Chapter 5

Dierentiation
5.1

Tangent to a Curve at a Point

Consider a curve and a xed point P on a curve. What is a tangent to a curve at a point?

(a) A straight line passing any two points of a curve is called a chord or segment.
(b) The tangent to a curve at a point P is a straight line which touchesthe curve at P .
The tangent at P is a line which cuts the curve in one and only one point, namely the
point P , in a su ciently small neighborhood around P , although it may cut the curve
at more than one point.

As the point Q approaches P , the chord P Q approaches the tangent. Using the notation
of limit, we write
tangent at P = lim

Q!P

Example 5.1.1. Consider the following curve:

97

Chord PQ:

98

CHAPTER 5. DIFFERENTIATION

6
4
2

-4

-2

There is no (unique) tangent at P , when there is a kink.

Describe Tangent Mathematically
How to describe mathematically the tangent to a curve at a point P ?
To describe the tangent at P , we have to nd the equation of the tangent. We have to
determine the gradient (or the slope) of the tangent.

Since
tangent at P = lim

Chord PQ;

Q!P

we shall rst determine the slope of the chord P Q:

Slope of chord PQ =

yQ
xQ

yP
:
xP

Then Slope of tangent at P =limQ!P (Slope of the chord P Q):

Slope of tangent at P = lim

Q!P

Denoting by

x the change in x and

x = xQ

xP

yQ
xQ

yP
:
xP

y the corresponding change in y, we have

and

y = yQ

yP :

5.2. INSTANTANEOUS RATE OF CHANGE

99

Thus we have
Slope of tangent at P = lim

x!0

y
:
x

Slope of a Tangent
If the curve is the graph of a function f (x), we have
Slope of tangent at P = lim

x!0

= lim

x!xP

f (x)
x

y
x

f (xP )
:
xP

if limit exists.

5.2

Instantaneous Rate of Change

Instantaneous Rate of Change

Increments
Suppose the state of a physical or chemical system is described by a set of variables.
E.g.
(x; t) = position of a sprinter along a 100m-race at time t track.
(m; T ) = molarity and temperature of an aqueous chemical solution.
(p; V; T ) = pressure, volume and temperature of a gas
When the system undergoes a change (e.g. when a sprinter runs or the temperature
of the gas changes), the values of those state variables (e.g. position x or temperature
T ) change.
We denote a change, or increment, in the variable x as
x = new value of x

old value of x:

Note that x can be positive, negative or zero, depending on if x increases, decreases

or stays the same.
Suppose f (x) is a function of x. As x changes from x1 to x2 , the corresponding f (x)
changes from f (x1 ) to f (x2 ). We have
x = x2

x1 ; and

f = f (x2 )

f (x1 ):

100

CHAPTER 5. DIFFERENTIATION
f
, which is known as the average change
Most often, we are interested in the ratio
x
in f as x changes from x1 to x2 .
f
is the instantaneous rate of change in f with respect to x.
The limit lim
x!0
x

5.3

Derivatives

Derivatives & Dierentiable Functions

Denition 5.3.1. (1) The derivative of a function f at a number c, denoted by f 0 (c), is
dened as follows:
f (x)
x!c
x

f (c)
;
c

f 0 (c) = lim
if this limit exists.

We say f is dierentiable at c if f 0 (c) exists.

Denition 5.3.2. (1) A function f is said to be dierentiable on an open interval (a; b) if
it is dierentiable at every number c in (a; b), i.e., f 0 (c) exists.
(2) The derivative function (or simply derivative) f 0 is dened by
f 0 (x) = lim

y!x

f (y)
y

f (x)
:
x

The domain of f 0 is the set of real numbers x such that f 0 (x) exists.
Remarks
1. Using the symbol x = x c for the change in x, we note that
x ! c. Thus we may express f 0 (c) as
f 0 (c) = lim

x!0

2. Sometimes, we use h = x
write

f (x)
f (c +
= lim
x!0
x

c instead of

f (c)

x to denote the change. Thus, we can also

f (c + h)
h!0
h

f 0 (c) = lim

f (c)

3. In the expression below,

f (y)
y!x
y

f 0 (x) = lim

x)
x

x ! 0 whenever

f (x)
:
x

5.4. EXAMPLES

101

The variable y on the right is a dummy variable which can be replaced by other symbol
except x. For example, we have
f (t)
t!x
t

f 0 (x) = lim
df
dx

4. Leibniz notation for derivative:

x=a

f (x)
:
x

df
(a).
dx

5. To dierentiate f (with respect to x) means to determine the derivative f 0 (i.e., f 0 (x)).

5.4

Examples

Example 5.4.1. (a) Is f (x) = x2 dierentiable at x = 1?

(b) Find f 0 (x) and the domain of f 0 .
Solution. To check whether f is dierentiable at x = 1, we have to check whether the limit
f (x) f (1)
lim
exists. We proceed to compute this limit:
x!1
x 1
f (x)
x!1
x
lim

= lim

(x

x!1

x2 (1)2
f (1)
= lim
x!1
1
x 1

1)(x + 1)
= lim (x + 1) = 2:
x!1
(x 1)

Since the limit exists, f is dierentiable at x = 1 and hence f 0 (1) = 2.

We determine f 0 (x) for f (x) = x2 as follows:
f (x + h)
h!0
h

f 0 (x) = lim

f (x)

= lim

h!0

x2 + 2xh + h2
h!0
h

= lim

x2

= lim

h!0

= lim (2x + h) = 2x:

h!0

Therefore, we have f 0 (x) = 2x for x 2 R.

Example 5.4.2. (a) Is the modulus function f (x) = jxj dierentiable at 0? Is there a
tangent to the graph of y = jxj at x = 0?
(b) Find f 0 (x) and the domain of f 0 .

102

CHAPTER 5. DIFFERENTIATION

f (x) f (0)
f (x)
= lim
(*).
x!0
x!0 x
x 0
To determine the limit (*) we note that f (x) takes dierent expression according to x > 0
or x < 0 because
x
if x 0
f (x) =
x if x < 0
Solution. Note that lim

For x close to 0, x can be negative or positive.

f (x)
f (x)
and lim
,
x!0
x!0
x
x
and check whether these limits are equal.

