1

History of Industrial Microbiology

Industrial microbiology came into existence, primarily, based on a naturally occurring
microbiological process called fermentation. There are many evidences which clearly shows that
ancient man knew fermentation process and practiced it more as an art rather than as a science.
Early fermentation process practiced by man included the leavening of bread, retting of flax,
preparation of vinegar from wine, production of various alcoholic beverages like beer, wine,
mead and the production of various fermented foods and milk. Due to invention of microscope,
discovery of microorganisms and understanding of their metabolic processes, lead to clear
understanding of the fermentation, which paved the way for the development of Industrial
Microbiology.
The history of industrial microbiology can be divided into five phases, which are prcised in
table 1.1 Phase I up to 1900 Alcohol fermentation period, Phase II 1900-1940 Antibiotic period,
Phase III 1940-1964 Single cell protein period, Phase IV 1964-1979 Metabolite production period,
and Phase V 1979 onward Biotechnology period.
Table 1.1: The phases in the history of Industrial Microbiology
Phase

I
Period
before
1900

Main products

Fermenters

Alcohol

Wooden upto
1500 barrels
capacity

Vinegar

Barrels-shallow
trays-trickle
filters

Process
control
Use of
thermometers,
hydrometer
and heat
exchangers
---

Culture
method
Batch

Batch

Quality
control

Pilot
Strain
plant
selection
facilities
Pure yeast
PracNil
culture
tically nil
used at
some of the
breweries
Practically nil

Nil

Process
inoculated
with good
vinegar

contd...

AVINASH/14/04.12/PRINT OUT

2
Phase

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Main products

Fermenters

Bakers yeast,
glycerol, citric
acid, lactic acid
and acetone/
butanol

Steel vessels
upto 200 m3 for
acetone /
butanol. Air
sprayers used
for bakers
yeast.
Mechanical
stirring used in
small vessels,
mechanically
aerated vessels

Batch and
pH
fed-batch
electrodes
with off-line systems
control.
Temperature
control

Vessels
operated
aseptically, true
fermentations

Use of
control loops
which were
later computerised

II
Period
between
19001940
III
Period
between
19401964

Penicillin,
streptomycin
other
antibiotics

IV
Period
between
19641979

Single cell
protein using
hydrocarbons
and other feed
stocks

Gibberellins,
amino acids,
nucleotides,
enzymes,
transformations

V 1979- Production of
onward heterogenous
proteins by
microbial and
animal cells;
Monoclonal
antibodies
produced by
animal cells

1.1

Process
control

Sterilizable
pH and
oxygen
electrodes

Culture
method

Batch and
fed-batch
common

Continuous
culture
introduced
for brewing
and some
primary
metabolites
Continuous
Pressure cycle Use of
culture
and pressure jet computer
linked
with
vessels
control loops medium
developed to
recycle
overcome gas
and heat
exchange
problems
Control and Batch, fedFermenters
sensors
batch or
developed in
phase 3 and 4. developed in continuous
phases 3 and fermentaAnimal cell
tion
4
reactors
developed
developed
for animal
cell
processes

Quality
control
Practically nil

Very
important

Very
important

Pilot
Strain
plant
selection
facilities
Nil
Pure
cultures
used

Becomes Mutations
common and
selection
programme
essential
Becomes Mutation
common and
selection
programme
essential

Very
important

Very
important

Genetic
engineering of
producer
strain
attempted

Very
important

Very
important

Introduction of
foreign
genes into
microbial
and animal
cells.
In vitro
recombinant DNA
techniques
used in the
improvement of
phase 3
products

ALCOHOL FERMENTATION PERIOD (BEFORE 1900)

The period before 1900 is marked by the production of primarily alcohol, vinegar and beer,
although without the knowledge of biochemical processes involved in it. Though beer, which

