Volcanic Succession Modern & Ancient PDF
Volcanic Succession Modern & Ancient PDF
Volcanic Succession Modern & Ancient PDF
SUCCESSIONS
MODERN AND ANCIENT
VOLCANIC
SUCCESSIONS
MODERN AND ANCIENT
A geological approach to processes)
products and successions
R. A. F. CAS
J.
V. WRIGHT
Published by Chapman & Hall, 2-6 Boundary Row, London SEt 8HN, UK
Chapman & Hall, 2-6 Boundary Row, London SEI 8HN, UK
Chapman & Hall GmbH, Pappelallee 3, 69469Weinheim, Germany
Chapman & Hall USA, One Penn Plaza, 41st Floor, New York, NY 10119,
USA
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Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102, Japan
Chapman & Hall Australia, Thomas Nelson Australia, 102 Dodds Street, South
Melbourne, Victoria 3205, Australia
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600 035, India
ISBN-13: 978-0-412-44640-5
e-ISBN-13: 978-0-412-44640-5
DOl: 10.1007/978-0-412-44640-5
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To our families
PREFACE
from volcanological and sedimentological perspectives. One of our aims in the book is to provide
geologists with a sound basis for making their own
well founded interpretations. For that reason we
cover not only concepts about processes, and the
nature of the products, but also methods and
approaches that may be useful in analysing both
modern and ancient successions. Most importantly,
we treat the diversity of products in volcanic
terrains as facies, and we use the method of facies
analysis and interpretation as a means of constructing facies models for different volcanic settings.
These models will, we hope, be useful as norms
for comparison for workers in ancient terrains.
The only publication which overlaps with this one
to any extent is the excellent book Pyroclastic rocks
by Dick Fisher and Hans Schmincke.
Many people, organisations and institutions
have directly or indirectly contributed to or made
the production of this book possible. Foremost we
acknowledge our PhD supervisors, George P. L.
Walker CJ.V.W.) and Gil Jones (R.A.F.C.) for
their enlightened and stimulating supervision, and
their continued interest thereafter. If anyone in the
field of physical volcanology warrants special
mention as a source of inspiration through a neverending succession of outstanding contributions, it
is George Walker. No other volcanologist has
given so much to the science and its students.
Thank you George. Financial support for our
vii
viii PREFACE
research and other visits to volcanic regions has
come from: Commonwealth Postgraduate Award,
Macquarie University, Monash University, ARGS
and Otago University William Evans Visiting
Fellowship (R.A.F.C.), and NERC, Lindeman
Trust Fellowship, University of California Santa
Barbara, University of Puerto Rico, American
Philosophical Society and Monash Postdoctoral
Fellowship (J.V.W.). We would also like to
acknowledge other colfeagues who for some years
have co-operated, listened, criticised and encouraged us: Rod Allen, Brian Clough, Keith Corbett,
Arthur Day, Warren Edney, Dick Fisher, Chuck
Landis, Jocelyn McPhie, John Roobol, Steve Self,
Alan Smith, Steve Sparks, Colin Wilson and John
Wolff.
This book was written in two years, imposing
great personal stresses on our families in the
process. In particular, Sue Cas gets special
mention not only for tolerating it all, but for her
constructive suggestions on style and expression
when proofreading the entire manuscript. The
book could not have been written in this time
without the considerable financial backing resulting
from the short courses. In particular, we thank the
organisations (especially Aberfoyle Exploration,
Broken Hill Proprietary, British Petroleum
Minerals, Electrolytic Zinc, Esso Minerals, Gold
Fields Exploration, Shell Minerals, Western Mining Corporation, and Zinc Corporation) and
individuals who have supported the course and
therefore made the book possible. Our extreme
gratitude goes to many people who have assisted,
always willingly, with the logistics and mechanics.
In particular, Warren Edney and, in the earlier
stages, Arthur Day managed and co-ordinated a
large number of people in all the facets of
producing the final manuscript for the publishers,
induding typing, drafting, photography, copyright
releases and proofreading. Without the constant
help of Warren and Arthur we would still be
labouring five years hence. Warren was ably
assisted by Paul Dielemans, whose versatility
proved invaluable. We cannot thank the following
enough: Pam Hermansen, Monica Leicester and
Robyn Sheehan for their impeccable typing skills
and patience; Jenny Purdy and Draga Gelt for the
CONTENTS
PREFACE
LIST OF TABLES
vii
xv
CHAPTER ONE
3
3
4
5
6
6
8
10
11
11
11
12
12
CHAPTER TWO
15
15
16
16
19
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
Temperature
Density
Viscosity and yield strength
Factors controlling viscosity in magmas
2.5.1 Pressure
2.5.2 Temperature
2.5.3 Volatile content
2.5.4 Chemical composition
2.5.5 Crystal content
2.5.6 Bubble content
2.6 Strength
2.7 Fluid flow character
2.8 Further reading
19
20
21
23
24
24
24
26
26
26
27
27
30
CHAPTER THREE
33
33
33
34
35
36
40
IX
CONTENTS
42
43
45
45
46
47
47
47
54
54
54
55
56
57
CHAPTER FOUR
Lava flows
59
Initial statement
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Size and form of subaerial lava flows
4.3 Factors affecting the morphology of
subaerial lavas
4.3.1 Effusion rate
4.3.2 Physical properties
4.3.3 Slope
4.4 Eruption of subaerial basaltic lavas
4.5 Features of subaerial basaltic lava flows
4.5.1 Pahoehoe and aa lavas
4.5.2 Flood basalts
4.5.3 Plains basalts
4.6 Submarine basaltic lavas
4.7 Subaerial basaltic lavas flowing into
water
4.8 Subaerial andesitic and dacitic lavas
4.9 Eruption of subaerial rhyolite lava flows
4.10 Features of subaerial rhyolite lava flows
4.10.1 Shape
4.10.2 Lithology
59
59
60
62
62
64
64
64
65
65
71
73
73
75
76
79
81
81
83
4.10.3 Surfacefeatures
4.10.4 Growth and internal structure
4.11 Subaqueous silicic lavas
4.12 Komatiites - peculiarities of the
Archaean
4.13 Further reading
85
87
88
89
91
CHAPTER FIVE
93
93
93
94
96
98
98
98
103
104
105
107
108
110
111
111
114
114
114
117
120
120
120
125
126
CONTENTS
126
126
7.2
7.3
CHAPTER SIX
129
129
129
131
133
133
134
140
140
141
144
148
151
152
153
156
157
Initial statement
7.1 Subaerial pyroclastic flows as high
particle concentration flows
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
158
162
163
163
164
165
166
168
172
174
CHAPTER SEVEN
7.4
177
177
177
7.11
7.12
7.13
xi
179
Fluidisation
186
Pyroclastic flow units and grading
187
7.3.1 Thickness
188
7.3.2 Basal layers
188
7.3.3 Vertical grading
190
7.3.4 Gas segregation structures
193
7.3.5 Lateral grading
7.3.6 Compositionally zoned pumice
194
flow units
Theoretical modelling of the transport
194
of pumice flows
Form of moving pyroclastic flows:
head, body and tail deposits
197
Pyroclastic surges as low particle
203
concentration flows
Energy sources and initiation of surges 203
203
7.7.1 Base surges
204
7.7.2 Ground surges
205
7.7.3 Ash-cloud surges
Transportation and grain-support
205
processes in surges
207
Depositional processes in surges
Facies characteristics of surge deposits 209
209
7.10.1 Geometry
209
7.10.2 Grainsize
210
7.10.3 Sorting
7.10.4 Shape and vesicularity
210
211
7.10.5 Composition
211
7.10.6 Depositional structures
Surges compared with turbidity currents 217
Pyroclastic surges and pyroclastic
217
flows - relationships
219
Further reading
CHAPTER EIGHT
223
223
224
225
229
233
233
234
xu
CONTENTS
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.10
8.11
8.12
8.13
CHAPTER TEN
235
237
237
242
244
244
246
249
250
250
251
251
258
258
258
260
261
262
264
265
265
Initial statement
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Types of subaqueous pyroclastic flow
9.2.1 Subaqueous pyroclastic flow
deposits
9.2.2 Ash turbidites
9.3 Hot subaqueous pyroclastic flows and
subaqueous welding of ignimbrites
9.4 Submarine eruption of pyroclastic
flows?
9.5 A model for the passage of pyroclastic
flows into subaqueous environments
9.6 Deep-sea ash layers
9.7 Subaqueous base surges?
9.8 Further reading
Initial statement
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Importance of erosion and sediment
transport in volcanic terrains
10.3 Epiclastic sediment transport
10.3.1 Sediment transport not
dependent on an interstitial
medium
10.3.2 Sediment transport involving
ice as an essential interstitial
medium
10.3.3 Sediment transport involving
water as an essential
interstitial medium
10.3.4 Sediment transport in which
air is an essential interstitial
medium
10.4 Further reading
293
293
293
294
297
298
305
308
329
330
CHAPTER ELEVEN
CHAPTER NINE
269
269
269
270
271
275
276
284
285
286
290
290
333
333
333
334
335
337
337
338
340
341
341
CONTENTS xiii
343
345
347
347
CHAPTER TWELVE
349
349
349
350
350
353
355
356
358
359
359
360
360
361
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
363
363
364
365
365
367
369
369
371
376
382
382
383
384
386
391
393
395
397
397
397
402
403
404
404
406
408
409
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
413
413
413
414
415
415
418
420
XIV
CONTENTS
Hydraulic fracturing
Diagenesis
Metamorphism
Deformation
Relationship between
deformation and alteration
Recognition of pumice in the rock
record
Facies as diagnostic indicators of
palaeoenvironments and
palaeoenvironmental conditions
A suggested approach to facies analysis
Facies models - what they represent
and their uses
Facies models for volcanic successions
14.8.1 Continental basaltic successions
14.8.2 Continental stratovolcanoes
14.8.3 Continental silicic volcanoes
14.8.4 Submarine basaltic rift
volcanism
14.8.5 Oceanic basaltic seamounts
14.8.6 Marine stratovolcanoes
14.8.7 Submarine felsic volcanoes
and volcanic centres
14.8.8 Deep-marine facies derived
from shallow marine-subaerial
silicic volcanic centres
14.8.9 Intraglacial basaltic and
rhyolitic volcanism
14.8.10 Precambrian volcanism
Summary
Furtherreading
14.3.4
14.3.5
14.3.6
14.3.7
14.3.8
14.4
14.5
14.6
14.7
14.8
14.9
14.10
432
432
433
435
APPENDIX I.
436
420
421
422
422
422
423
423
424
425
426
427
427
429
437
440
441
442
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
445
445
446
446
450
1.1
1.2
Physical analysis
I. 1.1
Thickness
Maximum grainsize
I. 1.2
I. 1.3
Grainsize distribution
I. 1.4
Proportions of components
1.1.5
Crystal content of pumice
Density and porosity
I. 1.6
Stratigraphic analysis
452
452
453
453
455
456
458
460
460
462
465
466
467
469
469
469
470
471
474
475
476
477
APPENDIX II
Grainsize-textural classes of
volcaniclastic rocks) some possible
origins) and suggested diagnostic
characteristics
479
REFERENCES
487
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
513
INDEX
519
LIST OF TABLES
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
4.1
4.2
5.1
5.2
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
7.1
7.2
8.1
8.2
9.1
10.1
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
17
19
19
23
62
63
97
101
134
144
149
149
165
173
183
189
224
228
278
297
351
352
352
353
3)4
xv
XVI
12.6
12.7
12.8
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
I.l
I.2
I.3
I.4
I.5
LIST OF TABLES
354
356
357
371
377
385
385
392
471
472
472
473
477
Plate 1 Succession of pyroclastic fall, flow and surge deposits of the Quaternary Okataina Volcanic Centre, New Zealand.
Complex geometries and stratigraphic relationships result from the erosion of the oldest (9000 years BP) Pukerimu
pyroclastics (bottom right) and mantling and infilling of the irregular topography by 'younger' fall, flow and surge deposits, of
the Mamaku (7 500 years BP), Whakatane (5000 years BP), Rotokawau (4000 years BP; dark basaltic fall layer near top of
succession) and Kaharoa (900 years BP) eruptive intervals.
CHAPTER ONE
An introduction tofacies
analysis in volcanic terrains
Initial statement
Volcanic terrains consist of a greater variety of rock
types than any other surface environment on Earth.
They include lavas, deposits of explosive pyroclastic
eruptions, primary volcanic autoclastic deposits
and deposits resulting from the very significant
spectrum of sedimentary processes that operate in
volcanic terrains. Until the 1960s the amount of
detailed and systematic work on the physical
processes producing this diversity of rock types was
subordinate to studies on the chemistry, mineralogy
and petrogenesis of the volcanics. The growing
need to understand better the processes operating
and the peculiar depositional environments of
volcanic terrains, in conjunction with major
advances in the field of sedimentology, have led to a
major growth in research and understanding of the
physical processes.
1.1 Introduction
Volcanic terrains are host to a greater diversity of
rock types than is any other surface environment.
However, until the 1960s the principal emphasis in
volcanological research was on mineralogy, geochemistry and magma genesis. Since then, there
has been an increasing awareness of the need to
understand better the nature of the rock types, the
physical processes responsible for their formation,
and their significance in terms of depositional
setting. This awareness has been stimulated by a
diversity of needs in a number of areas, including
eruption monitoring and prediction, hazard evaluation, exploration for the resources associated with
volcanic terrains, geological survey mapping,
academic research and petrological studies. In this
book our aim is to provide a comprehensive
account of the enormous range of rock types in
volcanic terrains, their characteristics, associations
and modes of formation, and their depositional and
tectonic setting. Thus, we hope to provide readers
with the sound geological approach necessary to
make their own meaningful interpretations of
volcanic successions.
Although we have tried to provide as comprehensive and up-to-date a summary of the subject,
its concepts and its literature as time and space
permitted, the book should not be considered to be
a treatise on volcanology. We have addressed those
topics and principles which we considered to be
most important to the general aims of the book and,
although all developments in the subject have not
been treated at the research level, we have referenced the pertinent literature to enable readers to
follow up specific topics. Wherever relevant, we
have drawn on our experiences and research in both
modern and ancient successions and, although this
inevitably introduces biases, we have tried to
balance this by constant reference to the volcanological literature.
Early subdivisions of the rock types in volcanic
terrains into lavas and explosively erupted pyroclastics are now known to be oversimplified, and
can be expanded into a fourfold subdivision of
lavas, pyroclastics, autoclastic deposits and redeposited volcanic sediments or epiclastics. Lavas
facies.
Pre-depositional relief
1.3.1 GEOMETRY
Geometry describes the three-dimensional form or
shape (including thickness) of a facies and of its
DESCRIPTION OF FACIES
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2
3
4
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..
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Post-depositional erosion
The majority of volcanic terrains have relatively
high slopes which are subject to severe degradation
by the agents of erosion : gravity, water, ice and
wind. As a consequence, many facies units emplaced during active volcanism, whether they be
lavas, pyroclastic flow or fall deposits, and redeposited volcaniclastic sediment intervals originating from epiclastic processes can have their original
depositional geometry dramatically modified (Fig.
1.2), or even have the record of their emplacement
or eruption, or both , completely removed .
Deformation
Deformation may have a marked effect on the
preserved geometry of a facies . The effects may
range from simple block faulting to extreme strain .
The latter may be especially significant where
hydrothermal alteration has weakened the rock
(e.g. S. F. Cox 1981).
The preceding discussion suggests that geometry
l.3.2 LITHOLOGY
Lithology has three aspects:
physical constituents,
composition and
texture.
In non-volcanic sedimentary successions, all of
these aspects of lithology can be very important in
elucidating sediment sources and genesis, and in
reconstructing the nature of the depositional environment (Selley 1982, Leeder 1982). For example
the presence of certain physical components (e.g.
shelly fragments, oolites, distinctive lithic fragments) can be diagnostic of depositional conditions
and settings. Similarly, the presence of distinctive
compositional grain-types (e.g. glauconite, phosphorite) or sediment-types (e.g. radiolarian cherts,
evaporites) may be significant enough to establish
the depositional setting and conditions. Textural
features may also be revealing (e.g. well-rounded
beach or aeolian sands, mud-supported debris-flow
deposits). Similarly, primary volcanic facies may
contain distinctive lithological aspects (shards, accretionary lapilli) that contribute to the understanding of their genesis and depositional setting. These
aspects are as important in ancient successions as in
modern ones, but may be more difficult to identify
and quantify in ancient successions because of the
effects of lithification, and perhaps metamorphic
and structural overprinting.
With regard to lithology, we will now consider
the features listed above that are relevant to the
understanding of volcanic successions.
DESCRIPTION OF FACIES
Composition
Composition refers to the geochemical, mineralogical and petrological character of a volcanic rock,
irrespective of whether it is a lava, pyroclastic or
redeposited volcaniclastic. The final composition of
a rock may be the end-result of a complex history of
processes causing chemical and physical change.
These processes include pre-eruptive magmatic
processes, both chemical and dynamic (Ch. 2), and
co-eruptive and post-eruptive processes that physically separate or fractionate physical constituents
(e.g. glassy ash from crystals and lithics; Ch. 11).
Hydrothermal activity and, in older volcanic successions, weathering, diagenesis and metamorphism, may have further altered the chemistry
of volcanic rocks. In Chapter 2 we briefly consider
the effects of magma composition on eruptive
behaviour, and also approaches to classifying
magmas and volcanic rocks according to chemical
and mineralogical composition.
Texture
The term 'texture' encompasses the physical characteristics of the components of a deposit or rock, and
also its overall characteristics or bulk properties.
The textural properties of an aggregate are a
reflection of inherited characteristics from the
source, of the mode of fragmentation and of
characteristics developed during or after transport
and deposition. Anyone of these influences may
produce a distinctive textural character. Aspects of
texture that will be considered here in terms of their
process significance or environmental significance
are grainsize, rounding, sorting, shape and fabric.
10
form of a grain. For non-volcanic epiclastic sediments the shape is largely inherited from the
morphology of the grain in the source, and can be
affected by crystallisation shape, cleavage (mineral
and tectonic) and layering, whether it be sedimentary, igneous or metamorphic. For pyroclastic
aggregates the mode of fragmentation may also
impart distinctive shape-morphology properties
(Ch. 3).
Rounding is the degree to which sharp corners
and edges have been abraded during transportation
or deposition, or both. Generally, rounding is
better in sediments that have been subjected to
constant energy levels during reworking. However,
rounding can also be produced by pyroclastic
processes (Chs 3, 8 & 12). (Most sedimentological
texts refer to 'roundness' properties rather than
'rounding' properties.)
Fabric is a consideration of the relationships
between, and arrangement or packing of grains in,
an aggregate. Depositional fabric is clearly a reflection of the transporting mode and depositional
conditions, and is mOJ;"e fully discussed in Chapter
12 and Appendix II.
11
l.3.5 FOSSILS
The use of both body and trace fossils as palaeoenvironmental indicators is essentially the same for
both volcanic and non-volcanic successions. However, the most critical thing is to establish whether
the fossils are in situ or have been transported and
redeposited, especially in marine successions,
where downslope redeposition is common. Even
redeposited fossil remains may be useful in indicating the nearby environmental conditions if the
ecological affinities of the organisms are known.
12
1.5 Summary
Since there is such a diversity of rock types and
processes in volcanic terrains, the interpretation of
their origins has to be addressed with care. In the
first instance, this is dependent on careful documentation and description, for which the approach
to facies description and analysis used in sedimentology is useful. Having described and interpreted
individual facies, consideration needs to be given to
the spatial and age relationships between them
Plate 2 Vertical aerial perspective of Big Glass Mountain, an obsidian flow complex in the Medicine Lake Highlands, east of
Mount Shasta, USA. Flows have high viscosity with steep flow-fronts and irregular tops dominated by concentric ridges called
ogives. (After Greeley 1977a.)
14
CHAPTER TWO
15
16
that source in terms of previous thermal, metamorphic and melting events, the degree of partial
melting of the source rocks, the degree of crystallisation in the magma, the extent of segregation of
magma from crystals, the amount of contamination
by wall rock and the degree of magma mixing
before eruption. Discussion of all of these is beyond
the scope of this book, but as a result of these
factors volcanic rocks can have a diversity of
chemical and mineralogical compositions, and
physical characteristics (the reader is referred to
Hargraves (1980) for a more comprehensive discussion).
Two important topics that we must now consider
are:
classification
magmatic associations
2.1.1 CLASSIFICATION
The classification of igneous rocks (and hence the
magmas they represent) can be approached in two
ways - one based on the chemistry of the magma or
rock, and the other on observable modal mineralogy. Noone scheme can be regarded as ideal for
all purposes, and the approach used will be
governed by the desired purpose of making the
classification.
For a discussion of magma properties we can
adopt a simple chemical classification. The most
abundant chemical component in most igneous
rocks is Si0 2 , which can range from <35 to nearly
80 wt%. Volcanic rocks can be initially divided
into:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Cd)
Table 2.1
17
>68
acid
63-68
intermediate
57-63
52-57
basIc
45-52
ultrabasic
Peraluminous*
Metaluminoust
rhyolite or _ _---l~~
obsidian
rhyodacite -------J~~
dacite
~
latlte
<45
Subaluminous:j:
Peralkaline
pantellerite.
comendite
trachyte
andesite
mugearite
tholeiitic basalt
hawaiite
alkali basalt
basanite
nephelinite.
leucitlte
phonolite
Examples include phonolites, which have potassium-rich alkali feldspar and minor feldspathoids,
basanites with plagioclase, alkali feldspar and feldspathoids, and nephelinites and leucitites, which
are feldspar-free ultrabasic rocks. Within the range
of basalts, tholeiites may be slightly oversaturated,
while alkali basalts tend to be slightly undersaturated.
A comment should be made here on the distinction between the terms 'basic and ultrabasic' and
'mafic and ultramafic'. The former terms are used
to describe igneous rocks with low Si0 2 contents,
the latter are used for rocks with high modal ferromagnesian mineral contents. Similarly 'silicic' and
'acidic' refer to high Si0 2 contents, whereas 'felsic'
and 'salic' are used for igneous rocks with high
modal contents of light coloured minerals (quartz,
feldspars). Some mafic rocks can be ultrabasic (e.g.
nephelinites) and ultramafic rocks can be basic (e.g.
pyroxenites), but generally most basic rocks are
mafic and acidic rocks are felsic or salic.
For studies based on field observations of volcanic
rocks, an entirely chemical approach to classification
is not practical. It also ignores useful mineralogical
18
pantellerite,
comendite
quartz
tholeiite
'high-AI
basalt
p ~hno~eiite
m---\-'.:..::..:;~:........2L....--=r"-'----L---f--f.......
alkali
basalt and
hawaiite
loidite (analcitite
nephelinite
leucitite)
TEMPERATURE
Table 2.2
19
Source
Volcano
Composition
Kilauea. Hawaii
1952-63*t
tholeiitic
basalt
1050-1190
MacDonald (1972)
Mt Etna*t
1970-75
hawaiite
1050-1125
Archambault and
Tanguy (1976)
Paricutin*
1944
basaltic
andesite
943-1057
Santa Maria*
1940
dacite
725
MacDonald (1972)
Mt St Helenst
1980
dacite
850
Bullard (1947)
Measured by *optical pyrometer and tthermocouple placed into lava. Those from Kilauea are largely
optical measurements, and those from Etna are largely thermocouple ones.
2.2 Temperature
Magma temperatures may be estimated in a variety
of ways. Direct measurements on lavas may be
made, either using a thermocouple probe inserted
Temperature (OC)
700-900
800-1100
950-1200
1000-1200
20
2.3 Density
There have been few measurements of the densities
of igneous rocks at elevated temperatures, despite
the obvious importance of such data in understanding magmatic systems. The results obtained
for four volcanic rocks by Murase and McBirney
(1973) are given in Figure 2.2. Densities are
markedly different for the different compositional
types but, as expected, all show a decrease in
density with increasing temperature. Density is
also dependent on pressure, increasing in proportion to the confining pressure (Stolper &
Walker 1980, Kushiro 1980).
Bottinga and Weill (1970) and Nelson and
Carmichael (1979) considered the partial molar
volumes of rock-forming oxide components in
silicate liquids as a function of temperature. The
3.0
2.8
,..,--.
I
01
2.6
>.
+-
CII
c:
andesite
(l)
2.4
2.2
rhYolite
2.0~--~--~--~~--~--~--~--~
900
1100
1300
1500
Temperature (Oe)
Figure 2.2 Densities of some molten volcanic rocks with
varying temperature at atmospheric pressure (after Murase
& McBirney 1973)
et al. (1982).
21
und,slorled shope
mg
(J
d8
dt
(2.1)
22
I plate I, area' A
'"
I
I
I
FLUID
I
I
I plate 2, area B
I.
I
.1
..
dx /dt
t=J/
i7
t--t
~=
I I
t-/
1/
du/dy
~=
0 /
~~
(2.2)
00
+ ~ ( ~~
stances 00 = 0 and n = 1 (Eqn 2.2); for pseudoplastic materials 00 = 0 and n < 1; and for
Bingham substances 00 (= yield strength) has a
finite value and n = 1. Shear stress and the yield
strength of the material are usually expressed in
Newtons per square metre (1 N m~2 = 1O~1
dyn cm~2); strain rate is expressed in reciprocal
seconds (S~l).
There are very few estimates of the viscosities of
magmas. MacDonald (1972) summarised a number
of measurements from lava flows. However, nearly
all of these assume Newtonian rheology. In most
of these cases, and in subsequent work, lava
viscosities have been calculated from the Jeffreys
equation:
(2.3)
gQ sin ad2
nV
(2.4)
Table 2.4
23
Etna 1975
tholeiitic basalt
1130-1135
25-35
70-120
6.5-7.5 x 10 2
hawaiite
1086
composition
temperature (OC)
phenocryst content (vol%)
yield strength (N m- 2 ) (=10- 1 dyn cm- 2 )
Bingham viscosity (Pa s)
45
370
9.4 x 10 3
Data from the Makaopuhi lava lake are from Shaw et al. (1968) and Etna 1975 from Pinkerton and Sparks (1978). Compared
with the Hawaiian lava, the Etna lava was at a lower temperature and had a higher phenocryst content, which would be
responsible for its higher yield strength and plastic viscosity.
1400
~
(1800)
~
Q)
1300
c
Qj
a.
1200
r-
1100
E
Q)
1000
1070
850
89Q.,. ~
~ .... ""~
.... 6~
(4500) 318!) ........ \\<~\)\
--
........
L--..J5
.---':-10--1'-5-----='"20::----::'25
Pressure (k bar)
Figure 2.6 Viscosity of an andesite melt with varying
temperature and pressure. Numbers indicate the viscosity of
the melt in poises; those in parentheses represent the
viscosity of the same melt at 1 atm pressure calculated by
the method of Bottinga and Weill (1972). (After Kushiro et al.
1976.)
24
2.5.1
PRESSURE
Q)
10 10
.!!!
0
a.
~
'iii
0
()
II)
(a)
(b)
(c)
2.5.2 TEMPERATURE
Viscosity is very dependent on the temperature of
the magma (Fig. 2.7). Both field and experimental
data show that the viscosity of all magmas
increases significantly on cooling (H. Williams &
McBirney 1979), partly due to crystallisation.
However, at equivalent temperatures and pressures
different magmas have different viscosities, suggesting that compositional aspects are also important in determining their viscosities.
2.5.3 VOLATILE CONTENT
:>
10 5
500
1000
1500
Temperature (OC)
Figure 2.7 Relationship between viscosity and temperature for some volcanic rocks. The rhyolite was glassy or
liquid through the entire temperature range. The rocks are
the same as in Figure 2.2. (After Murase & McBirney 1973.)
(a)
10 8
Q)
III
0
a.
>. 10 6
+-
iii
0
III
:>
10 4
BOO'C
1000'
..::.-===~;~
10
1200'
1400'
12
H2 0 content (wt%)
(b)
Q)
III
0
a.
10 4
>.
+-
III
1000'
BOO'C
~~~~~~~~ 1200'
:>
10 2
1400'
H2 0
10
content (wt%)
12
25
26
2.5.4
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
2.5.5
CRYSTAL CONTENT
= lJo(1
- R<j-2.S
(2.5)
2.6 Strength
Volcanic products, like all substances, can deform
in a ductile or brittle manner when subjected to a
stress. Given the great diversity of physical states
of erupting volcanic materials (liquids to solids),
the deformation takes many forms, including
highly plastic as reflected by lava flow, to
essentially brittle, as reflected by explosive disruption or fragmentation of a rhyolite dome. Given
the wide range of physical states, volcanic materials
therefore have very diverse mechanical strengths.
The mechanical strength of rock decreases rapidly as
the degree of partial melting increases (van der
Molen & Paterson 1979, Shaw 1980), the converse
also being true. Therefore as a magma crystallises,
its strength increases (in an uncertain relationship McBirney & Murase 1984) as the proportion of
crystals increases. Consideration of mechanical
strength is most significant in the context of
explosive fragmentation, because the greater the
mechanical strength of the erupting material, the
greater the tendency to resist explosive disruption.
In this regard, fragmentation can be effected by
both tensile stresses and shear stresses. The former
27
28
= UDQ/'Y]
(2.6)
= URQ/'Y]
(2.7)
;?;
1000 B
(2.8)
29
RIGID PLUG
SHARZON
30
Plate 3 The township of Vestmannaeyjar on the island of Heimaey, 1973, half buried in tephra fall-out from the eruption
column. A basaltic lava from the new active volcano flows to the left into the sea and fragments. The older 5000-6000-year-old
volcano. Helgafell, stands watchfully in the background to the right. The stark contrast is produced by a recent snowfall which
has melted and been buried around the volcano and lava flow Note houses that are partially buried beneath snow covered
tephra deposits. (After S. Jonasson in Gunnarsson 1973.)
32
CHAPTER THREE
Volcaniclastic deposits:
fragmentation and
general characteristics
Initial statement
Volcanic successions can consist of both coherent
lavas and a range of volcaniclastic deposits. Lavas,
their characteristics and the parameters which
control their characteristics, are discussed in
Chapter 4. In this chapter we consider how
volcaniclastic deposits (particularly those formed
by primary volcanic processes) are formed, and
some of their general characteristics. The use of the
non-genetic term 'volcaniclastic', opens the way to
explore the range of origins of all fragmental
volcanic rocks. Although some have explosive
pyroclastic origins, many do not. Misinterpretation
of fragmental volcanic deposits as explosive pyroclastic rocks is commonplace, and usually results
from a lack of understanding of the types of
fragmentation processes and the characteristics of
3.1 Introduction
The fragments in volcaniclastic rocks can be
produced both by primary volcanic processes
(those that are essentially contemporaneous with
eruption) and by secondary surface processes
(weathering, erosion, mass-wastage). Both of these
groups of processes can produce generally similar
textural types (e.g. breccias, sand-sized aggregates,
mud-sized aggregates). To facilitate discussion of
specific differences and a logical treatment of the
processes and products, it is now appropriate to
33
34 VOLCANICLASTIC DEPOSITS
introduce the specific modes of formation of
volcaniclastic deposits, these being
::!~~~i~::~::O::Plosions
pyroclastic ) primary
phreatomagmatic explosions
eruptIOns volcanic
quench- or chill-shatter fragmentation autoclastic processes
flow fragmentation (autobrecciation)
.processes
secondary
epiclastic fragmentation
surface
processes
500
LIQUID
."
1000
VAPOUR
.0
1500
...0
...
4
6
Q)
:::I
."
en
...
a..
\
\
\
.lI:
2000
LIQUID
Q)
s:.
....
Co
Q)
2500
10
3000
3500
2345678
Qcrghe
(~r
P s'
(3.1)
EXPLOSIVE FRAGMENTATION
500
...
iii
0
;9
...
Q)
::J
VI
VI
...
Q)
1000
;0'
1000
SOLID
2000
LIQUID
VI
2500
::J
Q..
E.
0c:
ell
N
(p
"0
3000
- -
:r.
VI
.c
0.
Q)
10
12
'0
3500
600
700
800 900
1000 1100
Temperature (Oe)
Figure 3.2 Solid-liquid-vapour fields for an andesitic
magma with 2.8 wt% H2 0. (After Burnham 1972.)