Thus, we have to consider both lim+

f (x)
x
= lim+ = 1
x!0
x!0 x
x
f (x)
x
lim
= lim
= 1
x!0
x!0
x
x
f (x)
f (x)
f (x)
Since lim+
6= lim
, we conclude that lim
does not exist. Therefore, the
x!0 x
x!0
x!0
x
x
function f (x) = jxj is not dierentiable at 0.
lim+

For x > 0, note that

f (y)
y!x
y
lim

f (x)
= lim
y!x
x

= 1:

We have used f (y) = y because we are interested in y very close to x, we may thus consider
0 < x=2 < y < 3x=2 so that f (y) = y. Similarly, for x < 0, note that
f (y)
y!x
y
lim

f (x)
= lim
y!x
x

1:

We have used f (y) = y because we are interested in y very close to x, we may thus consider
3x=2 < y < x=2 < 0 so that f (y) = y.
As discussed in part (a), f is not dierentiable as f 0 (0) does not exist. In conclusion, we
have
1
if x > 0
f 0 (x) =
1 if x < 0
The domain of f 0 is Rnf0g:
Remarks
1. If the derivative f 0 (c) exists, then the graph of f has a tangent at x = c. And, the
nite number f 0 (c) is the slope of this tangent.
The equation of the tangent is given by
y

f (c)
= f 0 (c);
x c

5.4. EXAMPLES

103

2. It is however possible for the graph of f to have a tangent even when the derivative
does not exist.
Example 5.4.3. (a) Is f (x) = x1=3 dierentiable at x = 0? Is there a tangent to the graph
at x = 0?
(b) Find the derivative of f (x) = x1=3 .
Solution. At x = 0, we look at the following limit of the fraction:
f (0 + h)
h

f (0)

h1=3 0
1
1
= 2=3 = 1=3 2 :
h
h
(h )

For h close to 0, the denominator (h1=3 )2 is close to 0 and positive (because of the square).
1
is large and positive and we have
Hence (h1=3
)2
f (0 + h)
h!0
h
lim

f (0)

= 1:

Since this is not a nite number, f is

at 0:

However, the graph of f has a (vertical) tangent at x = 0.

For x 6= 0, we evaluate the following limit
f (y) f (x)
y!x
y x
1=3
y
x1=3
= lim
y!x
y x
lim

=
Thus, f 0 (x) =

1
:
3x2=3

1
d
1
, i.e.,
x1=3 = 2=3 , for x 2 Rnf0g.
2=3
3x
dx
3x

Example 5.4.4. Use the denition of derivative to prove

dC
dx

= 0 for any constant C:

104

CHAPTER 5. DIFFERENTIATION

Derivatives of powers of x
Theorem 5.4.5. Let f (x) = xn , where n is a positive integer. Then,
f 0 (x) = nxn 1 ; i.e.,

dxn
= nxn 1 :
dx

Proof

Derivatives of a multiple
Theorem 5.4.6. Let be a real constant. Consider the function f , dened by ( f )(x) =
f (x). If f is dierentiable at x = c, i.e., f 0 (c) exists, then the function f is dierentiable
at x = c and its derivative at c is
( f )0 (c) =

f 0 (c):

f (x)
x

f (c)

Proof. We shall prove that the limit lim

x!c

( f )(x) ( f )(c)
= lim
x!c
x!c
x c
(f (x) f (c))
= lim
= lim
x!c
x!c
x c
lim

exists as follows:

f (x)
f (c)
x c
f (x) f (c)
x c

(f (x) f (c))
= f 0 (c):
x!c
x c
Therefore, ( f ) is dierentiable at x = c and
=

lim

( f )0 (x) =

f 0 (x):

5.5. HIGHER DERIVATIVES

105

1
d 1=3
(x ) = 2=3 , x =
Example 5.4.7. We have proved that
6 0. By the above proposition,
dx
3x
we have
d 1=3
179
d
(179x1=3 ) = 179 and
(x ) =
:
dx
dx
3x2=3

5.5

Higher Derivatives

Once we obtain the derivative f 0 of f , we may proceed to discuss the derivative of f 0 and
obtain the second derivative of f 0 , and so on. These are known as higher Derivatives of f .
Higher derivatives are used in Taylor Series.
Example 5.5.1. Consider f (x) = x5 .Then f 0 (x) =

dy
= 5x4 .
dx

The derivative of f 0 is the second derivative f 00 (also denoted by f (2) (x);

f (2) (x) = (f 0 )0 (x) =

d2 y
). We have
dx2

d
d
(5x4 ) = 5 (x4 ) = 5(4x3 ) = 20x3 :
dx
dx

Similarly, we may also have other higher derivatives:

f 0 (x); f (2) (x); f (3) (x); f (4) (x); : : :
By letting y = f (x), the higher derivatives are denoted by
d2 y d3 y d4 y
;
;
;
dx2 dx3 dx4
Remark
(a) In the study of kinematics, suppose x(t) is the distance travelled by an object at time
t. Then the speed of the object is x0 (t) and the acceleration at time t is x00 (t).
(b) The shape of the graph of a function f (x) (which is twice dierentiable) can be determined by the rst and second derivatives. This will be discussed in the next chapter.
(c) Higher derivatives are very useful in approximation. The Taylor series of a function
involves higher derivatives.

5.6

Dierentiability and Continuity

Theorem 5.6.1. If a function f is dierentiable at x = c then f is continuous at x = c.

106

CHAPTER 5. DIFFERENTIATION

Proof. Suppose f is dierentiable at x = c. This means that f is dened on some open

interval containing c and the limit
f (x)
x!c
x
lim

f (c)
= f 0 (c)
c

exists. Consequently, we have

lim f (x) = lim (f (x) f (c)+f (c)) = lim

x!c

x!c

x!c

f (x)
x

= lim

x!c

= lim

x!c

f (x)
x

f (c)
(x
c

f (c)
c

lim(x

x!c

f (x)
x

f (c)
(x
c

c) + f (c)

c) + lim (f (c))
x!c

c) + f (c) = f (c):

Hence, f is continuous at x = c.
The converse of the above is false. it is possible for a function to be continuous at x = c
but not dierentiable at x = c.
As a consequence of the theorem, we have
Corollary 5.6.2. If f is not continuous at x = c, then f is not dierentiable at x = c.
The following result is useful to determine derivative of a piecewise dened function f
which splitsat x = c.
Theorem 5.6.3. Suppose f is continuous at x = c. If
lim f 0 (x) = lim f 0 (x) = L;

x!c+

x!c

then f is dierentiable at x = c and f 0 (c) = L.

