund-relevant CECs are
often gaps for CECs and environmental con
taminants in general. For example, toxicolo
gists have identified a need to understand the
risks posed by compounds that do not exhibit a
monotonic doseresponse curve or affect differ
ent physiological end points differently in vari
ous concentration ranges (Talsness etal. 2009).
There is a need to understand the effect of mix
tures when exposure occurs in complex media
(Conroy etal. 2007; Rodman etal. 1991),
to link invitro experimental results to toxico
logical manifestations in the whole organism,
and to assess effects on sensitive subpopula
tions such as infants from chronic exposure.
Although these needs are not unique to wastesiterelevant CECs, our ability to respond to
hazardous waste site generation is compromised
without additional research in these areas.
Bioaccumulation models. Existing mod
els do not accurately predict bioaccumulation
of many CECs (e.g., highly polar, ionized, or
functionalized molecules). Perhaps the best
example is the biomagnification (Houde etal.
2006) of PFOA and PFOS, which is not pre
dicted from their relatively low octanolwater
partition coefficients. Several other contami
nants such as perchlorate and DBDE have
been detected in tissues and organisms, which
also is unanticipated using standard models
(Cheng etal. 2008; Yu etal. 2002). For mole
cules of the size and hydrophobicity of DBDE
(molecular weight, 959 Da), bioaccumulation

119 | number 1 | January 2011 Environmental Health Perspectives

Next-generation Superfund contaminants

via passive diffusion through membranes is

predicted to be low. Nevertheless, there is
growing evidence of uptake of this and other
brominated flame retardants of similar molecu
lar weight, suggesting that other absorption
routes may be important (Thomas etal. 2005).
This deficiency is exacerbated by a lack of bio
accumulation studies and measured data on
exposure to a wide range of polar, ionized, and
high-molecular-weight chemicals in humans
and wildlife food chains.
Site investigation and remediation
approaches. Epidemiologically and ecologically focused geospatial analyses. The degree
of exposure to CECs and whether they are
responsible for unexplained or unrecognized
ecological or health effects at hazardous waste
sites is largely unexplored. Epidemiologically
and ecologically focused geospatial analyses are
not regularly employed to identify potential
effects of concentrated sources of CECs. For
instance, when blood samples were collected
from workers at an e-waste dismantling site
in China, the serum levels of PBDEs and the
frequency of micronucleated and binucleated
cells were significantly higher than those from
a similar unexposed cohort (Yuan etal. 2008).
Remediation technologies. Remedial
technologies for addressing CEC contami
nation are largely unstudied. The potential
impairment of remediation strategies for
priority pollutants due to the presence of
CEC cocontaminants is also unknown. For
example, no effective remediation technolo
gies have been identified for triclosan and
triclocarban, which are antimicrobial com
pounds that are detected at parts-per-million
concentrations in sediments and biosolids
(Miller etal. 2008; Wilson etal. 2008). The
presence of these antimicrobial cocontami
nants could promote multiple drug resistance
in pathogens, inhibit microbial degradation
of priority pollutants, or serve as alternative
electron donors to reductively dechlorinating
microorganisms, thereby slowing the natural
attenuation rate of priority pollutants (e.g.,
PCBs). In some cases, it may be difficult to
assess the efficacy of remedial technologies
because the physical and chemical properties
of CECs may be unknown or poorly defined.
In other cases, synergies and antagonisms
between engineered treatment options and
natural attenuation are not understood.

Identified Future Priorities

The following broad efforts are not discrete
tasks that can be usefully prioritized but are
interrelated needs, such that addressing one
priority assists in addressing the others. We
consider only the technical issues associated
with avoiding another generation of Superfund
sites. We intentionally do not consider the
policy, budgetary, and jurisdictional decisions
required to implement such priorities.

Develop CEC priority list and process for

list evolution. Foremost, there is a need to
expand the scope of hazardous waste site reme
diation efforts (e.g., the Superfund Research
Program) to include CECs that occur at cur
rent sites or could potentially create new haz
ardous waste sites. This will necessarily include
developing a list of priority CECs of hazardous
waste site relevance. It is imperative that such a
list continuously evolves to accommodate new
knowledge regarding the occurrence, behavior,
and impact of new CECs. It is important to
emphasize that models and fixed algorithms
alone will not suffice, but serendipity and
expert judgment also will play important roles.
The development of a CEC priority list will
be a staged evaluation. First, a process is needed
for identifying and promoting waste-site
relevant CECs to a priority list. The process
by which chemicals are placed on and then,
after study, demoted or promoted from a can
didate list may be similar to that used by the
U.S. EPA for drinking water contaminants
or to the Department of Defense for emerg
ing contaminants (Cunniff and Asiello 2009;
U.S. EPA 2010b). These approaches ensure
continuous reevaluation of the list and sug
gest a method for selecting candidates from
the universe of chemicals (National Research
Council 2001). Regular revision of the list is
vital to maintain its relevance as knowledge
and technology evolve. This general strategy is
relevant to both remediation of CECs at exist
ing hazardous waste sites and prevention of new
hazardous waste sites caused by the presence of
CECs. Abandoning current efforts directed at
traditional hazardous waste site contaminants
is not advocated; rather, a carefully considered
and orchestrated expansion of efforts to iden
tify, evaluate, monitor, and manage CECs of
hazard waste site relevance is needed.
Evaluate potential sources for localization
of CEC concentrations. The next generation of
hazardous waste sites will not originate primar
ily from unintentional spills and illicit disposal.
Heightened public awareness, greatly improved
regulation and oversight, and more environ
mentally conscious industrial processes have
curtailed many practices that led to our current
inventory of hazardous waste sites. However,
a plethora of chemicals are in commercial use
for which little is known, many new processes
and disposal practices are coming online that
pose unexplored waste discharge problems, and
medical end points and modes of action relative
to environmental insults are constantly being
revised. In addition, new industrial operations,
such as e-waste recycling centers, nanomaterial
manufacturing, and high-density food produc
tion, are largely unevaluated as sources of con
centrated CEC contamination. Furthermore,
the lack of monitoring for CECs emanating
from traditional points of waste accumula
tion such as landfills and biosolids disposal

Environmental Health Perspectives volume 119 | number 1 | January 2011

sites may hide future sources of environmental

contamination and exposure.
Increased and integrated focus on prevention. It is important to acknowledge that
the normal means of quantifying success of
an increased research effort, such as the num
ber of sites in which new tools enhance the
remediation effort, or the local reduction in
environmental concentration, will be ill-suited
for evaluating success of efforts to prevent
future Superfund sites. The most cost-effective
and desirable outcome is the prevention of a
Superfund contaminant from ever entering the
environment, so the relevant (but unmeasur
able) metric is the number of sites that do not
need to be remediated. Thus, quantification of
environmental improvement will be impossible
to measure when success is greatest. Ultimately,
prevention will depend upon a thorough, holis
tic understanding of these chemicals through
production, use, and disposal. Rigorously
reviewed, enhanced life-cycle assessments of
CECs considering cradle-to-grave impacts will
play a role. Appropriate response and manage
ment will manifest as substitution of high-risk
chemicals and practices for benign alternatives,
revision of commercial and domestic behavior
to minimize production and releases of CECs,
and an emphasis on reasoned precaution rather
than remediation.
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