35
36
VOLCANICLASTIC DEPOSITS
3.2.2
EXPLOSIVE FRAGMENTATION OF A
VESICULATING MAGMA ERUPTING
FROM AN OPEN VENT
Subaerial vents
Studies of the way in which explosive expansion of
volatiles fragments a magma in an open vent have
been made by Verhoogen (1951), McBirney (1963,
1973), McBirney and Murase (1970) and Bennett
(1974). Other studies have contributed to a better
understanding in indirect ways. However, the
most significant study is that of Sparks (1978a), in
which there is both a critical evaluation of the
previous studies and an attempt to evaluate
quantitatively all of the factors involved in bubble
formation and growth in magmas. The discussion
here is a summary of some of Sparks' excellent
review. Another useful discussion is given in H.
Williams and McBirney (1979, their Ch. 4).
Consideration of nucleation theory is beyond the
scope of this discussion (readers are referred to
Sparks 1978a), but if a magma becomes even
slightly supersaturated with volatiles, then nucleation of bubbles will occur. Observations of
natural pumices and scoria show that vesicles are
rarely less than 5 flm in diameter, suggesting that
this may be a minimum stable nucleation size. The
growth of a fluid bubble thereafter is controlled by
(a) the diffusion of volatiles dissolved in the
IOglO YJ
+ 5.82 - 4100lT
(3.2)
(3.3)
R = 2~(Dt)'
(3.4)
EXPLOSIVE FRAGMENTATION
37
4YjRlr (3.5)
(b)
(c)
(d)
38
VOLCANICLASTIC DEPOSITS
/
(d)
iIll(C)
0
VI
....
.0
(b)
(a)
Subaqueous vents
For subaqueous vents, the same physical constraints control whether explosive expansion of
volatiles will occur. Two other complications exist,
however: first, the effects of the hydrostatic
pressure in constraining explosive expansion and,
secondly, the physical interaction between hot
magma and cold water.
The pressure gradient in a body of pure water is
1 bar per 10 m. The critical point (pressure) of pure
water is 216 bars, which is the pressure above
which there is no distinction between vapour and
liquid (== fluid), and at which volume decrease
with increasing pressure is slight (Fig. 3.6). Below
this confining pressure, the volume rises exponentially with decreasing pressure, and rapid boiling
can occur. In other words, at confining pressures
of 216 bars or more, H 2 0 bubbles will not expand
significantly (McBirney, 1963), and certainly not
rapidly enough to overcome the short-term tensile
strength of the magma (which is necessary for
explosive disruption to occur), even if their
internal pressure were to exceed the confining
pressure. These pressures would have to be
unreasonably high, given present estimates of the
vapour pressure exerted by volatiles in magmas
(Sparks 1978a, L. Wilson et al. 1980). A pressure
of 216 bars corresponds to a water depth of
2160 m, so it is implausible that explosive fragmentation of a magma erupting subaqueously in
EXPLOSIVE FRAGMENTATION
(a) Basalt
H2 0 in magma (wt %)
o
,,
100
II)
'C
.0
Q)
0.5
1.0
,,
300
II)
II)
a..
3.0
- . . - -_ _ _ 2.0
::J
'-
2.5
'Q)
2.0
1.5
200
400
,,
500
,,
,
1000C
sooe
.05
'900C
(b) Rhyolite
o
400r--r----------,---,--,--.--,--~
0.5
"100
350
39
"
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
~
C
.0 200
300
iil
~
II)
300
0.5
" 950C
CII
250
f!!
a..
'C
.0
400
~ 200
::J
II)
II)
500
Q)
a..
'-
150
100
50
100
200
300
400
500
600
Temperature (OC)
Figure 3.6 Graphical representation of the critical point of
pure water (after Kokelaar 1982) Numbered curves are the
P-T paths of equal volume change. Note that beyond the
critical point these curves no longer converge to define a
liquid/vapour phase boundary.
40
VOLCANICLASTIC DEPOSITS
1000
critical curve
for system
H 2 0-NaGI ~
800
Cii
L..
600
0
.0
Q)
L..
400
:l
CI)
CI)
Q)
L..
Il..
200
0
.001
.05 .I
.5 1.0
5.0 10
50100
NaGI (wt%)
Ire 3.8 Critical point for the system H2 0-NaCi. For sea
r with an approximate NaCI content of 3.5 wt%, the
Ire at the critical point is about 315 bars. (After
..;\Jurirajan & Kennedy 1962.)
41
(b)
42
VOLCANICLASTIC DEPOSITS
STROMBOLIAN
Where the interaction between magma, or quenched magmatic debris, or both, and water is
explosive and self-sustaining, it is called a fuelcoolant interaction (Colgate & Sigurgeirsson 1973,
Peckover et al. 1973, Wohletz 1983, Sheridan &
Wohletz 1983). The explosive energy results from
the sudden transfer of heat from the magma to the
water producing instantaneous vaporisation and
explosive expansion of the water. The interaction
between the water and the magma, and the mode of
fragmentation can both occur in several ways, and
have been studied experimentally. The processes
can be viewed as a cycle consisting of distinctive
stages, and have been summarised by Wohletz
(1983), based on the models of Buchanan (1974),
Board et al. (1974) and Corradini (1981).
43
44 VOLCANICLASTIC DEPOSITS
Figure 3.10 Basalt (light colour)
intruding water-saturated.
unconsolidated sediments,
producing quench shattering of
the magma, and
fluidisation-driven turbulent
mixing of the sediment and water
as it is boiled, leading to
destruction of original
sedimentary structures. Bunga
beds, Late Devonian Boyd
Volcanic Complex, Bunga Head,
New South Wales.
Figure 3.11 Pillow-like pods of magma intruding watersaturated, unconsolidated sediments~ Pods tend to be less
regular than proper pillows in shape and size, and may
frequently also have quench-shattered fragmented margins.
Pods may at times also be entirely isolated in the sediment,
linked to the intrusive body by a feeder canal only. (a)
Oligocene Angahook Basalt Member intruding Point Addis
Limestone, Airey's Inlet. Victoria, Australia (photograph by A.
Day). A small inclusion of limestone can be seen near base
of basalt pod. (b) Eocene-Oligocene Waiareka-Deborah
volcanics intruding the Totara Limestone, Totara Terraces,
North Island, New Zealand. (c) Blow Hole Latite Member,
Permian Gerringong Volcanics, Kiama, New South Wales,
Australia.
45
46 VOLCANICLASTIC DEPOSITS
Schmincke called peperites (see Section 3.6). As in
the case of magmas intruding unconsolidated sediments (see above), spectacular soft-sediment deformation structures, lava loadcasts, and lava pillows can result from the flow of lava over wet,
unconsolidated sediments. Explosive activity resulting from the flow of lavas into water has, in
some cases, produced secondary cones or craters
called littoral cones and pseudocraters (Fisher
1968, Thorarinsson 1953; Ch. 13). These are
rootless vents because they are unattached to a
subsurface chamber.
1973 eruption (Plate 3) produced local hydrovolcanic explosions (Colgate & Sigurgeirsson 1973).
The fragmented lavas described by Schmincke
(1967a) from the Columbia River Basalt were
considered to have resulted from the flow of lava
onto, and injection of lava into, water-bearing
sediments. In this case the fragmentation of the lava
may have been due to a combination of local
phreatomagmatic explosions as well as quenchfragmentation (Section 3.6). The resultant deposits
are mixtures of fragments and pre-existing unconsolidated wet tuffaceous lacustrine sediments which
G. P. L. Walker (1979) has interpreted the 50000year-old ash falls of the Rotoehu Ash in New
Zealand (Nairn 1972) resulting from immense
explosions in marine littoral environments produced when the coeval Rotoiti ignimbrite flowed
into the Bay of Plenty. Trapped, superheated sea
water developed a high pressure and ultimately
caused the explo~ions that dispersed the Rotoehu
Ash (G. P. L. Walker 1979). Although there is
debate about the position of the source vents for the
Rotoehu Ash (I. A. Nairn pers. camm.), Walker's
mechanism is appealing. Such littoral explosions
would also generate rootless vents, and their
formation has previously been discussed by J. V.
Wright and Coward (1977) for Palaeozoic welded
ignimbrites in northern Snowdonia, North Wales
(Ch. 9). The 18 May pyroclastic flow deposits of Mt
St Helens contain numerous phreatic explosion
craters resulting from the passage of the flows over
water-saturated debris and ground within the devastated watershed of Spirit Lake and the Toutle
River (Rowley et al. 1981, Christiansen & Peterson
1981). The superheating of the ground water
produced numerous phreatic explosions, although
no major eruption columns are known to have
developed.
47
48
VOLCANICLASTIC DEPOSITS
o
I
5cm
49
Figure 3.16 Basaltic scoria. Note the highly vesicular and delicate angular form of the scoria fragments. Some larger
fragments may have a ropy or stringy surface texture. (a) Large clast about 10 cm across from Tower Hill, Victoria, Australia.
(b) Coarse scoria from Mt Napier, Victoria, Australia.
so
VOLCANICLASTIC DEPOSITS
Scm
~ 'Seml-Yellculared andesite-pumice
40
!..
!II
! II
...
..
'0
0
....
20
Q)
.0
.....
..
:J
0,5
1.0
51
(0 )
(b)
'",
!..
!II
! II
01
10
.~ 1. 0
!II
c:
....
Q)
.0
CD
"0
E
:J
Q)
E
:J
a.
c:
o
Q)
20
40
60
Distance (km)
Figure 3.21 Variation in density of pumice fragments in one pumiceous pyroclastic deposit. (a) Range in pumice density
measured in clasts >32 mm at vent. (b) Variation in average density of pumice clasts with grainsize and distance from the
vent, The example is the pumice-fall deposit erupted from Askja volcano, Iceland in 1875, (After Sparks et a/. 1981,)
52 VOLCANICLASTIC DEPOSITS
abundant shard types both in basic and in acidic
hydrovolcanic ashes.
The shape of the shards produced during hydrovolcanic explosions depends on the viscosity, sur-
Figure 3.23 Photomicrographs of glass shards with typical cuspate and branched forms. (a) Non-welded redeposited shards
in the marine. Tertiary Dali Ash. Rhodes Island. Greece. Area shown is about 1.7 mm across. (b) Welded shards from the
Pleistocene Kaingaroa Ignimbrite. North Island. New Zealand. Area shown is about 2.5 mm across.
53
Figure 3.24 SEM photomicrographs of glass shards (from >63 [!m size fraction). (a) and (b) Pumice-flow deposit, Mt Pelee.
(c) Lower Bandelier ignimbrite, New Mexico.
Type I
- - (> 100},m)
.-
Type 2
( > 100,vm )
Type 3
....
6:3,um )
Type 4
( <63,um
Type 5
. -- - -
100,um)
54 VOLCANICLASTIC DEPOSITS
3.5.2 CRYSTALS
Free crystals and angular fragments of crystals are
released during the explosive disruption and breakage of porphyritic magmas and juvenile fragments,
and form a discrete juvenile component from the
vesiculated or non-vesiculated magmatic fragments
in the pyroclastic deposit. Selvedges of glassy
groundmass may be attached. Crystals can be
present in both magmatic and phreatomagmatic
pyroclastic deposits. Some non-juvenile crystals
may also be derived by fragmentation of accessory
and accidental lithics (see below), and these are
called xenocrysts.
FLOW FRAGMENTATION
55
56
VOLCANICLASTIC DEPOSITS
FURTHER READING
57
Plate 4 Dark, flat-lying, Miocene flood basalt lava flows of the Columbia River Plateau, Oregon, USA. Stratigraphically these
belong to the Picture Gorge Basalt which unconformably overlies terrestrial sediments (pale coloured rocks) and the John Day
ignimbrite (dark layer to top of bluff at bottom right),
58
CHAPTER FOUR
Lavaflows
Initial statement
4.1 Introduction
60
LAVA FLOWS
(0)
LOkI 'Inure ViII I'h
Im f of "lIourr conn
o.
VATNAJOKULL
IO km
(a)
SEA
( b)
CANADA
PACII"IC
OCEAN
-------
mE]
IOOkm
Rozo mtmb.,
L!....!..I
bo.o l"
f i5sur~
sys Tem
Figure 4.1 (a) The 1783 Laki basalt lava flow in southern
Iceland erupted from 115 craters along the 25 km fissure
(after Thorarinsson 1969). (b) The Columbia River flood
basalt plateau with the distribution of the Roza Member and
its fissure vent system (see also Fig. 13.7) (after Swanson et
at. 1975).
..
3"
800
.IM
]
::::.
VI 400
VI
~
c:
.:.:
'
IJ
:.c:
f-
o
o
I
5
I
rhyohl., (n.176)
20
10
CTI
r--:l
..__
.. .::
........0;-.-: ,ISO
Diameter H (km)
2
61
10
50
I
high 'IOco,ily
lo lW yj,tosity
Figure 4.2 Dimensions of lavas of different compositions. The two scales along the x-axis give the
area covered by the extrusion and the diameter of a circle having this area. The broken lines give the
aspect ratio VIH. The dotted lines cgive ttfe volumes of circular disc-like bodies of the dimensions,
shown as a rough guide to the volumes of the lava extrusions. (After G. P. L. Walker 1973a.)
62
LA VA FLOWS
Laki 1783
Etna 1865-1975 (n = 17)
Etna 1975
Mauna Loa 1851-1950 (n = 10)
AskJa 1961
Pari cutin 1943-52t
Average volumetric
effusion rate
(m 3 S-l)
5 X 103
15-45
0.3-0.5
100
33 (800)*
0.7
* This higher effusion rate is for the first eight hours of the
eruption; the eruption went on to last for five weeks.
....
...
I
.1
. i
. i
. i
. ..
I
. I
........- soil
I.
% ......
5;
.....................
:~
..
~ ...
i l l
",,,"Ok
';/
..
(e)
II -", ""
o
~I07
} block
".s'/h;
":c/.
.~
"0
~I03
00
pahoehoe
+-_______::.. . . . ,
~IO-I
~I04
Effusion rate (m 3
5. 1)
extruded at low effusion rates produce flows composed of small flow units which pile up close to the
vent and produce compound lavas. The Laki 1783
flow in Iceland was extruded at a relatively high
effusion rate (Table 4.1), and is composed of only a
few flow units, so it can be considered a simple
lava. The historic lava flows of Mt Etna have been
erupted at much lower effusion rates (Table 4.1),
and form compound lava flows or flow-fields
(Wadge 1978, Pinkerton & Sparks 1976). Wadge
also demonstrated that the maximum distance
attained by these lava flows increases linearly with
increasing effusion rate for flows greater than 1 km
long. Pinkerton and Sparks (1976) describe the
formation of the 1975 flow-field (composed of many
63
Eruption
Average volumetric
effusion rate
(m 3 S-l)
0.7
0.4
5.8
1.8
0.05
11.6
0.5
3.5
1.2
0.6
64
LA VA FLOWS
4.3.3 SLOPE
Flow width varies inversely with ground slope
(Hulme 1974). However, the effect of slope on lava
length has been shown to be small compared with
other factors (G. P. L. Walker 1973a).
(b)
eCh.6).
Sparks and Pinkerton (1978) suggested that the
loss of volatiles during lava fountaining has an
important effect on the rheology of the lava.
Degassing of the lava leads to considerable undercooling, rapid growth of quench crystallites, a rapid
increase in the viscosity and the development of a
high yield strength. Thus, highly gas-charged
magmas giving rise to intense lava fountaining are
likely to generate higher viscosity basaltic flows
with higher yield strengths. Magmas with lower
initial gas contents should therefore form morefluidal lavas from less-vigorous fire fountains or
lava lakes. The lavas erupted in 1961 at Askja in
Iceland changed from higher viscosity and higher
yield strength aa to pahoehoe flows (Section 4.5.1)
later in the eruption as the intensity of firefountaining waned (Sparks & Pinkerton 1978).
flows
4.5.1 PAHOEHOEANDAALAVAS
These are the Hawaiian names given to the two
main types of basaltic lava flow that have been
distinguished (Figs 4.4-6). Pahoehoe lavas are
65
(a) Pahoehoe
Ir mould
1m
(b)
Ao
2m
Figure 4.5 (facing page and above) Pahoehoe lava flows. (a) Succession of five thin flow units exposed within the crater rim
of Mt Hamilton, Victoria, Australia. These flow units have non-vesicular bases with narrow oxidised margins, which grade into
highly vesicular upper and middle portions. White inclusions within the base of some flow units are locally derived vein quartz
xenoliths. (b) Smooth, billowy pahoehoe surface of the 1975 flow in Kilauea caldera, Hawaii. (c) Shelly pahoehoe, Mauna Iki. (d)
Crust of shelly pahoehoe, Mauna Iki. (e) and (f) Ropy pahoehoe, Mauna Ulu 1969-74 flows (near Mauna Ulu). (g) Pahoehoe
toes in a Mauna Ulu 1969-74 flow fed by lava tubes down the Hilina fault system (about 8 km from the vent). Figure (circled)
indicates scale. (h) Section through a pahoehoe toe buried within a compound lava, Mt Eccles, Victoria, Australia. (i)
Weathered ropy pahoehoe surface on the 5000-6000-year-old Harman Valley flow, Wallacedale, Victoria, Australia.
69
(b)
Figure 4.7 (a) Cave formed by lava tube on Mauna Iki. (b)
Collapsed lava tube on Mauna Iki. (c) Cave exposed by
collapse of lava tunnel roof. Byaduk Caves. Victoria.
Australia.
(b)
.... Figure 4.6 Aa lava flows on Hawaii. (a) 1868 lava flow on Mauna Loa. (b) Detail of fragmented clinker top to the 1868
Mauna Loa flow. (c) Spinose top of pre-Missionary flow from Mauna Loa.
70
LA VA FLOWS
(b)
repeated as the flow slowly advances in caterpillartrack fashion over an auto brecciated layer of
fragmented lava. Internally, aa lava is characterised
by irregular elongate vesicles that are drawn out in
response to internal flow, and a stratification
consisting of a solid massive lava body sandwiched
between layers of fragmented clinker that may be
welded together (Figs 4.4b & 6).
The transition from pahoehoe to aa is generally
regarded to result from the increase in viscosity
caused by cooling, gas loss and greater crystallinity
with time. Peterson and Tilling (1980) made a
detailed study of the transition, which occurs at
some critical point in the relationship between
viscosity and rate of shear strain. If the viscosity is
low, then the transition only occurs if there is a high
rate of shear; for example, as caused by flow over a
steep slope. If viscosity is high, only a low rate of
shear is required. At the transition, stiff clots form
in parts of the flowing lava where the shear rate is
greatest, and remaining fluid adheres to these.
Also, fragments of solidified pahoehoe crust are
incorporated into the flow, and masses and fra..g-
(b)
(0)
oc"v~ /01'0
~
~
Inl',ol
(c)
accretionary
(d)
rubbl.
ov.rflow
71
Figure 4.10 (a) Flood basalt lava flow of the Picture Gorge Basalt in the Columbia River basalt plateau. Oregon. (b) Icelandic
flood basalt with lower columnar Jointed colonnade and upper entablature. Note hOrizontal segmentation pattern on vertical
jOints (see text) (c) Top of columnar jointed flood basalt lava in Iceland showing polygonal form of columns. (d) Two-tiered
columnar jointing, Campaspe River, Victoria, Australia. (e) Large uniform columns in a thick, massive flow, Organ Pipes,
Victoria, Australia.
ponded lakes of lava, perhaps by convective circulations. Large, circular down-sag structures have
been described, which may result from magma
withdrawal.
Palaeoflow direction in flood basalts can be
determined if spiracles or pipe vesicles are present.
These are concentrations of vesicles in small,
curved pipe-like structures found at the base of
flows. They form when bubbles of steam from
heated ground water rise into the lava, and are then
stretched in the direction of flow as it continues to
move (Waters 1960, MacDonald 1967).
(0)
~~---.,
'!ormplf shrifr
c>00oe:>00
compl ..
hool flow
PLAINS BASALTS
Flow type
flow
ba.al chillod lono -:;:",""=~,,"-;::=:;:-;::;:::::::::::::::1
flal b a s e - ~~~q~
p,IIow lava
ba.ol pi1lowod
4.5.3
73
-,~r-P
lon._~ (\ <>
~
compl..
sheel flow
undUlaling~
~(""'j
baso-~C6~~
5Ka~~.
0
P,IIows-db
pillO W al va
(b)
inlrapillow
cao,ly
1m
glassy selvedge
quenched glass
(palagonl!e)
filling Interlillial cav,ty
74
LAVA FLOWS
o
I
1m
I
A
A
D
o
~
AI
(
\
I
I
ruplur'
/....
y
old~r
- - - -7
In S In 01
pillow
.... -.f
\
,-"
.-
-../
(
. .J
re - entrant
......
~/
./
......
(b)
tJuddln9 01 MW
pillow
,;"---....... ,...
V --I
\
"---'
aboul5Om
~--
.... -1
75
\. -t /
"
,....-
,,/
\.
--'.
"~--~ .,..,>------......
.,,"~'{ '- --~ ..,;
-----~
(el
dlr~cllon
Figure 4.14 Cross section showing the development of reentrant selvedges by budding of a new pillow. (After
Hargreaves & Ayres 1979.)
76
LAVA FLOWS
m()tI'~m~nIS
motl~mrnfs
Il1lulrO'rl
11( pl'lr
(a)
11m.
lime
(e)
~
/\~.\
....... .
:
(e)
mOS"lvt 10'11'0
f lo w-tOOT breccta
77
(b)
Figure 4.18 Andesitic and dacitic lavas. (a) Andesitic block lava erupted high on Colima volcano. Mexico in 1975. Note the
well developed levees. (b) Dacitic block lava on Nea Kaimeni. Santorini . (c) The 1981 Mt St Helens dacite dome (after M. & K.
Kraft in Christiansen & Peterson 1981) (d) The 1902 dacitic spine of Mt Pelee (after Bullard 1976). (e) Gras Piton (dacitic). St
Lucia. West Indies.
78
LAVA FLOWS
(o) ~--~==~----------~
EAST
WEST
o
2
mOSSl ye columnar
andesi te
(b) , - - - - - = --
--------,
100m
380m
200
~--1---------------------~ 100
Original surface
placed as cryptodomes. A cryptodome is a domelike uplift of the surface rocks in a volcanic area,
seemingly caused by a near-surface intrusion. Some
of the best-documented occurrences of cryptodomes
are those described from Usu volcano, Japan
(Minakami et al. 1951; Table 4.2). This volcano has
an historic record of major ground surface changes.
During 1910, 1943-5 (Fig. 4.20) and 1977-8, areas
of up to 1 km diameter were uplifted 150-200 m by
the intrusion of lava at a shallow depth. The precise
thickness of sediment overlying the 1943-5 cryptodome is uncertain, although in the final stages of its
growth lava could be seen glowing through large
cracks in a thin mantling layer 3-10 m thick. In this
case the lava was a hypersthene dacite. Other
recorded cryptodomes include the Roche's lava on
Montserrat, West Indies (Rea 1974), which has
locally uplifted tuffs and fossiliferous limestones on
the flanks of the volcano. A similar cryptodome,
Brimstone Hill on St Kitts in the Lesser Antilles
(P. E. Baker 1969), has dragged up on its flanks
patches of Plio-Pleistocene limestone which are
now dipping outwards at about 45.
79
L-_ _ _----J'5km
rhyOllle lavas
wllh 09,.e.
pyroc last ic cone
with crot.r
Figure 4.21 (a) Map of the distribution and surface features of the rhyolite lava flows of La Primavera volcano. Mexico. Some
of the linear features are faults; curved features are ogives (see Plate 2 and text) (after Clough 1981). (b) Map of the rhyolite
domes of southem Lipari, Aeolian Islands (after Richardson 1978).
80
LA VA FLOWS
Many rhyolitic lavas are associated with pyroclastic deposits, each lava being almost invariably
associated with preceding phases of explosive pyroclastic activity. The style of explosive activity can
vary from mainly phreatic eruptions, producing
rings of lithic breccias surrounding the lava, e.g.
Panum Crater (one of the Mono Craters), to highly
explosive plinian and ignimbrite-forming eruptions.
During such explosive phases a pumice cone or tuff
ring can be built-up around the vent (e.g. Fig.
4.22e). Even while the rhyolite lava is growing,
explosive eruptions may continue, and evidence for
(b)
(e)
Figure 4.22 Rhyolitic lavas. (a) Mt Guardia dome. Lipari (photograph by S. Hall). (b) Cerro EI Chato dome. La Primavera
volcano. (c) Cerro EI Colli mesa lava, the youngest of the La Primavera lavas (after Clough 1981). (d) Mesa EI Majahuate mesa
lava, La Primavera volcano. (e) Coulee of La Primavera volcano which has flowed to left from a vent at the summit of the
pumice cone seen to right (after Clough 1981).
81
4.10.1 SHAPE
Rhyolite lavas (Fig. 4.22) can be subdivided
according to their shape into:
(a)
82 LAVA FLOWS
83
Lithologies of subaerial rhyolite lava flows. (a) Flow-banded obsidian from a glass flow,
Newberry Crater, Oregon. (b) Platy jointed obsidian dome, Okataina Complex, New Zealand. (c) Interbanded obsidian and
spherulitic layers, Rocche Rosse flow, northern Lipari. (d) Flow-folded obsidian (now partly perlitised), La Primavera volcano. (e)
Flow-folded Upper Devonian rhyolite lava at Tathra, New South Wales, Australia (photograph by S. Raiser). (f) Stony rhyolite
lava with basaltic inclusions, southern Lipari (photograph by S. Hall).
4,10.2 LITHOLOGY
In rhyolite lava flows a variety of lithologies and
textural features can be found: obsidian, layers
containing spherulites, pumiceous layers, horizons
of stony rhyolite (lithic rhyolite), and in lavas where
hydration of obsidian has occurred, perlite,
84
LAVA FLOWS
obSIdian bloc
surface
breccia -~<> ;.. . -:
obSIdian
erup'lv,
..
$
t;ji
~
Scm
~~
."
oj<
'"
..~
.;
fI
.'1#
. ..PI,.
:~
glassy obsidian
~~
:fI'
~ .~
~.e
o
layer compl... ly
reploced by
.peru'''i' growths
of feldspar
85
romp structure
200
dome
(b) MtGuordio
domes
400
300
200
100
Om
(c) Growth of
o dome
Figure 4.26 (a) and (b) Cross sections through two of the
rhyolite domes in southern Lipari (located on Fig. 4.21 b).
Horizontal scale same as vertical. Mt Guardia is also pictured
in Figure 4.22. (c) 3-dimensional view of the growth of a
rhyolite dome (after Richardson 1978).
86 LAVA FLOWS
Figure 4.27
Ramp structure in the Rocche Rosse obsidian coulee. northern Lipari (photograph by S. Hall).
(see below) rather than surface folds. Fink's analysis can only apply to a limited period during the
emplacement history of a rhyolite lava flow. Once
the surface is cold, it will behave in a brittle
manner, and fracturing and ramping could then be
important and superimposed on these earlier
features.
Other surface features of rhyolite lavas include
pumice diapirs. Fink (l980b, 1983) described in
detail pumiceous diapirs in the Big and Little Glass
Mountain obsidian flows, northern California
(Plate 2). These rose from the basal pumiceous
surfact breccic
basal breccia
SOOm
Figure 4.28 Cross section through the length of the Rocche Rosse obsidian coulee. with generalised flow foliation patterns.
(After Hall 1978.)
Flow foliation in rhyolite lavas consists of interbanded and foliated layers of varying crystallinity
(obsidian and stony rhyolite), spherulite content
and vesicularity. Different lithological layers are
thought to have been batches of physically heterogeneous lava with attendant variations in water
content, crystal content and, perhaps, temperature.
The prominent foliations are then generated during
stretching, shearing and attenuation during flow.
Recently, Nelson (1981) suggested that lithological
differences in rhyolite flow banding could result
from thermal feedback (and temperature increases)
in layers, due to shear stresses in the moving lava.
Local temperature increases would have the effect
of reducing local water solubility, increasing diffusion rates, and increasing nucleation rates and
growth rates of gas bubbles, thus causing highly
vesicular bands to parallel shear planes.
Flow directions and flow history of rhyolite lavas
can be determined by structural analysis of the
orientation of foliations, folds, vesicles, tabular and
platy crystals, and stretched-out volcanic glass.
Late-stage movements of cooled lava are indicated
by slickensides and tension gashes. However, there
are only a few studies of this kind documented in
the literature (Christiansen & Lipman 1966, Loney
87
88
LAVA FLOWS
sand slud
hyoloclasltle
KOMA TIITES
(0)
Member 8 2
o,
(b)
erosion accompanying the emplacement of sediment overlying one of the units, and their presence
has influenced later patterns of sedimentation.
Texturally, the porphyries show no evidence of
vitric1astic texture, broken crystals, pumice or
foreign lithic fragments, which may suggest they
were deep-water welded ash flows or ignimbrites
(see Chs 8 & 9). In places the units have fragmented
margins, thought to be partly quenched and partly
autobrecciated.
Aspect ratios of the two larger units are very low,
89
90
LAVA FLOWS
Figure 4.31
FURTHER READING
(0)
91
(b)
Overlying
flow unll
,
~
. ".~ ;I ~.
.~. ~
,
I
I
IlowlOP breCCia
AI
A2
Zone
of
Schlieren
Irani Ilion ZOIle
I
I
gabbro
I
I
I
~ 84
,,;;
Underlying
flow unll
:~~~~:d
ske lelo l
I
I
I
I
8m
~
o
ollYlne cumulale
2metres
pyro.ent cumulale
6m
border zone
Figure 4.32 Facies models for (a) komatiite lavas and (b) komatiitic basalt lavas, highlighting the internal textural zonation.
(After Arndt et al. 1977.)
Plate 5
Pit dug to study a section through a young scoria-fall deposit erupted from Sunset Crater in about AD 1065, San
Francisco Volcanic Field, Arizona, USA. Most pyroclastic deposits when freshly erupted are loose fragmental aggregates - so
use a spade and leave your hammer at home l
92
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Introduction
Three basic types of pyroclastic deposit have been
distinguished in the literature:
pyroclastic fall deposits
pyroclastic flow deposits
pyroclastic surge deposits
These types can all be formed by any of the
93
94
Figure 5.2 Several separate pyroclastic fall deposits forming the bedded sequence mantling erosional topography.
Hills and valleys are cut into older massive pumiceous
pyroclastic flow deposits of the Oruanui ignimbrite
(20000 years BP)' near Lake Taupo. New Zealand.
(b) Flow
(e) Surge
~
~
...
"' ''.~.
..
. ..
INTRODUCTION
(a)
5
Sc
,..-;--.--.,
ilu"" l'
flo w
lo ll
.uro. (.. nole lom lnoe)
.uroo (cor. lompl.)
lC.
._------'-:...-;:
..
''''''~~''l',
Xil-rryll'
, .~/
,- J: ...... ~---;
02
.~
95
.r:.
~oL-~::~:===~~~:=::~::~c:~~::~L
(!)
-8
256
-6
64
-4
16
-2
4
0
I
1/4
1/16
(~)
1/64(mm)
96
~~:)
"\
\.
c::r
pyroclasllC lo ll depo."
20cm Ih,ck
approximale limll at
loll depa.,1
ma,or highways
carbonised wood,
pink coloration due to thermal oxidation of
iron, or dark coloration due to crystallisation
of finely-disseminated microlites of magnetite
INTRODUCTION
97
(c)
Figure 5.6 Pyroclastic flow deposits. (a) Filling a valley on the lower slopes of Fuego after the 1974 eruption (Fig. 5.5). Note
the poor sorting and the large lava blocks showing overall reverse grading. The new channel cut through these deposits is
approximately 40 m deep, and this was incised in two wet seasons (after Vessell & Davies 1981) (b) Pumiceous pyroclastic
flow deposit (ignimbrite) ponded over a steeply dipping pumice-fall deposit. The pumice-fall deposit mantles former
topography and is internally stratified. This is called the Granadilla pumice, and the pyroclastic flow was erupted later in the
same eruption on Tenerife. A younger, thin pumice-fall deposit overlies the flat top of the pyroclastic flow deposit and this is
capped by a palaeosol (photograph by J. A. Wolff). (c) and (d) Thick deposit of a single pumice flow which choked a large valley
cut into older volcanics at Micoud, St Lucia, Lesser Antilles. Contact is to the right of scale figures.