Proof. (Uses Mean Value Theorem, can be omitted).
Example 5.6.4. Let f (x) =

x3 + 2
3x

if x > 1
; nd f 0 (x) :
if x 1

Solution. Note that

f (1) = 3
lim+ f (x) = lim+ (x3 + 2) = 3 and

x!1

x!1

lim f (x) = lim (3x) = 3.

x!1

x!1

Thus, lim f (x) = 3 = f (1), which says that f is continuous at x = 1.

x!1

5.7. DIFFERENTIATION RULES

107

For x > 1 we have f 0 (x) = 3x2 whereas f 0 (x) = 3 for x < 1.

Since f is continuous at x = 1 and lim+ f 0 (x) = 3 = lim f 0 (x), the function f is dierx!1

entiable at x = 1 and f 0 (1) = 3. In conclusion, we have

3x2
3

f 0 (x) =

5.7

x!1

if x > 1
if x 1

Dierentiation Rules

Theorem 5.7.1 (Sum and Dierence Rules). Suppose f and g are dierentiable at x = c.
Then
(1) f + g is dierentiable at x = c and
(f + g)0 (c) = f 0 (c) + g 0 (c):
(2) f

g is dierentiable at x = c and
(f

g)0 (c) = f 0 (c)

g 0 (c):

Proof.
(f + g)(c + h)
h!0
h
lim

(f + g)(c)
(f (c + h) + g(c + h)) (f (c) + g(c))
h!0
h
g(c + h)
f (c + h) f (c)
+ lim
= lim
h!0
h!0
h
h

= lim

g(c)

= f 0 (c) + g 0 (c)

Theorem 5.7.2 (Product and Quotient Rules). Suppose f and g are dierentiable at x = c.
Then
(1) f g is dierentiable at x = c and
(f g)0 (c) = f 0 (c)g(c) + f (c)g 0 (c):
(2) f =g is dierentiable at x = c, provided g(c) 6= 0 in a neighborhood of c, and
f
g

f 0 (c)g(c) f (c)g 0 (c)

(c) =
:
(g(c))2

In particular, we have
(3) Suppose g(x) 6= 0 in a small neighborhood of c. The function

x = c, and

1
g

(c) =

g 0 (c)
:
(g(c))2

1
is dierentiable at
g

108

CHAPTER 5. DIFFERENTIATION

Proof of Product Rule

(f g)(c + h)
h!0
h

(f g)(c)

lim

f (c + h)g(c + h)
h!0
h

f (c)g(c)

= lim

f (c + h)g(c + h) f (c + h)g(c) + f (c + h)g(c)

h!0
h

= lim

= lim f (c + h)
h!0

g(c + h)
h

g(c)

f (c + h)
h!0
h

+ lim

f (c)g(c)

f (c)

g(c)

Since f is dierentiable at x = c it is continuous at x = c and so lim f (c + h) = f (c) and

h!0
we get
(f g)(c + h)
h!0
h
lim

(f g)(c)

= f (c)g 0 (c) + f 0 (c)g(c):

Proof of Quotient and Reciprocal Rules: Refer to textbook.

Theorem 5.7.3. The function f + g is dierentiable at x = c, where
constants, and
( f + g)0 (c) = f 0 (c) + g 0 (c):

and

are real

Using the results established above, we can prove the power rule for negative exponents.
Proposition 5.7.4 (The Power Rule for negative powers). Suppose m be a negative integer,
say m = n, where n 2 Z+ . If f (x) = xm where x 6= 0, then f 0 (x) = mxm 1 .
Proof. We have proved that f 0 (x) =

dxn
= nxn
dx

for positive integer n.

By reciprocal rule, we have

f 0 (x) =

dxn
dx
n
(x )2

dxm
d
=
x
dx
dx

( n)xn
x2n

d
dx

1
xn

= ( n)x(

n) 1

= mxm 1 :

In conclusion, we have
d n
(x ) = nxn 1 ; for every (positive and negative) integer n:
dx

5.8. DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

109

Theorem 5.7.5 (The Chain Rule). Let f and g be functions such that g(x) is dierentiable
at x = c and f (u) is dierentiable at u = g(c). Then f g is dierentiable at x = c and
(f

g)0 (c) = f 0 (g(c))g 0 (c):

Or with Leibniz notation

df du
df
=
:
dx
du dx

[Proof is omitted.] A correct proof of the chain rule is not in the syllabus.
p
Example 5.7.6. Dierentiate h(x) = 3x5 6x2 + 7x + .
p
Solution. Let f (x) = x and g(x) = 3x5
h0 (x) = f 0 (g(x)) g 0 (x) where

6x2 + 7x + . Then h = f

1
f 0 (x) = p & g 0 (x) = 15x4
2 x
1
f 0 (g(x)) = p
= p
2 3x5
2 g(x)

12x + 7:
1
:
6x2 + 7x +

15x4 12x + 7
:
h0 (x) = p
2 3x5 6x2 + 7x +

It follows from the Chain rule that

Corollary 5.7.7.
d
(f (x))n = n (f (x))n 1 f 0 (x), where n 2 Z.
dx
dp
1 f 0 (x)
(b)
f (x) = p
; where f (x) > 0.
dx
2 f (x)

(a)

5.8

Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Theorem 5.8.1. (1)

(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)

d
dx

(sin x) = cos x

d
(cos x) = sin x
dx
d
(tan x) = sec2 x
dx
d
(sec x) = sec x tan x
dx
d
(csc x) = csc x cot x
dx
d
(cot x) = csc2 x
dx

Using chain rule, we also have

g. By chain rule,

110

CHAPTER 5. DIFFERENTIATION

Corollary 5.8.2. (1)

(2)
(3)
(4)

d
dx
d
dx
d
dx

Proof of

d
dx

sin(Ax + B) = A cos(Ax + B)

cos(Ax + B) =

A sin(Ax + B)

tan(Ax + B) = A sec2 (Ax + B)

sin (f (x)) = f 0 (x) cos (f (x))
d
dx

sin x = cos x :

Two results are needed -

sin x
=1
x!0 x
lim

and

cos x
x!0
x
lim

= 0:

The above limits can be proved with squeeze theorem. Assume x > 0: Draw a circular
arc of radius 1 as follows.