History of Industrial Microbiology

represents the phase-I in fermentation process, was produced by ancient Egyptians, large scale
brewing in large wooden vats of 1500-barrel capacity was started in the early 1700. An attempt
was also made for process control by the use of thermometers and heat exchangers in these early
breweries.
In the middle of 18th century, the chemist Liebig considered fermentation purely as a
chemical process. He believed fermentation as a disintegration process in which molecules
present in the starter substance like starch or sugar underwent certain changes resulting in the
production of alcohol. Other eminent chemists of this period like Berzelius (17791848) and
Bertholet (18271907) have also supported this view. Cagniard Latour, Schwan and Kutzilog
while working independently concluded that alcoholic fermentation occurs due to action of yeast
which is an unicellular fungus. But, it was Louis Pasteur who eventually convinced the scientific
world that the fermentation is a biological process. By conducting series of experiments, Louis
Pasteur conveniently proved that yeast is required for conversion of sugars into alcohol. In 1857,
he discovered the association of different organisms other than yeasts in the conversion of sugars
into lactic acid. These observations led Pasteur to conclude that different kinds of organisms are
required for different fermentations.
While working on butyric acid fermentation in 1861, Pasteur made another important
discovery that the fermentation process can proceed in the absence of oxygen. The rod shaped
organisms responsible for butyric acid fermentation, remains active in the absence of oxygen.
This organism was later on identified as butyric acid bacterium. This observation subsequently
lead to the emergence of a new concept of anaerobic microorganisms and a classification of three
organisms broadly into two categories, viz., aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms.
During this period, wine Industry in France was incurring heavy losses due to soaring of
wine. Pasteur was requested by the Government of France to study this problem. After careful
study, he reported that the soaring of wine was due to the growth of other unwanted
microorganisms, other than yeast, which invaded the wine and changed its chemical and
physical properties leading to soaring. He showed that these unwanted organisms could be
eliminated from the wine by partially sterilizing the juice from which wine is produced, below
the boiling point. This process is now called as Pasteurization. Pasteurization kills all the
bacteria but does not alter the desirable qualities of juice. This proposition of Pasteur saved the
wine industry of France from heavy losses. Later on Pasteur has also studied the fermentation of
acetic acid and beer. He disproved the concept of chemical basis of fermentation.
During the late 19th century Hansen, working at Carlsberg Brewery, developed methods for
production of pure cultures of yeast and techniques for production of starter cultures. Thus, by
the end of nineteenth century, the concept of involvement of microorganisms in fermentation
process and its control were well established in brewing industry.

1.2

ANTIBIOTIC PERIOD (19001940)

Important advances made in the progress of industrial microbiology were the development of
techniques for the mass production of bakers yeast and solvent fermentations. However, the
growth of yeast cells in alcoholic fermentation was controlled by the addition of Wort
periodically in small amounts. This technique is now called as fed batch culture and is widely
used in the fermentation industry specially to avoid conditions of oxygen limitation. The aeration
of early yeast cultures was also improved by the introduction of air through sparging tubes.

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The other advancement during this period was the development of acetonebutanol
fermentation by Weisman, which was considered to be truly aseptic and anaerobic fermentation.
The techniques developed for the production of these organic solvents were major advances in
fermentation technology, which led to the successful introduction of aseptic aerobic processes,
which facilitated in the production of glycerol, citric acid and lactic acid.
Another remarkable milestone in the industrial microbiology was the large-scale production
of an antibiotic called penicillin, which was in great demand to save lives of thousands of
wounded soldiers of Second World War. The production of penicillin is an aerobic process
which is carried out by submerged culture technique under aseptic conditions. The inherent
problems of contamination, requirement of large amount of liquid medium, sparging the culture
with large volume of sterile air, mixing of highly viscous broth were solved. The technology
established for penicillin fermentation paved the way for the development of a wide range of new
processes such as production of other antibiotics, vitamins, amino acids, gibberellins, enzymes
and steroid transformations.
At about the same time Dubos at Rockfeller Institute, discovered a series of microbial
products which showed antimicrobial properties and hence useful in treating certain human
diseases. Waksman, a soil microbiologist, and his associates have discovered many antibiotics
produced by species of Streptomyces, soil inhabiting, which is now widely used (table 1.2).
Table 1.2: List of antibiotics and the year of their discovery
Name of the antibiotic
Penicillin
Tyrothricin
Griseofulvin
Streptomycin
Bacitracin
Chloramphenicol
Polymyxin
Chlortetracycline
Cephalosporin, C, N, P

Name of the
discoverer
Alexander Fleming

S.A. Waksman et al.