Table 5,1
Komagatake 1929
pyroclastic flow deposit
Mt St Helens 1981
pumice-flow deposits
Vesuvius AD 79
ignimbrite
Temperature
(OC)
Method
Source
390
(12 days after eruption)
direct measurement
Kozu (1934)
300-750
direct measurement
(near
vent 750-850)
~400
et at. (1981)
550-800
welding experiments
Prehistoric Mt St Helens
block- and ash-flow deposit
550-600
palaeomagnetic
98
(c)
(d)
an initial gas thrust part, due to rapid decompression of the gas phase,
an upper convection plume which is driven by
the release of thermal energy from juvenile
particles. In this region buoyancy is dominant
and the top is defined by the level of neutral
99
(c)
100
(0)
30
EAST
WEST
25
E
.><
.~
20
15
Q)
J:
10
20
30
10
10
20
30
40
50
oo
_ _ ~ ~TISH _C OLU_MB IA _.-_~~DA _ _ - - - - - - ~~fg~84 00
UNITED STATES
25
12900
-14 500
.... 174 00
2~1680
6500
Spokon. \
Moy 18
16 00
=
-
15
'
11 4 5
I
I,
Mt St Helens
. . ./ ------
~Porllond
...
0>
'iii
J:
10
OREGON
IDAHO
100
L
'
. . ._ _
200
300km
,'-----"_~'
o L.....I.--'----'----'-~-'
o 20 4 0 60 80 100 120
Wind veloc ity
Q = ~vJt?s(8
- 8a )F
(5.2)
101
(el
CANADA
_----;;----------,1---\
--"
UNITED STATES
WASHINGTON
I- 0'o~ ---",
3] 9. :S--~_
----,
,
~
~.2/:.
1.0,,"-,-',
"", \
~-;~ ~C-::~ '-'
,':.r...' _--'" \
,. __
-:-r.CV~~5-,
_____
'
~
"
mOil mum
~.~
~ 0.25-->-Y--
-------'~J~
'"
MI SI Helens ---
\. "'--""""
0.1
__
OREGON
IlopaChs in em
...' - _....
'
, --_
100
200
'
'
----
.I
I
I
I
' ? -'..........
/
'.... --' '"
"J'".
\
\
; '
I
300km
' -----'.
--'---
005~
... _---_""\.
P.rt lon d
MONTANA
~ O.I --'",',
: 0 2
. 5-'
IDAHO
....
~--
V-
,-....J
WYOMING
Figure 5.8 Development of the eruption column, downwind plume and dispersal of pyroclasts in the 18 May 1980 eruption
of Mt St Helens. (a) East-west profile schematically showing early vertical growth and lateral expansion of the plume. (b)
Isochron map showing maximum downwind extent of the edge of the plume carried by the fastest-moving wind layer (as
observed on satellite photographs). On the left an average wind speed profile measured at Spokane at 16.00 h is given.
Circular wind diagram shows average directions to which wind was blowing at different altitudes, and were again measured at
Spokane at 16.00 h. (c) Isopachs of the 18 May pyroclastic fall deposit. Note the secondary thickening of the air-fall deposit
300 km downwind; the significance of this will be discussed in Chapter 6. (After Sarna-WOjcicki et a/. 1981.)
Table 5.2
Hekla 1947
Hekla 1970
Soufriere 1902
Bezymianny 1956
Fuego 1971
Heimaey 1973
Ngauruhoe 1974
Santa Maria 1902
Mt St Helens
18 May 1980
Soufriere
22 Apri I 1979
Average volumetric
eruption rate
(m 3 S-l)
17000
3333
11-15000
230000
640
50
10
120000
Plume
height
(km)
24
14
14.5-16
34--45
10
2-3
1.5-3.7
28
Duration
(h)
0.5
2
2.5-3.5
0.5
10
14
18-20
6200
16
12600
18
0.23
Volumetric eruption rates are given in terms of dense rock equivalent (App. I).
Plume heights are above the top of the volcano, not sea level.
The data on Hekla 1947, refer to the first 30 min of the eruption.
The data on Heimaey refer to the first few weeks of the eruption.
Information is taken largely from L. Wilson et al. (1978), with data on Santa Maria (1902) from S N. Williams and Self (1983),
Mt St Helens (1980) from Harris et a/. (1981) and Sarna-WojcICki et al. (1981), and Soufriere, St Vincent (1979) from Sparks and L.
Wilson (1982)
102
40
+-
30
Bezymianny 1956
./;,j
0",
'0 ..,
oX
.c
c>
Q)
.c
20
Q)
E
::J
a::
10
10
5- 1)
Figure 5.9
Relationship between plume height and volumetric eruption rate. The theoretical curves for F-values of
1.0, 0.7 and 0.3 are discussed in the text. Observed plume
heights for ten eruptions are plotted from Table 5.1. (After L.
Wilson et at. 1978.)
Xm
(5.3)
-=-+B Qm Qg
HT
= 5.773(1 + n)-3/8[a<ps(S -
Sa)]!
(5.4)
103
(1972) and Sparks and Walker (1977) have demonstrated that enrichment of crystals is a typical
feature of ignimbrites, and must be accounted for
by substantial volumetric losses of the vitric component of the original magma which is deposited in
associated air-fall ash deposits. Much of this ash is
elutriated out of the moving pumice flows by gas
streaming through and up, out of the flows. The
ash rises above the pumice flows in an upper
turbulent ash cloud, which is taken to great heights
by huge convective plumes (Fig. 5.7b). Because the
ash particles are very fine-grained (nearly all
< 1 mm), there may be nearly 100% efficiency of
conversion of heat to convective energy to drive the
plumes.
The types of air-fall ash deposits which result are
variously termed layer 3 deposits (Sparks et al.
1973), co-ignimbrite ash-fall deposits (this is our
preferred term; Sparks & Walker 1977), and vitric
air-fall ash deposits 0. V. Wright et al. 1980). What
is significant here is that these deposits can be very
extensive, and can have volumes which are comparable with those of ignimbrites. It is now thought
that many of the extensive large ash layers found in
deep sea cores are of this type (e.g. Ninkovich et al.
1978, Sparks & Huang 1980). We will describe coignimbrite ash-fall deposits in more detail in
Chapter 8, but will first consider other types of
deposits from ash clouds associated with pyroclastic
flows (Section 5.6.2).
As a final comment on eruptions producing
pyroclastic falls, the high plumes generated, particularly during plinian-type and ignimbriteforming eruptions, must penetrate the level of the
tropopause in the atmosphere (at heights of <6 to
18 km, depending on latitude and season) and
contribute fine ash and gaseous species to stratospheric dust veils. Some climatologists have therefore thought that volcanic eruptions might promote
periods of climatic cooling. The topic is beyond the
scope of this book, but two critical reviews, by
Rampino et al. (1979) and Self et al. (1981), have
suggested that volcanic dust veils are only likely to
cause short-term 10 years) very minor temperature fluctuations (in the order of <0.5C), and are
unlikely to trigger ice ages or glaciations, or even
minor fluctuations in the 10-100 year range.
scoria-fall deposits,
pumice-fall deposits,
ash-fall deposits.
105
Figure 5.10 Two pyroclastic flows. (a) Towering ash cloud 4000 m above a pyroclastic flow moving down the Riviere
Blanche from Mt Pelee during an eruption in December 1902 (after La Croix 1904) (b) Pumiceous pyroclastic flow erupted on
7 August at Mt St Helens in 1980. This flow travelled at speeds in excess of 30 m S-1. (After P W Lipman In Rowley et al.
1981.)
106
(f ) Upwellino at ven t
Figure 5.11
column collapse
Mechanisms generating pyroclastic flows. The pyroclastic flow proper is a high particle concentration underflow.
5.4.1 LAVA-DOMEORLAVA-FLOW
COLLAPSE
This mechanism typically operates on steep-sided
andesitic volcanic cones, but also occurs during the
eruption of silicic domes not related to major
edifices. Fragmental flows of broken lava are
generated when an unstable, actively growing lavadome or lava-flow collapses from the summit or
high on the flanks of the volcano. Collapse may be
simply gravitational (which is not strictly pyroclastic), or could be an explosively directed blast
(Figs 5.11a & b). However, pressure release within
a dome due to an initial gravitational collapse could
lead to explosive collapse so, in some cases, both
processes may have occurred. Explosions could
also be triggered by contact of the growing dome
with ground water. Such an eruption could therefore be considered to be phreatomagmatic. This
also leads to the possibility that phreatic explosions
could generate pyroclastic flows containing no
juvenile fragments (e.g. Sheridan 1980). It is
therefore important to realise that different processes may have occurred at about the same time, and
the relative importance of each is, perhaps, difficult
to distinguish.
These types of pyroclastic flow we will term
block and ash flows, but other terms in use are lava
debris flows, hot avalanche deposits (P. W. Francis
et al. 1974) and nuees ardentes (see Ch. 12). Block
and ash-flows are small-volume pyroclastic flows,
and even the deposits of many separate flows or
flow units accumulated during the same eruption
typically have volumes <1 km 3 .
Examples of historic eruptions during which
explosive lava-dome or lava-flow collapse was
observed are the eruptions of Mt Pelee, Martinique
in 1902 and 1929-32 (La Croix 1904, Perret 1937),
Merapi, Indonesia in 1942-3 (van Bemmelen
1949), the eruptions of Hibok-Hibok, Philippines
(1951) (MacDonald & Alcaraz 1956), Mt
Lamington, Papua New Guinea (1951) (G. A.
Taylor 1958), and Santiaguito, Guatemala (1973)
(Rose et al. 1978). Historic examples where simple
gravitational collapse of a dome occurred are the
eruptions of Merapi in 1930 and 1942-3 (Neumann
van Padang 1933, van Bemmelen 1949) and
Santiaguito in 1967 (Stoiber & Rose 1969).
107
108
109
110
3b
30
o . o
.
'0 "
:0:. ":'.
2
~ : :-."
011
ground ,urge
depoSl '
5.5.2
SCORIA-FLOW DEPOSITS
5.5.1
III
(0 )
(b)
(e)
fine grained
basal loyor
II
112
Figure 5.15 Block- and ash-flow and scoria-flow deposits. (a) Reversely graded block and ash-flow deposit, formed by
collapse of a rhyolitic lava flow. This was erupted towards the end of the 700 years BP Kaharoa eruption of the Tarawera
volcanic centre. New Zealand. Top of spade handle is base of block and ash-flow deposit. other layers are earlier co-eruptive
products. (b) Hot block in block and ash-flow deposit. San Pedro volcano. northern Chile (after P. W. Francis et al. 1974). (c)
Gas segregation pipes in the 1902 block and ash flow deposits erupted from Mt Pelee (after Fisher & Heiken 1982). (d) Scoria
flow deposit erupted from Mt Misery volcano. St Kitts. Lesser Antilles. Note the concentration zones of scoria which seem to
be associated with flow unit boundaries and coarser-grained pipes which have been emphasised by rain washing. Arrow
points to a carbonised log from which a 14C age of 2860 years BP was obtained (photograph by M. J. Roobol). (e) and (f) The
scoria flow deposits (dark) erupted in 1975 at Mt Ngauruhoe. New Zealand. Note thin lobate flow front and dense juvenile
fragments with more scoriaceous clasts.
113
Figure 5.16 Some general features of pumice-flow deposits. All of the photographs are from non-welded ignimbrites or nonwelded zones of welded ignimbrites. (a) Stacked thin flow units of the Rio Caliente ignimbrite, Mexico. Flow unit boundaries
are picked out by fine-grained basal layers (after J. V. Wright 1981). (b) Flow units of the Rio Caliente ignimbrite interbedded
with fluviatile reworked pumice (R) and erosion surfaces (E); arrow points to two flow units filling in small channels cut into the
succession. No soils are present, and field evidence elsewhere shows that these erosional events must have been local and
short-lived, and occurred during the same eruption. Height of cliff section is about 16 m (after J. V. Wright 1981). (c) Thick,
massive flow unit of the Oruanui ignimbrite in New Zealand, which is poorly sorted and texturally very homogeneous
throughout the thickness seen (horizontal lines are bulldozer scrapings). (d) Coarse, poorly sorted pumice-flow deposit on St
Lucia, Lesser Antilles. (e) Close-up showing poor sorting in an ignimbrite. This is from a flow unit of the Acatlan ignimbrite.
Mexico. Dark clasts are lithics.
5 seconds
./:- .
r f
=,\
((
'"/".
.. ,. .;- ....
500m
10
,.cond,
115
116
Figure 5.18 Phreatomagmatic eruptions producing base surges. (a) At Capelinhos in October 1957. Height of vertical column
to top of photograph is about 2200 m. US Air Force photograph (after J. G. Moore 1967). (b) Capelinhos in September 1957.
Steam has blown downwind to expose a dense debris-laden central column collapsing to feed a base surge. On the right-hand
side of the photograph the surge is moving across the ocean surface (after Waters & Fisher 1971). (c) East Ukinrek maar in
1977. Note chevron shape of base surge cloud (moving to the left) which in this case was directed by lows in the maar rim
and shallow valleys (after J. Faro in Kienle et al. 1980).
Smith & Wright unpub. data). The rhyolitic basesurge deposits form part of a thicker pyroclastic
sequence generated during an ignimbrite-forming
eruption. Rhyolitic base-surge deposits are also
known in association with phreatoplinian phases of
the Askja, Iceland, 1875 eruption and the Minoan
(1470 BC) eruption of Santorini (Self & Sparks
1978; Ch. 6). Phonolitic base surges also were
generated late during the AD 79 eruption of
Vesuvius, when large amounts of water from a deep
aquifer under the volcano gained access to the
magma chamber. The deposits are associated with
phreatoplinian air-fall layers (Sheridan et al. 1981;
Ch.6).
117
~km
- -~o-.......
range
sandblasling of objecl.
Lab Taa/
4km
------'.
'
' -
~ dun, (re'5ts
10... wav.'.ngth (m)
flow dlrec:tions
-100- topographic contours (m)
Figure 5.19 General distributional characteristics of the deposits of the 1965 eruption of Taal in the Philippines. Flow
directions of major base surge movement in (d) were measured in the field from the sand blasting. tilting and coating of trees
and houses. (After J. G. Moore 1967.)
118
The concept of a low concentration blast preceding the main part of a pyroclastic flow stems largely
from early ideas on understanding the 8 May 1902
eruption of Mt Pelee, which was thought to have
been a directed blast. We have already discussed
this eruption, and how it is now thought to have
generated block and ash flows by collapse of an
eruption column. Fisher et al. (1980) and Fisher
and Heiken (1982) suggested that St Pierre was
destroyed by an ash-cloud surge, although G. P. L.
Walker and Me Broome (1983) suggested that it was
by a violent pyroclastic flow (Ch. 7). Several
historic block- and ash-flow deposits produced by
explosive lava-dome collapse have obvious surge
deposits associated with them, but again some of
these could be ash-cloud surge deposits. However,
Rose et al. (1977) described a ground surge
produced by explosive collapse directed out of the
lava front at Santiaguito in September 1973, and
because the surge does not mantle the associated
block- and ash-flow deposit, they suggest that it
probably preceded it. The initial explosion of Mt St
Helens was an obvious directed blast, and its effect
on the forest in its path is well known. The deposits
from the initial explosion certainly show some
characteristics of a surge deposit, as we have
alluded to previously, and this is how they have
been described by J. G. Moore and Sisson (1981)
and Hickson et al. (1982). However, the stratigraphy
is more complicated than that of normal groundsurge deposits, and Hoblitt et al. (1981) have drawn
attention to this. G. P. L. Walker (1983) suggested
that the blast was a high concentration pyroclastic
flow emplaced at very high velocities, like some
violent ignimbrites (Chs 7 & 8). Like the Mt Pelee
event, this event and its deposits are the source of
much debate. Pumice flows forming ignimbrite did
not begin to erupt for another four hours after the
initial explosion at Mt St Helens.
Studies by C. J. N. Wilson (1980, 1981, 1984)
and C. J. N. Wilson and Walker (1982) suggest
that the flow-heads of some pyroclastic flows
(especially pumice flows) may ingest large volumes
of air, and may be inflated and highly fluidised (Chs
7 & 8). At the front of the moving flow, basal
friction will cause an overhang which will act as a
funnel for air, in much the same way as a
subaqueous mass flow incorporates water (Allen
1971, Simpson 1972). Cold air when heated would
rapidly expand, and surges of highly fluidised
pyroclasts would be jetted out of the head and
upper parts of the flow front (Fig. 5.13; Ch. 7);
material ejected at higher positions on the flowfront would contribu~e to the ash cloud. This could
also be another mechanism for generating turbulent, low concentration surges continually
advancing in front of some pyroclastic flows. The
escaping gas and ash gives the flow-head its
'billowing' or 'sprouting' appearance, as seen, for
example, by Perret (1937) in some Mt Pelee
pyroclastic flows erupted during 1929-32. This
type of jetting of material from the flow-head
explains some other facies associated with ignimbrites, and these will be discussed further in
Chapter 7.
The third mechanism we can envisage for the
generation of ground surges is by repeated minor
collapse of a maintained eruption column before
major ignimbrite-forming collapse. This could also
apply for some ignimbrite-forming eruptions, and
Fisher (1979) suggested such a model. Turbulent
mixing and intake of cold air at the margins of the
eruption column could overload parts of it, and
small-scale collapse could generate precursor
surges.
More recently, however, G. P. L. Walker et al.
o....
2km
' _ _....L...._----',
,- 2
119
121
Figure 5.21 Some features of basaltic base-surge deposits. (a) Climbing duneforms, surge flow direction from right to left.
Thin planar layers are air-fall deposits. From Lake Purrumbete maar, Western Victoria, Australia. (bHf) are from the coastal
slopes of Koko crater, Oahu, Hawaii, but most of the deposits in this area are thought to have been erupted from the
Hanauma Bay crater complex, 1-5 km to the southwest. (b) Climbing duneforms, surge direction left to right from Hanauma
Bay, Hawaii. (c) and (d) U-shaped erosional channels; U-shaped bases and stratigraphy of the deposits suggest that these
were fluviatile erosional gullies reshaped and re-emphasised by younger base surges from Hanauma Bay. (For complete story
see Fisher 1977.) Note how planar-bedded base surge layers thicken into the channels (cf. Fig. 5.1 c). (e) Ash plastered against
the almost vertical side of a wall of eroded basement of reef limestone. (f) Planar bedded deposits with penecontemporaneous slumping. (g) and (h) Bomb sags in planar-bedded deposits, Tower Hill. Victoria.
122
Figure 5.22 Rhyolitic base-surge deposits erupted from the Quill, St Eustatius 22 240 years BP), Lesser Antilles. The basesurge deposits dominate the stratigraphic interval visible in (a). Here there is a thin lower unit of base-surge deposits
(prominent white layer) separated from the thicker upper unit with well developed dunes by a plinian pumice-fall deposit. The
more-massive layer above these shown in (b) is a co-eruptive ignimbrite.
123
Figure 5.23 Some ground surge and ash-cloud surge deposits. (a) and (b) Ground surge deposits at the base of the Upper
Bandelier ignimbrite. (c) Ground surge deposit separating two flow units in the Upper Bandelier ignimbrite. The dark (pink)
stratified surge deposit is clearly associated with the upper darker flow unit and they were emplaced as one thermal package.
(d) Ash-cloud surge deposits between two flow units of the Upper Bandelier ignimbrite. Local field relations and the
photograph show that the thinly laminated surge deposits are associated with the pumice-rich top of the lower flow unit
(cavernous weathering). (e) Fine-grained 1902 ash-cloud surge deposit in the churchyard at St Pierre. Internal stratification is
found in this. (f) The church at St Pierre is thought to have been destroyed by an ash-cloud surge.
124
Figure 5.24 (above and facing page) Accretionary and cored lapilli. (a)-(f) Associated with different rhyolitic deposits. (a)
Within a rhyolitic ignimbrite from the Devonian Snowy River Volcanics, eastern Victoria, Australia. The matrix contains an
abundance of flattened and fragmented lapilli. (b) and (c) show exceptional concentrations of accretionary lapilli from
phreatoplinian air-fall ashes of the Oruanui eruption, Lake Taupo, deposited in a small crater lake inside the scoria cone,
Pukeonake, New Zealand. These have been reworked, as shown by the erosion surface in (c). (d) Lapilli within an ignimbrite
about 500000 years BP in New Zealand (photograph by C. J. N. Wilson) (e) In gas segregation pipes within the Oruanui
ignimbrite, New Zealand. (f) From a thick concentration of accretionary lapilli within the body of the Oruanui ignimbrite. (g)
Cored lapilli at Koko Crater, Oahu, Hawaii. (h) Cored lapilli in basaltic base surge deposits at Cape Bridgewater volcano,
Victoria.
5.7.2
125
GROUND-SURGE DEPOSITS
126
Plate 6 Two rhyolitic plinian pumice-fall deposits (white layers) erupted in the past 5000 years from Hekla volcano, Iceland. Top
photograph is an outcrop 15 km from the vent and the bottom one shows the same two fall deposits considerably thinner, 50 km
from the vent. The pumice falls are interbedded with alluvial sediments and soils. Dark layer just above lower pumice fall in
bottom photographed is a distal scoria fall erupted from Katla volcano.
128
CHAPTER SIX
6.1 Introduction
The different types of pyroclastic fall deposit are illdefined in the literature. They are described by a
number of terms according to certain styles of
explosive activity, named generally after individual
volcanoes or volcanic areas where the activity was
first observed, or of which the style of eruptions
was thought to be characteristic. Examples include
strombolian, hawaiian, vcsuvian and pclcan. One
exception to this is plinian, which is named after
Pliny the Younger, from his account to the historian
129
130
__
--'
~
~
c:
.2
SURTSEYAN
(; 50
E
G)
STROM80LlAN
HAWA II AN
I
1_-1" . . .
0>
-i-r--l
: . . . . . I ~~M
.:.. /
1")..~'- /
~/
ci~ /
/
~~v ..-{PLINIAN I
.....
...,,,.....
SU8 PLINI AN
I
I
I
.I
/1
o~~~,-__~;'---'--~/~-'--TT---1
005
500
Dispersal (D km 2)
5000
(b)
t
::!
<l)
c:
<l)
>
'iii
Q.
>t
(0)
x locol ion
somplt sie .ed
is)
(b)
IF
es ti ma te d al 0. 1 Tmax
isopach
Eo!!
(0)
~Iu~r---------------'-I------------
Q.
~~ Eiii
~l50 LdJ!II
Ii!
iii
&Ii
II!L_~e_~-I"!Iiil~~J--I""",-""""---"II----,
is)
10
20
Distance (km)
Figure 6.1 Representation of method used to obtain the
two parameters 0 and F. See text for explanation.
131
(b)
eo
..
20
:::
."'.'.
..
'0
~
!...
!.. 40
~ 10
cry ' 0 .8
.'..
.:
-4
-2
4.5km
80
0;' 2 . 6
~
!...
..
~ 40
10
-6
-4
-2
.'
.'"
av 0 .9
.'
'0
-4
-2
IOkm
cr,' 1.1
80
30
OV - O 4
!...
!...
...
-6
-4
-2
40
O+-r-'-
plot histograms of weight percentages against terminal fall velocity, so grouping together all particles
which fall at the same rate. When this is done,
grain size histograms of pyroclastic fall samples
become strongly unimodal (Fig. 6.3). Median
terminal fall velocity in an air-fall deposit gradually
decreases with distance (Figs 6.3 & 4). The slope on
-4
-2
HAWAIIAN-STROMBOLIAN
_ lUI
E~
I....
>-
Q)++- .-
.2
10
\
E
5
133
Heimaey
1973 (76)
0
Q)
6.3 Hawaiian-strombolian
"0 >
Q)-
~o
10~--~--2~0--~--4~0--~--6~0--~--~80---
Distance (km)
Figure 6.4 Median terminal fall velocity plotted against
distance from source for some pyroclastic fall deposits. For
each deposit an indication of the windspeed (in km h- 1 ) is
given in parentheses. (After Self et al. 1974)
134
t.,.....'tI.:A ...
..... ,e ..
o.i~'~~"S:f:
_.
"'iiI......'1"
mrtrrs
5
lava lIow
~~'~ag(:~
,p: :~~ a~
c> -
c.
CJ
sChem~ "c
Galiarte
Serra Gorda
Cone 301
0.02
0.06
0.02
0.01
0.03
0.01
g cm- 3
Figure 6.6
Cone-building strombolian scoria-fall deposits. (a) Mt Leura, Victoria, Australia and (b) Megalo Vourno, Santorini.
.....
,
...
.. .
-6
64
-5
32
-4
16
XX
==~.(lx~ :\
-3
B
-2
4
-I
Md
0
I
Vz
X
lIj(
y.
"a
!6
1~ 6 mm
HAWAIIAN-STROMBOLIAN
137
(0)
~"
/ 'l
1~ 17
I
I~BI .
I
,
I
I
15.
, . 11
,
,
"
I km
.....- - - - - '
... -......
21
110 '" IS 5 . ,
I' . . -:";;o~ ,
\ ~20 ~ 0
\ .22
' 93
\ \
',
'........
-- 'C-'
..... _ - - ,
,IB
01.1
"
\
~ \
I'l
\ O.B
"
)I~ '
12': -:
<_2..4;) /
\2 .9
,"
' 3.5 "
.
UI
/ .4 .5 '
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'
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0.9
"
\
2.3
\
, 8.4 I
\ \
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:
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6 .7. I
. 3.5
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3 .3'
9.B
.... - _ _ -
\ .: 2 .B
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'
"7. 2 6
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/ : 1.0
" .3.S 23 4. 3
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.
_...
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3 . ,.
..... , 5. S
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1. 16 27
I I ........ - - ... ,
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6.7. ,,_. 1.6 \
'" . . . - - - _
1.2 .
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---~,
.8
/ / .4 '"
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/, 0.6
'....
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\\ \
...
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II
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.8'\
, I ~/"
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, ...... --- ......
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;'
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II
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0 .8
.I
(d)
(c)
I
I
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2~,C
\ 17
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. 4.4 \
4 .0 I
4.0
3.8
I ~i
..
\ 4.7 . . . . .:. ....
I =;f. A
\ \.".-iO:- 5
1.7 ' ,
"
- -.
. ...
- - --'.5km
--4--
(e)
. 1.7
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.2.4
.....!;,O_ '2.
.",.---, \
.... ' 2. 6
,1.7/ .t.2
' - - 2' :(6
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. 1. 8
2.3 ' /
I
I
I
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Md, - 2.6
0-. '0 .85
-4
1.7
,..
.B
.... - - . . . .
I/''' 7.4
,
,
40
-4
-2
o
2
Groin si ze ( jiI )
Figure 6.9 Thickness and grainsize characteristics of some strombolian pyroclastic fall deposits in the Azores. Isopleth maps
show the average diameter of the three largest scoria clasts. (a) and (b) Scoria-fall deposit from the Galiarte cone. Terceira
(after Self 1976). (c) and (d) Scoria-fall deposits from Serra Gorda (west) and Cone 301 (east) on Sao Miguel. (e) Grainsize
distribution curves for the Serra Gorda deposit at the three locations in (d) (after Booth et al. 1978). Volumes for the three
scoria-fa ll deposits are given in Table 6.1.
HAWAIIAN-STROMBOLIAN
139
Figure 6.10 (a) Faintly stratified black scoria. Mt Leura. Camperdown. Victoria. Australia. Scoria overlies phreatomagmatic
base-surge and fall deposits. (b) Cognate basaltic bomb in scoria. Mt Leura. (c) Slight reverse grading and faint stratification in
scoria fall. Tower Hill. Victoria. Australia.
(0)
50
SUB PLINIAN
e P
STROMBOLIAN
lL.
HAWA IIAN
3 H . 1I
e sc
(b)
0i-__~--_+I_.----K-.~e-e-.~2+'_.------,_---
005
D (km 2)
Figure 6.11 D-F plot for some scoria-fall deposits described in the text. 1. 2 and 3 are the downwind deposits for
the Galiarte. Serra Gorda and 301 cones. H is Heimaey
(1973); K is Kilauea (1959); P is Parfcutin; SC is Sunset
Crater (see Section 6.5 and Plate 5) (After G. P. L. Walker
1973b. Self 1976. Booth et al. 1978. Amos & Self unpub.
data and sieve data of J. V. Wright on the Kilauea 1959
scoria.)
140
6.3.3 CLASSIFICATION
The distinction between hawaiian and strombolian
pyroclastic fall deposits was only tentatively defined
by G. P. L. Walker (l973b) because there were
limited data available at that time. There are still
very few quantitative data on these deposits,
especially those of hawaiian eruptions. Following
G. P. L. Walker (l973b), hawaiian basaltic activity
is so weakly explosive that any pyroclastic deposit
which results, has a D of less than 0.05 km 2 , while
strombolian activity produces a deposit with a D of
more than 0.05 km 2 (Fig. 6.2). This criterion,
together with the distinction between the eruption
mechanisms we have discussed, should only be
considered as a general guide in distinguishing
between hawaiian and strombolian fall deposits.
Lava fountaining can reach such heights that,
although observed activity would be considered
typically hawaiian, the resulting deposits would be
much more widely dispersed. The 1959 Kilauea Iki
lava fountains reached heights of 600 m and the
downwind scoria-fall deposit has a D-value of about
0.7 km 2 (Richteretal. 1970). By Walker's definition
it is strombolian (Fig. 6.11). However, this scoriafall deposit is composed almost entirely of achneliths
or fragments of them (Fig. 3.17), and these should be
a very large component of scoria-fall deposits, even of
those of wide dispersal, formed by lava fountaining.
During strombolian activity, if the intervals between
explosions are so long that a maintained column and
convective plume cannot form, then the scoria-fall
deposit will be more restricted, and may be hawaiian
6.4 Plinian
Plinian pyroclastic fall deposits are a common
product of highly explosive eruptions of high
viscosity magmas. These are generally andesitic to
rhyolitic, or phonolitic and trachytic compositions,
but rare basaltic scoria-fall deposits which have
plinian dispersal patterns are known (S. N.
Williams 1983, G. P. L. Walker et al. 1984). The
characteristics of plinian pumice fall deposits and
their eruptions are now fairly well defined, and the
extensive literature about these has been reviewed
by G. P. L. Walker (l981b).
PLINIAN
//
(0 ) Fog o 1563
MP(cml
,,7.9
"
vall"~
/(i' 12 8
ML(cml
cal dora
3 .0
1.3
4
2
40km
\
5.5
141
MP(cml
ML(cml
8.4
4 .6
4.4
3.0
3.9
2.7
1.2
. ,n'roplon,on
Ignlmbrl'e 9m 'hiC k
5.3
1.4
~
~\
'\
. '
: Md , "- 4 .3
L?"I.:L~ ..
. '
:.
'\
.'
'.
'\
"
"
".
...
"
2m
"
..
!:
E
".
~
.c
cr"
2m
__
~20km
L NevodO de Toluca
[ ] pumic e
\
'\
'\ \
Md," -4 .2
" 1. 4
'E
!0
~~
""
"
,\
...
"
lithic.
cry"ol s
~:~~. ~:: ~
- 4 -2024
Figure 6.13 Some features of plinian pumice-fall deposits. ((a) After G. P. L. Walker & Croasdale 1971, (b) Self & Wright
unpub. data, (c) J. V. Wright unpub, data and (d) Bloomfield et al. 1977)
(b)
PLINIAN
143
Plinian pumice-fall deposits. (a) The very impressive Lower Bandelier plinian deposit 30 km downwind from the
vent. This is the section illustrated in Figure 6.13b; overlying the stratified top of the pumice-fall deposit is ignimbrite. (b)
Upper Bandelier plinian deposit; note the finely stratified fall unit at the base. (c) Plinian fall deposit at the base of the Bishop
Tuff, California. Darker layer is a surge deposit which is overlain by ignimbrite. (d) Plinian deposit erupted 26000 years BP from
the Okataina rhyolitic centre, New Zealand. (e) Compositionally zoned pumice fallon Tenerife; white pumice is phonolitic, dark
(arrowed) is latite which is overlain by a soil. Hammerhead rests on base of the deposit (photograph by J. A Wolff). (f)
Reversely zoned basaltic to rhyolitic plinian deposit erupted 17 000 years BP from Tarawera, New Zealand. (g) Distal plinian
layer deformed by soft-sediment loading, this was erupted from Hekla volcano and is stratigraphically below the two deposits
shown in Plate 6.
Volume estimates of some plinian deposits (highlighting some of the largest known in modern volcanic
successions).