Then length of Arc BC = x and height of ABC = sin x:Therefore from the diagram,
sin x x and x tan x:Thus
sin x
1
x
and
sin x
cos x
:
x
sin x
sin x
Thus cos x
1: Since limx!0+ cos x = 1;by squeeze theorem, limx!0+
= 1:
x
x
Proof. For x 6= 0 we have,
cos x
x
=

(1

2 sin2 (x=2))
x

sin x=2
sin x=2 !
x=2 | {z }
| {z }
!0
!1

1 0 = 0;

2 sin2 x=2
x
as x ! 0:

5.9. DERIVATIVES OF EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Proof of

d
dx

111

sin x = cos x. With f (x) = sin x, we have

f (x + h)
h

f (x)

sin(x + h)
h

sin x

sin x cos h + cos x sin h sin x

h
(cos h 1)
sin h
= sin x
+ cos x
h
h}
|
{z
}
| {z

!0

!1

! sin x 0 + cos x 1 = cos x;

as h ! 0:

Proof of the rest of trigonometric derivatives

Once we have established derivative of the sine function, we may apply rules of dierentiation to derive the derivative of other trigonometric functions.
Example 5.8.3.
Proof. tan x =

d
dx

tan x =

1
cos2 x

= sec2 x:

sin x
: By the quotient rule,
cos x
d
dx

sin x
cos x

(cos x)

d
dx

sin x

sin x

d
dx

cos x

(cos x)
(cos x) + (sin x)2
1
=
=
= sec2 x:
2
(cos x)
(cos x)2
2

5.9

Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Theorem 5.9.1.

1.

d x
(e ) = ex
dx

2.

d x
(a ) = ax ln a, a > 0 & a 6= 1.
dx

3.

d
1
(ln x) =
dx
x

4.

d
1
(loga x) =
, a > 0 & a 6= 1.
dx
x ln a

112

CHAPTER 5. DIFFERENTIATION

Remark Its important to note that the exponential function ex (also denoted by exp(x) )
is the only function such that f 0 (x) = f (x).
Example 5.9.2. (a)
(b)

d
dx

d
x5 + sin(4x)
dx

ex
3x3 x + 1
p
tan( x) =

d
dx
d
(d)
ln(cos2 x + 1)
dx
(c)

xex =

Further Results
d f (x)
e
= ef (x) f 0 (x)
dx
d
f 0 (x)
(b)
ln f (x) =
; where f (x) > 0
dx
f (x)

Proposition 5.9.3. (a)

5.10

Parametric Dierentiation

Suppose x and y are functionally dependent but can be expressed in terms of a parameter
t, i.e.,
y = u(t)
x = v(t)
Then we can dierentiate y with respect to x as follows, (provided derivatives u0 (t) and v 0 (t)
exist, and v 0 (t) 6= 0):
dy
=
dx

dy
dt
dx
dt

u0 (t)
:
v 0 (t)

Note that we also have

d dy
d2 y
=
( )=
2
dx
dx dx
Example 5.10.1. Let x = 9(t

sin t) and y = 9(1

dy
=
dt

dx
=
dt

dy
=
dx

dy
dt
dx
dt

d dy
( )
dt dx
:
dx
dt

cos t). Then

2 sin 2t cos 2t
t
9(sin t)
=
=
= cot :
2 t
9(1 cos t)
2
2 sin 2

5.11. IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

113

d dy
( )
dt dx
dx
dt
d
(cot 2t )
dt

d2 y
=
dx2
=

9(1

cos t)
csc2 2t
9 2 sin2 2t
1
36 sin4 21 t
1
:
4 sin4 21 t
1
2

=
=
=

5.11

Implicit Dierentiation

When x and y are functionally dependent but this dependence is implicitly given by means
of an equation F (x; y) = 0, we apply the chain rule to dierentiate implicitly to obtain y 0 in
terms of x and y.
Example 5.11.1. Find

dy
if 3x4 y 2
dx

Solution Dierentiating 3x4 y 2

7xy 3 = 4

7xy 3 = 4

3(4x3 )y 2 + 3x4 (2y

8y:

8y with respect to x:

dy
)
dx

7y 3

7x(3y 2

dy
)=
dx

By rearranging the terms, we have

dy
=
dx

Power Rule for Rational Exponents

Recall we could dierentiate integer powers of x :
d(x3 )
=
dx

d(x 3 )
=
dx

What about the following

d(x3=2 )
=
dx

d(x 3=5 )
=
dx

dy
:
dx

114

CHAPTER 5. DIFFERENTIATION

For a rational number r =

m
,
n

where m 2 Z and nZ+ , the expression x n means

1

x n = xn

Theorem 5.11.2. Suppose r =

m
, where n is a positive integer, and m 2 Z. Then
n
d r
(x ) = rxr 1 :
dx

Proof. Let y = x n . Then y n = xm . Dierentiating y n = xm ( implicitly ) with respect to x,

we obtain
dy
= mxm 1 :
ny n 1
dx
Rearranging the terms, we have
m xm 1
dy
=
dx
n yn 1
m xm 1
n xm(n 1)=n
m m 1 m+m=n
= x
n
m m
= x n 1:
n
d r
(x ) = rxr 1 :
by r, we have the required result
dx
=

Replacing

m
n

Example 5.11.3.
d
x3=2
dx

5.12

9=5

+ x1=3 =

Logarithmic Dierentiation

More generally, we have the power rule for a general real number r:
Theorem 5.12.1. Let r be a real constant. The function f (x) = xr is dened for x > 0,
and
f 0 (x) = rxr 1 :
To verify the above derivative, we use the technique known as logarithmic dierentiation.
Let y = xr . Since ln x is an injective function, we apply the function ln x to y = xr . This
gives
ln y = r ln x:

5.13. DERIVATIVE OF INVERSE FUNCTION

115

Dierentiate implicitly with respect to x, we have

1 dy
1
=r :
y dx
x
Thus, we have
xr
x

dy
y
=r
=r
dx
x
d
dx

Example 5.12.2. Find the derivative

(x

= rxr 1 :

):

Example 5.12.3. Find the derivative of y = xx for x > 0:

5.13

Derivative of Inverse Function

We state without proof the result on the derivative of inverse function.