Johnson et al.
Ehrlich

Duggar
Brolzu

Neomycin
Oxytetracycline
Nystatin
Erythromycin
Novobiocin
Kanamycin
Fusidic Acid
Ampicillin
Cephalothin
Lincomycin
Gentamycin
Carbenicillin
Cephalexin
Clindamycin

Waksman et al.
Finley et al.

Clark

Year of
discovery
1929
1939
1939
1943
1945
1947
1947
1948
1948
1949
1950
1950
1952
1955
1957
1960
1961
1962
1962
1963
1964
1967
1968

Producing organism
Penicillium Chrysogenum
Bacillus
Penicillium griseofulvum
Bacillus licheniformis
Streptomyces griseus
St. Venezuelae
Bacillus polymyxa
St. aureofacieus
Cephalosporium
acremonium
St. fradiae
St. rimosus
St. noursei
St. erythreus
St. niveus
St. kanamyceticus
Furidium calcineurin
Semi synthetic
Semi synthetic
St. lincolensis
Micromonospora purpurea
Semi synthetic
Semi synthetic
Semi synthetic

History of Industrial Microbiology

1.3

SINGLE CELL PROTEIN PERIOD (19401964)

This period is marked by the production of proteinaceous food from the microbial biomass. As
the cost of the resultant product was very low there was a need for large-scale production of
microbial biomass. This led to the development of largest mechanically stirred fermenters ranging
from 80,000 to 1,50,000 liters or even more in diameter, which were to be operated continuously
for several days, if they were to be economical. Thus, a new fermentation process called
continuous culture fermentation came into existence. The most long-lived continuous culture
fermentation was the ICI Pruteen animal feed process employing the culture of Methylophillus
methylotrophus.

1.4

METABOLITE PRODUCTION PERIOD (19641979)

During this period, new microbial processes for the production of amino acids and
51- nuclosides as flavour augmenters were developed in Japan. Numerous processes for enzyme
production, which were required for industrial, analytical and medical purposes, were perfected.
Techniques of immobilization of enzymes and cells were also developed. Commercial production
of microbial biopolymers such as Xanthan and dextran, which are used as food additives, had
been also started during this period. Other processes that were developed during this period
includes the use of microorganisms for tertiary oil recovery.

1.5

BIOTECHNOLOGICAL PERIOD (1980 ONWARDS)

Rapid strides in industrial microbiology have taken place since 1980, primarily because of
development of new technique like genetic engineering and hybridoma technique. By genetic
engineering it was made possible to in vitro genetic manipulations which enabled the expression
of human and mammalian genes in microorganisms so thereby facilitating large scale production
of human proteins which could be used therapeutically. The first such product is the human
insulin used for treating the ever growing disease, diabetes. This was followed by the production
of human growth hormone, erythropoietin and myeloid colony stimulating factor (CSFs), which
control the production of blood cells by stimulating the proliferation, Erythro-poietin used in the
treatment of renal failures, anemia and platelet deficiency associated with cancer, gametocyte
colony stimulating factor (GCSF) used in cancer treatment and several growth factors used in
wound healing processes. The hybridoma technique, which is employed for the production of
monoclonal antibodies which aid in medical diagnosis and therapeutics, is also developed
during this period.
Perfection of production of microbial secondary metabolites related fermentation processes
and their large-scale production is the other major development of this period. Some of such
secondary metabolites released into the market includes:
1. Cyclosporine, an immunoregulant used to control rejection of transplanted organs.
2. Imipenem, a modified carbapenem used as a broad-spectrum antibiotic.
3. Lovastatin, a drug used for reducing blood cholesterol levels.
4. Ivermectin, an antiparasitic drug used to prevent African River Blindness disease.
This brief account of history of development of industrial microbiology justifies the statement of
Foster (1949), Never underestimate the power of microbes.

Basic Industrial Biotechnology

REVIEW QUESTIONS
I.
1.
2.
3.
II.

Essay Type Questions

Trace the history of use of microorganisms in industry.
Discuss the role of microorganisms in food industry.
Discuss milestones in the development of industrial microbiology.
Write short notes on:
(a) Antibiotic era
(b) Alcoholic beverage period
(c) Microbial metabolites era
(d) Biotechnology era
(e) Single cell protein concept
(f) Monoclonal antibody era
(g) Pasteurization
(h) cyclosporin
(i) lovastatin

FURTHER READING
1.