Deposit
Volume (km 3 )
Shikotsu
Lower Bandelier
Upper Bandelier
La Primavera B (95 000 years BP)
La Primavera D
La Primavera E
La Primavera J
Upper Toluca (11 600 years BP)
Waimihia (3400 years BP)
Hatepe (AD 186)
Vesuvius AD 79 (pompeii pumice)
Askja 1875
Santa Maria 1902
Hekla 1947
Mt St Helens 1980
DRE* (km 3 )
100
100
70
50
2
2.6
12
9
29
6.0
6.0
1.0
20
0.4
1.1
24
24
17
14
0.6
0.7
3.4
4.0
7.1
1.5
1.4
0.2
8.5
0.1
0.2
Composition
rhyolite
rhyolite
rhyolite
rhyolite
rhyolite
rhyolite
rhyolite
andesite
rhyolite (mixed)
rhyolite
phonolite (zoned)
rhyolite (mixed)
dacite (mixed)
andesite
dacite
PLINIAN
145
decrease in thickness,
decrease in maximum grain size (pumice and
lithics),
decrease in median grain size (increasing M<I>
values),
increase in sorting (decreasing 0<1> values),
changes in component population and
decrease in median terminal fall velocity,
Id)
-100
u
E
~
Q.
E
~
10
~~------~1~0--------~2~
0 --------~
'"
.. 1
DO
(b) Averoge
mo~lmum
pumice (em)
Ie)
,,2.00
".\
E
::J
.\
10
-o
~\~s':;:::~;:';;>_,>_
DO
'1
~- :-: -:--
__
~ oL---------~------~~------~
o
to
20
(f)
-!5
i
100
------
'"
- - - - - ......
8mm
-.
- ... - - .. - -
~
___ - - ---__
..
Figure 6.15 The 1563 Fogo plinian pumice-fall deposit erupted from the volcano Agua de Pau (with a caldera now
occupied by Lago Fogo) on Sao Miguel (see also Fig . 6.13a). (a) Isopach map. (b) and (c) Maximum size isopleth
maps using the average diameter of the three largest clasts for pumice and lithics, respectively. (d)-(f) Maximum
pumice, lithic and total grainsize variation with distance from vent. (After G. P. L. Walker & Croasdale 1971.)
147
PLINIAN
(a) Thickness
,,/'
: ...l
.../
III
0/
.f //
' 1.7
'"
",-<2.0
. 1. 2
\
,
1/
;
fill
: 1 1 1 6 .7 ..... - - 8 ,
.'"
,I I
:1'
'-{;'. :\ . ..
,'~ ~
I
I
".
.....
o
3.0>1.6
I
1:7 2.2;
l~: 3.0. .' 3.~6 ",I
'~", .... ___ -"'4.0 ,:~ "">1. 1
"'0
10
---2---
.....
20kin.
......
,I '
Guadala,ara
.....
../
.'
./ .... ---~7-..........
/'/
"..
16\
d>
\
16
.12 \
.16
\
.22 '
\
:' "'....
72."
35. \
/,,"
70'
'6'
26'
:""
. 80
11' \
\
.:'
.66
\
\
:
'127 97,
84
\
i
114'
77'1I~109: 64
\
:
'87.. 143
12 3 I 2 936 :76 51
\
:
113 98. i33- 9' 03 .70 . 56 \
;f
...
...
...
..... -
\z6
....
39'
~---.....
'.
"......
25
I1
.37
..;"
36 .","
......_"
""
'"
,
,
- - 8 - - Isoplelh lmml
\
\
\
..."
;';
:/
J
I
I 12
I
.-2.1
Ci~
\.
_,,"
-\.
....
,,'"
,. -0.1
"".
'
1
1
I
1
I;
'
I /
","
"
..... \ \
-0.7 --2.4
-loS' -1.2 . I
'1.6
I
,/'
\.
1+14,
. -0.5
\
.- 0.2 \
--~+~.3:~~
I
I
.+0.3
,,-,,-
.....
'\
,,"
. +0.5 _-I
_-.....
.::::.. . . ..
.+ 0. 5
..
53 7,2 63"~9
~I I
91: 74 I 8 ~
I
96' 64 4.
M I
'"
......
5!, '':9. 61
".
1'''
,
,
\'
'?O' ('16~~\~.56474f1 31
~y 10bl~ 118 ;81 ~t :~~ i
,9
/.....
......
9
,
_---. 63
\ "
\.
-- 64 - - lSapl. lh lmml
' 10 ...
-,,
.'.'
.......
' 93
'.
\ .....
vent area
.'
...
\"
'"
",,,,"
..,,,,-"
---
\
I
. 0.3
Ih ic kn ... (m)
'i!~~
I.C!
. .1/'
_----'
' ..............0.5
............. '.
'0:6---
;'
I
I
I
.0:)
5. 5 .\
,IS
: 'r
1
~: II ~~
II
~
'.IIH
7:~3:
r9.'
O
~'~~'~
1. 6
I
" I ~,"~
, 7.~' 50'.
!.8. 1.2 /
3. I/~
:.: \~ ,:c.,.
~. ~ .6
'"
flIt)
1.4.1
':~"r
,,>
'1JiI ' 2.0
I
..
.....
\ 1.5
:>7.2
97
I
6 .4. '
I
7.2 6.4a~,22 6
: >2.41 8 II
6.6;
/,'/
.~O
3.5
_' __
:>1.0
I
I
'" 4.9
.... '
.2. 2
I I I'"
'4.3
" 3.6
:'
2 -
~.",~-
, .....
.....
//
.-0. 81
I
I
I
1+0 .4 1
1'/
"I
//
- - 4 - - i.oplelh. (mml
~.
Figure 6.16 Thickness and grainsize characteristics of La Primavera B plinian pumice-fall deposit erupted from La Primavera
rhyolite volcano, Mexico. (After G. P. L. Walker et al. 1981 d.)
Q)
()
'E::I
a.
E
::I
E
'xc
Distance (km)
......
E
()
E
::I
'xc
~
50
100
150
Distance (km)
Figure 6.17 Variation in maximum pumice and lithic
diameter (average of the largest three or five clasts) with
distance from vent for some plinian pumice-fall deposits and
the Taupo ultraplinian deposit. 1 Shikotsu; 2 Askja (1875); 3
Pompeii; 4 La Primavera B; 5 Upper Toluca; 6 Fogo (1563);
7 Fogo A; 8 Lower Bandelier. (After G. P. L. Walker 1980
and Self & Wright unpub. data on the Lower Bandelier
plinian deposit.)
10 1
r-----t-----+-
0.1
10
Thickness (m)
Figure 6.18 Plot of the area enclosed by each isopach
against thickness for some plinian fall deposits and the
Taupo ultraplinian deposit. (After G. P. L. Walker 1980,
1981 b and Self & Wright unpub. data on the Bandelier
plinian deposits.)
PLINIAN
149
Figure 6.19
N
E
.lI:
102
"....
...
CI)
~.
10 1
0.1
10
Md(cm)
Mp(cm)
Eruption
Upper Toluca
Minoan
Vesuvius AD 79
Askja 1875
Fogo 1563
Santa Maria 1902
4.4 x 104
2.8xl04
1.6 x 104
8.5 x 10 3
1.8 x 103
1.2 x 105
10
M I(cm)
Table 6.4
Eruption
Upper Toluca
(11 600 years BP)
Minoan 1470 Be
Vesuvius AD 79
Fogo 1563
Askja 1875
Hekla 1947
Mt St Helens 1980
Duration (h)
Source
20-30
theoretical analysis
20--40
-24
-48
6.5
theoretical analysis
historical records
historical records
historical records
observation
observation
50
~
+-
01 20
.Qj
10
00
50m
100m
10 . 6
.j/1.5
....
!l
~35
~
H2O(wl%)
~2
~
5
'-o~
:::c
150m
40
~ 30
yl
venl radius
/1
Gas velocity
......=0.3
~I
~3
I
(m 5- 1)
Figure 6.20
being released, and will then be transported downwind from the vent during the eruption. The
increased proportion of larger clasts downwind
with time will build up a reversely graded deposit.
Shifts in the wind direction or speed could also have
this effect, but these variables should also produce
just as many examples of normally graded plinian
fall deposits. This is therefore not a general
mechanism to explain the common occurrence of
reverse grading in many deposits. Local reverse
grading could also be found in falls deposited in
water, or on very steep slopes followed by secondary
mass (grain) flow (see Duffield et al. 1979).
Widening of the vent, together with an increased
rate of erosion during the eruption, also explains
why many plinian fall deposits show a vertical
increase in the proportion of accessory lithics. An
estimate of the lithic content therefore indicates the
amount of wall erosion and the size of conduit. For
example, the Fogo A plinian pumice deposit on Sao
Miguel contains 0.09 km 3 of lithic fragments
(14 wt%), and if the magma source was at a depth
of 5 km this would be equivalent to a hypothetical
cored-out cylindrical conduit of diameter 78 m.
However, erosion is likely to be more important
near the surface, where rocks are weak and less
consolidated, and flaring of the vent is therefore
probably likely (L. Wilson et al. 1980).
The explanation of the stratification observed at
the tops of many plinian deposits seems to be that it
is caused by instabilities in a column nearing the
point of collapse. Changes in wind direction and
SUB-PLINIAN
speed could cause stratified layers, but their common occurrence at this level, and the presence of
interbedded pyroclastic flows and surges, suggests
a more general mechanism, as with reverse grading.
Any changes in gas velocity or mass discharge rate
in a column verging on collapse will have pronounced effects on its behaviour. Small collapse
events that generate pyroclastic flows and surges
may occur, for instance, with a sudden increase in
mass discharge rate. A convective column could
then be re-established with a slight increase in gas
velocity due to a small increase in gas content of the
magma. Choking of the vent by collapse of the walls
will also reduce mass discharge rate, re-establishing
a convecting column, but after this lithic debris has
been removed by ejection the wider vent will
promote collapse of the column. A complex sequence of activity and of pyroclastic deposits could
therefore be generated before massive collapse of
the whole column occurs, leading to a major
ignimbrite-forming eruption.
6.5 Sub-plinian
These are pumice-fall deposits which resemble
plinian deposits in the field, especially near the
vent, but when mapped out have a smaller dispersal
and are small volumetrically. G. P. L. Walker
(1973b) set arbitrary D limits for them of between 5
and 500 km 2 (Fig. 6.2). They are a common type of
pyroclastic fall deposit, although only a few specific
descriptions occur in the literature. This is because
studies of pumice fall deposits have generally
concentrated on the larger, more-dramatic examples
which are usually plinian in their F and D
characteristics. However, Self (1976) described a
number of sub-plinian fall deposits on Terceira in
the Azores (e.g. Fig. 6.21) and Booth et at. (1978)
documented examples on Siio Miguel. Sub-plinian
pyroclastic fall deposits are a product of rhyolite
volcanoes and stratovolcanoes, like their larger
plinian counterparts. Many form during an early
explosive phase accompanying the effusion of a
small rhyolite dome or coulee, as do the examples
on Terceira. However, plinian deposits can also be
erupted in this situation.
151
(0)
,,"-'
II
./
I
I
I
I
14
"
1/"
~
.......
... -...'"
'"
4..
7.. / '-r.") I
'1,0 I
r. .
\\\
I
\ I
I \
'
1 ' / / .. ,
I
I \
\'
"
\ \,
,\ \
"\
\ \
'I
'\
,
I
I
<?S
... - - - -
~----~ '~,~'-,-......' -
_/
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
I
I
u,
~ ..
I
"
",/
I
I
(d I
(cl
pum lCf
1't"'lc
crystal.
:Aj"
Md, - 0 .6
CT, - 1.1
0 .1
':'
:: "
20
, ,
_ ........_AJ:
, ."
:;)
Md - - 0 .5
><
1m
E O.OI
Q)
<T, - 1.3
...................
CI
>
20
. '.,
:::E
-
'0
e:::
20
0~--~2----~4----~6~--~8~--~10--~12
Distonce (km)
"
;:_~~50'~
.""""
.. .
Q)
<l
vent or.o
.::":";::.
~S
3k m
...... 50
'"
">
, \'':10''
... _........ ..0
',/"
I" / .;:::: I I I
I~'"
I /
1 . - '_ - - : - - '
CQld~(O
""'.
\\ I\
I'
,0,,- , , 02'"
\
\ \
'I
....
I ....: //f~, I
5 .... __ .... /
\
\',
\,'
1/
\
' 16 .. __ / I
\
\
...
" ,
,,../, / ,., ----- ...........
, ,
I
/ / ... _ - - - ......... "
,
~~' ~ ....
- ' \ ", \
I/ / /
'1_,
I
,It / -'1 - , \ \ "
It
'\
,I
II'
1/'
\'
/ I I,
,'~ 2 -...
I \\"4-/
,1\\'
....................
;-----.
-4 -2
Groin size (* I
Figure 6.21 Sub-plinian pumice fall deposit from Terceira, Azores. (a) Isopach map giving thickness in metres. (b) Average
maximum diameter of three largest pumice fragments in centimetres. (c) Average maximum diameter of three largest lithic
fragments against distance from source. (d) Section 1.8 km SE of source on dispersal axis. Frequency curves of w eight
percentage against grainsize show proportions of pumice, crystals and lithics for three sieved samples, together with vertical
variation in o<j> and Md. (After Self 1976.)
6,6 Ultraplinian
'Ultraplinian' has been recently introduced as a
separate type by G. P. L. Walker (1980) to describe
the most widely dispersed plinian fall deposits.
153
VULCANIAN
\
\
6.7 Vu1canian
Vulcanian pyroclastic fall deposits from individual
eruptions are thin, small volume 1 km 3), stratified ash deposits which contain large ballistic
bombs and blocks near to the vent, sometimes with
breadcrusted and jointed surfaces (Figs 6.22-24).
In composition they are usually intermediate
(basaltic-andesite, andesite, dacite). They are
common products of andesite and basaltic-andesite
stratovolcanoes. However, they are usually so thin
and fine-grained that they are soon eroded by wind
and water. When eruptions continue for a few
years, bedded sequences can be built up near the
vent, but these are never likely to be of great
thickness, e.g. less than 2 m of ash-fall deposits
accumulated just 800 m downwind of the vent on
Irazu volcano, Costa Rica, from the eruptions
between March '1963 and mid-1964 (Fig. 6.23).
Vulcanian activity has been observed in a large
number of historic eruptions: for example; Fuego
aeolion
r ipples
wet season
(March 20-Jun. 23 1964)
.....
'0'
\
170cm
~~!- .rosion
dry sea. on
(December 10 19 63-MQrch 191964)
weT Sfoson
(Morch 13- Oec.mb .. 9
1
9 63)
2~m
Ngou r uhoe
5-
thickness (mml
100
SURTSEYAN
~;'
./
" .....
~"?;/
CJ"?-;' e EI665
.,)'-';'
eN75
eE.",
1;'
;'
_. . . . .-. .- I PLINIAN
--
---SUB - PLINIAN
I
I
//
/
O+----------r------;--r~------_,
500
O(km 2 )
Figure 6.25 D-F plot showing the field of vulcanian
deposits : C68 and C71 eruptions of Cerro Negro. Guatemala.
in 1968 and 1971; E. an old undated fall deposit of Mt
Egmont. New Zealand; E1665. fall deposit of the 1665
eruption of Mt Egmont; F71 . eruption of Fuego in 1971; 163
eruption of Irazu in 1963; N74 and N75 . eruptions of
Ngauruhoe in 1974 and 1975. (After J. V. Wright et al. 1980.)
ballistic li th ics
fo iled coo l ed cop
mogmo
rone of
groundwoter
lIeofing
....
condu it ( 20m I
VULCANIAN
155
(a)
Figure 6.27
Eruption of Ngauruhoe. New Zealand. at 18.10 h on 19 February 1975. (a) Expanding slug at +8 s; large blocks
are 20-30 m in diameter and breaking up with dust trails. (b) Collapse of dense interior of slug to form pyroclastic flows with
air-fall plume rising above summit at +45 s. (After Nairn & Self 1978.)
..
500
j s
II>
.5
>-
spud of sound
400
.2
Q)
>
....
300
"U
200
a.
~
c:
0
100
Q)
:~. i-
500
_1.::...
................... I
1000
1500
DEPOSITS
The term 'surtseyan' was used by G. P. L. Walker
(1973b) to describe the type of air-fall deposit
which would result from similar activity to that
observed during the eruption of Surtsey in 1963.
Since then, the surtseyan field has been used in a
general way to group basaltic fall deposits resulting
from different types of hydrovolcanic activity.
Kokelaar (1983) pointed out that there may be
significant differences between true surtseyan activity, where (sea) water floods into the top of an open
vent, and true phreatomagmatic activity, involving
trapped ground water. However, there is still much
to be learnt about such explosive interactions, and
for our purposes it is convenient to continue to use
'surtseyan' for the pyroclastic fall field on D-F plots
irrespective of the environment of magma-water
interaction or vent conditions, and 'phreatomagmatic' more loosely for all types of hydrovolcanic activity. This unfortunately still leaves
unresolved problems. For instance, we use the
basaltic-andesite ash fall deposited during the 1979
eruption of Soufriere, St Vincent, as an example of
surtseyan activity because of its well documented
ph rea to magmatic characteristics and moderate dispersal. However, in detail, the high concentration
of lithics is not consistent with a true surtseyan ash
fall, and the deposit does not fit easily into a D-F
pigeonhole. Perhaps classification as (phreatomagmatic) vulcanian would be better (R. S. J.
Sparks, pers. comm.). Future studies may clarify the
grain size and dispersal characteristics produced
during different types of hydrovolcanic eruption,
and may lead to the definition of separate fields on
the D-F diagram.
Phreatomagmatic activity is very common in
basaltic volcanic fields, producing maars, tuff rings
and tuff cones (Ch. 13). These constructional forms
are largely built up from the deposits of base surges
(Ch. 5), and thin ash-fall beds occur downwind
(Fig. 6.29). Several examples of this type of
eruption have occurred this century (Section 5.6).
Eruptions of basic to intermediate magmas through
small crater lakes on some stratovolcanoes have also
produced phreatomagmatic air-fall deposits which
q2
" "'0
- - 50 - -
I~
~o
157
Ikm
!
Ih,ekneS$ (em)
158
(0)
1000
-E
E
L......
500
4)
"'0
Q)
o
'6
E
100
.:, ~ .
- - .--- .... x<;1. ...
50
c
:E
10
Di stance (km)
(b)
400
."'- e.,
X ' x. . ~.
. 0.
.-.
\
100
o
VI
VI
4)
c:
50
.J/t.
:c
I-
\
0 0
00
_0
00
0 0
16
-2
-I
0
2
I
I/Z
2
I~
3
I/S
1'16 mm
DEPOSITS
10
Distance (km)
(c)
10
-2
-4
32
200
-5
-.- I-X;-"~v'O' O
Md
."'-.
:J
E
E
----- e_ .
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~ _ _ I
'-
><
0
1000
Groin size
Figure 6.30 The phreatomagmatic ash fall deposit erupted
in 1979 from Soufriere. St Vincent. Lesser Antilles. Variation
in (a) maximum dense clast diameter and (b) thickness. both
as a function of distance from vent. (c) Bimodal size
distribution in a sample collected from the lower part of the
deposit. (After Sigurdsson 1982.)
159
Figure 6.32 Thinly, laminated phreatomagmatic ash-fall deposit of intermediate composition erupted from the stratovolcano
Mt Misery on St Kitts. Lesser Antilles (see Fig. 13.28; this ash deposit also contains accretionary lapilli (not visible)}. Knife is
30 cm long.
All of these phreatoplinian deposits were produced during phreatomagmatic phases of much
larger rhyolitic eruptions which involved several
different styles of activity. Collectively, these include plinian, base surge and ignimbrite-forming
activity (Fig. 6.33). With the exception of the
examples from Santorini and Vesuvius, they all
involved eruption of rhyolitic magma through
caldera lakes. In the Minoan eruption, sea water
gained access to the vent on Santorini. During the
Vesuvius AD 79 eruption, water from a deep
aquifer is thought to have gained access to the
magma chamber (Ch. 5).
The extremely wide dispersal of these deposits
(Fig. 6.36) indicates a high eruption column (of
plinian proportions), yet all of the other characteristics of the deposits indicate that they have a
phreatomagmatic origin. Deposits are very finegrained, even close to source (Fig. 6.35) and
( b)
vulcanlan deposil
La ye r 0
Member 6
obSIdian Irogm,""
C)
<>
Q
'&
8 0 00
0 00
000
B 000
000
....
Loyer C2
Loyer C1
Loyer B
0<>0
Member 5
' , '.
~
' 0
10
8 15"0<;
ash lol l depo.11
"Uh occre llonary
laplill
0 00
DO QO
t100t
0
#0
' .
']
Member 4
m!'frn
I-
0-.0
......
.....ell 0
metres
Figure 6.33 Schematic sections through the deposits of two eruptions which produced phreatoplinian
deposits. (a) The Oruanui (Wairakei) Formation, New Zealand, reconstructed close to source north of Lake
Taupo. Thicknesses of basal members (1~3) are exaggerated; 'e' indicates erosional breaks that occurred
during the eruption. (b) The products of the Askja eruption, Iceland on 28~29 March 1875. (After Self &
Sparks 1978.)
15km
'-_---'I
300km
161
Figure 6.35 Phreatoplinian members 1-3 of the Oruanui Formation, New Zealand, 25 km from source. Member 4 is the base
of the co-eruptive Oruanui ignimbrite. Erosion surfaces between members can be seen. The scale is 45 em long. (After Self &
Sparks 1978.)
100
SUR'TSEYAN 1
1I Sete
1
1
1
1"
Rotongoio osh"
"SeteA
Hatepe ash
"Aska 1875
"M3 M1
"M2
"M5
":='1'--,.....J'
1-'
Oruanul
members
PHREATOPLINIAN
STROMBOLIAN
_-1--
_---:
I
iSUB-PLINIAN I
-.....,.
./
.,.".,."",
./
,/
..............
PLINIAN
o+---+-.--.-.---r-.----.----.-5 10
50100
5001000
10000
100000
O(km 2 )
Figure 6.36 O-F plot of phreatoplinian deposits. (After Self
& Sparks 1978 and G. P. L. Walker 1981a.)
162
(e)
(0) Phreotoplinion
-'Of
~o~
-6
-4
-2
Groin size
(b) Plinian
.'. ..
..'
....
,,~
(lZJ )
phreatoplinion
1Sl. 2
+.
c>
+ plinian
I
I
.1
1
I
I
I
I
',', :+
+
.S
....
o
+
+
++
+ + + ++ + +
+++++
+
++
+++ + + +++
+
+
:+
+/+ + ++ +
+, +
+
+
I
'1
CJ)
I
I
I
I
40
-0.5
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.5
Skewness (oc)
~ 20
Figure 6.37 Grainsize data from the 1875 Askja deposits. Iceland. showing contrasts between the (a)
phreatoplinian (layer C) and (b) plinian (layer D) deposits (Fig. 6.33). Frequency-grainsize curves are for
samples collected at various distances downwind. (c) Plot of skewness against sorting. (After Sparks et a/.
1981.)
6.8.3 MECHANISMS
We have already discussed (Chs 3 & 5) some of the
physical controls of phreatomagmatic or hydrovolcanic explosions that generate surtseyan and
phreatoplinian pyroclastic fall deposits. Clearly, the
major contrast between these types of eruptions and
magmatic eruptions is the degree of fragmentation
of the magma. In magmatic eruptions disruption
and fragmentation of the magma is by ex solution
and expansion of its volatiles. In comparison, this
produces the relatively coarse population of particles observed in strombolian and plinian deposits.
However, even in the phreatomagmatic case it is
likely that some vesiculation and disruption of the
magma occurs by magmatic gases. SEM studies do
show that shards from surtseyan and phreatoplinian
deposits, although having sharp fractured boundaries, may contain small vesicles, suggesting that
magmatic fragmentation could playa role (see Figs
163
99
98
95
90
50
10
5
2
-6
mm 64
-4
16
-2
4
o
I
2
250
4
63
6
16
~
}Jm
Grain size
Figure 6.38 Whole-deposit grainsize populations of some
pyroclastic fall deposits formed by highly explosive silicic
eruptions. C is weight percentage coarser than size stated
on the x-axis. (After G. P L. Walker 1981 e and Carey &
Sigurdsson 1982.)
165
Reference
Composition
dacite (mixed)
dacite (mixed)
rhyolite (mixed)
andesite
personal observation
andesite
personal observation
Mt Giardina, Lipari
rhyolite
personal observation
Krakatau 1883
dacite (mixed)
Mt St Helens 1980
dacite
phonolite
pantel Ie rite
pantellerite
pantellerite
basaltic
Healy (1963)
basaltic
* The description given by Hay et al. (1979) of this deposit suggests it is a welded air-fall tuff. In particular, the deposit is
sheet-like, mantles topography, is frequently stratified, welded tuff is found interbedded with air-fall pumice close to the
vent, and the overall degree of welding shows a strong dependence on distance from source.
167
Figure 6.39 Welded air-fall tuffs mantling topography on (a) Ruapehu and (b) Tongariro volcanoes. New Zealand (both
photographs by C. J. N. Wilson). Note vertical cooling joints in (b).
168
(0)
the same explosive rhyolitic eruption of this Icelandic volcano discussed previously in Section 6.4.
The eruption produced a number of distinctive
pyroclastic layers, and two of these (C and D in Fig.
6.33b) pass into welded rocks near Oskjuvatn
caldera (Fig. 6.44). The most important welded tuff
grades laterally into layer C2 (Figs 6.44 & 45). This
welded tuff has a maximum thickness of 4 m and
covers a minimum area of l.6 km 2 . The welded tuff
mantles topography and can be found on slopes as
steep as 30. It is stratified, and there are marked
fluctuations in the compaction profile. Welded airfall tuffs are deposited in layers, and can show
169
Figure 6.41 The Thera welded tuff, Santorini, Greece. (a) At Thera Harbour with well developed internal stratification. (b)
Photomicrograph (negative) of eutaxitic texture. Note the development of perlitic cracking. Area shown is about 1 cm across.
(c) Non-welded pumice fall (between arrows) which is the lateral equivalent. Note thermal darking above base.
Figure 6.42 Compaction and lithological profile through the
Thera welded tuff, Santorini, Greece, where it is thickest.
The minimum strain ratio assumes all ellipsoidal pumice
clasts landed with their long axes parallel to bedding. (After
Sparks & Wright 1979; see this paper for method of
measuring strain ratio.)
pink
o ~~~,~:I~~,?
[J e,!,,~~~yzone
~:~!t~ln,eJ'~:~me
20 40
cm- 3
J
O.~
1.5 2.5
........
.... .
FLOWS
---: .w._-.
mean
,,'"
I
\
ell!
'.
",
----, "
.....
- :':"~'-::"
FALLS
".
..........
'----------------------~
~8~--L-~
- 6~~--~4~L---~2--L-~O~~~2~~
256
64
16
4
I
114 mm
Md
Figure 6.43 MdJ(Jq, plot of the non-welded part of the
Thera welded tuff (for examples of grainsize histograms see
Fig. 6.3). On the basis of grainsize (Ch. 12). this welded
deposit and the other examples described herein would be
classified as 'welded agglomerates' and 'welded lapilli tuffs'.
For brevity in nomenclature, we have used 'welded tuff' as
a general term to cover them all. (After Sparks & Wright
1979.)
( b)
(0)
o,
AC
OC
_
~
I
2
5km
Askja Caldera
OSkJuvatn Caldera
dispersal axis of 1875 tephra
196 1 lava flaw
ir re9ular welded patches In al yer 0
extensive welded zone in layer C
~dense weld in g
......... limit at incipient weld ing
....... colour change
- - 50- - th icknus (cm)
I:::':;:i
incipienlly welded
.........
SIroln rolla
Plinian pumlct
deposil (layer D)
Poroslly % Denslly 9 em - 3
6 0I ,
20
L-..I...-..J........I'_L........I'
60
0 0.51.0 1.52.02.5
'I,!,,!
--- --1
171
,.
"CD
.2
.:
.,c
.
o
(b)
(0)
~~!
\_
Figure 6.46 The Green Tuff. Pantelieria. (a) Present outcrop (stipple) and contours showing how the welded tuff mantles
topography. (b) Generalised map of lineations produced by stretching of fiamme during secondary mass flowage (see Fig.
6.47b). (After J. V. Wright 1980 and Wolff & Wright 1981.)
Figure 6.47 Welded tuffs on Pantelleria. (a) Two deposits mantling an older rhyolite lava dome. The uppermost (above arrow)
is the Green Tuff, which has a slope of 40. (b) Strong lineation in the Green Tuff produced during rheomorphism. (c) Refolded
fold in the Green Tuff. (d) Welded air-fall tuff showing altemating layers of densely welded tuff (dark) and non-welded white
pumice fall. This is overlain by a younger welded tuff (dark), which underlies the Green Tuff in (a). Section is 10m thick.
comm.).
173
Icelandic rhyolitic welded air-fall tuffs (H. Sigurdsson & O. Smarason pers. comms). These include
the Askja welded air-fall tuff, which shows some
incipient rheomorphic structures.
Basaltic pyroclastic fall-forming eruptions often
seem to produce deposits showing a complete range
of thermal facies. In contrast, pumice fall deposits
are generally non-welded, with no welded facies
present. However, if non-welded they may still
show some thermal effects. Grey, black or brown
zones of thermal darkening may occur, and care
should therefore be taken when interpreting darkcoloured pumice because this may not necessarily
indicate a more basic composition.
Table 6.6 Suggested thermal facies model for pyroclastic fall deposits.
(1) Clastogenic
lava
(2) Rheomorphic
welded tuff
(3) Densely
welded tuff
(4) Partially
welded tuff
(5) Non-welded
pumice deposit
agglutination
rheomorphism
load-pressure
welding;
rheomorphism
minor
process(es)
load-pressure
welding
agglutination
characteristic
texture or
structure
linear fabric;
flow-folds
examples
r- - - - - - - -
load-pressu re
welding
load-pressure
welding
planar fabric or
eutaxitic texture;
near-zero porosity
in zone of densest
welding
poorly developed
eutaxitic textu re;
relict primary
porosity
loose pumice
--------------------------1
Mt Suswa 'globule tuff'
Green Tuff, Pantelleria
Askja 1875
Thera welded tuff
Krakatau 1883
Tarawera 1886
.-
Plate 7 The Taupo ignimbrite ponded in the upper Ngaruroro River valley, Kaimanawa Mountains, North Island, New Zealand.
The pyroclastic flow moved from left to right (southwards). and surmounted all of the hills seen in the photograph which rise to
550 m above the level of the valley pond. (Photograph by C. J. N. Wilson.)
176
CHAPTER SEVEN
177
178
(a)
FLUIDISATION
179
10000
7.2 Fluidisation
1000
E
100
10
...
.'
.. Iqnlmt)rtle
.. ....
"
mud flows
cold rOCk avalanches
flows
'
10
100
Hh (km)
Figure 7.2 Relationship between the vertical height
dropped (Vh) and the horizontal distance travelled (H h ) for
types of pyroclastic flow and debris flow. Vh for ignimbrites
is usually taken as the reconstructed height of the volcano
before caldera collapse, and bars indicate the uncertainty.
The data indicate that ignimbrites are apparently more
mobile than other types of debris flow. (After Sparks 1976.)
Although the mobility and momentum of pyroclastic flows can be attributed in the first instance to
either the momentum acquired during collapse
from a high eruption column (cf. rock avalanches,
Ch. 10), or the high eruption rates and associated
high exit velocities; this mobility can be enhanced
by the inclusion of a lubricating fluid within the
flow, especially if that fluid also provides dynamic
support or uplift to the grain population, or part of
it, during flow. In that way, the fluid would retard
sedimentation from the flow, and so act to reduce
the frictional interaction between the flow and the
substrate.
Fluidisation is commonly believed to play an
important role in this regard, in the transport of
pyroclastic flows. As an industrial process, fluidisation was developed largely during and immedi-
180
500j-J
700
1000
10
E
E
Q)
'iij
~ (dpUmfQg)2
c
....c
Qsemf
(!)