Theorem 5.13.1 (Derivative of inverse). If f is increasing (respectively decreasing) and
continuous on an interval (a; b) and f 0 (x0 ) > 0 (respectively f 0 (x0 ) < 0 ) for some x0 2 (a; b),
then f 1 is dierentiable at the point y0 = f (x0 ), and
(f

1 0

) (y0 ) =

1
f 0 (f 1 (y

0 ))

Note that the condition that f is increasing and continuous on (a; b) tells us that the
function f is one-to-one and the inverse f 1 exists. In the next example, we demonstrate
the formula
1
(f 1 )0 (y0 ) = 0
:
f (f 1 (y0 ))
Example 5.13.2. Let f (x) = cos x, where x 2 (0; ). Find (f

1 0

) (0):

Solution Note that

(f

1 0

) (0) =

1
f 0 (f

=
=

1 (0))

1
sin(cos 1 (0))
1
= 1:
sin( =2)

116

5.14

CHAPTER 5. DIFFERENTIATION

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

d
1
sin 1 x = p
, for 1 < x < 1.
dx
1 x2
1
1
, for 1 < x < 1.
x) = p
1 x2
1
1
x) =
, for x 2 R.
1 + x2
1
1
x) =
, for x 2 R.
1 + x2
1
1
, for x < 1 or x > 1.
x) = p
jxj x2 1

Theorem 5.14.1. (1)

d
(cos
dx
d
(3) (tan
dx
d
(cot
(4)
dx
d
(5)
(sec
dx
(2)

(6)

d
(csc
dx

x) =

1
p
jxj x2

, , for x <

1 or x > 1.

Proof. [Proof of (1)] We use implicit dierentiation to obtain the derivative of the inverse
function.
Let y = f (x) = sin 1 (x), where x 2 ( 1; 1) and y 2 (

; 2 ).

Note that
y = f (x) = sin 1 (x) () sin y = x:
Dierentiate sin y = x with respect to x implicitly, we have
(cos y)

dy
dy
1
= 1; which gives
=
:
dx
dx
cos y

By the trigonometric identity cos2 y + sin2 y = 1, we have

cos2 y = 1

sin2 y = 1

x2 :
p
Since y 2 ( 2 ; 2 ), we have cos y > 0. Therefore, cos y = 1

x2 :Thus, we have

dy
1
1
=
=p
:
dx
cos y
1 x2

The derivatives of the other inverse trigonometric functions can be proved similarly. You
should at least verify (via implicit dierentiation)
d
tan
dx

x =

1
:
1 + x2

5.15. PROBLEMS ON RATE OF CHANGE

5.15

117

Problems on Rate of Change

Problems on Rate of Change

For a function f , the derivative f 0 (x) can be interpreted as the instantaneous rate of
change of f (x) with respective to x.
There are many applications of instantaneous rates of change in science and engineering
Physics: velocity, acceleration, electricity, ....
Chemistry: rate of reaction
Biology: population growth
Economics: concepts of marginalism
Engineering: many....
Example 5.15.1. The volume of a growing spherical cell is V =
is measured in micrometers (1 m = 10 6 m).

4
3

r3 , where the radius r

(a) Find the average rate of change of V with respect to r when r changes from 5 to 8
m.
(b) Find the instantaneous rate of change of V with respect to r when r = 5 m.
Solution Consider the function V (r) =

4
3

r3 , where r > 0.

(a) When r changes from 5 to 8, we have V changes from V (5) to V (8). The average rate
of change of V with respect to r when r changes from 5 to 8 m is
V (8)
8

4
V (5)
=
5
3

83
8

53
= 172
5

(b) Note that V 0 (r) = 4 r2 .

The instantaneous rate of change of V with respect to r when r = 5 is V 0 (5) = 4 (52 ) =
100 .
Example 5.15.2. If a ball is given a push so that it has an initial velocity of 5m/s down a
certain inclined plane, then the distance it has rolled after t seconds is x = 5t + 3t2 .
(a) Find the velocity after 2s.
(b) How long does it takes for the velocity to reach 35m/s?
(c) What is the acceleration after 2s?

118

CHAPTER 5. DIFFERENTIATION

Solution - Independent Reading

(a) To nd the velocity after 2s, we evaluate x0 (2) .
Note that x0 (t) = 5 + 6t. Hence, we have x0 (2) = 17m/s.
(b) The nd time for the velocity to reach 35m/s, we solve x0 (t) = 5 + 6t = 35, which gives
t = 5s.
(c) The acceleration after ts is given by x00 (t) = 6m/s 2 , which is also the acceleration after
2s.
Example 5.15.3. When air expands without losing or gaining heat, its pressure P and
volume V satisfy the equation
P V 1:4 = C;
where C is a constant. At one instant the volume is 400 cm3 , the pressure is 80 kPa and the
pressure is decreasing with 10 kPa=min.
At what rate is the volume increasing at this instant?
Solution - Independent Reading
Given P V 1:4 = C: Since both V and P depend on time t, dierentiating the equation
above (implicitly) with respect to t, we get
dV
dP
V 1:4 + P 1:4V 0:4
= 0:
dt
dt
Solving for

dV
dt

we have

dP
dP
V 1:4
V
dV
dt
= dt
=
:
0:4
dt
1:4P V
1:4P
Substituting V = 400 cm3 , P = 80 kPa and dP=dt = 10 kPa=min into this gives us,

dV
=
dt

dP
dt

V
=
1:4P

10(400)
cm3 =min
1:4(80)

36 cm3 =min;

so the volume is increasing at 36 cm3 =min.

Example 5.15.4. A motorcyclist is travelling along a road. On an overhead bridge is a
tra c police with a radar gun, positioned 6 m above the motorcycle. When the motorcyclist
is passing a lamppost, the tra c police knows that the distance from the motorcycle to the
bridge is 8 m. At this moment, his instrument tells him that the distance y (in km) between
him and the motorcycle is decreasing at a rate of 52 km/h. If the speed limit on this particular
road is 60 km/h, can the motorcyclist be ned?

5.16. LINEARIZATION

119

Solution Let x (in km) be the distance from the motorcycle to the (bottom of the) bridge.
As the motorcycle is moving, both x and y change, x = x(t), y = y(t). They are all the time
however, related by the equation
x(t)2 + (0:006)2 = y(t)2 :
Dierentiating this equation with respect to t, we get
2x(t)x0 (t) + 0 = 2y(t)y 0 (t); which gives x0 (t) =

y(t)y 0 (t)
:
x(t)

We have shown that

y(t)y 0 (t)
:
x(t)
At the moment in time t = t0 when the motorcycle passes the lamppost, note that y 0 (t0 ) =
52 km/h, x(t0 ) = 8 m = 0:008 km and y(t0 ) = 10 m = 0:01 km. So, we have
x0 (t) =

x0 (t0 ) =

5.16

( 10)52
(0:01)( 52)
km=h =
km=h =
0:008
8

65 km=h:

Linearization

Linearization refers to the process of nding the linear approximation to a function at a

given point. I.e., to linearize means to approximate f (x) near x = a by a linear function
L(x).
Denition 5.16.1. The linearization of f at a is the linear function
L(x) = f (a) + (x
Diagram to illustrate:

Remark

a)f 0 (a)

120

CHAPTER 5. DIFFERENTIATION

(a) Note that the equation y = L(x), i.e.,

y = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x

a)

is the equation of tangent of the curve y = f (x) at x = a.