2.
3.

Bader, F.G. (1992). Evolution in fermentation facility design from antibiotics to recombinant
proteins in Harnessing Biotechnology for the 21st century (eds. Ladisch, M.R. and Bose, A.)
American Chemical Society, Washington DC pp. 228231.
Bushell, M.E. (1998). Application of the principles of industrial microbiology to biotechnology
(ed. Wiseman, A.) Chapman and Hall, New York pp. 543.
Rehm, H.J. and Reed, G. (1993), Biotechnology (2nd edition) Vol. 112, VCH, Weinheim.

2
Fermentation Process
Fermentation term for the first time was coined by Louis Pasteur for a phenomenon of bubbling
of sugar solution. Later on, it has been applied for the phenomenon of production of different
chemicals involving microorganisms. Presently, the term is used solely to any phenomenon
involving microorganisms. Many products are made by large-scale fermentation including amino
acids, enzymes, organic acids, vitamins, antibiotics, solvents and fuels. The typical fermentation
process is depicted in Fig. 2.1.

Biomass

Production
fermenter

Culture
fluid
Stock
culture

Shake
flask

Cell-free
supernatant

Seed
fermenter

Product
extraction

Medium sterilization
Medium formulation
Medium raw materials

Cell separation

Product
purification

Effluent
treatment

Product
packaging

Fig. 2.1: A schematic representation of a typical fermentation process

The advantages in producing materials by fermentation are as follows:

1. Complex molecules such as antibiotics, enzymes and vitamins are impossible to
produce chemically.
2. Optically active compounds such as amino acids and organic acids are difficult to
prepare chemically.

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3. Though some of the products that can be economically derived by chemical
processes, but for food purpose they are better produced by fermentation such as
beverages, ethanol and vinegar (acetic acid).
4. Fermentation usually uses renewable feed stocks instead of petrochemicals.
5. Reaction conditions are mild, in aqueous media and most reaction steps occur in one
vessel.
6. Byproducts of fermentation are usually chemicals. The cell mass and other major by
products are highly nutritious and can be used in animal feeds.

However, it is beset with some drawbacks, which are as follows:

1. The products are made in complex solutions in low concentrations as compared to
chemically derived compounds.
2. It is difficult and expensive to purify the product.
3. Microbial processes are much slower than chemical processes, increasing the fixed
cost of the process.
4. Microbial processes, are subjected to contamination by competiting microorganisms,
requires the sterilization of the raw materials and the containment of the process to
avoid contamination.
5. Most microorganisms do not tolerate wide variation in temperature, pH and are also
sensitive to upsets in the oxygen and nutrient levels. Such upsets not only slow the
process, but fatal to microorganism. Thus careful control of pH, nutrients, air and
agitation require close monitoring and control.
6. Although nontoxic, waste products have high BOD and requires extensive sewage
treatment.
Though microorganism belonging to bacteria, fungi and yeasts are extensively used in these
fermentation, few fermentations are also based on algae, plants and animal cells. Several cellular
activities contribute to fermentation products such as:
1. Primary metabolites: Ethanol, lactic acid and acetic acid.
2. Energy storage compounds: Glycerol, polymers and polysaccharides.
3. Proteins: SCP, enzymes of both extra and intracellular nature and foreign protein.
4. Intermediate metabolites: Amino acids, citric acid, vitamins and malic acid.
5. Secondary metabolites: Antibiotics.
6. Whole cell products: SCP, bakers yeast, brewers yeast, bioinsecticides.
Some of the products such as ethanol, lactic acid and cell mass products are generally
growth associated, while secondary metabolites, energy storage compounds, and polymers are
non-growth associated. Other products, such as protein depends on the cellular or metabolic
function. Unlike primary metabolites which are essential for growth and reproduction, secondary
metabolites are not essential for the growth and development of reproducing organism and are
produced only in luxuriant conditions (Bu Lock, 1961). The secondary metabolites are basically
are:

Fermentation Process

1. Secondary metabolites are produced only by few organisms.

2. Secondary metabolites are needed depending on environmental conditions.
3. Secondary metabolites are produced as a group of closely related structures.
4. Some organisms forms a variety of different classes of substances such as secondary
metabolites.
5. The regulation of biosynthesis of secondary metabolites differs significantly from that
of primary metabolites.
6. Secondary metabolites are mostly produced in iodophase (Fig. 2.3)
Origin and production of different secondary metabolites are depicted in Fig. 2.2 and
2.2 a.
Fermentative products are in use by man since ancient times. Fermentation of grains or
fruit produce, bread, beer and wine that retained much of the nutrition of raw materials, while
keeping the product from spoiling. The natural yeasts that caused fermentation added some
vitamins and other nutrients to the bread or beverage. Lactic acid producing bacteria ferment
milk to yogurt and cheese and extend the life of milk products. Other food products such as
pickles, vegetables and the fermentation of tea leaves and coffee beans were preserved or
enhanced in flavor by fermentation.

DNA
RNA
ATP
ADP

Nucleotides,
deoxynucleotides,
histidine

NAD etc.
Folic acid
Respiratory
quinones

Sugar
nucleotides
Pentose-P

Glucose 6-P

Tetrose-P

Triose-P

Serine

P-enolpyruvate
Pyruvate
Acetyl-CoA

Purines,
pyrimidines
Threonine,
isoleucine,
methionine,
lysine
Cytochromes

Asparatate

Oxaloacetate

Porphyrins

Succinate

Heme

Storage
Storage lipids

Glycerol

P-glycerate

Phenylalanine,
tyrosine,
tryptophan,
p-aminobenzoate,
p-hydroxybenzoate

Polysaccharides

Cell walls
etc.

Membrane lipids
Purines,
Glycine
pyrimidines

Cysteine, methionine

Porphyrins
etc.

Alanine
Valine, leucine
Fatty acids, lipids, PHB, polyketides
Mevalonate, steroids, carotenoids

Citrate
2-oxoglutarate

Glutamate, glutamine

Arginine,
proline

Folic acid
Chlorophyll

Vitamin B12

Fig. 2.2: Primary metabolites giving rise to variety of cell substances

Fermentation was an art until the second half of the 19th century. A batch was begun with
either a starter, a small portion of previous culture, or with culture residing in the products or
vessel. Pasteur (1775) made it clear that fermentation needs, heat treatment to improve storage
quality and thus formed the basis for sterilization of medium. Emil Christian Hansen (1883)
used for the first time pure culture of yeast for production of yeast in Denmark. During 192030

10

Basic Industrial Biotechnology

the emphasis in fermentation shifted to organic acids primarily lactic acid and citric acid. The
discovery of penicillin in 1929 and commercialized in 1942, gave a boost to fermentation
industry and led to the development of big fermenters and submerged cultivation. Success of
penicillin inspired pharmaceutical companies to launch massive efforts to discover and develop
many other antibiotics. In 1960s amino acid fermentations were developed in Japan. Commercial
production of enzymes for use in industrial process began on a large scale in 1970. The
discovery of the tools of genetic engineering expanded the possibilities for products made by
fermentation in situ, and the first genetically engineered fermentation product was developed and
commercialized in 1977. The historical events developed in the progress of fermentations are
prcised in table 2.1.
Pyruvate
Citrate/itaconate

CO2

Fatty acids (oils & fats)

Acetyl-CoA
3

Poly b-hydroxy butyrate

Mevalonate (C6)
Polyketides

CO2
Isoprene
units (C5)

Quinones

2
Terpenes

C10
C15

Sterols
Gibberellins

C20

Carotenoids

Biomass, nutrient and

metabolite concentration

Fig. 2.2(a): Production of secondary metabolites

Tropophase

Iodophase
Biomass

Limiting
nutrient

Secondary
metabolite

Time

Fig. 2.3: The growth phases of biomass production and secondary metabolite production

Fermentation Process

11

Table 2.1: Historical events in the progress of fermentation



 

 
 


 
  





 



  





 
  


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Fermentation may be aerobic if it is operated in the presence of oxygen, while it may be

anaerobic if carried out in the absence of oxygen. Anaerobic fermentations can be carried out
either by use of fresh medium, covered with an inert gas such as nitrogen or argon or
accumulation of CO2 or foam (Fig. 2.4).
5
4

Fig. 2.4: Anaerobic fermenter