II
d~Qg((h - Qg)g
112
01
=
(7.2)
U
t
g(Qs - Qg)dp2
1811
FLUIDISATION
U = (4(Qs t
Qii )1j2 d
22 5QgY]
P'
Ut = ( 3.1g
(Qs - Qgi
Q
(7.4)
dp
)1j2
\
Q
Air
supply
llP
Rotameter
D;";ibutor
Water manometer
181
(a)
120
80
40
Umf
60
180
120
(b)
160
::t::
"ct<l
(a)
120
80
40
Umf
40
80
12{)
(e)
200
120
40
Ump
40
80
U (em
120
160
5- 1 )
(b)
80
::t::
it
60
<I
40
20
ie
mp
20
40
60
eo
U(cms- I )
100
120
FLUIDISATION
Description
expanded
segregating
183
!!Qgd
(7,6)
5 u = (1
=(1
u/Umf)5 0
(7,7)
U/Umf)!!Qgd
(7,8)
Figure 7.7 A sequence of photographs taken through the side wall of a '2-D' fluidisation bed to show the formation of segregation features in a
pyroclastic flow sample (Mdq, = 0.75. 0q, = 3.2). Scale bar is 25 cm, (a) After a few seconds of bubbling, segregation pipes start to form, (b) As bubbling
continues, the pipes become larger and propagate to the bed surface. (c) As the gas velocities are increased, the pipes are broken up by bubblinginduced circulation, and irregular segregation pods sediment towards the base of the bed. (d) With time, pipes continue to propagate back towards the
(f)
to
,I
~
surface of the bed. The material ejected by the pipes is forming a fines- and pumice-rich segregation layer at the top of the bed. (e) As higher gas
velocities are reached. the bed becomes distinctly layered. being richer in lithics and crystals and poorer in fines at the bottom of the bed. and richer in
pumice and fines at the top. The base of this upper segregation layer is approximately at the top of the scale bar. (f) If the gas supply is slowly reduced
within the upper segregation layer. then the pipes are very thin and dominantly composed of pumice. almost all of the lithics and crystals being in the
lower segregation layer. (After C. J. N. Wilson 1980.)
186
.. ..
...
..'.--........."....,'..........
~
..
~
",".
I '
().Cl
.
'
GOo.
.;-
..;..
(b)
(b)
(0)
(/~
C!J'O
. 0
,I "
.'.
Q,
o. "
" . ..'! .
(e)
11
,_~
......
vertical grading
gas segregation structures
lateral grading
compositionally zoned pumice flow units
7.3.1 THICKNESS
Flow units may vary in thickness from <0.1 m to
> 100 m where ponded in depressions. As an
example, to show the variation within the deposits
of the same eruption, the thicknesses of flow units
forming the Minoan ignimbrite on Santorini are
shown in Figure 7.9a.
(0)
50
~~
00
100(em)
(c)
mean
0~
lL..
40
n-48
10
12
(b)
I
10
E
Vl
Vl
Q)
.:<:
....
::J
.Q
lL..
0.1
,-
/'
,-.,-
~,-
./
I
I.
,-
,-
I.
E
2
....
.c. 20
.:. .
..
.. . .
.
I
I
I"
.Q>
Q)
,- . /
,-
,- . /
./
./
,-
,-
,- ,-
,-
10
n=37
10
100
187
-5
32
16
-3
8
-2
4
(~)
(em)
Maximum size
Figure 7.9 Some data on flow units of the Minoan ignimbrite. Santorini, Greece. (a) Thickness frequency
histogram of flow units. (b) Relation of thickness of the basal layer (layer 2a) to the thickness of its flow unit. (c)
Plot of maximum clast size with height for three basal layers (closed symbols, lithics; open symbols, pumice).
188
'.
-.
11'
99
189
Dum1ce
.2'
CII
~ 50
_5
CII
>
'a
:;
E
:I
.. :.....
.: ...
'
.'..,:::..
..
16
', '
_4
"
Ii th,cS
:";':.~:
... .
..;,::' -- 23
-6
64
-4
16
-2
4
1/4
4 ( )
1/16 (mm)
- I
11 m
Groin size
Flow unit
Pumice density
(g cm- 3 )
Matrix* density
(g cm - 3 )
a
b
c
d
058
0.55
0.64
0.54
105
108
1.21
1.00
190
and Self (1978) stressed the importance of grainflow (Lowe 1976; Ch. 10) and grain dispersive
forces producing reverse grading in the Ngauruhoe
1975 scoria-flow deposits. However, not all reverse
grading in scoria flow deposits is shear-induced,
and in some deposits reverse grading of scoria clasts
is controlled by gravitational grading (Fig. 5.14d).
Thus, there are two mechanisms producing coarsetail grading (within layer 2b) in pyroclastic flows in
general:
(a)
(b)
191
(c)
(b)
(0)
(d)
pipe
1.1
.- I
---
20
10
16
1/16
pum lc.
-4
16
li HlIts
4
1/16
-4
16
o
I
1/16
-4
16
1/16
(0)
(mm)
crystal,.
o
flow unit
.
~
o
~oundary
. . ..... .. .... . ..
basal laye r .
. .
..
..
...
..
~
. h\2
.' . . ~
~~~
.,
. . ' ......'...... ....
~ ...
'
. :~ . .. :. ~ ; .~ . :~ ~
ground surge
depOSits
'
~.,
,.
(0)
'J
Ignimbrite E
/~O' 24
-178
'3 !;;>T"'
.~!,
,\2. :f~092
,1000
40
..
.
42
3~.~, ? 4
~J_
2_
o,
193
IOkm
,
(d)
.13 1.lgnimbrite
2
~~ ' ,.
' 8222~
: Ie
'2
0-0
.11,/
' '' 18
' 96"~
194
E
2
15
CI)
-iii 10
:3
" ~..
.~ 5
,.
>(
'"
~
10
:r. ,. JI':-
1:.
.,... "i'"
(I.
:r d
"
~:It,
...
11
.~,.,.,,(
'
:. '"
'5-"t
J~';
~.f
"
1,Ih,es
~
0'
~~
" .
..
?1
0.:, .,.
40
Dista nce
20
(km)
50
60
70
(b)
15
E
u
.~
10
E
:3
.~
>(
\~
'~~
\~.,~
~8~
~....
.~~
.~ .
2
' ~'.__ ~ i::::::--' .
7 ' ----.:.
~. l
L-----~10~--~2~0----~30~----4~O------~
Distance (km)
Figure 7.18
have had higher viscosities, e,g. the Acatlan ignimbrite, Mexico (J, V. Wright & Walker 1977,1981),
Larger pumice clasts sometimes also show a
decrease in maximum size with distance from
source (e,g. Fig, 7.18). In many other cases no
simple relation is found, or maximum size may
even increase with distance.
195
(b)
(0 )
locotion of
sectlon$
....
~O
sog~
po.
ron~
~
ondes",c
pumice
I ~m
-
~ colour
..... chong~
~'6_
-== r-.-
-3Zmm_
8 _
- 1--4-
NW
Wt%
IIthlcS
'
ron6
rhyolitic
pumice
2_
1-1/21!8 -1/~
-1/16
10
POSS09~
,
10
50
.,
100
15
- 6 -4 - Z
Figure 7.19 The compositionally zoned upper main flow unit of the Acatlan ignimbrite, Mexico. (a) Profiles at three
locations and average grainsize distribution. Ash content highlighted by close stipple. Star marks source position;
unornamented is area in which co-ignimbrite breccias occur (Ch 8). Inset shows lateral extent of ignimbrite and positions
the three locations; again, star is source vent, and large dots enclose area in which co-ignimbrite breccias are found (Fig .
8.19). (b) Details of the grainsize distribution in the profile measured at location 2. In histograms: stipple IS rhyolitic
pumice; diagonal rule is andesitic pumice; black is lithics. (After J. V. Wright & Walker 1981)
,
'"
"IPnr
600
600
600
400
400
400
600
600
400
400
200
100
Q)
>
~ 100
IJ...
0~------~20
~------4~0~----~
6~
0-------780
Distance (km)
Figure 7.21 Variation of velocity with distance from a
central source in a radially expanding, low density, turbulent
fluid. Six sample solutions are shown, to cover a wide range
of eruption column conditions. The flow velocity is calculated for the conditions of gas velocity and vent radius
indicated. All of the models are for 1% water content,
except for the solid circle solution, which is for 6% water
content. (After Sparks et a/. 1978.)
10
,
'"
~5
O~----~IO~--~2~O----~3~0----~4~O-----7~
Distance (km)
Figure 7.22 Numerical solutions to the variation of shearing stress velocity (V*) in four model flows with distance
from the source. The four examples are the same as four of
those in Figure 7.21, and the legend is the same. (After
Sparks et al. 1978.)
(b)
(a)
50
15 25
50
100
200
50
15 25
50
10
10
E
2
197
10
II)
::::l
II)
"'C
:0
10
::::l
0::
0::
01
pumice
l'Og cm
-3
Iithic5
2'5g cm
01
-3
001 '---'---'----'-'~-'---:'IO'c--'---"""'---IO'-0-----'500
Terminal velocity (m 5- 1)
Figure 7.23 Terminal velocity-grainsize curves are given for (a) pumice clasts and (b) lithic clasts in fluids of several
different densities. The curves for the densities 0.0013 and 0.00017 g cm- 3 are for air at room temperature and
steam at 1300 K. respectively. The gaseous medium in a pyroclastic flow is assumed to have a density between that
of cold air (g = 0.0013 g cm- 3 ) and that of hot steam. The curve for H2 0 at 1300 K is an exact curve using the
solutions of G. P. L. Walker et al. (1971). whereas the other solutions plot an approximate equation (Reynolds Number
of >500). The broken vertical lines represent the shearing stress velocities of flows with velocities of 15. 25. 50. 100.
and 200 m S-l and a friction factor of 0.01. The intersection of any terminal velocity curve with any value of shearing
stress velocity defines the size of the largest particle that can be suspended by a flow of that density and velocity
(After Sparks et al. 1978.)
198
TAIL
rearward I
lim" 01
I
llowheod :
I
",
...:.:'
I
I mOlerlol jOfled
I forwords f rom
I flow heod forms
: fines -depleted
I pumi ce depOSi t s
.
.':
".:.,
199
poeke' of
fines - dep'eted
19n1mb,,'.
ground loyer
rich in II th,cs
ond crystols
conloct
200
(b) (
") rrr""\ ~)
~
))
<:)
C>
\.
~
(d)
r(
Figure 7.28 Fines-depleted pumice deposit formed by
jetting from the flow head of the Taupo ignimbrite, New
Zealand. Note the clast-supported textures.
t>
0
\.
"""\ /"'""'. 1
(
'"
t..
..
l<;).
(
0
r--
"
1')
ll)
1982.)
201
Figure 7.30 The ignimbrite veneer deposit of the Taupo ignimbrite. (a) Finely stratified IVD overlying coarse FDI; locality is
16 km from source. (b) Coarse pumice lenses in IVD on lee-side of topographic obstacle; flow direction left to right. locality is
approximately 15 km from source. Note shovel for scale. (Photographs by C J. N. Wilson)
(d)
(e)
~~~13~=====r.'.:-':~.:1-3~-------h:~~~. ~
~ 0 0 0,
~ .>.;......~; ______
______
(0)
~.' ~ .~ ~
(b)
>/)~j~ 2
202
It
,,
I
I
Depo$lts
i :. ;-.,-
"'OM".'"
,eQlme
-C.
loy e,2
fluid/sOllon
wtok or no
lur!Ju!6"C~
--- - -
--":.:. .._,,::,--
\\
"
Qfound loyer
eroSion
..
Slrong
fluid/sOl/on
slrong
lurbul6nc.
of mOlinO!
Figure 7.32 Dynamic model summarising processes which generate the different layers deposited by a rapidly moving
pyroclastic flow. (After C. J. N. Wilson 1985.)
due to strong fluidisation accompanying air ingestion, is important. The ground layer is then
overriden by the base of the flow body, and high
shear stresses result in the erosion of layer 1. These
flows produce well defined body and tail deposits.
The interpretation of the various facies of the
Taupo ignimbrite in terms of the three-layer
scheme of Sparks et al. (1973) is given in Figure
7.3l. A dynamic model summarising their formation is shown in Figure 7.32. Such flows seem to
stop because they run out of material rather than
because they freeze. For this reason, the edge of the
Taupo ignimbrite is not defined by a steep flow
front. Instead a zone 3-5 km wide is found where
layers 1 and 2 cannot be distinguished . This single
layer is termed the distant facies (Fig. 7.31d), and is
regarded as the deposit of the flow at the stage
where air-ingestion fluidisation was affecting the
entire flow, spreading a thin, strongly fluidised
layer across the landscape (c. J. N . Wilson &
Walker 1982, C. J. N. Wilson 1985). The flow
presumably terminated when remaining material
rose in the form of a buoyant convective plume
adding to a co-ignimbrite air-fall ash.
In summary, we still have much to learn about
pyroclastic flows and their deposits. There appears
to be a very large spectrum of types , including
203
204
potentIal
explosive ~ energy
e:a~~~Yl--'\ energy ~
thermal
+
jUve+nile
(at vent)
--------x
......_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _- - '
latent heat
from
kinetic
energy
[flOW +veIOCit y]
turbulence
condensation
of H20 gas
pyroc lasllc
flow head
lopldly e-<pondlflq
cell of Oil
ond /or
veqelolton
Inqesled
01 Clefts
a ll
ground surge
prOJecled from
lobe of pyroclastIC flow
205
7.8
and grain-support
processes III surges
Transport~tion
0.
o.
(7.10)
206
DEPOSITIONAL PROCESSES
207
Cd)
208
density surge is
dissipation rate
= h/L
(7.11)
FACIES CHARACTERISTICS
7.10.1 GEOMETRY
The geometry of surge deposits will depend on the
type of surge, the topographic control and postdepositional erosion. Base surges, being a ventrelated facies, will build up an annulus around the
vent which is wedge-shaped in cross section,
thinning radially away from the vent. Base surges
form one of the principal facies of tuff rings and
maar volcanoes (Ch. 13). The deposit from a single
surge will be a thin sheet, with minor variations in
thickness being controlled by pre-depositional
topography and the surface bed-form (e.g. dune
forms). However, base surge deposits are almost
invariably composed of multiple layers representing
multiple surge events (e.g. Figs 5.21 & 22). Such a
pile may be tens of metres thick around the vent
(e.g. Crowe & Fisher 1973, Schmincke el at. 1973,
Sheridan & Updike 1975, Fisher 1977). Individual
layers may be up to a metre thick near the vent,
although usually closer to 50 em or less, and
distally away from the vent, only millimetres to
several centimetres thick. Base surges probably do
not flow further than 10 km from the vent, and
usually only several kilometres. As such, a succession of base surge deposits in the rock record is
indicative of proximity to the vent. They may
contain intercalated air-fall layers, as well as thin
near-vent pyroclastic flow deposits (e.g. Fisher et
al. 1983). Successive base surge deposits may be
separated by thin co-surge ash-fall deposits up to
several centimetres thick, derived from a trailing
ash cloud (cf. co-ignimbrite ash-fall deposits).
Ground surges, usually being expulsions from the
209
7.10.2 GRAINSIZE
The grainsize of surge deposits reflects both the
degree of fragmentation at the time of eruption and
the competency of surges to carry particular
grain sizes (Ch. 1). The coarseness and variance in
the grainsize is thought to be a reflection of the
levels of turbulence (G. P. L. Walker 1983). As
Crowe and Fisher (1973) pointed out, because
surge-forming eruptions are highly pulsatory and of
variable explosive strength, there may be considerable changes in the flow-power and in the
grainsize characteristics of successive surges, and
even within single surges. Near to the vent ballistic
fragments and air-fall materials may also be incorporated into surge deposits. However, both
base-surge and ground-surge deposits, because of
their high energy state and because their sources at
the vent and the heads of pyroclastic flows may
contain considerable coarse debris, are capable of
carrying, and do carry, significant amounts of large
lapilli-size clasts. However, ash-cloud surges, being
the products of continued elutriation processes in
the head and body of pyroclastic flows, will be low
energy systems and their deposits will be finegrained, rarely containing lapilli, and then probably
only highly vesicular, low density ones.
7.10.3 SORTING
The sorting characteristics of the different surge
deposits will also be variable, and will be controlled
by the degree of fragmentation, the density variations in the debris being carried, the turbulence
levels, adhesion processes and the time available for
sorting. As discussed in Chapter 1, the sorting is an
hydraulic process, and in populations containing
grains with a variety of size, density and shape,
variation in grainsize will not necessarily reflect
poor hydraulic sorting. Nevertheless, given the
origins of the three surge types, it is likely that ashcloud surge deposits will be better sorted than basesurge or ground-surge deposits. In addition, because
of the relatively low particle concentration m
...
I-
.,
...
r.
,..
[ 57
(d) Pllnlon
r-
loll
60
FACIES CHARACTERISTICS
7.10.5 COMPOSITION
The composition of the erupting magma and
products has an indirect relationship to surge types.
Basaltic pyroclastic eruptions essentially do not
produce pyroclastic flows. As a result, essentially
all basaltic surge deposits found in the rock record
can be inferred to be near-vent base surge deposits.
The converse is not true, however. Intermediate
and silicic eruptions can give rise to all three surge
types: base, ground and ash cloud. Accidental
clasts may be a significant element in a surge
deposit due to explosive incorporation at the vent,
and particularly in phreatomagmatic base surge
deposits. Accessory clasts may be picked up in
transit.
211
pre-depositional)
syn-depositional and)
post-depositional.
Pre-depositional structures
Pre-depositional structures include erosion gullies
and U-shaped channels (Ch. 5) carved out of the
depositional surface and infilled by surge deposits.
The origin of these depressions may be normal
epiclastic erosional processes or erosion by pyroclastic surges (e.g. Fisher 1977, Richards 1959,
J. G. Moore 1967; Ch. 5.7, Fig. 5.21c & d). Others
include planar slide surfaces, usually on the inner
crater wall where segments of the unconsolidated,
frequently bedded pile of pyroclastics forming the
upper crater wall collapse and slide back into the
crater (Fig. 7.37). Younger pyroclastic surge and
fall deposits may accumulate on this slide surface.
Syn-depositional structures
Syn-depositional structures include wave-like (or
dune-like) structures called dune forms or dunes,
and their internal cross-stratification, massive beds
without structure and planar beds. In a discussion of
the lateral facies changes of surges from vent to
,Ikm D
B
sondwove focles
mOSSlve focles
plonar faCies
n ~ 127
4
~
PLANAR
MASSIVE
3
FALL
-5
-4
SANDWAVE
-3
-2
-I
P'
Md
(b) Silicic
5
80
.~s.
PLANAR
'III
FALL
....
MASS IVE
',) ....
1'7
-5
-4
-3
-2
-I
Md
Je"
/..,:
.)
""W.,.
..,..
456
P'
FACIES CHARACTERISTICS
b.
213
"-,
------'~
-8
-6
-4
-2
lOll
Ileid
Mdg
Figure 7.41 Grainsize characteristics of massive and
diffusely layered lapilli surge facies. Tower Hill Volcanic
Centre. western Victoria. (After Edney 1984.)
214
FACIES CHARACTERISTICS
RELATIVELY ORY
ANO/OR HOr FLOWS - - - --
- - - - - --
...
."
. ~'<..
o
a.
~
~
~
.. .--s....~~
t r.
~
~
.#;--...:..;,'~ ::::.---.:::::.
~
"
RELATIVELY wEr
- - - AND COOL FLOW
regressive
bedforms
stationary
bedforms
progressive
bedfor ms
215
'"
c:
C
dr y
steo m
Co
'"
~
;;
hee
waler
.......
::
E
Figure 7.42 ClaSSification of base surge bedform and internal cross-stratification variations related
to depositional rate (relative to transport rate; vertical axis) and surge temperature and moisture
content (horizontal axis) (After Allen 1982.)
Planar beds may be gradational with crossstratified intervals, and in some instances may have
a very low angle inclination (Fig. 7.43) appearing to
be planar but being incipient cross-beds (W. Edney
pers. comm.). However, in this regard the perspective is important. Exposures that are perpendicular
to flow direction will expose wavy, parallel to
subparallel layering of cross-bed sets (Fig. 7.44).
Post-depositional structures
Post -depositional structures commonly associated
with surge deposits include bomb sags (Fig. S.2lg &
h), formed when ballistic blocks and bombs lob
into wet, unconsolidated surge deposits producing
soft-sediment plastic deformation. Flame structures at
the base of surges have also been described (Crowe
& Fisher 1973) and soft-sediment oversreepening of
dune form cross-strata under the shearing influence
of the succeeding surge is common. Such oversteepening may bring strata that are normally at
lower than angle of repose inclinations 30), to
angle of repose (30-35) or even steeper. The
layering is usually still intact, but is stretched and
squeezed due to plastic deformation while in a wet,
cohesive state. Similarly, normal soft-sediment
slumping of wet, cohesive ash is common (Fig.
S.21f).
currents
217
The diverse descriptions and subdivisions of the socalled surge deposits by different authors make it
difficult to extract a consensus stratigraphy but,
following Walker and McBroome, it seems that
three principal layers can be identified.
Layer 1 is a relatively well sorted gravelly or
sandy layer with rapid lateral changes in thickness
and grain size and some lateral discontinuity. Grainsize and thickness decrease outward from the
source, and significant fines depletion is evident.
Layer 2 contains two facies, a massive one which
'has the aspect of a pyroclastic flow deposit particularly where it occurs in valley ponds' (G. P. L.
Walker & McBroome 1983, p. 571), and one
showing stratification and dune forms. The massive
facies is homogeneous, occurs in valley pond
settings, and contains gas escape pipes where it is
thick. Layer 3 is very fine, contains accretionary
lapilli, is rarely more than several centimetres thick
and is agreed by all authors to be an ash fall-out of
dilute trailing ash clouds derived from the 'blast(b)
(0)
8. bedded
. masSive
layer 2
volley pond
pyrocl oallc flo\Ol
o~-,--,,--r--r--~-.--,,--r--r--+
( d)
(c )
VI
layer 3
+ layer I
-4
Md ~
Figure 7.45 Grainsize data for 18 May 1980 Mt St Helens 'blast' deposit and valley-pond pyroclastic flows. (a) and (c)
Mdt/at plots, (b) and (d) plots of weight percentage finer than Y. mm (F 2 ) versus weight percentage finer than 1 mm
(F,). In (a) and (b) contoured fields for pyroclastic flows are shown, and in (c) and (d) contoured fields for samples from
fines-depleted facies of ignimbrite (G P L. Walker 1983) are shown. (After G. P L. Walker & McBroome 1983)
FURTHER READING
219
/"'l-
~ .'
(( . '
_:.~,
. -J
/'.1
~-..... ~ /1'
" r"J_
.' r
:
.- ,)..
'. . .
'J
.......,~.,.....)
'
')'
'\ 'f
.',
~.
wind
-------+ . '...
CD
@
@
pyroclost lc loll
pyroc last ic suroe
IIIh ic log brecCia (co- ignimbrite Iog - loll deposit
coarse pum ic e lee - sida lens
<V
~
.
,--,....,
.
[>
...-
<l=
0 - 0
~
;
. -+
loss 01 lines
sinking 01 dense par l lcles
strong Ingestion of a"'
high particle concenlrollon flow
loe pyroclastic flow)
low particle conce ntrollon flow
deflation Interval (the intervol required
to deflate 0 dll ule turbulenl f low to a
high por licle concantr olion
pyroclastic flow )
Figure 7.46 Schematic views showing seven situations which produce fines depletion and good sorting of
pyroclastic deposits. (After G. P. L. Walker 1983.)
FURTHER READING
221
Plate 8 Canyon wall cutting through the Upper Bandelier Tuff showing a common sequence of deposits produced during
ignimbrite-forming eruptions: plinian fall deposit (base is at same level as top of the geologist's head), overlain by a pyroclastic
surge deposit and massive ignimbrite. This sequence overlies at least two smaller, sub-pllnian(7) pumice-fall deposits resulting
from earlier eruptions of the Valles caldera complex.
222
CHAPTER EIGHT
III
223
224 IGNIMBRITES
Table 8.1
USA
Timber Mountain Tuff
Rainier Mesa Member
Ammonia Tanks Member
Paintbrush Tuff
Topopah Spring Member
Tiva Canyon Member
Nelson Mountain Tuff
Carpenter Ridge Tuff
Fish Canyon Tuff
Sapinero Mesa Tuff
Upper Bandelier Tuff
Bishop Tuff
Peach Springs Tuff
John Day pyroclastic flow deposit
Crater Lake pumice-flow deposit
Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes ignimbrite
Central and South America
Rio Caliente ignimbrite
Acatlan ignimbrite
Los Chocoyas ash-flow tuff
Apoyo pyroclastic flow deposit
Puricipar ignimbrite
EI Yeso ignimbrite
Cerro Galan ignimbrite
Lesser Antilles
Roseau Ignimbritet
Average Belfond pumice flow deposit on
St Lucia
Iceland
Skessa welded tuff
RoydarfJordur tuff
Matarhnjkur welded tuff
Mediterranean
average of six ignimbrites erupted from
Vulsini volcano
Vesuvius AD 79
Campanian ignimbrite
Minoan ignimbritet
Japan
Ito pyroclastic flow deposit
Aso III pyroclastic flow deposit
Kutcharo welded tuff
Akan welded tuff
Hakone pyroclastic flow deposit
Hijiori pyroclastic flow deposit
Kuttara welded tuff
1200
900
250
1000
500
500
3000
1000
200
500
90
75
25
12
30
5
200
5
100
40
1000
30
0.2
4
2.5
6
4
100
30
110
175
90
60
15
1.4
10
Deposit
Mashu pyroclastic flow deposit
Numajiri welded tuff
Tazawara welded tuff
Tokachi welded tuff
Tokachidake 1926 pumice~flow deposit
Agatsuma pyroclastic flow deposit
Asama pumice~flow deposit I
Asama pumice~flow deposit II
Komagatake 1929 pyroclastic flow deposit
Nantai pumice~flow deposit
Shikotsu pyroclastic flow deposit
Towada pyroclastic flow deposit I
Towada pyroclastic flow deposit II
Indonesia
Toba Tuff
Bali ignimbrite
Tambora 1815
Krakatau 1883t
New Zealand
Ongatiti ignimbrite
Whakamaru ignimbrite
Matahina ignimbrite
Taupo ignimbrite
Volume (km 3 )
5
1.2
150
60
0.02
0.1
2
0.15
0.8
80
25
25
2000
20
25
12
190
150
100
30
225
226 IGNIMBRITES
(a) Nelson Mounta in Tuff (26.5 Ma)
COLORADO
. Crnv lPr
L G La Gari la Co Id e ra
U and SJ
aoc~elor
Caldera
Figure S.1 Examples of large ignimbrite sheets and associated calderas in the Tertiary San Juan volcanic field.
Colorado. For the most part they are densely welded tuffs. Note that these maps only show schematic original
distribution. not present outcrop pattern. which is very complex because of erosion. (After Steven & Lipman 1976.)
227
(0 )
(b)
.......-...~;:
V~"'J
Figure 8.2 A LANDSAT image showing the giant Cerro
Galan ignimbrite and caldera in northwestern Argentina.
Extensive ignimbrite shield is seen as pale-toned. regularly
dissected smooth expanses. best displayed on the northern
flanks. The snow-capped resurgent dome (6100 m above
sea level) is conspicuous in the middle of the caldera.
Laguna Diamante is a relic of a much larger lake which may
have filled the caldera before resurgence. Cerro Colorado
and Cerro Beltran are pre-caldera andesitic stratovolcanoes.
Dark areas west of Cerro Colorado are basaltic andesite
scoria cones and lava flows broadly contemporaneous with
the ignimbrite. (After P. W. Francis et al. 1983.)
part of these large deposits occurs as thick intracaldera ignimbrite, while smaller volumes are
found as outflow sheets. Later updoming of the
intracaldera pile may form a resurgent dome (Fig.
8.2, Ch. 13).
In Table 8.2, the maximum distance travelled
from the source vent is given for a number of
ignimbrites. The data demonstrate the ability of
pumice flows to travel large distances, often over
gently sloping ground and sometimes over topographic barriers (also see Figs 7.2, 17, 18 & 21).
20km
"---'
MItres
SE
600
400
200
5km
u.............J
Ito pyroclostlc
flow deposo
bosemen
228 IGNIMBRITES
Table 8.2
continued
Ignimbrite
Distance (km)
70
18
60
40
40
48
225
80
r idge of
limestone
basement
---- 20--'' IhiC kn tss 1m)
- 100m - - lopoQrophlc conlour
Figure 8.4
Ignimbrite
Timber Mountain Tuff
Rainier Mesa Member
Paintbrush Tuff
Topopah Springs Member
Nelson Mountain Tuff
Fish Canyon Tuff
Sapinero Mesa Tuff
Upper Bandelier Tuff
John Day pyroclastic flow deposit
Crater Lake pumice-flow deposit
Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes ignimbrite
Aniakchak ash-flow tuff
Fisher ash-flow tuff
Mt St Helens 1980
Rio Caliente ignimbrite
Acatlan ignimbrite
Puricipar ignimbrite
Cerro Galan ignimbrite
Ignimbrite A Vulsini volcano
Ignimbrite C Vulsini volcano
Ito pyroclastic flow deposit
Distance (km)
76
60
50
100
110
30
75
58
22
50
30
8
20
20
35
70
17
27
80
...--
former
course of
nOr! h for
Toutle RIver
o,
Figure 8.6 Distribution of Mt 5t Helens 1980 pumice-flow
deposits. (After Rowley et at. 1981)
229
has shown that the change from plinian to ignimbrite-forming activity varies with vent radius, gas
velocity and H 2 0 content (L. Wilson 1976, Sparks
& L. Wilson 1976, L. Wilson etal. 1978,1980; Ch.
6). Collapse occurs at a critical level of magma
water content, given a constant vent radius and
muzzle velocity. Widening or flaring of the vent
during the eruption will also drive the column
towards collapse conditions. The fountain height of
the collapsing column as a function of gas content
and vent radius is shown in Figure 8.9. Scenarios of
three model ignimbrite-forming eruptions (Fig.
8.10) show the variations in column height and gas
velocity that take place as the conduit is eroded and
gas content decreases during the course of an
eruption. In the first case (Fig. 8.lOa), vent radius
changes while exsolved water content remains
constant at 3.45 wt%. The eruption column height
grows steadily until sudden collapse occurs and a
low ignimbrite-forming fountain is established.
Eruption velocity in the vent slowly increases
throughout the eruption. In the second case, vent
radius increases and exsolved gas content decreases.
Variation in height of the eruption column is
similar to that found in the first case, though
fountain height decreases after the collapse event.
Eruption velocity decreases throughout the eruption, due to the falling gas content. In the third
case, vent radius remains fixed and gas content
decreases during the eruption . There is a much
smaller variation in plinian column height than in
the first two cases. Again, fountain height gradually
decreases after the collapse event.
In Figure 8.11a, combinations of the controlling
parameters are plotted and fields of convecting
plinian and collapsing columns are shown. From a
knowledge of the stratigraphy of a deposit, and by
estimating values of the controlling parameters, it is
now possible to track the progress and changes in
energetics of an eruption to a first -order approximation. Three examples are shown in Figures
8.11 b, c and d. Eruptions which terminate before
column collapse conditions are reached will only
produce plinian fall deposits (Fig. 8.11b; Ch. 6).
S. N. Williams and Self (1983) suggested that the
Santa Maria 1902 eruption resulted from release of
volatile-rich magma at the top of a volatile stratified
230 IGNIMBRITES
(0)
2
m.lrts
10
20
30
40
sO
; : : : hlhlC/pUMICf rich
1II.,lIar
lont
"'""""' sOil
~
==
!'IOSl0n lurfac.
(b)
(c)
mrtru
non-w f td .d
III s,lIor
o.................-......-'--',!10m
231
(a)
(a)
(b)
p colu mn
< p otmosphere
(b)
Go, content
Constont QOS
content
p column
>p otmosphere
(e)
Gal content
( w,% )
( wl% )
3.4 5 w
'/.
65432 1
WINO
65 432 1
600
4 00
=-,
200
~
~
"
'""
100
(a)
Consta nt vent
rad ius a 200 m
10
oX
C
QI
>
QI
>
106
300
0
.0
Q
,
==3 .. 0 5
(b) .c
. ~ 10
QI
.c
III
.~
"0
QI
<II
a.
10 5
2.10 4
E
0
(e) Minoan
'-
.2
'0
600
QI
>
300
0~--~---2~OO
--~~--4~0-0---L--~6~0~0---L--~
00
' "'z
~::.""""
/
pM . .
oruPloon\
, .nd of
*-t"'Plonion
,
2 .. 0 6
\h\
2 3
10 6
,,
,,
QI
0'-
(d) Lower
Bandelier
7.nd of
III
'"E
.2
ii
....;:,
lJ.J
3>10 5
10 5
2~104
232
IGNIMBRITES
In." ~rb~.d~d~.d~.~ii
upper pert 01 B -
~~~
lo"er pc rr 01 B - only
expond beyond limits
01 Ignimbrite NE 01
Gucdalclcrc
(seellon no' 10 scal e I
SOURCE VENTS
40
...