(b) Linearization is a local approximation for f at a via the tangent of y = f (x) at x = a.
We use the linearization L(x) to approximate value of f (x) for x near a, i.e., f (x)
L(x).
(c) There is also quadratic approximation of f at x = a. More generally, if f can be
dierentiated n times at x = a, we have the Taylors polynomial Pn (x) (degree n) of
f (x) at x = a, .
(x a)2 00
f (a)
Pn (x) = f (a) + (x a)f 0 (a) +
2!
(x a)k (k)
(x a)n (n)
+
+
f (a)
+
f (a):
k!
n!
Example 5.16.2. Consider f (x) = ln(1 + x). Use the linearization of f at a = 0 to
approximate the value of ln (1:01) :
Solution. The linearization of f is given by L(x) as follows:
L(x) = f (0) + f 0 (0)(x
Since f 0 (x) =

0):

1
, we have f 0 (0) = 1 and f (0) = ln 1 = 0 so that
1+x
L(x) = x:

We approximate ln(1:01) = ln(1 + 0:01) using linearization,

f (0:01) = ln(1:01)

L(0:01) = 0:01:
p
Example 5.16.3. Use the linearization of f (x) = x at a = 4 to approximate the value of
p
4:001:
p
Solution. Let f (x) = x, we have f 0 (x) = 2p1 x . The linearization of f at a = 4 is:
L(x) = f (4) + f 0 (4)(x
Thus

4) =

4:001 = f (4:001)

1
4 + p (x
2 4

1
4) = 2 + (x
4

1
L(4:001) = 2 + (4:001
4

4):

4)

1
= 2 + (0:001) = 2:00025:
4
p
3
Example 5.16.4. Approximate 7:99 by linearization
L(x) = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x

a)

Question: Which function f (x) and at which point a would you choose?

5.17. ESTIMATION OF CHANGE USING DIFFERENTIALS

5.17

121

Estimation of Change using Dierentials

Consider a dierentiable function f , suppose the value of x changes from x = a to x = a+dx

(i.e., x = dx). (Here, we have used the symbol dx to denote x.)
Then the corresponding change in f is
f = f (a + dx)

f (a):

Dierentials
When the change dx is small, we can approximate the change in f using the its linearization at x = a. We denote by df the change in this linearization:
df = L(a + dx)

L(a) = f 0 (a)dx

The quantity df is called the dierential of f .

Again, this approximation is good for values of x close to a.
Remarks
(a) Warning The derivative

df
is not the quotient the dierential df and the change dx.
dx

(b) It is useful to take note of other types of change for a change dx in x:

Absolute change
Relative change
Percentage change

Actual Change Estimated change

f
df
f
f (a)
f
100 f (a)

df
f (a)
100 fdf
(a)

Example 5.17.1. The radius of a circular disk is given as 24 cm with a maximum error in
measurement of 0:2 cm.
(a) Use the dierentials to estimate the maximum error in the calculated area of the disk.
(b) What is the relative error? What is the percentage error?
Solution. Let the radius be rcm. Then the area of the circular disk is A(r) =
Note that A0 (r) = 2 r and the dierential of A at r = r0 is

r2 cm2 .

dA = A0 (r0 )dr:
We have
dA = A0 (r0 )dr:
(a) To use the dierentials to estimate the maximum error in the calculated area of the disk,
note that the dierential of A(r) at r0 = 24 is given by A0 (24)dr, with dr = 0:2.

122

CHAPTER 5. DIFFERENTIATION

Thus, we have the maximum error ( A) is estimated to be dA = A0 (24)dr = 2 (24)(0:2) =

(b) The relative error is estimated to be

2 (24)(0:2))
1
dA
=
=
2
A(24)
(24)
60

The estimated percentage error is (100%) (relative error) which is 100(0:01667)% = 1:667%.

5.18

Newtons Method

Newtons Method is a numerical method to approximate the solution to an equation f (x) =

0. It is an iteration method which involves a sequence of approximations that approach the
solution. It is also known as Newton-Raphson method.
The underlying idea is to approximate the graph of f by a suitable tangent line.
Idea of Newtons Method
Newtons method is an iterative method. The solution is found by generating a sequence
(xn ) iteratively (recursively).
Iteration: Steps 0 and 1
Let x0 be an approximate value of the root.
Set x1 to be the x-intercept of the tangent to the curve of f at x0 .
The equation of the tangent of the curve y = f (x) at the point (x0 ; f (x0 )) is y = f 0 (x0 ) (x
Therefore, we have
0 = f 0 (x0 ) (x1

x0 ) + f (x0 )

x0 ) + f (x

5.18. NEWTONS METHOD

123

It follows that

f (x0 )
:
f 0 (x0 )

x1 = x0
Iteration: Step (n+1)

If xn has been found, let xn+1 be the x-intercept of the tangent to the curve of f at xn .
Like x1 , we have
xn+1 = xn

f (xn )
f 0 (xn )

This iterative method of approximating the solution of f (x) = 0 is called Newtons

method.
Newtons Method - In Summary, to nd the a root of f (x) = 0:
Step 0: Select x0 as an approximate value of the root.
Subsequent steps: Evaluate Newtons iterates
xn+1 = xn

f (xn )
:
f 0 (xn )

Example 5.18.1. Use Newtons method to solve x3

x+1=0

Solution. Let f (x) = x3 x+1, which is continuous and dierentiable with f 0 (x) = 3x2 1.
Note that f ( 1) = 1 > 0 and f ( 2) = 5 < 0. By the Intermediate Value Theorem,
f (c) = 0 for some c 2 ( 2; 1). Thus we may choose either x0 = 1 or x0 = 2.
Set x0 =

1. For n = 1; 2; 3; : : :, we have
x3n xn + 1
:
3x2n 1

f (xn )
= xn
f 0 (xn )

xn+1 = xn
Thus,
x1 = x0

x30 x0 + 1
=
3x20 1
x2 = x1

1:5

1
=
2

x31 x1 + 1
3x21 1

( 1:5)3 ( 1:5) + 1
3( 1:5)2 + 1
=

and so on.