'-
Q)
Q)
E
o
20
233
'Q)
10
00
10
100
1000
234
IGNIMBRITES
& 6).
o'-------'Zkm
vents
D'aoas
e::;::::;]
IhlCk I nlracaldero
IQnlmbrole ponded
duronQ conhnuous
subsidence of
caldera floor
block
Figure 8.15 The popular ring fissure model for the eruption
of ignimbrites.
SOURCE VENTS
(0 )
-15km
~30km
venl
phase
( b)
rhyodaci te
nonwe lded
(e)
Cleetwood
~
I _;~ava yow
t ,:
", /
-'
~, ",-'
"'
-1l>I
:-1""<" -" :'': Mt. Mazama 2 ... of
...
5;,;;"-- ':'
'-------'
..:
...
....
-'
.......
..
fit
Figure 8.16
235
236 IGNIMBRITES
( a ) I nitial pli nian outburst
o
0
00
Q~c:.:
<::I
010
co 6
10
co
..
..
<> <>
. 0
,0<1
OQ.:Io
... Idod
:~.. : .
. ...
.
co
inward
collapse
Ignimbrite-
<>
<> . '. .. . .
"~~~~' v::~
7<>OQ~
'
.. .
~ ~.,,.
,..
_____
00
....
'l1agma
00
GO~ 00
0
Co'
o-Po
go
'bubbling' base 0
eruption column
formmg mtra calder a pyro clastic
flows
column collapse
loundermg 01
crustal blacks
above magma
chamber
<>
CO-IGNIMBRITE BRECCIAS
237
238
IGNIMBRITES
( b)
(0)
pumice
lilhlcs
Illhlc s
within cO+19n im bn tf
60
40
20
2
CII
",~ '
.iii
::J
J
,
\ -rhyollfIC
,.J
eo,onomb"l t
100 lo ll
dtpo .. ,
'pumlc r
I
I
I
\
I
I
,
,
,-
,,
em
..
- -..;t--- ~ -------
--
andes it ic pumic e
80
60
40
20
..
'\
OL-____
0 -.',
em
-i -....--- r -
50 100
....
_______ L_ _ _ _ _ _
.. 4 _ ____
rhyol it ic pumice
,,
><
r--,
100
E
E
80
10
I~
Distance (km)
Figure 8.19 (a) Measured stratigraphic section through the Acatlan lag-fall deposit. Mexico. approximately 1.5 km from the
most likely source vent; the conduit now covered by a rhyolite lava dome. (b) Average maximum diameter of the five largest
clasts plotted against distance from source in the main. compositionally zoned ignimbrite flow unit and the lagfall deposit.
(After J. V. Wright & Walker 1977)
breccias and coarse pumiceous ignimbrite containing large lithics (Figs 8.21 & 22). These deposits
can contain large segregation pipes and structures
enriched in lithics and depleted in fines, which
indicate a high degree of fluidisation in the proximal
pumice flows (Ch. 7). Complex interrelations between breccias and ignimbrite can be found (Fig.
8.21).
Recent work shows that there are two types of
proximal ignimbrite breccias emplaced by flow. In
the first type, segregation of lithics takes place
through the body of the flow, and this is found
above a basal layer. This type is the near-vent
equivalent of the lithic concentration zone commonly observed at the bottom of layer 2b in
ignimbrite flow units eCho 7). Towards the vent this
type of breccia should grade back into a coignimbrite lag-fall of the Acatlan-type, in which
lithics settled out of the eruption column. Druitt
and Sparks (1982) have logically proposed that both
these cases of body segregation breccias should be
termed co-ignimbrite lag breccias. In the second
type, the segregation of lithics appears to have
erupted', indicating considerable vent widening, or migration, during the eruption. (c)
Lag-breccia of the 18500 years BP eruption of Santorini, Greece (Fig. 13.31). The
breccias overlie a basal plinian pumice fall deposit (against which the geologist is
resting his hand) and show normal grading (after Druitt & Sparks 1982) . (d)
Lenticular segregation pod In lag breccias of the 18500 years BP Santorini eruption
(photograph by T. H. Druitt). (e) Wall of the Valles caldera showing a 5 m thick co(continued)
vent. New Zealand. The base of the ground breccia is sharply erosional. here it
overlies a local early ignimbrite flow unit (Section 8.12). (h) Detail of the Taupo
ground breccia with large. well-rounded mudstone block. Spade is in same position
seen in (g).
CO-IGNIMBRITE BRECCIAS
EAST
WEST
head - -- - body - - --
241
e ru pllon
column
lag breccIa
venl
ground brecclo
20m
------~.
(0 )
+ log brecclo
IQnlmbr l tt
bo,ol loy.r
,......,. ............_......................... .
b'" ,
..
. ~.
(_---~-.- __--::~---~::.O_<..::~::~::~I
"
'-----------------------~---~- -------
~8L--~---6~~---~4---L---~2--~---~0--~--~
2~
~
64
3~6
16
1/8 mm
Md
(b)
20
;e
~
" !hies
Ignimbri1e moxlrix
I~
10
5
0
-8
356
-6
64
-4
16
-2
4
2
1/8
4 ~
1/16 mm
Groins ize
Figure 8.22 (a) Mdq/o$ plot for proximal deposits of the
Santorini 18500 years BP eruption, Greece. Tie-lines with
arrows connect samples taken from a gradational section
measured on the eastern side of location sketched in Figure
8.21. (b) Grainsize histograms of a typical lag-breccia. The
deposit is bimodal with a mode in the >0.5 mm fraction due
to a high proportion of crystals. (After Druitt & Sparks 1982.)
242
IGNIMBRITES
described caldera-collapse breccias within intracaldera ignimbrites in the San Juan volcanic field as
meggabreccias including clasts metres to hundreds
of metres in size (e.g. Thompson 1985). These are
thought to have formed by landslides from the walls
of calderas as collapse took place (see caption to
Fig. 8.16c and Ch. 13). Flash-flood breccias are a
prominent feature of the Minoan ignimbrite (Bond
& Sparks 1976; Fig. 7.15). G. P. L. Walker (1985)
has comprehensively reviewed the origin of coarse
lithic breccias near ignimbrite source vents.
CORE RC 17 -1 45
E
~
.c
Q.
C1)
690
\\ 1 ~
"
\\ 1/ ~
700
~
l\ ~
.I, \\.0
710
720
730
7 40
I.
7!10
.::
':'
. '.
!t7
'0
-v/20
1 10
~
+1
:-:2"3:-0
4
d,ameter
(~)
La Tobo
Figure 8.24
(a) Map showing the distribution and thickness of the Toba ash-layer in deep-sea cores . This is a product of an
eruption from Lake Toba, Sumatra, 75000 years BP, which produced a 2000 km 3 ignimbrite (Table 8.1), and is the largest
magnitude eruption documented in the Quaternary. (b) Section showing the ash layer in the most proximal core. The lower.
coarser unit is interpreted as a distal plinian ash, and the upper graded fine unit the co-ignimbrite ash. (After Ninkovich et al.
1978)
243
rl r~';~~I:h
VIO-64
20
RC9-191
20
~
VIO-67
RC9-189
10
DA
.0
94cm -
.'.(~.~:
DIStance (fIOOkm)
TR171-27
:11;-11] 1'\
""m~l\LLl
DIStance (1320km)
~
2
Figure 8.25
Sections showing the Campanian (Y-5) ash layer in six deep-sea cores from the eastern Mediterranean Sea at
increasing distance from the Bay of Naples. This is correlated with tM Campanian ignimbrite, distributed over a large area in
the Napolitan region (Table 8.1, Ch. 13) (After Sparks & Huang 1980.)
244
IGNIMBRITES
all,,,
cald fra
f'tson.o F.
~Mta!(O
9
c:::J
IOkm
Figure 8.26
data).
245
Figure 8.27
246
IGNIMBRITES
IGNIMBRITES
c o -Ignimbr ite
breccia
plinian fall
deposit
Ignimbrite
flow Units
ground
surge
deposits
laterally very
extensIve
co - Ignimbrite
/ ash - fall deposit
pumice
dunes
247
ash cloud
surge deposIts
Figure 8.30 Depositional facies model for the products of ignimbrite-forming eruptions based on the Bandelier Tuffs. (After
J. V. Wright et al. 1981.)
An outstanding feature of the Taupo ignimbrite is that it occurs in two contrasting forms,
each having quite different relationships to the
pre-existing land surface. One is a landscape
mantling ignimbrite veneer deposit (IVD),
while the other fills in depressions like 'conventional' ignimbrites do, and is called valleyponded ignimbrite (VPI; Figs 8.32a & 7.27).
The IVD is stratified and occasionally shows
bedforms . All of the evidence suggests this
(a)
5km
" - - - - - '.
,_ ~/
-10-
oppro .. mo r~ IImlr
rhyohr ~ lovos
248
IGNIMBRITES
(a)
(b)
0.9
.....
1. 4 ......... , .........
'\
'1.5 \
I
I
I
I
I
I
\
\
. 1.9
"-
IVO
,," VPI
. 1.6
1.5
'\
.....
ITiJ
La
o --'---'---'---'--"~km
V nl
"
" - - ......
In
,,.;',..
"
50km
~-,---,----,-""-",,,
Qrou
(e)
Figure 8.32
(c)
(0)
Simple Ignimbrite
aspect ratio = I 50000
20m
[~!o =====:=:::S:::=:=====:::::S::.=====
20
40
60km
(b)
Compound ignimbrite
aspect ratio = I . 500
10
Figure 8.33
Simple and compound ignimbrites. Relationships between thickness. number of flow units and distance
travelled are shown schematically for two ignimbrites with
similar volumes. (After J. V. Wright 1981)
RATE
249
Taupo
Los Chocoyas
...
~Toba
Q)
a.
Ul
10- 3
Rio Caliente
MSH (May 18)
OVTTS
Eruption rate (m 3
5- 1)
250
IGNIMBRITES
251
8.10.1 WELDING
Welding is the sintering together of hot pumice
fragments and glass shards under a compactional
load (R. L. Smith 1960a, b, Ross & Smith 1961) .
The most important controls are:
(a)
(b)
Figure 8.35
252
IGNIMBRITES
(b)
(0 )
c:
40
30
20
10
50
40
30
20
10
Porosify ("!o)
75
t---_
"~"""":: l---__ __
_
o ----
all
devilrified luff
~- .... --...
----......
~~~~~~~=~~~~~~~~~~1~:~;~1_ ~
.............
vilric luff
Figure 8.38 Welded ignimbrites with eutaxitic textures defined by fiamme. (a) Ignimbrite erupted from Platoro caldera (part
of Treasure Mountain Tuff), San Juan volcanic field, Colorado. (b) Very densely welded ignimbrite near La Piedad, Central
Mexico.
Figure 8.39 Columnar jointing in welded ignimbrites. (a) Amealco ignimbrite (Quaternary). near San Juan del Rio, Central
Mexico. (b) Bishop Tuff, California. (c) Rubicon Rhyolite (Devonian), Central Victoria, Australia.
Porosity ("!o)
60
\
150
20
40
.\
--~
100
~
t
E
(f)
(f)
Q)
c:
..l<:
0
.c
f-
50
1.5
2.5
255
Density (g cm- 3 )
f lomme
Figure 8.41 Cut blocks of Bishop Tuff. showing increase in
flattening of pumice clasts with decreasing porosity. Values
of strain ratio (Rs) show the increasing compactional strain.
Note block (c) is cut slightly oblique to the foliation. (After
Ragan & Sheridan 1972)
256
IGNIMBRITES
Figure 8.42
merres
200
devi
40 - 45
rlflCOtion
30 - 40
100
20 - 30
> 20
1 - V
eoo1lO9 uniTs
--=-.-.,,;:;~~:=di~':=:::::;;;:~===--/ v-
Zones of we lding
".,'
Cross
section througi, part of
the Upper Bandelier Tuff.
showing welding and
crystallisation zones. The
ignimbrite is a compound
cooling unit. and shows
an upward increase in
the degree of welding in
cooling units I-III.
Recognisable flow units
are much thinner in units
= KI(g)pne - QIRT
(8.1)
(0 )
257
as
5cm
~------------~,
20"1. poros. t y
0 .5% H 2 0
20~. porosity
anhydrous
Q)
Q)
.s:::.
(f)
20m
I om5::-h-.J..,------''''-::--,,-l>o---'-~-10..J..'. a-,.~I.L.oo-'.a,.
Time
5h
Time
Figure 8.44 Time required to produce dense welding of rhyolitic ash (a) anhydrous and (b) with 0.5 wt% water for various
ignimbrite thicknesses and emplacement temperatures. Calculated from Equation 8.2 based on experimental studies of the
Upper Bandelier ignimbrite. The model is least reliable for thin flows and long times. due to the effects of cooling. Sheet
thickness was calculated for porous ash (1 bar = 7 m). (After Bierwirth 1982.)
(8.2)
258
IGNIMBRITES
8.10.3 DEVITRIFICATION
rnelrrs
150
vlln'
".,pou, pha
ono
drv ilnhpd
0>
Ql
dfYltnflrd
Ql
VI
Ql
"0
Devitrification involves the sub-solidus crystallisation of metastable glass (Ross & Smith 1961,
Lofgren 1970). The main products are cristobalite
and alkali feldspar. Devitrification tends to be more
prevalent in densely welded tuffs, and particularly
in thick intracaldera ignimbrites because of the
protracted cooling (Figs 8.37, 42 & 45). Nevertheless, more-porous ignimbrites may also be devitrified. (Note that devitrification is also common in
coherent glassy lavas and shallow intrusives.)
Devitrification is discussed further in Chapter 14
(Section 14.3.2).
Ql
oN
arr-Iall
Figure 8.46 (a) Fumarole mounds on the surface of the Bishop Tuff.
minerals are predominantly clinoptilolite and heulandite which suggests
alkali feldspar, which are the usual vapour-phase minerals found, e.g. in
deposited in a shallow lake or on marshy ground and vaporised ground
(b) and (c) Small 'steam pipes' in the Rio Caliente ignimbrite. Vapour-phase
low temperature fumarolic activity (compared with tridymite, cristobalite and
the Bishop Tuff). This is as might be expected if the ignimbrite were locally
water was important. (d) Fumarole pipes in the Upper Bandelier Tuff.
260
IGNIMBRITES
(a)
5km
'-------'
analyses of ignimbrite (especially whole rock analyses of ancient welded ignimbrites), and indicates
the care needed in sampling.
5 ,,110'
~ c.mpoclI.nally w.,d.d
,ny.h't lavas
approx,mOlt hmll
\'- of u~nlmbrltt
(b)
Q non-wtld.d
Ign im britt
11
pip
Tp
Ro
261
The Hatepe pumice is a coarse, relatively homogeneous and well sorted layer which shows mantle
bedding. Its dispersal (Fig. 8.51a) and grainsize
characteristics are typically plinian.
The two phreatoplinian layers (Figs 8.51b & c)
are fine-grained, stratified , relatively poorly sorted
ash deposits (G. P . L. Walker 1981a). Both show
very little change in grainsize and sorting with
distance from source. They both show many signs
of being deposited as 'wet' ash . For example, the
Hatepe ash locally shows a type of micro bedding
attributed to the splashing of falling water; both
deposits contain vesicles formed when air was
trapped by ash falling as sticky mud; the Rotongaio
ash, where thick, often slid as small mud flows into
the gullies cut into the Hatepe ash; and softsediment deformation structures are found (Fig.
8.52) . However, both lack accretionary lapilli, but
very wet accretionary lapilli similar to mud-rain
could have easily splashed on impact. The poor
sorting of the deposits is attributed to waterscavenging of the ash cloud . Although they only
show limited fractionation with distance , both
layers show a regular exponential thinning from
source (Figs 8.51b & c), indicating that the
scavenging water must have been derived from the
source, Lake Taupo. The water was therefore an
integral part of the eruption column and ash cloud,
and G. P . L. Walker (1981a) envisaged a fully
water-charged column erupting out of Lake Taupo,
with both ashes actually falling as mud .
The deep-gullied erosion surface separating the
two ash layers is significant , and there is a similar,
262
IGNIMBRITES
263
LAKE
TAIJPO
50km
,
50km
near-source outcrops the Taupo pumice has obviously been eroded by the Taupo ignimbrite which
followed, and therefore thickness measurements
are anomalously thin.
The maximum measured thickness is only 1.8 m,
which reflects the great dispersal of the deposit
although, again, even where it is thickest there is a
marked erosional discordance between it and the
ignimbrite. Despite its unimpressive thickness (cf.
other plinian deposits, Ch. 6), calculations by
G. P. L. Walker (1980) from the concentration of
free crystals in the deposit show that the total
volume erupted was 24 km 3 (6 km 3 dense rock
equivalent (DRE)), which is as big as some of the
50km
..........
'
~~
.,-
- -o
'V
20km
.............
",""
LAKE
TAUPO
--
...-"'-
n~
\_
" ........
.................
.......
"
\
\\
\
I
\ - - __ - v
/
\'.....
,/
............... ---,\~
",
" "
\
\
I
I
I
/
..... ---Om
//
.........;/
264
IGNIMBRITES
(a) Thickness (em)
FURTHER READING
265
8.12.4 OVERVIEW
The total thickness of air-fall deposits amounts to
over 5 m near the vent, nearly all of the material
having been blown to the east of the vent by strong
south-west to westerly winds (Figs 8.51 & 54). Airfall deposits more than 10 cm thick were deposited
over an area of 30 000 km 2 , while an area of about
20 000 km2 was devastated by the Taupo ignimbrite
R. L. Smith's classic papers published in the early1960s CR. L. Smith 1960a, b, Ross & Smith 1961)
are still essential reading, having been, for the past
two decades, the foundation for the advances in our
understanding of ignimbrites. The Geological
Society of America has honoured this pioneering
work with publication of the Special Paper entitled
'Ash-flow tuffs', edited by Chapin and Elston
(1979). This contains some of the more up-to-date
information and reviews, including one by Smith
himself CR. L. Smith 1979) which looks in some
detail at physicochemical aspects of ignimbrite
magma chambers. G. P. L. Walker (1983) reviewed
ignimbrite types and problems, and in this very
useful article 'takes stock of what is known, and
also what needs to be known before ignimbrites are
well understood'. In addition Walker (1985) has
reviewed the origins of ignimbrite-associated
breccias. Although much of the Taupo AD 186
story is scattered in a large number of papers,
C. J. N. Wilson and Walker (1985) have pieced
together an eruption narrative, and C. J. N. Wilson
(1985) presents his complete story for the Taupo
ignimbrite in an outstanding publication. One
other, slightly older, paper worthy of special note is
y okayama (1974), on the Ito pyroclastic flow
deposit (Fig. 8.3). An important volume on caldera
formation and caldera geology is the special issue of
Journal of Geophysical Research (1984, volume 89
BlO), edited by Lipman, Self and Heiken. The
papers by Lipman (1984) and G. P. L. Walker
(1984a) in this volume provide interesting contrasts,
Lipman high-lighting the complexities of the
'standard' caldera collapse model, including the
266
IGNIMBRITES
Plate 9 The Minoan ignimbrite sloping towards the southern shoreline of Santorini. Entrance of pumice flows into the sea
during the 1490 Be eruption could have deposited substantial accumulations of subaqueous pyroclastic flow deposits and ash
turbidites in submarine basins surrounding the island.
268
CHAPTER NINE
Subaqueous pyroclastic
flows and deep-sea ash layers
Initial statement
The modes of formation of subaqueous volcaniclastic rocks can be very diverse eCho 3), and
recognition of the origins is often not simple. This
chapter specifically deals with those volcaniclastics
considered to be primary pyroclastic products of
highly explosive eruptions. However, one is never
far removed from the problems of differentiating
primary from redistributed, or epiclastic, volcanigenic sediments. We examine the concept of
subaqueous pyroclastic flows and ignimbrites, discussing the types of deposits that have been
described, the terminology used and the controversial subjects of subaqueous welding and subaqueous eruption. We suggest that, in general, such
deposits are the lateral equivalents of subaerial
eruptions from island volcanoes rather than wholly
9.1 Introduction
In this chapter we address one of the most difficult
and speculative areas in volcanology: subaqueous
pyroclastic flows and subaqueous welding. These
269
271
(a)
(b)
..
60
.... ..
~o
40
...........
-.
hiCk subaqueous
pumice flow depOSit ( 150m)
massive suDoqueous
80
70
-- ~~,uboq~s
----
__ pyroclast l~ w deposil __
~O
....--. --..
10
:~~.~
;.
..
....,..
,"
",:;"
,"
: .. . : .,.,9 .,"
~O
ZO
60
40
30
massive subaqueous
pyrocla,l ic flow depos it
containing pumice and
dense glassy lava fragments
ltO
, " :.L.:::
~~~~~
'r'"
. . ! ,.--~
10
~~~~
'=
:.r ....
Ci::i~i:i;i _.. -
(e)
lake water level
erupllon
- - - - - ------.;,:....:....-- ' - - ' - - - ----:;7 centre
massive very f ine tuff div.
pora llel laminaled f ine tuff dl v.
~ parallel lamlnaled sandy
pumice lull di v.
m
I ~O
I -:
2-:
~ ":
100
f ine luff
subaqueous pumice flow depOsit
sll"tone
subaqueous pumice lIow deposit
slll5tono
mosslve silly fine luff
suboqueous pumice flow
subaqueous pumice flow
pumiceous sandstone
slltsl one
subaqueous pumice flow deposit
siltstone beds
(e)
~::::::::.~ ..
......
ash turbidite.
............
~O
mo..i ve graded
,,'I
di vision
bottom topoQroP
- IOF.:=:;:::>-- -- - - - - -
3km
(d)
mudstone partings
~_
=-
wavy tamlnations
horizonlal laminations
planar bose
l"eQula, bose
mud
ms
medium sand
273
.... Figure 9.1 Some examples of deposits which have been termed 'subaqueous pyroclastic flow' deposits in the literature. All
of the examples are Tertiary in age. (a) From the Ohanapecosh Formation, Washington, described as examples of
subaqueously erupted pyroclastic flows deposited in a marginal freshwater-marine basin (after Fiske 1963). (b) and (c) are
examples thought to have been erupted subaerially and then deposited in a caldera lake at Onikobe in Japan . On entering
water they flowed as a turbidity current and a vertical sequence comparable to that of clastic turbidites is found, although,
sometimes considerably thicker; the example shown in (c) is the uppermost subaqueous pumice flow deposit indicated in (b)
(after Yamada 1973). (d) Sections of the Wadaira Tuff (unit D) in the Tokiwa Formation, Japan, described as having been
erupted subaqueously and deposited in a marginal marine basin (after Fiske & Matsuda 1964). (e) The Dali Ash, Rhodes.
Although quoted as a deep-water welded tuff, it is now known to be non-welded, and thought (but not proved) to be the
submarine lateral equivalent of a subaerially erupted ignimbrite (see Fig. 9.2) (after J. V. Wright & Mutti 1981).
274
(a)
( b)
GS 7605 - 2
N
."
.,,/ I
1>80cm
I
/
I
I
>160cm
>454cm
SOkm
I....-....-..J
10
Roseau
~ iQnimbril.
welded luff
olher
pyroclastic
flow depOsits
~I 0 \'10 domes
~
>60cm J
, 1I9cm .
>50: m l
,+>~ (
",rS'
I.
I 255cm
0:"-
..
()
TOBAGO
BASIN
<:>
~_m
I....-....-..J
(d)
(e)
m
45
i<?o
0
0
pyroclostic
flow
plinia n
airfoil
30
" 00
00
.0
zo
.;
0 '.
~'~?
10
pyroc last ic
flow
plinian /
airfoil
soli
conQlomeral.
strotlfled
we ll sorled
dellolc sequence
120
Rouau tuff
20
phnlan
o" fo ll
/
E
<J
.c
Q.
CI)
10
altered
scorlaeeous
flow
140
160
. 0,
.0
0"'0
<)
100
30
pyroclastic
flaw
o.
35
<?
0 . 0
40
Core
GS 7605-2
Grand Fond
Roseau
....
"
, , '.
.,, ,
.
; 0
e.
..........
o ~ o
0:'
0
O' !o
Md , . 180
"'.
- --- - ~ ~-----
Md; ' 1 75
180
200
.....
.
----- ------;,
Md , . 166
2Z0
- ----_....:.::..----118
I
114
112
10
I
Md(mm)
Figure 9.3 The Roseau ignimbrite on the island of Dominica and its submarine equivalents in the Grenada Basin. (a) Subaerial
distribution of the major young pyroclastic flow deposits and associated lava domes on Dominica. The Roseau ignimbrite
includes the more southerly of the two welded outcrops; the northern outcrop is another stratigraphic unit. (b) Distribution of
the Roseau subaqueous pyroclastic flow deposits. Solid circles indicate piston cores in which subaqueous deposits of
pyroclastic debris have been found. with their thicknesses. while open circles correspond to cores which do not contain them.
(c) Subaerial stratigraphy at two locations. (d) Submarine stratigraphy and grainsize profiles of three subaqueous deposits from
the piston core located in (b). (After Carey & Siqurdsson 1980.)
(b)
275
(c)
Figure 9.4 Submarine volcaniclastic deposits in piston cores from the Lesser Antilles arc. Scale bars are in centimetres. (a)
Roseau ash-fall layer in a core from the Atlantic Ocean, 700 km east of its source on Dominica. (b) Roseau 'subaqueous
pyroclastic flow' deposit in a core from Grenada Basin, 270 km west of Dominica. Note large pumice clasts. (c) Subaqueous
deposit with large clay rip-up clast in Grenada Basin. (d) Epiclastic sand. layer interbedded with hemipelagic sediment in a core
from the Grenada Basin. This thin deposit was possibly emplaced by a small turbidity current which transported sand-sized
volcaniclastic detritus derived from the narrow shelf between islands of the arc. (After Sigurdsson et al. 1980.)
276
mudstone
'.
'-'>--'
~;'OT",......,....~
,',.
~ ....:.'-'. ,...
..............;..:.;
. '-';"-'1
... . .... .
...
':
",', :
"
....
"
o . . .... ,
III
~ .......
'-~ l.~ ..... ~
.....
III.
.: = ... .
. - . t:
<,;.~
r,r ' .
' "
'..\
~.
' ','
"
oil
....
-, .~
. ... .
...
, '. , . :- . ;'!
~ . : .... ~III,!
..~ ;...
~ cJ,,~'''' .'!'-.I.i.. ~.
...'...... .-,.
.:;
of
'
'
lOP of maSSlYe
suboQueous pyroclosllC
flow depo,"
a reinterpretation of some of the Caradocian (Ordovician) volcanic rocks of North Wales (Howells et
al. 1973, 1985, E. H. Francis & Howells 1973),
and has been heightened by the comprehensive,
thought-provoking field guide for the Welsh
volcanic-sedimentary successions by Kokelaar et
al. (1984), and the more detailed descriptions of the
Ramsey Island succession by Kokelaar et al. (1985) .
Ignimbrites of the Capel Curig Volcanic Formation can be traced from an uninterrupted sequence
of subaerial, densely welded tuffs into three separate, welded, submarine ignimbrites which pass
upwards and laterally into current-bedded reworked tuffs and tuffaceous sandstones (E. H.
Francis & Howells 1973; Figs 9.6-8). Welding is
considered to have occurred underwater in the
submarine equivalents, and Francis and Howells
suggested that as a flow entered water an insulating
carapace of steam formed around it. However, at
the Capel Curig location, where the ignimbrites are
believed to have been welded subaqueously,
palaeontological evidence from the associated epiclastic sediments only indicates near-shore marine
conditions, while sedimentological evidence such as
bimodal cosets of large-scale cross-stratification,
suggests a tidal to subtidal shallow-marine environment. P. Sutcliffe (pers. comm.) even reports
mudcracks in epiclastic sediments between the
Garth Tuff and Racks Tuff at this location,
suggesting periodic exposure and desiccation.
However, a more accurate estimate of water depth
is a problem. One method is to use heights of sets of
large-scale cross-stratification, assuming that these
represent the minimum heights of dune bed-forms,
and the results of such an exercise suggest palaeowater depths of <10 m (Table 9.1). This approach
can be criticised for several reasons, but the
estimate agrees with water depths found in comparable present sedimentary environments. For
example, in a non-barred, high energy, near-shore
environment on the southern Oregon coast, Clifton
et al. (1971) found that dunes, formed in <5 m of
water, had heights between 30 and 100 cm, which
is about the range in heights of sets of cross-strata
found at Capel Curig (Table 9.1). At Capel Curig,
we therefore feel there might be an alternative
explanation, namely, that these thick ignimbrites
..-
.....-
\
/.
//
/'
1/
/1
...
......
,/
//
2b
., .
..
"
2b ,
....... .........
.......:':::::." 20', "
\'''~
',2b
. .,?
\2.
~~
2b
I
"
"-
"~
..
. --2b
""
II
22
D
D
0
21
20
--- ..
\
200
14
15
Ve.-'Ical Ical.
In metre,
10
firSI member
member boundaries
second member
20 lowe' subunll
IUhotoqlccl corlelellon
lines
rhyolite
100
13
r=;;;;~-op.
12
thud member
::::::~~
;;:::::
--
2b upper subun u
2b
rr ---O --- IJ
...,-.'
""
10
II
12
---
Ilhe-eous n.odules
common
rl:C'rysfallisQUon fabriCs.
domU'1an ~Qty fe ldspar
Figure 9.6 Correlation of tuff members within the Capel Curig Volcanic Formation, Wales, and the depositional
setting. Welded ignimbrites form Members 1, 2b and 3. Note the close association of siliceous nodules and the
marine environment. (After Howells et al. 1979.)
278
Table 9.1 Water palaeodepths of shallow-marine sediments intercalated with Caradocian welded ignimbrites in Snowdonia,
North Wales.
Sediments
No. of sets of
cross-strata
measured
Range in heights
of cross-strata
(em)
Range in
water depth
(m)
Mean
water depth
(m)
12
10-70
3.2-11.1
54
10
10-50
2.3- 84
3.1
21
15-90
4.0-14.0
5.4
12
12-60
2.9-10.3
3.1
Water palaeodepths were estimated from the maximum heights of sets of large-scale cross-stratification which are assumed
to represent heights of dune bedforms using the relationship (determined by Allen, 1968) H = 0.086d 119 , where H is the height
of the dune bed-form and d is the water depth. 95% confidence limits were placed on Allen's (1968) data, and the range in water
depth was determined from the depth minima and maxima.
sw
NE
mtlrl'
Melres
o
o
o
0 0
000
,In
accretionary lap,UI
Roc.s Tull
I-------l
rewo<ked 'ull
D
D
bedded sondstone
dlS'urbed sondslone
moss,..
~//////~
200
we lded luff
100
Gorth Tull
moss .. e welded '9n,mbrole w,lh Slhceous
nodule. ond reworked top
300
(b)
(0)
1m
L..-.--J
c:::J
..4-
Deddlnq
eleovOQf
boddin9
planar flamm.
IIn eor flamme
CJ ~~~:I:~I
D IOndo'ono
dol.,.,1: 8 rhyolltl
85
(c)
---
10m
'----'
279
o...............
20m
Figure 9.9
280
281
282
EJ
:.
<..accompanying
.::') x-~\a~Sh cloud
.)..\s!~!
.
.
283
'"""'
sea
violent explosions and
mixing with water
on entering sea
Figure 9.11 One possible model for what occurs when a subaerially erupted pumice flow enters the sea. The density of the
pumice flow depicted is greater than 1.0 g cm- a It has been almost destroyed as a gas-particulate flow by violent explosions
on entering the sea. The accompanying ash-cloud surge with a density much less than 1.0 g cm- 3 has ridden across the
surface of the sea. As turbulence becomes less effective, the larger clasts in this must drop out into the sea, and eventually
the surge is depleted in solid material. Presumably something similar happens when a pumice flow with a density less than
that of water enters the sea, although in detail. particle-support mechanisms may be very different (Ch. 7).
284
(a)
B~ginn i ng
of erupt ion
.eo level
Figure 9.12 Model for the submarine eruption of 'subaqueous pyroclastic flows'. (After Fiske & Matsuda 1964;
see text.)
285
286
ISLAND VOLCANO
...
...
o......
II~O'
we lded IQnimbrote
non - welded pumice flow deposil
Figure 9.13 Schematic model for the passage of pyroclastic flows into the sea. and the transportation of
volcaniclastic material as mass flows from island volcanoes
into ocean basins (see text),
287
%CoCO
10
20
%C loy
0
10
20
Md ~
~
2r----"'~--,---,6
% Pumice c:::::J
% li thlcs
c::J
% crystols c::J
40
60
80
100
f!
!f
-:-:- G
10
20
DQI
30
40
: A ._-------=========
-----------============
ocean currents,
(b)
secondary slumping,
o,
....
:,>. . ....
:
- 1000 -
Cr om ... , 11 currtM
wut.ord li mit of lay., l
IOem lupach
QUOltr nOr:r
'1-
.,) 9-
T..
.'
./
'.
0 .......
............
200 0
4cm
volcano
PERU
288
(c)
(d)
bioturbation and
compaction.
Although wind transport is the dominant dispersal mechanism, the strength and direction of
ocean currents will have an important effect on the
distribution of the ash in the marine environment.
Ninkovich and Shackleton (1975) attributed the Wshaped pattern of the Worzel L ash layer to the
effect of the strong equatorial undercurrent, or
Cromwell current, moving eastwards across the
Pacific at a depth between 100 and 300 m, and a
speed of 100-150 cm S-l (Fig. 9.15). As well as
surface and near-surface currents, bottom currents
can cause reworking and redistribution, and in
terminology applied to clastic sediments, such
layers would be called contourites (Stow & Lovell
1979).
Ash which settles-out on top of submarine
topographic highs will be susceptible to secondary
slumping, generating turbidity currents. The consequence of such processes is an increase in ashlayer thickness in basins, and a thinning or removal
of ash layers from highs and steep slopes. In the
basins a succession of ash turbidites may be
deposited by repeated slumping during or after an
eruption. Figure 9.14 shows the lithology of several
(a)
To
, N : eruption ceases
o .' ' .
loroesi
:a:-AI
'\.
.'.
0'"
I oroest
l
" ash
,,~moll.r'o ash
A.
overlo~es
'
(d)
(b)
o 0
..
'
In woter co lumn
: : .... : ....
lime (I.)
\\ -- - L - - - :
(e)
I: laroesl' Nash ( AN ) a smallesl'0 ash Ihol Is
overloken (0 ) are bolh deposited
r N I ' r Nt 10 + selthnq lime of A Nosh (rA N) a
r N.1 '0+ '. + setlhno time of 00 ash (Tao)
Tao + TAN ' TN- TO ' durolion
,
Settling time
Low
Tao
TAN
High
Top , . - - - - - . - - - - - - - - - . - - - . - - - - ,
I---- duration - - - -
'"
~o
Q.
;;
~
o
.,E
.s::
....c.
Q)
==--_______
Base l..-_-..L.._ _
Lorge
..J
Small
Particle size
Figure 9.17 Theoretical grading of the coarsest and finest
particles in a deep-sea ash layer. Explanation is in the text.
The duration is estimated from the difference in settling
times of the coarsest and finest particles at the level where
a marked inflection occurs in the grading of coarse particles.
(After Ledbetter & Sparks 1979.)
289
290
.
:0
20
>-
.2
.s:::.
:g
10
aQ).
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
duration
<,\o\.;,~
C:J' ~Ci
~:
size
>-
/-
>+
30
1-*"1-------------
I
..,
.s:::.
Ul
220
180
140
100
60
20
20
.5
.s:::.
a.
= 27days
-duration
0
260
723
.
:0
r--------------------
340 300
(hours)
50r-----,-----------,---~
40
smallest
particle
/'
lei
Settling time
67
= 20 days
\(J.I/
.s:::.
522
.",Ci;&
c:
(b)
37
10
o
300
;-1Iic
Co
260
220
180
140
100
60
20
J.
FURTHER READING
291
Plate 10 (a) Aerial view of the incised stratovolcano, Mt Egmont. New Zealand. The diameter of near- circular vegetated area is
about 20 km. Egmont is a multi-vent centre, the principal visible ones are at the centre of the cone, the parasitic vent. Fanthams
Peak, just south of the central vent, and those associated with the small domes. An older, more degraded volcano lies to the
north. The rugged, ampitheatre-like area between the central vent and Fanthams Peak is thought to have resulted from sector
collapse producing a major debris flow unit, the Opua Formation (Neall 1979). (b) Erosional canyon on the flanks of the
stratovolcano Mt Egmont. New Zealand, cut into fluviatile sheet flood, lahar, air-fall deposits and lavas.
292
CHAPTER TEN
Epiclastic processes in
volcanic terrains
Initial statement
Volcanic eruptions are short-lived and occupy only
a small time interval in the total history of a
volcano, especially on large volcanoes. Their principal effect is aggradational, building up the surface
relief against the base level to which erosional
processes work. Repose periods between eruptions
occupy the bulk of the time interval covering the
history of a volcano. Given the effects of aggradation
above erosional base level, the development of high
slope angles overall or locally, and the general
abundance of loose erodible debris, it is not
surprising that the long-lived repose periods are
dominated by normal epic1astic surface processes:
erosion, transportation and redeposition. In this
chapter we review the types of epic1astic processes
that are likely to occur in both subaerial and
10.1 Introduction
Volcanic terrains have rarely been looked at from
the point of view of epic1astic sedimentology. They
have most commonly been considered to be the
realm of igneous processes. Yet given the abundance
of loose debris and the overall steep slopes, the
processes of erosion, transportation and redeposition of fragmental debris constitute a major phase
of activity in the majority of volcanic terrains.
In this chapter we examine the types of epiclastic
293
295
296
o,
4km
!
Table 10.1
Sediment transport in both volcanic and nonvolcanic terrains takes place in two basic forms: in
particulate fashion, whereby each particle behaves
individually, or by mass-movement, whereby a
packet of sediment is moved as one, essentially
instantaneously. In particulate sediment movement,
particles have the freedom to move as individuals in
response to the forces acting on them. In massmovement, because a large population of fragments
is moving en masse, particle freedom is largely
inhibited, and collisions and dynamic interaction
between fragments is common. As well as subdividing sediment movement on the basis of it being
particulate or by mass-movement, further subdivision can be made on the basis of the involvement of an interstitial medium as follows (Table
10.1):
no necessary interstitial medium
ice as an essential interstitial medium
water as an essential interstitial medium
air as an essential interstitial medium
The function of an interstitial medium is to drive
sediment movement, provide grain-support or act
as a lubricant.
Epiclastic
Nearest primary
volcanic analogue
(f)
297
grain flow
particulate
(a) ice rafting
(b) glaciers
mass-movement
(c) glaciers
(d) permafrost creep
lahars (herein)
298
10.3.1 SEDIMENTTRANSPORTNOT
DEPENDENT ON AN INTERSTITIAL
MEDIUM
In this situation there is no interstitial medium to
drive sediment movement, provide grain-support
or act as a lubricant for sediment movement. The
only force causing sediment movement is gravity,
and the gravitational potential of the sediment. This
can occur either in particulate fashion, and includes:
rockfall,
slides,
avalanches and
grain flows.
Particle creep
Suboqueously
Particle creep involves the slow, almost imperceptible, downslope movement of individual particles,
again solely under the influence of gravity. The
particle rolls or slides bit by bit. Strictly, particle
creep is unaided by any medium but, in practice,
on exposed slopes rainfall, splash erosion, surface
water sheet flow and the effects of wind will almost
certainly be periodic causes of movement as well as
gravity. There may also be an alternation between
creep, tumbling and free fall and, where a large
number of particles move together, mass-movement
sliding, avalanching or grain flow will obviously
occur. Particle creep can occur on any slope,
whether it be subaerial or subaqueous, where a
particle has gravitational potential. Particle creep
will be widespread in volcanic terrains where
unconsolidated debris lies on slopes. Its influence
in ancient deposits may be almost impossible to
recognise, since it produces no unique structure.
Rockfall
This form of mass-movement is a direct extension
of particle free fall discussed above, but involves
multiple particles or a large volume of rock matter.
Again, a volume of rock is dislodged, and then free
falls. After impact at a break in slope it may
avalanche or tumble very rapidly downslope under
its own momentum and the influence of gravity,
Figure 10.3 Mass-movement rockfall and avalanche producing an unstructured. base of slope talus deposit.
Figure 10.4 The scar of the Olekele rockfall-avalanchedebris flow event, Olekele Gorge, Kauai, Hawaii. (After B. L.
Jones et al. 1984.)
299
Slides
In slides (or landslides or rockslides) the dislodged
mass of rock maintains contact with and shears over
the substrate. It moves as an essentially coherent
mass under the influence of gravity. If it acquires
enough momentum it may even climb and slide up
slope, as appears to have been the case with the
Vaiont slide in Italy. In most cases slides will be
initiated on relatively steep slopes. Their scale may
be enormously variable. They may be very small,
local, insignificant events, or they may be major
catastrophic events involving millions of tonnes of
rock. Examples of major subaerial slides have been
adequately documented in the volume edited by
Voight (1978). Subaqueous slides (e.g. D. G.
Moore 1978) should be just as common given the
extra lubrication provided by an aqueous environment, even though water is not an essential
influence in the movement of slides. The source
areas for slides should be marked by major scars.
In volcanic terrains slides should be very common, given steep slopes and the interbedding of
lithologies of very diverse mechanical properties.
Such slides may be very local in significance, or
may involve large-scale sector collapse of the
volcano (e.g. Vi 1983; Fig. 10.5 & Plate 10). One of
the best known slides of recent times in volcanic
terrains was the spectacular one initiating the
devastating 18 May 1980 eruption of Mt St Helens.
The growth of a high-level magma reservoir within
the core of the stratovolcano caused gradual oversteepening of the northern flank of the volcano. On
18 May, apparently triggered by an earthquake, the
over steepened slopes collapsed, causing a huge
landslide which unroofed the magma reservoir, and
initiated a simultaneous phase of pyroclastic activity
(Fig. 1O.6a; Section 5.4; Christiansen & Peterson
300
Avalanches
301
10
1:
.2'
~
:r:
O I-t-....L..-~'---f-~'----"'T""----"'T""--
0 1
10
100
Length (km)
Figure 10.8 Apparent coefficient of friction according to
the Coulomb law for sliding friction for volcanic rock
avalanches, non-volcanic rock avalanches and ignimbrites.
The apparent coefficient is defined as the vertical height
moved to the projected horizontal distance travelled, HIL.
A/so see Figure 7.2. (After Ui 1983.)
302
303
Grain flow involves the spontaneous, passive downslope rolling and sliding of a population of cohesionless grains that together constitute a moving grain
layer. The grains move solely under the influence of
gravity, and not under the influence of an external
shear stress, induced, for example, by flowing
water or wind. However, grain-to-grain collisions
which produce a transfer of momentum are an
important mechanism in maintaining the mobility
of the entire grain-flow layer. These collisions
produce a reaction force, called dispersive pressure.
Given that the grains are cohesionless and that no
viscous interstitial fluid is involved, the dispersive
pressure or collisions operate in an inertial regime.
Grain flows can also occur subaqueously in more
viscous water, and grain collisions also occur in
very viscous fluids such as mud (e.g. in debris
flows) . In those situations the collision events are
buffered by pressure gradients set up in the viscous
Grain flow
stobility
(S; onQle of repose)
Figure 10.11 Two common occurrences of grain flow. (a) Lee-side cascading of grain-flow layers in ripples and dunes so
forming intemal cross-stratification and resulting in downcurrent migration of the ripple or dune. A carpet of grains is eroded
off the up-current side of the ripple and moved to the crest by the tractive force of the current. Oversteepening occurs at the
crest and a grain-flow layer cascades down the lee-side face, into the space called the separation zone over which flow
streamlines pass. (b) Grain flow on scree slopes initiated by oversteepening to the angle of initial yield. Grain-flow restores the
slope to a more stable attitude equal to or less than the angle of repose.
304
Figure 10.12 (a) Scree slopes in the rift vent formed by the 1886 eruption of
Mt Tarawera, New Zealand. The older rhyolitic dome complex of Tarawera was
mantled by basaltic tephra (dark) of the 1886 eruption and both sources are
contributing to the scree slope debris. The trails of individual grain flows are
represented by the streaks on the scree slope surfaces. (b) Pyroclastically
erupted and deposited (air-fall) debris of Pukeonake cone, New Zealand . Following air-fall deposition the debris was moved
downslope by grain flow, producing a series of slightly irregular, mostly reverse-graded grain-supported layers. Reversegrading is especially well developed in the upper coarsest layer, but also in lower layers.
ice rafting
glaciers,
or in mass-movement form by:
glaciers and
permafrost creep.
305
Ice rafting
The principles involved in deposition of sediment
after being ice-rafted are the same as those discussed
above for particle free fall (Section 10.3.1). An
iceberg carrying sediment, and perhaps originating
from a glacier flowing into sea water or from shelfice, begins to melt and, bit by bit, releases its
sediment load. Dropped boulders with impact
structures and draped sediment layers sh01.ild be
expected (Fig. 10.2). However, not all ice-rafted
dropstones necessarily produce impact structures,
especially if the dropstone still has attached to it a
large volume of ice, so reducing the total bulk
density of the dropstone and ice, and so very
markedly reducing the fall velocity. Volcanic terrains in high latitudes with associated marine
environments should therefore be the source for,
and site of, deposition of drops tones of volcanic
composition (Fig. 10.13), as well as those of other
compositions (e.g. Lisitzin 1962).
306
(8)
MOUNT RAINIER
Figure 10.14 (a) The stratovolcano Mt Rainier of the Cascades arc of westem North America. Note the Emmons Glacier, the
rock avalanche burying the toe of the glacier, Little Tahoma Peak, the source of the avalanche 600 m above the glacier, the
moraine deposits of the glacier, and the White River, the braided outwash river of the glacier (after Fahnestock 1978). (b)
Thorsnarsk Glacier, Iceland and its associated fluvial outwash system. (c) Snow cap and summit glacier, Mt Kilimanjaro in the
equatorial zone of the East Africa Rift Zone, Africa (photograph by Frances Williams).
307
Glaciers (mass-movement)
Glacial transport also essentially involves massmovement as well as particulate transport, because
till of lermlno l
mora ine
308
Permafrost creep
Permafrost creep involves the very slow downslope
creep of a frozen surface ground layer. That layer
may be soil or loose surface aggregate in which
interstitial ground water has become frozen, and
due to position on slope, the whole frozen layer of
rock matter and ice acquires an increased gravitational potential which drives its slow passage
down slope. On melting, an unstructured pile of
material is deposited, perhaps preserving some
original stratigraphy, and perhaps containing less
finely ground or milled clay size material than in
true glacial till.
10.3.3 SEDIMENT TRANSPORT INVOLVING
WATER AS AN ESSENTIAL
INTERSTITIAL MEDIUM
traction,
suspension and flotation,
in solution,
and in mass-movement by:
Traction
Tractional sediment transport produces a very
important group of sedimentary structures called,
appropriately, tractional sedimentary structures (e.g.
----+
bedlood
roll.nQ
slod,nQ
309
150
Vl
E
0
100
80
'0 60
0
Q)
>
....
40
30
_----
QI
-- -- -- --
RIPPLES
.Q
-NO MOVEMENT
v. coarse
sand
20
0.'
0.125
0.2 0.250.3
0.4 0.50.6
0.8 1.0
(mm)
1.5
2.0
310
LOWER FLOW
REGIME
Silt
t\
---------------
~ ~~~~~~=-
" ......
...... ......
~ \--- ~ ~ ......~~~~~ ~
~\
'-
~\
~\
o,
'-
100
t
"""'--<f\"\"~~"""'I.'~~
!
'-
~
'!
200
,
ri pples
cross -
lamination
lowe r plane
bed a hero lonto l
lam inati on
(coarse t o e. r y
coars e sand)
sandwav.
du ne
plan ar
Irough
cross crou bedding
beddIng
( angle of re pose)
upper pla ne
bod a herllontol
laminat ion
antIdune a
diffuso low
ang lo crossstral if lcotionl
m QSSlve
deposits
U/vgh
(10.1)
(a)
311
Figure 10.19 (a) Ripple cross-lamination in pumiceous sands, 5 m terrace Lake Taupo, New Zealand. Current flow from left to right. Note the lenses of
large pumice trapped in the much finer-grained sands suggesting that because of the very vesicular, low density nature, and its flotational abilities, such
large pumice is hydraulically equivalent to very much smaller, denser grains. (b) Angle of repose trough cross-bedding in coarse pumiceous fluviatile
sediment. Locality as for (a) current flow from right to left. (c) Planar angle of res pose cross-bedding, in fluvio-Iacustrine volcanic sandstone, Lower
Devonian Snowy River Volcanics, W-Tree, Victoria, Australia. Current flow from left to right. (d) Planar, horizontal lamination and massive bedding
(= antidune stage) in fluviatile volcanic sandstones of the Cretaceous Strzelecki Group, Gippsland Basin, Victoria, Australia.
(a)
Figure 10.19 (continued) (e) Low-angle, possible antidune cross-stratification in the submarine Eocene-Oligocene Waiareka-Deborah volcanics,
Oamaru, New Zealand. Current flow from left to right. (f) Scour and fill structures (=? swales) Pleistocene (7) Makariki Tuff, Rewa Hill. New Zealand.
The view is end-on to sets of trough cross-bedded pumiceous sands. (g) Two-directional cross-stratification and symmetrical ripples formed by nearshore wave oscillation, ancestral Lake Taupo shoreline, Puketapu, New Zealand. (h) Mound of hummocky c.ross-stratified marine volcanic sandstone.
Permian 'Gerringong Volcanics', Broughton Formation, Kiama, New South Wales, Australia.
314
tractional sedimentary structures. High flow velocities can lead to high volumes of sediment in
suspension, which then begin to verge on massflow conditions, which will be discussed below.
Under high enough velocities, even gravel-sized
material can be lifted into suspended transport,
even if only intermittently.
Where the sediment particles are clay platelets,
suspension transport can occur in even very slow
laminar flow conditions. This is due to their small
mass and their plate-like form which give them
buoyancy, but also because of the electrostatic
interaction between the water molecules and the
charged clay platelets, which produces an electrostatic force support effect. Deposition of suspended
clay particles will only occur under very still
conditions in a standing body of water (lake,
abandoned channel, swamp, deep ocean), by settling of clays out of the water column, producing
massive clay layers (Fig. 10.20). These may periodically be interrupted by coarser layers introduced
by fluvial crevasse splay events, or subaqueous
turbidity current transport, or some other shortlived , high energy sedimentation event.
These epiclastic processes all operate in volcanic
terrains in the rivers, lakes, shorelines and seas
associated with different volcanic settings. The
products will be tractional deposits such as those
illustrated in a variety of situations in Figure 10.19,
315
Figure 10.21 (a) Floating pumice on a roadside pond (note splash from thrown
stone) east of Lake Taupo. New Zealand. The pumice is derived from the
deposits of the major AD 186 Taupo eruption. discussed further in Chapters 7 & 8. (b) Old lake deposits exposed in a 5 m
terrace, shores of Lake Taupo, New Zealand. The deposits consist of muds, peat layers, phreatoplinian ashes and pumice
falls that may have settled out of suspension from a quiet water body.
and suspension fall-out muds such as those illustrated in Figures 10.20 and 2l.
However, in volcanic settings material very
much coarser than clays, even gravel-sized material,
may also result from very slow settling out of the
water column under quiet water conditions. The
origin of this very coarse material is neither tree
rafting nor ice rafting, but as self-rafted floating
pumice. The bulk density of pumice may be
significantly less than that of water because of the
dominant void space. It therefore has enormous
flotational potential (Fig. 1O.21a). There are many
accounts in the literature of pumice which has
floated around the world before coming to land
after specific marine volcanic eruptions (e.g.
Richards 1958). Pumice can, of course, also float in
lakes (e.g. the giant pumice blocks discussed in Ch.
13 from La Primavera volcano, Mexico), and can be
washed onshore as a shoreline deposit. However,
because of its porosity pumice will soak up a lot of
water and may eventually become sufficiently
waterlogged to sink like waterlogged wood. In a
significant study of the hydraulic behaviour of cold
and hot pumice clasts, Whitham and Sparks (in
press) have shown that the water-logging of cold
316
In solution
In all environments natural waters carry dissolved
chemical components that have been weathered or
leached out of ambient rock matter. This should be
a particularly important process in volcanic settings
with their abundance of metastable glass in lavas,
intrusives, and pyroclastic and epiclastic deposits.
In surface and subsurface waters these chemical
components may flocculate as clays, or may precipitate as other mineral species as surface deposits
and pore fillings, given the right chemical conditions. Flocculation of clays may occur in surface
waters at the interface between fresh and saline
waters. Precipitation of siliceous sinter (e.g. Fig.
10.22) and sulphide minerals, often under the
influence of biogenic agents such as bacteria and
algae, may occur from hydrothermal systems.
Although these processes are not strictly epiclastic,
they are included here briefly to illustrate that the
waters so frequently responsible for surface epiclastic transport are simultaneously or penecontemporaneously also moving considerable volumes
of rock matter in dissolved form, both at the surface
and in recirculating subsurface systems. The volumes of water and rock matter involved over a
significant geological time interval should not be
underestimated.
highland river valleys where all runoff is concentrated into narrow steep-sided gorges and valleys.
Vessell and Davies (1981) and D. K. Davies et
al. (l978c) described the fluvial dynamics and
317
318
clast suspension plays an important part. Importantly, these coarse-grained conglomeratic turbidites
testify to the competency of turbidity currents to
transport and support gravel-sized clasts by fluid
turbulence as suggested by Komar (1970). The
variations in the character of conglomeratic turbidite
deposits suggest that a composite facies model
along the lines of the extended Bouma sequence can
also be tentatively made for these (Fig. 1O.26c;
R. G. Walker 1984) although such a model is not as
confidently constructed as for sandy turbidites.
Again, in any deposit not all divisions need be
present. Lowe (1982) produced a comprehensive
breakdown of the variations in the deposits of
subaqueous mass-flow processes, with particular
emphasis on those of high density, high particle
concentration granular mass flows. In his scheme,
Lowe distinguishes the effects of traction, traction
carpet and suspension fall-out sedimentation, the
first two developing in coarse sand to gravel
deposits. Lowe's facies subdivisions from bottom to
top in a theoretically complete sedimentation unit
are: a basal gravelly, plane laminated to crossstratified division (SI-traction), a division of shear
layers with reverse grading (Sz-traction carpet,
equivalent to our al division), a division of massive
non-graded to normally graded, sometimes with
water escape structures (Srsuspension, equivalent
to our az and/or a3 divisions), followed perhaps by
(b)
(0 )
e
d
C2
b2
Cz
CI
bl
03
al
(c)
bz
2
01
bl
000000
:~~~~jr.
0000000
oQoooo
00000
OOOQ
000
oogg
00 0
%3
'2
.at:?00000
0
0
~ooOO
. , '" 100
ODooeo
319
ZI
massive mudstone
laminated mudstone, siltstone
c2 ripple cross - lamination
b2 plane bed laminated sands
sands
c I cross - bedded coarse
bl plane bed laminated coo rse sands
normally
graded
sands
03
02 non - graded sands
reverse graded sands
01
x horizontally bedded fine gravels a sands
cross - stratified fine gravels a sands
z 3 normally graded gravels
z2 non - graded gravels
z l reverse graded gravels
e
d
Figure 10.26 Three generalised. complete facies models for turbidity currents. (a) Silt to coarse sand
turbidites (after Cas 1979). (b) Coarse sand to fine gravel turbidites (after Cas 1979, Allen 1970b) (c) Gravel
turbidites, in which imbrication may be present in the gravels (after R. G. Walker 1975).
320
321
322
82 m
orthwut
"
f/
:::
~
\\
"
f/
II
It
r. .
1/
~
200
=
f/
.?
200m
:::
II
\\
~
I
"
f/
200
200
I II
::
f/
,,
:::,..
1/
\I
Southlast
:::
'/
f/
""
400
200
at
I :::
I \I
,,~ ~ /!
,, -
100
5km
[]
. ..
Q
vnr lclosls
( Mesas cooic scale )
5]
l ava boulders
rm
-~
[IJ
tJ
..,
~
[E
arenite bed
($ 1.5 metres Ihick)
correlation datum at
the bose of Member 0
eroliona l or i"eoulor
contact
rrn
0 '
rud ite
IT]
Figure 10.27 Facies characteristics and correlations for very thick (see scale) crystal-rich highly concentrated turbidity
current flow deposits and intercalated lavas, Lower Devonian Merrions Tuff Formation, southeastem Australia. (After Cas
1978b.) Numbers at the tops of columns are section numbers, letters identify informal stratigraphic members.
pyroclastic flows can maintain their integrity subaqueously. We therefore favour epiclastic flow and
grain-support mechanisms for relatively deepwater, coarse granular volcaniclastic deposits, unless they can be demonstrated to be of air-fall origin.
Unfortunately, there are numerous references to
subaqueous and submarine pyroclastic flow deposits
and events in the literature, when the deposits
clearly bear the imprint of epiclastic mass-flow
facies characteristics (e.g. Lajoie 1984). Perhaps the
intention was to identify (epiclastic) flows of pyroclastic debris (i.e. debris originally fragmented
pyroclastically, but redeposited by epiclastic massflow processes. Lajoie (1984) for example, illustrates
numerous deposit types which are identical to the
facies models described here in Figures 10.25 and
26 (see R. G. Walker 1984), but clearly labels them
to be subaqueous pyroclastic flow deposits implying, perhaps unintentionally, gas support flow
mechanisms for which there is no evidence.
Similarly Niem (1977) and Yamada (1984) discuss
subaqueous pyroclastic flow deposits and imply a
pyroclastic flow mechanism. There is no doubt that
fragmentation was by pyroclastic explosive activity,
as shown by well defined shards in the case of
Niem's successions. However, final transportation
and deposition appear to have been from watersupported epiclastic mass-flow processes, as was
the case for the shard bearing Merrions Tuff units
of Cas (1979, 1983a) and the Dali Ash of J. V.
Wright and Mutti (1981). Niem (1977) even documents tabular cross-stratification high in his depositional units, and flute marks at the bases of his
units, suggesting aqueous turbulent flow conditions
in the flows. Yamada (1984) describes the deposition
of his units as being by turbidity currents, yet still
calls them pyroclastic flow deposits. They would
appear to be epiclastic turbidites transporting
pyroclastic debris! That the detritus was originally
fragmented pyroclastically is incidental to the fact
that epiclastic mechanisms were responsible for
final deposition, and we believe that this distinction
should be clearly made. Both the Niem and
Yamada accounts are also valuable in demonstrating
the flotational capacity of pumice, which in places
forms high level, reverse-graded pumice zones in
depositional units.
323
325
Figure 10.28 (a) Conglomeratic base of submarine crystal-rich volcaniclastic turbidite of the Lower Devonian Merrions Tuff
discussed in Cas (1979). Note large flame structure. The bed is several metres thick and shows coarse-tail grading. (b) Steeply
dipping, white weathering pumiceous ash turbidites, Obispo Tuff, Twichell Dam, California. (c) Amalgamated basaltic
volcaniclastic turbidites, Eocene-Oligocene Waiareka-Deborah volcanics, Oamaru, New Zealand. (d) Thinly bedded,
amalgamated, pumiceous lacustrine turbidites, Quaternary Huka beds, Huka Falls, New Zealand. (e) Normally graded, 25 cm
thick, lacustrine volcaniclastic turbidite, Late Devonian Boyd Volcanic Complex, Bunga Head, New South Wales, Australia. (f)
Storm-generated shelf turbidites derived from a latite source. Tops of turbidites are highly bioturbated. Units are internally
massive and graded. Permian 'Gerringong Volcanics', Broughton Formation. Kiama. New South Wales, Australia.
326
Glnero l
lerm
Turb.d.ty
S plclflc
term
lurbulence
'0
Deb". flo w
gram
upward
mtugronulo,
lIow
Slurry
flow
Groin
Ilow
L.quehed tHor
flu .d d
sed,ment flow
current
Se dime nt
tupport
ml cho nl lm
(gravity) flow
tn/~rocllon
(collISion
Inerflol dlSptlrSIV8
p'BSSlJr.
molr", slrenglll 8
buoyancy ,SCOUS
d,spBrSlvB
prtSSu'B
~OoOoJ
0 0
@
remouldlllg.
II'lUllfOCllon
'
!::
Deb".
flow
....
"",,
\.I
CD
f luid
lurbulllnCII
<:)
ri vers
,n fl ood
--....
CD
High cDncllnlrOIlOn
lurbidlly
currllnl
CD
Lo w conCllnlrDIIOn
lurbl(/IIy CUff Bill
1",.",'7
!!
,. P
\.I
'!::I/)
ltJ U 0 b
/
I
\
\
grolll
mlllroctlon
(trocllon) (trocllon)
o;,:0'B flUids
Figure 10.29 (a) Different grain-support mechanisms and related flow types in the realms of subaqueous mass flow (after
Middleton & Southard 1978), (b) Modes of initiating subaqueous mass flows, possible evolution paths and generalised
characteristics of deposits (after R, G, Walker 1978), The cirded numbers correspond to the principal grain-support process
operating, depicted in (a),
327
Facies
Gro 1 foclts
spectrum
Mud focI ..
Sand foclII
I ~~rod'"_"
I
; ~:'M ~
I' dL
,."Ii
', ' .
)"1
~tt\
tl -
i v.
~'i':.
. ,- ,I
-1
' ~.
~~
Process
.,~
.J
";
.;: :~.
LL'
"
s~.
:::1
__ ,
__ J dL, oc
""p . absent
,"'
middle
dL - di ffuse 10y"ronO
- dense closls
coarse
..
~~ ". ~"-r-
MUD _
STON E
. .~.:.
~~'~~~ CIOIIl
~. d OI90n,ud
-
fob rlc
1\
III
11 I
111 17/
II
I? I ?
III I ? I
III I I V
?
oe -
& Z"
0
;:
Q.
"
I
y .
Id 111
I ? I I? I
I ? I 11\
..
..
.."
'>
U
'0
I~
oe
FLowl
Ii
Ii
dL
'0
'3
D
Ii
SANDY
'rOChon qrociln9
MOO t
ond lor tont e nl
STO E
~. 9"odlnq (,e upwOtd
(SLURRY .~~" Increalt In. hnt'S)
Flow
eo"me
___
~
I ll y
; t
I;;
Bouma"Q
.,
Fluid
VISC O
I!.
~
Elrr,me
..
" B~J"I
o~<I
I ."
Flow
y . s co~
;~I
SlQutnces
obunt
~u,_ '
sed
~I
obllnl
Bouma
-_ =oci,1
Flow
leone. n OIIl y
~I
3"'
I
~, ~l::t ":.- I
I
Groon
su ppor t
(,I,eme
bo ..
MOUi~'
~~
,
Gron
PrOIl
Mud
s.d
obund obund mo" t y
spectrum
I-
...... ~,
~;;;
~~u !
A
8:"
+ ,
Id
:;
'0
~"O
'0
..
."
:>
0
-s
."
'-./
OUtsize clost
Figure 10.29 (continued) (c) A generalised process and facies spectrum for subaqueous mass flow. depicting the general
facies characteristics, the flow types. the physical properties of these, the grain-support processes operating and the general
physical conditions during flow (after Cas 1977),
Figure 10.30
debris flows,
Figure 10.31 (a) Volcanic debris flow (lahar) mantled by air-fall or surge deposits. Mt Egmont. New Zealand. Note open
framework organisation of clasts in the matrix which contains a high proportion of sand-sized volcanic detritus. (b) Tangiwai
railway bridge over the Whangaehu River, draining off Mt Ruapehu, New Zealand. On Christmas Eve 1954 the railway bridge
was wiped out by a debris flow from Ruapehu, only minutes before a crowded train passed by and crashed into the river, with
major loss of life. Boulders in the river may have been transported by debris flow, but the river has washed finer matrix away.
(c) Semicircular erosion channel gouged out into underlying bedded volcaniclastic deposits by a marine grain-dominant debris
flow, Bridge Point. Kakanui, New Zealand, Eocene-Oligocene Waiareka- Deborah volcanics. The base of the debris flow has a
diffuse layering parallel to the outline of the channel representing the basal laminar shear flow zone. Large clasts are
concentrated in the central massive plug zone. (d) Same debris flow deposit as in (c), showing open framework texture of
basaltic blocks, including a prominent breadcrusted block. (From Cas & Landis in prep.)
Slumps
Slumps are coherent masses of aggregate that creep,
slide or flow down slope leaving an erosion scar
behind, to which the tail of the slump is still
attached. They are therefore local in significance
and represent incipient slides, with which they
form a continuum. Internally soft-sediment deformation may be apparent, but original layering is
still preserved. The role of water in this case is to
lubricate movement. Slumping can occur subaerially or subaqueously; in the former case slumping is
not unusual after heavy rainfall.