1:34883:

1:5:

124

CHAPTER 5. DIFFERENTIATION

Tabulation of Iterates
n xn
0
1
2
3
4

f 0 (xn )

f (xn )

1
1
1:5
0:87
1:34783
0:10068
1:32520
0:002058
1:324718
9:2E 07

xn+1 = xn

2
5:75
4:449905
4:264635
4:264633

An approximated root, to ve decimal places, for x3

x4 = x5 =

f (xn )
f 0 (xn )

1:5
1:34783
1:32520
1:324718
1:324718
x + 1 = 0 is

1:324718:

Other uses of Newtons Method

A classical example of the use of Newtons method is to compute values of non-polynomial
quantities like the reciprocal of a number.
Approximating Reciprocals
Example 5.18.2. Use Newtons method to nd an approximate value the reciprocal of
where 6= 0.
Solution Our aim: Given
Note that x =

6= 0, estimate x where x =

is equivalent to

1
x

= , i.e.,

1
x

=0.

Thus, we use the function

f (x) =

1
x

Then the root of the equation f (x) = 0 is 1 .

By Newtons Method, we have
xn+1 = xn
= xn

f (xn )
f 0 (xn )
1
xn
1
x2n

1
xn
= xn + xn (1
xn )
= xn (2
xn )
= xn + x2n

Note that the computation of xn+1 from xn involves only addition and multiplication, which
are much easier to handle than division by the earlier computers.

5.19. CLOSED INTERVAL METHOD

125

Approximating Square Roots

p Another classical example for Newtons method is the computation of the square-root
of a positive number .
Example 5.18.3. Use Newtons method to nd an iteration to approximate the positive
square root of , where > 0.
p
Solution Note that the root of x =
is equivalent to the positive root of x2 =
x2
= 0. Let f (x) = x2
. By Newtons method, the iterates are

i.e.,

f (xn )
f 0 (xn )
x2n
2xn

xn+1 = xn
= xn

xn
+
2
2xn
1
=
xn +
2
xn
p
Example 5.18.4. Approximate the value of 3:
=

Solution. We know that to approximate

; we can use the iteration

xn+1 =

1
2

xn +

To approximate

3, we use the above, with

x1 =

x2 =

5.19

1
2

1
2

2+

7
3
+
4 7=4

xn

= 3 and x0 = 2:
3
2

7
= 1:75
4

97
56

1:7321429

Closed Interval Method

Optimization is a mathematical process of nding the best possible solution(s). In the

simplest case, an optimization problem consists of maximizing or minimizing a real function.
In this section, we discuss the closed interval method to solve an optimization problem
where the function involved is continuous and the domain is a closed and bounded interval.
Critical Points
Critical points are points c at which f 0 (c) = 0 or f 0 (c) fails to exist.

126

CHAPTER 5. DIFFERENTIATION

1. A point c where f 0 (c) = 0 is called a stationary point.

2. A point where f 0 (c) fails to exist is called a singular point.
Closed Interval Method
Recall that the Extreme Value Theorem states that a continuous function f on a closed
and bounded interval [a; b] attains its global maximum and global minimum.
The following three-step procedure can be used to nd global maximum and absolute
minimum of a continuous function f on a closed and bounded interval [a; b].
1: Determine all critical points of f in (a; b) and nd the corresponding f -values.
2: Compute f (a) and f (b).
3: The largest (respectively smallest) value of f from Steps 1 and 2 is the global maximum
(respectively global minimum) of f on [a; b].
p
Example 5.19.1. Find the global maximum and global minimum of f (t) = 3 t (8 t) on
[ 1; 8] :
Solution p
Note that f is continuous on [ 1; 8], since it is the product function of continuous
functions 3 t and 8 t. By the Extreme Value Theorem, f has a global minimum on [ 1; 8].
We have to nd c at which f 0 (c)pdoes not exist or f 0 (c) = 0. For 1 < t < 0 or 0 < t < 8,
4t
we have f 0 (t) = 31 t 2=3 (8 t) 3 t = 3(8 p
3 2:
t)
Singular point: t = 0 is a singular point of f , since f is not dierentiable at t = 0.
Stationary Point:f 0 (t) = 0 () 8
End Points: t =

4t = 0 () t = 2:

1 and t = 8.

Comparing values of f :
f (2) =

p
3

2(6); f (0) = 0; f ( 1) =

9;

Conclusion: Global maximum of f on [ 1; 8] is f (2) =

Global minimum of f on [ 1; 8] is f ( 1) =
Example 5.19.2. Let f (x) = (x2
values of f on the interval [ 3; 3]

2=3

1)

p
3

f (8) = 0:
2(6)

9.

. Find the global maximum and global minimum

Solution The function f is continuous on [ 3; 3].

By the Extreme Value Theorem, it has a global maximum and a global minimum. We
have
2
4x
f 0 (x) = (x2 1) 1=3 2x =
:
2
3
3(x
1)1=3

5.20. MEAN VALUE THEOREM

We have f 0 (x) =

4x
3(x2

1)1=3

127

Critical points:

Stationary point: f 0 (x) = 0

x=

Singular points: f 0 (x) fails to exist when x =

Endpoints:
Since these are all candidates for extreme values, we see that the largest value of f on
[ 3; 3] is f ( 3) = f (3) = 4 and the smallest value is f ( 1) = f (1) = 0.

5.20

Mean Value Theorem

Theorem 5.20.1 (Rolles Theorem). Let f be continuous on the closed interval [a; b] and
dierentiable on the open interval (a; b). If f (a) = f (b) ; then there is a point c in (a; b)
such that
f 0 (c) = 0:

Theorem 5.20.2 (The Mean Value Theorem). Let f be continuous on the closed interval
[a; b] and dierentiable on the open interval (a; b). Then there is (at least one point) c in
(a; b) such that
f (b)
b

f (a)
= f 0 (c):
a

128

CHAPTER 5. DIFFERENTIATION

Mean Value Theorem - Graphical Illustration

Example 5.20.3. Suppose f (0) =

3 and f 0 (x)

5 for all x, how large can f (2) be?

Since f is dierentiable for all x, f is also continuous everywhere. Applying the Mean
Value Theorem to f on [0; 2] we have for some c 2 (0; 2) that
f (2)
2

f (0)
= f 0 (c)
0

5;

so
f (2)

f (0) + 5(2

0) =

3 + 10 = 7;

so the largest value that f (2) can have is 7.

Using Mean Value Theorem in Approximation
p
Example 5.20.4. Use the Mean Value Theorem to estimate 3 65.
p
p
3
3
Solution Note that
64
<
65
<
125,
where
64
=
4
and
125 = 5. Thispsuggests that we
p
3
considerpf (x) = x where x 2 [64; 65]. We shall use the function f (x) = 3 x. The function
f (x) = 3 x is continuous on [64; 65] and dierentiable on (64; 65) with
1
; x 2 (64; 65):
3x2=3

f 0 (x) =

By Mean Value Theorem, there is an x0 2 (64; 65) such that

which gives

Thus we have

p
3

Next, we estimate the value

f (65)
65

f (64)
= f 0 (x0 );
64

p
3

1 2=3
4 = x0 :
3

65 = 4 +
1
2=3 .
3x0

65
1
2=3

3x0

; where x0 2 (64; 65):

Since 64 < x0 < 65, we have

2=3

3(642=3 ) < 3x0

< 3(652=3 );

5.21. INDETERMINATE FORMS

and hence

1
2=3

3x0
Thus, we have

p
3

129

<

1
1
1
=
=
:
3(642=3 )
3(42 )
48

65 = 4 +

From the above, we have

4<
We can take a number in (4; 4 +

5.21

1
)
48

p
3

1
2=3
3x0

<4+

65 < 4 +

1
:
48

1
:
48

as an approximation of

p
3

65.

Indeterminate Forms

Limits of fractions, where either both the numerator and the denominator tend to zero, or
they both tend to 1, are called indeterminate forms (of type 00 or 1
respectively).
1
Example 5.21.1. Which of the following limits are of indeterminate form?
(a) limx!1

ln x
.
x 1

(b) limx!1+

x3 1
p
.
x 1

(c) limx!1

ex
.
x2

Limits of indeterminate form fail to meet the requirements of the limit law
lim f (x)
f (x)
= x!a
:
x!a g(x)
lim g(x)
lim

x!a

Many important limits are of indeterminate forms and their limits can be evaluated by
the powerful result, LHospitals Rule.

5.22

LHospitals Rule

Theorem 5.22.1 (lHospitals Rule). Suppose f and g are dierentiable and both g(x) and
g 0 (x) are non-zero near a (except possibly at a). Suppose also that
lim f (x) = lim g(x) = 0;

x!a

x!a

or that
lim f (x) =

x!a

1;

lim g(x) =

x!a

1:

130

CHAPTER 5. DIFFERENTIATION

Then

f (x)
f 0 (x)
= lim 0
x!a g(x)
x!a g (x)
lim

(if the latter limit exists, but also if it diverges to 1 or

1).

The theorem holds also for one sided limits and for limits at innity (x !

1).

Proof. We only illustrate the proof for the special case where f 0 ; g 0 are continuous and
limx!a f (x) = limx!a g(x) = 0:
Note that
lim

x!a

f (x)
f (x)
= lim
x!a
g(x)
g(x)
=
=

f (a)
; as f (a) = g (a) = 0
g (a)

f (x)
lim g(x)x
x!a
x

f (a)
a
g(a)
a
f (x) f (a)
limx!a x a
limx!a g(x)x g(a)
a

f 0 (a)
f 0 (x)
=
lim
;
g 0 (a) x!a g 0 (x)

as f 0 ; g 0 are assumed to be continuous.

Example 5.22.2. Find the limit
ln x
:
x!1 x
1
lim

ln x
0
is in indeterminate form of type ` . We can use lHospitals
x!1 x
1
0

Solution Note that lim

rule.

ln x
= lim
x!1 x
1 0|{z} x!1
lim

L HRule

d
dx

1
ln x
x
=
lim
= 1:
d
x!1 1
(x
1)
dx

Whats wrong with this?

x+1
= lim
x!1
x!1
x
lim

d
(x +
dx
d
x
dx

1)

1
= 1:
x!1 1

= lim

But
x+1
1+1
=
= 2??
x!1
x
1
lim

WARNING Note that the conditions of lHospitals rule must be satised before we can
use it.

5.23. OTHER INDETERMINATE FORM

131

Example 5.22.3. Evaluate the limit

ex
:
x!1 x2
lim

Solution Sometimes we have to use lHospital repeatedly.

ex
ex
ex
= lim
=
lim
= 1:
lim 2 |{z}
|{z}
x!1 x
| {z } L0 Hrule x!1
| {z2x} L0 HRule x!1 2
T ype 1
1

T ype 1
1

Question
Would you apply LHospitals Rule to the following
p
x2 + 2
lim p
?
x!1
x2 + 5
x179 + x178 +
lim
x!1 3x179
2x178 +

5.23

+x+1
?
+ 3x 2

Other Indeterminate Form

Example 5.23.1. Evaluate the limit

lim x ln x:

x!0+

It may take some rewriting before we can use lHospitals rule.

Solution The limit lim+ x ln x is indeterminate form of type `0 1`. We cannot apply
x!0

lHospitals rule as it is not in quotient of two functions. However, we may rewrite the
function x ln x as a quotient.
TRICK
x ln x =

ln x
1=x

or x ln x =

lim+ x ln (x) = lim+

x!0

x!0

= lim+
|{z}
x!0

LHrule

x
:
1=(ln x)

ln x
1=x

1=x
1=x2

= lim+ ( x) = 0: ( )
x!0

Question What would you obtain if we do the following instead

132

CHAPTER 5. DIFFERENTIATION

lim+ x ln (x) = lim+

x!0

x!0

x
?
1=(ln x)

Example 5.23.2. Evaluate

lim (xx )

x!0+

The limit lim+ (xx ) is of indeterminate form of type `00 `.

x!0

Solution Note that

xx = exp (ln(xx )) = exp (x ln x) :
Thus, we have
lim (xx ) = lim+ exp(x ln x):

x!0+

x!0

Since exp(x) is continuous, we can interchange the order of taking limit and exp(x), i.e.,
lim exp(x ln x) = exp

x!0+

lim (x ln x) :
|
{z
}
x!0+

=0

From the preceding example, we have evaluated

lim x ln (x) = 0:

x!0+

Therefore, we have
lim (xx ) = exp(0) = 1:

x!0+