Soil creep
Imperceptible, downslope creep of soil or surface
aggregate, lubricated by interstitial water is common
on all landscapes with steep slopes.
traction and
suspension,
329
(a)
330
Plate 11 Photomicrograph of crystal-rich aggregate from the Lower Devonian Merrions Tuff. central westem New South
Wales. Australia. Note the juvenile grains of volcanic quartz. microperthitic orthoclase and albitised plagioclase in closed
framework organisation.
332
CHAPTER ELEVEN
11.1 Introduction
Having dealt with pyroclastic and epiclastic processes and products in previous chapters, we now look
at one particular lithofacies, crystal-rich volcaniclastics, as a way of showing that particular
lithofacies can have diverse origins. Like volcaniclastics rich in glassy or lithic components, crystalrich volcaniclastics can be produced by either
pyroclastic processes or epiclastic processes, or by a
combination of the two. They are not uncommon in
333
CRYSTAL
TUFF ASH
Crystals
crystal fragments
Rock
fragments
335
modern active volcanoes, their close spatial relationship to the velu being one of the most
compelling reasons for invoking a near-vent ash-fall
origin (e.g. the samples cited by H. Williams et al.
1954). The term crystal tuff pervades the general
stratigraphic geological literature on ancient volcanic successions, often without clear qualification
of the origins of the deposit in question. In some
instances, the term has been clearly applied to rocks
that are strictly redeposited tuffaceous sandstones,
and even to very labile, turbidite greywackes.
Unless qualified the term 'crystal tuff can only be
taken to mean that the relevant crystal-rich volcaniclastic aggregates are of ash-fall origin and that they
are derived directly from the explosive eruption of
crystal-rich magma. However, work in recent years
is beginning to show that 'crystal tuffs' also occur as
pyroclastic flow deposits . In addition, eruptionrelated pyroclastic processes may be responsible for
causing the apparently crystal-rich nature of many
'crystal tuffs', and equally importantly, epiclastic
processes involving reworking or redeposition (note
the distinction), or both, may also be involved in
the genesis of so-called 'crystal tuffs'. However,
with the exception of the recent paper by Cas
(1983a), there has been little or no attempt to
review the possible origins of the spectrum of
crystal-rich volcaniclastic aggregates, and of the
conditions needed to produce true crystal tuffs.
336
CRYSTAL-RICH VOLCANICLASTICS
337
CRYSTALLISED MAGMAS
150
100
>-
()
c:
CI)
c. 1650
::l
0CI)
L.
LL
50
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
338
CRYSTAL-RICH VOLCANICLASTICS
comm.).
ignimbrite
1..+
2./\
'\
\
I,
I
\,
I
I
,
I
I
I
.
I
I
+,
I
I
I
,
I
I
ir\ 5t~-~+
4 ....
\.
339
t~;
7
j~
6., .,' "II
\
\\
\ \
\
' \
\ +\
I
\
...
I
l ~
L..-_---'''--_-e
Figure 11.4 Graphical representation of the proportions of glass (Pl. crystals (e) and lithics (L) in samples of artificially
crushed pumice (triangles) taken from within ignimbrites, and therefore representing whole rock samples of the erupting
magma, ignimbrite (closed circles) and associated co-ignimbrite ashes (crosses). Samples 1-6 are from ignimbrites and ashes
of Vulsini volcano, central Italy. Sample 7 is from the Minoan ignimbrite and its co-ignimbrite ash. Santorini. (After Sparks &
Walker 1977.)
Epiclastic processes can concentrate crystal fragments in several ways. The two principal modes are
normal reworking, especially of poorly consolidated
and unwelded ignimbrites and fall deposits, and
redeposition by relatively non-viscous regime massflow processes such as turbidity currents and
fluidised sediment flows (Ch. 10).
Reworking has two principal effects in this
regard. First, epiclastic reworking can sort grains of
different size or hydraulic equivalence, or both
(Ch. 1). A large amount of fine ash and highly
vesicular glassy fragments should therefore be
readily separated from denser crystal and lithic
fragments. Secondly, the abrasion effects associated
with reworking will abrade fragile, irregularly
shaped (especially vesicular) glassy fragments more
readily than crystals. Any degree of abrasive
reworking should therefore lead to physical breakdown and removal of vesicular glassy fragments
and concentration of crystals and dense lithics (e.g.
p
... f.rom ignimbrite} crushed
pumice
" f'om ash fall
o near top }
near bottom ignimbrite
ash fall
C~--------------5~o--------------~L
In this category, deposits whose modes offragmentation, transportation and deposition were purely
pyroclastic are included. Deposits such as crystalrich air-fall ashes and tuffs, crystal-rich surge
deposits and crystal-rich pyroclastic flow deposits
(ignimbrites) are also included.
G. P. L. Walker (1971) and G. P. L. Walker
and Croasdale (1971) have described crystalenrichment processes associated with air-fall de-
341
342
CRYSTAL-RICH VOLCANICLASTICS
gas segregation pipes, continuous from the underlying ignimbrite, and so also indicating a contemporaneous relationship. The crystal enrichment in
these surge deposits can thus be viewed as a
product of elutriation of fines, including some
crystals, from pyroclastic flows, their concentration
and separation into the trailing ash-cloud, and then
hydraulic sorting within the turbulent ash-cloud
leading to cells enriched in, and depleted in
crystals, which are represented by the alternating
crystal-rich and crystal-poor laminae in the surge
deposit.
Self (1976) also records crystal-rich (up to
44 wt%) surge deposits at the base of the Angra
ignimbrite on Terceira, Azores, although detailed
field descriptions are lacking and there is no
consideration of whether they are base-surge deposits or ground-surge deposits.
Crystal-rich ignimbrites or pyroclastic flow deposits
with crystal contents in excess of 40% are documented from both relatively young and old volcanic
successions. From the Western USA, for example,
Lipman (1975) and Byers et al. (1976) have
described the successions associated with mid- to
late-Tertiary, largely acidic volcanism. Lipman's
account is of the volcanic history associated with the
29-30 Ma old Platoro Caldera Complex of the
economically important and very large San Juan
volcanic province of Colorado and New Mexico.
The Platoro caldera formed during eruption of the
Treasure Mountain Tuff, which consists of three
members: the La Jara Canyon member (oldest), the
Ojito Creek member and the Ra Jadera member.
All are described as being quartz latites, but vary
markedly in crystal contents. Only the La Jara
Canyon member is particularly crystal-rich, containing approximately 40-50% crystals in the intracaldera fill units and 20-35% crystals in the outflow
sheet units. This discrepancy is not clearly explained, but may be due to tapping of different
parts of the magma chamber, suggesting that the
outflow sheet ignimbrites and the intracaldera fill
are of different ages and did not originate from the
same eruption phase (cf. Fig. 8.18). The overall
crystal-rich nature is presumably due to eruption of
an originally crystal-rich magma. No comparison of
the crystal content of the ignimbrite and pumice
Summary
Crystal-rich primary pyroclastics are not abnormal,
but their crystal-rich origin is not just simply due to
the eruption of a crystal-rich magma. Crystalenrichment processes during eruption are just as
important. Crystal-rich ashes and tuffs have been
documented from each of the main pyroclastic
deposit types: fall, surge and flow. Ignimbrites can
vary markedly in their crystal contents. This, in
large measure, reflects the degree of crystallisation
before eruption, and for crystal-rich ignimbrites it
probably implies significant crystallisation in high
level or shallow crustal chambers. During eruption
the crystal content may be modified by separation
of fine ash. However, it seems that some ignimbrites, especially intra caldera fill ones, may be
erupted without significant loss of glassy ash, which
has implications for the eruption mechanism (e.g.
Fig. 8.18). Clearly, more attention needs to be paid
343
Summary
These cases have highlighted the intimate interaction between pyroclastic and epiclastic processes.
It is clear that although a pyroclastic fragmentation
mode is demonstrable, final transportation and
deposition involved epiclastic processes that appear
to have been capable of causing significant crystal
concentration. Identification of this epiclastic
influence has been dependent on familiarity with
the sedimentary structures, textures and general
facies produced by epiclastic processes (Ch. 10). It
is important to note that mass-flow transportation
and deposition has not caused any abrasion or
rounding of even delicate shard fragments. This is
because the transportation time is too short and
abrasive impacts are buffered by the viscous
interstitial water. Furthermore, subaqueous resedimentation and mass-flow transport can redeposit juvenile volcanic debris long distances away
from source.
345
(~SF,~,:~
Cu.
;h/'0;Y'.&s::-0)
'-=-'-.:.-/
\,( ,
:,(" 5-
conc.nlfa/,M 01 eryS/al.
conc,nlrD/lon 01 "lsIOls
m/o body of flo w ;
lJu;tifsol/Dn Qnd , Iufr /allon
01 lin,s In IrOllln9 dl/ul.
I.dlm,nl cloudJ
Figure 11.6 (aHf) Schematic representation of the factors controlling the formation of crystal-rich pyroclastic and epiclastic
volcaniclastic deposits.
OVERVIEW
Summary
Epiclastic derivation of crystal-rich volcaniclastics
is also a common way of producing crystal-rich
volcaniclastics. Given the major role of epiclastic
processes, the final deposit should bear the imprint
of reworking or redeposition, or both, in terms of
textures and field facies characteristics (Ch. lO).
11.6 Overview
The foregoing has clearly demonstrated that the
genesis of crystal-rich volcaniclastics may be
complex (Fig. 11.6). In many cases they probably
347
Plate 12 Poorly sorted, matrix-supported volcanic breccia on the upper slopes of Mt Ruapehu on Pinnicle Ridge. Is this volcanic
breccia an explosion breccia (i.e. agglomerate) or a redeposited epiciastic breccia? The open framework character, the
sandy-muddy matrix, and the thick massive nature suggest the latter, which is consistent with the well-known frequency of
debris flow and lahar events on Mt Ruapehu.
348
CHAPTER TWELVE
Classification ofmodern
and ancient volcaniclastic
rocks ofpyroclastic and
epiclastic origins
Initial statement
In this chapter we first provide classification
schemes for modern pyroclastic deposits. We then
describe an approach to the classification oflithified,
indurated and metamorphosed volcaniclastic rocks
of the rock record, stressing the problems, and the
caution needed in giving names, even with basic
genetic meanings, to such rocks. This is followed
by a discussion of descriptive lithological criteria
and their relevance in determining the genesis of
ancient volcaniclastic rocks. The problems associated with the use of the terms 'agglomerate' and
'vulcanian' for ancient volcaniclastic rocks are
discussed and, finally, we comment on the nomenclature of quench-fragmented and auto brecciated
(flow brecciated) volcaniclastics.
12.1 Introduction
From the foregoing chapters it should be apparent
that recent work on young volcaniclastic deposits
has shown that genetic nomenclature is useful in
representing our understanding of fragmentation,
transportational and depositional mechanisms,
especially for pyroclastic deposits. It should also be
clear that genetic terminology cannot always be
349
pyroclastic falls,
pyroclastic flows and
pyroclastic surges,
and this will be the basis of the following classification schemes.
Table 12.1
351
Eruptive mechanism
magmatic
open vent
closed vent
Pyroclastic fall
Dispersal
Fragmentation
hawaiian
strombolian
sub-plinian
plinian
ultraplinian
small
low
v. wide
high
scoria
scoria
pumicet (scoria)
pumicet (scoria)
pumice
vulcanian
surtseyan
wide to moderate*
moderate
v. high to moderate*
v. high
basic+
phreatoplinian
v. wide
v. high
silicic ash+
Essential fragment
phreatomagmatic
* Dispersal and fragmentation of vulcan ian fall deposits depends on whether they are generated by short-lived explosions or
periods of intense maintained explosions (Ch. 6).
t Most sub-plinian and nearly all plinian deposits that have been documented are pumice falls. However, scoria-fall deposits
that are sub-plinian and even plinian in their dispersal characteristics are known (Ch. 6).
+ The type examples used to define these terms were basaltic for surtseyan and rhyolitic for phreatoplinian but. given the
right conditions, it may be possible to find rhyolitic surtseyan and even basaltic phreatoplinian ash falls (Ch 6). Further
studies are needed to characterise air-fall deposits produced in different types of hydrovolcanic eruption, i.e. between true
surtseyan (open vent in a surface body of water - lake, sea) and those formed by interaction of magma and ground water,
but having surtseyan dispersal characteristics.
modern pyroclastic fall deposits. As already discussed, this quantitative scheme relies on the accurate
mapping of a deposit and detailed granulometric
analysis (see Figs 6.15, 16 & 21). Enough data for
plinian and sub-plinian deposits are also now available to use thickness or maximum clast size to
characterise them on 'area plots' (Figs 6.18 & 19).
These plots have certain advantages because if, for
reasons of time or geography, it is not possible to
map a deposit to the 0.01 isopach, or to carry out an
extensive programme of sieving, the deposit can still
be accurately classified. A summary of this genetic
scheme for pyroclastic fall deposits is given in Table
12.1.
Eruptive mechanism
eruption column
(fountain) collapse
Pyroclastic flow
Deposit
Essential fragment
rm,ce"ow.
pumice
ash-flow
ignimbrite, pumice
flow deposit,
ash-flow tuff*
scoria flow
scoria
dense
lava
volcaniclastic
debris flow
accessory lithics
( juvenile fragments)
hot, dry
volcaniclastic
debris flow
explosive
cryptodome
release
decreasing density
of juvenile clasts
* In a strict definition, 'ash-flow tuff' should only refer to deposits with >50 wt% finer than 2 mm. 'Ignimbrite' and 'pumiceflow deposit' can be used more loosely irrespective of grainsize, although 'pumice-flow deposit' is sometimes used to
emphasise those flow deposits with a large proportion of bomb-sized pumice fragments.
Table 12.3
This book:
based on eruptive mechanism and
characteristics of the deposits
Pyroclastic flow
Deposit
(large volume)
pumice flow
VnS-type
Kra katoa-type
ignimbrite
(small VOlume)}
scoria flow
VnS-type
Krakatoa-type
intermediate-volume ash-flow
tuffs (1-100 km 3 )
St Vincent-type
sakurajima-type}
Valles-type
.
St Vincent type
scoria-flow
deposit
Smith (1979):
Williams and
McBirney (1979): based on volume of
based on site of the deposits
and type
eruptions
Pelean-type
Pelee-type
Merapi-type
Merapi-type
small-volume ash-flow
tuffs (0.001-1.0 km 3 )
Table 12.4
353
Eruptive mechanism
phreatomagmatic
(outward moving radial
collar and column collapse)
Pyroclastic surge
type
Temperature.
water content
base surge
cold. wet
(hot. dry)
ground surge
hot. dry
juvenile
(vesiculated to
non-vesiculated)
ash-cloud surge
hot. dry
juvenile
(vesiculated to
non-vesiculated)
ground surge
hot. dry
juvenile
(vesiculated)
accompanying
pyroclastic flows
accompanying
pyroclastic fall
eruptions (but
without generation of
a pyroclastic flow)
Grainsize
Table 12.5 summarises the grain size limits of
pyroclastic fragments from the schemes of Fisher
Essential fragment
juvenile
(vesiculated to
non-vesiculated) ;
accessory lithics
Grainsize
(mm)
round and
fluidally shaped
Name of
unconsolidated
aggregate
Lithified
equivalent
agglomerate
(bombs)
or
pyroclastic
breccia
agglomerate
(bombs)
or
pyroclastic
breccia
angular
coarse
256 - - - - - - - - bombs
blocks
fine
~------------------------------~
lapilli
lapilli deposit
lapillistone
2------------------------------coarse
1/16 - - - - - - - - ash
fine
Table 12.6
ash deposit
tuff
Other components
Essential components
Vesicular
Non-vesicular
pumice
crystals
accessory and
accidental lithics
scoria
crystals
poor to moderately
vesicular juvenile clasts
cognate lithics
and crystals
accidental lithics
Essential components*
Type of fall
Vesicular
agglomerate
Non-vesicular
pumice or scoria
breccia
>2mm
lapilli deposit
pumice or scoria
cognate or accessory
lithics, or both
<2mm
ash deposit
pumice or scoria
Other components
crystals
Constituent fragments
A summary of the dominant components in a
pyroclastic deposit provides a qualitative lithological
description as well as information on the genesis
(Table 12.6).
Welding
We have already discussed the process of welding
and the lithological variations it can produce in
Chapters 6 and 8.
355
Volcanic breccia
closed framework
open framework
non-cohesive. granular matrix
cohesive mud-sized matrix
Volcanic conglomerate
closed framework
open framework
non-cohesive, granular matrix
cohesive mud-sized matrix
2
mm-------------~------------2
mm
Volcanic sandstone
0.0625 mm--------------------0.0625 mm
Volcanic mudstone
volcanic si Itstone
)
volcanic claystone
subaqueous mass flows; Ch. 10) and in environments away from the near vent area. Consideration
compositional affinities
compositional homogeneity, and
clastic components.
357
Table 12.8 Grainsize-textural classes of volcaniclastic rocks and some possible origins (see App. II for sugg0sted diagnostic
characteristics).
Origin
Grainsize-textural class
A
1
2
3
4
22
23
24
25
26
30
27
28
29
E
sandstone
(sand-sized framework grains
essential)
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
mudstone
(mud-sized grade predominant)
38 epiclastic
39 fine-grained ignimbrite
40 air-fall ashes or tuffs
41 surge deposits
12.4.1 TEXTURAL
Welding
If textural evidence of welding (eutaxitic texture,
pumice lenticle foliation) can be found, it is
important because this is indicative of the rock
having a pyroclastic origin. Welded rocks are likely
to be preserved in the record because of their
resistance to contemporaneous erosion compared
with non-welded equivalents. Welding is not
uniquely indicative of a pyroclastic flow origin.
Welded air-fall tuffs are a common rock and, if
recognised, can be important in determining vent
proximity (Ch. 6). They have been identified in
ancient volcanic successions.
However, in modern volcanic successions, many
ignimbrites are totally non-welded, and few welded
air-fall deposits are known compared with nonwelded ones. Alignment of pumice and other
juvenile clasts can be caused by sedimentary
processes, and flattening can be caused during
tectonic deformation associated with the strain
effects of the formation of a tectonic cleavage. As a
result the origins of apparent welding textures
should be investigated. Welding is only
unequivocally demonstrable at the microscopic
scale.
Grainsize
This is the most obvious characteristic of any rock,
and it is the first observed in any specimen or
outcrop (Ch. 1). However, grain size , especially
average grainsize, is not indicative of particular
deposits or origins (Ch. 11). Table 12.8 and
Appendix II summarise the possible origins of the
Sorting
Sorting, combined with various grainsize statistical
parameters, has been used to distinguish different
types of young pyroclastic deposits. For lithified,
indurated and even metamorphosed aggregates,
grain size parameters and quantitative values of
sorting are not accurately determinable. The usefulness of sorting is also dubious, except in a
qualitative way, and only then when combined with
other properties (see Ch. 1). Most deposit types,
irrespective of their clastic origins, can be well
sorted or poorly sorted. The distinction between
simple size sorting and hydraulic sorting is
important (Ch. 1).
Shape
Grain shape can be distinctive for explosively
ejected detritus (Chs 2 & 3). Glass shards are
diagnostic of explosive fragmentation during
eruption (Ch. 3), but could thereafter be deposited
in ignimbrites, air-fall and surge deposits, or could
be reworked to minor degrees, or could be redeposited by mass-flow processes (Ch. 10), particularly subaqueously without being destroyed
(Chs 9 & 11). Shaped bombs, breadcrust bombs
and irregular spatter fragments are typical of the
explosive eruption of fluidal (basaltic) magma.
These components should be the only criteria for
the use of the term 'agglomerate'. Large irregular
blocks, irrespective of composition, could have
diverse fragmentation and depositional origins.
Angularity or rounding
Angularity or rounding of clasts should be interpreted with care. Angularity by itself does not
imply proximity to the vent or a primary volcanic
fragmentation or depositional origin (Ch. 1).
Rounded clasts imply post-eruptive reworking by
surface
processes,
but exceptions occur.
Accretionary lapilli are spherical and rounded, but
clearly have a pyroclastic origin. Rounded fluvial
clasts can be picked up by ignimbrites as accidental
lithics. Pumice clasts become rounded in transport
within an ignimbrite. Rounded edges and corners
on crystals (especially volcanic quartz) may be due
to magmatic resorption before eruption, rather than
to post-eruptive reworking.
359
Clastic components
Abundance of glass shards, pumice or scoria,
certainly indicates a pyroclastic eruption mode and
possibly, but not necessarily, deposition by pyroclastic processes. As the crystal or lithic content, or
the content of both, increases, and if compositional
homogeneity decreases, a greater diversity of fragmentation and depositional origins, including
epiclastic origins, becomes more probable.
l'ramezvork-type
This is not indicative of any particular origin (see
Table 12.8), but is nevertheless a useful indicator of
transport conditions.
12.4.2 COMPOSITIONAL
Compositional affinities
The actual compositional affinities of a volcanic
rock are of little use in determining the genesis,
except for the fact that volumetrically the majority
of basaltic products are lavas, while the majority of
silicic products are pyroclastic.
Compositional homogeneity
FURTHER READING
361
Plate 13 LANDSAT image of the Valles Caldera, New Mexico, the source of the Bandelier Tuff. The caldera has a diameter of
nearly 24 km, and is surrounded by the wide, shallow dipping ignimbrite shield. Note that the arcuate alignment of the dome
complex within the caldera. See text for further discussion of characteristics. (After Sheffield 1983.)
362
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
scoria cones, maar-type craters, and also pseudocraters and littoral cones. Pumice-forming eruptions
can also build steep-sided cones somewhat akin to
scoria cones, and these are briefly mentioned.
Maar-type craters of virtually every composition are
known. We go on to describe stratovolcanoes,
which are the most abundant type of large volcano
on the Earth's surface, and are built from repeated
eruptions of either calc-alkaline or alkaline magmas.
Multi-vent intermediate-silicic centres are then
briefly covered, and include some large calderas
and volcano-tectonic depressions. The large rhyolitic volcanoes are discussed next. The remaining
two sections deal first with submarine spreading
centres and seamounts and, lastly, with intra- or
subglacial volcanoes. From this chapter the duration
of the active life of different types of volcanoes and
of the duration of volcanic versus epiclastic proces363
volcanic islands are frequently polygenetic, involving not only repeated eruptive phases sep:!rated
by significant repose periods from the one vent, but
also being marked by multiple vents or eruptive
centres. The island of Hawaii hosts several major
volcanoes in their own right: Mauna Loa, Mauna
Kea, Kohala, Hualalai and Kilauea (Fig. B.lb),
not to mention numerous other smaller ones. The
whole complex is clearly a major polygenetic
centre.
A significant distinction between monogenetic
and polygene tic volcanoes appears to be that
monogenetic volcanoes have a simple magma
conduit system used only during one eruption or
one prolonged eruptive phase. However, polygenetic volcanoes may have complex 'plumbing
systems', with an intricate, complicated conduit
system that is used many times, or different parts of
which are used, during spaced eruptive phases.
(b)
j
19
18
HI$lor Ie fl ows
Other flows
fault system
Inferred fault s.
conlour lnf.rvol500 melt'l
,
I -_ _
IOkm
~
I
Figure 13.1 (a) The island of Hawaii and shield volcanoes. (b) Distribution of lava flows and associated vents of
documented historic eruptions along Mauna Loa's southwest rift zone. (After Lipman 1980.)
fa
365
--o
Zkm
zones (Figs l3.1 & 2). The area south of the Hilina
Fault system may be part of a large gravity slide
extending to the base of the volcano at abyssal
depths (e.g. J. G. Moore 1964).
Volcanologists have recognised a series of stages
in the growth of the Hawaiian shields, and these are
sometimes named after the volcano showing those
characteristics, e.g. Mauna Kea stage. Although we
do not wish to go into details here, it is important to
note that compositional differences occur between
the different stages, and lavas and other erupted
products change from tholeiitic, becoming more
alkalic with time, although some of the earliest
submarine products may be alkaline. More explosive activity accompanies the eruptions of alkaline magmas, and over 300 scoria cones have been
built on the sides of Mauna Kea during the last
phase of its eruptive activity (Porter 1972, 1973).
367
(a)
/'--~-...-
scorlo cone
In~,co"n9
Isople,hs
/'./
cones per km 2 (I - 81
/"
./
/"
//
.//
.J~
///
/'/' ---
//
". J
OOO",~__
- - - - - - 2 5 0 0 m"
..----3
/ 0.
/0
//
/
/1
( . .V"
"""
. . . ~--2000m-
-35
00
-"''''0-_
.
..-
- ' .........
))
""':"--..............
~\
-----' \\
( .
6l \\,
10
\'
I
I
I
r.
01~
\
J
(
0\
rt~/
I
0/
\
o
o
'\
~~ //~~
0
0
4km
~'--~--~----'-~'
SOURCE VENTS
369
370
----------~1~
BROAO PROTO-RIFT
DEPRESSION
____---F=-=q~~
~~-----
___
~<1?~:::;:~
n, .. bOlolllc cruI!
'
'.'
..
.'
'"
o,'---""------'
20km
,
Q....
IIITID
C:l
Yaklmo Basal!
Figure 13.7
SCORIA CONES
Table 13.1
Locality
371
Vent and near-vent areas for the Roza flood basalt flows (after Swanson et al. 1975).
Evidence
Elevation
(m)
500
bed of scoria and spatter, welded at base, between two Roza lava flows
490
thick beds of spatter and scoria, in places welded, partly define cones and ramparts
490
470
spatter and scoria ramparts and cones overlain and bulldozed by Roza flows
470
spatter and scoria, in places welded, interbedded with thin flows; small dykes; relics of
cones and ramparts
475
490
490
500
10
645
11
760
four thin Roza flow units with interbedded ash and spatter
12
645
thick beds of spatter and scoria, dykes and thin flow units associated with Roza flows
13
790
14
770
15
1035
16
1360-1385
thick piles of dense, viscous Roza flows; platy joints and ramp structures
17
1465-1525
thick piles of dense, viscous Roza flows; platy joints and ramp structures
18
680
19
610
at least seven dykes (some wider than 2 m) of Roza chemistry and lithology
large cone of spatter and pumice cut by Roza dykes and associated with thin, dense Roza flows
372
(a)
(b)
(0)
W
Hco
cone heioht
Wer
crater diameter
slope
co
-------- ~o--------
(e)
( b)
04
03
-06
02
(,)
:t
01
0
=...
..
04
(,)
~ 02
I"
O~
II.'
10
15
W CD (km)
20
..
r '.
05
10
WeD
15
20
(km)
SCORIA CONES
373
+ Mt rnom AOt
300
E 200
o
::r:O
100
0.5
1.0
1.5
2 .0
2 .5
W CO(km)
(b)
3001'-'~,-p_re_se_n_1_ _o_m_'_m_y_o... Me",am Age
.so
200
::r:
100
Woodhou se age
O~------~~-------L~------~I~---
10 3
10 4
10 5
10 6
..
I
~
50_ _ _ _ _ _
~
!
..
'It
". ", . ) ,
o ______
..
....... '"
~ t . '+..
.lAo.J.
...... ".
. ..
",...
~~
l'
~.
.... ","
'
1 00~m
~I
Figure 13.13 Map showing distribution of scoria cones and other volcanic centres in the Newer Volcanics basaltic field
in southeastern Australia, and relationship to basement contours and sedimentary cover (after Joyce 1975). Mt Elephant
(MEl; Fig. 13.9) is identified, and the maar-type volcanoes (some with associated scoria cones), Lake Purrumbete (P),
Tower Hill (TH) and Mt Leura (ML) and a scoria cone, Mt 'Eccles (MEc) discussed in text and Figures 13.15 & 22, are also
highlighted.
SCORIA CONES
(e)
375
Figure 13.14 Maars, tuff rings and tuff cones, (a) Crater
Elegante, Pinacate Volcanic Field, Sonora, Mexico (after
C. A. Wood 1979), (b) East Ukinrek Maar, Alaska, View into
crater during eruption on 3 April 1977 (after Kienle et at.
1980), (c) Fort Rock tuff ring, Oregon, USA. with spectacular
wave cut cliffs cut into palagonite, The volcano is an isolated
feature in a flat lake basin; the south rim was breached by
waves of the former lake, (d) Koko Crater tuff cone, Oahu,
Hawaii. (e) Diamond Head tuff cone, Oahu, Hawaii,
376
(a)
(b)
r-------~~~~----~~~,----------------------,
LAKE PI)RRI)M8ETE
o
,
~
_
Ikm
!
plo l n s _
' -+='---':::::::::;}. 2
3
4
r----------r----------r----------r----~5
150km
100
50
Tm Miocene . edlment,
Te-
pz Polo.ozoic
Ku
...
ntwfot volcanic.,
Table 13.2
377
Tuff ring
Tuff cone
rim dips
outward
quaquaversal
quaquaversal
floor level
below surroundings
0-100
90- 100
90-100
inner slope
steep or vertical
steep
steep
outer slope
gentle
steep
steep
large
large
small
small
small
large
(0) Maars
pre eruption surtoce
.moll loke
ponded Oil., e,uplion
Figure 13.17 Schematic cross sections showing differences between the three types of crater formed by
phreatomagmatic eruptions and for maars also by phreatic
activity.
378
30
~ 20
.0
E
:::I
10
W cr (km)
Figure 13.18 Histogram showing measurements of crater
diameter for maars. (After C. A. Wood in press.)
WEST
MAAR
EAST
MAAR
~.- -
of reOlonol water
table
Peuli" pumice
d~po",s
.000
tlU
tOn~lomerOIJ
sandstone
and shol~
)I
")I
'Upper JUrassIc
No nok Formollon
JurassIc batholith
Figure 13.19 Schematic cross section showing the setting of the Ukinrek maars in
Alaska. formed during the April 1977 eruption (also see Figs 13.14b & 5.18c).
Subsurface geology is inferred and shows the proposed basaltic dyke that triggered the
explosive eruption. an evacuated feeder under West Maar which led to collapse of the
crater rim along arcuate fractures. and a dyke feeding a lava dome which was extruded
on the crater floor of East Maar. The ground water contained in the underlying till and
silicic volcaniclastic deposits from nearby Peulik volcano controlled the dominantly
phreatomagmatic course of the eruption. (After Self et al. 1980.)
379
(b)
Tuff cone
..... , ...
-......
..; : ...
,,~
,
surQ! with
minor
air -fall
doposlts
volcanic
breccia
"
"
'. ,
.
,
. :.-"....!. .
..
..
suroe
deposits
'.
manlvt'
air fall
tuff or
laplil l
depos it
suroe
with
minor
alrfal/
doposlts
volconic
breccia
Mt Eccles
Tower HIli
Lake Purrumbete
metres j-.:s~oll;.........---,
45
40
20
15
10
51
D
o
.,III" II'"
ON
~pt)
9 r Oln SIze
( mm)
sCOtlO
basalile blocks
bom bs
lava flow
plonar bedding
.,
0
uneonformily
was initially phreatomagmatic, but there was insufficient water for this phase to continue long
enough to form a tuff ring . At Lake Purrumbete
(Fig. 13.1Sa) abundant ground water was available
throughout the eruption which was solely phreatomagmatic. Both Mt Leura and Tower Hill (Fig.
13.1Sb) are major 'nested' tuff ring-or maar-scoria
cone complexes. The eruption at Mt Leura gradually
progressed from a phreatomagmatic phase during
which a tuff ring was formed to a strombolian phase
when a scoria cone complex was built (Fig. 6.6a).
Lava fountaining along a fissure also built a series of
381
(a)
Figure 13.23 (a) Base surge and scoria-fall deposits near the top of the tuff ring at Mt Leura. Victoria. Australia. showing the
change from phreatomagmatic to strombolian activity. (b) Interbedded phreatomagmatic and scoria-fall deposits (dark layers
with arrows) near top of crater wall at Tower Hill. Victoria. Australia.
382
rw
(c)
pillow lavas,
palagonitised hyaloclastite breccias which may
show crude foreset bedding (flow-foot breccias) and define a lava delta (Ch. 4) and
shallow marine and lacustrine sediments (and
marine or freshwater fossils to distinguish
between marine and lacustrine shorelines).
13.7 Stratovolcanoes
Stratovolcanoes or composite volcanoes are the
characteristic volcanic landform found at subducting plate margins, and are the most abundant
type of large volcano on the Earth's surface (Fig.
13.25). Stratovolcano morphology results from
repeated eruptions of pyroclastics and relatively
short lava flows from a central vent. The textbook
diagram usually shows a symmetrical cone with
steeply dipping pyroclastic deposits interbedded
with lava flows. However, in detail the shapes of
these volcanoes are more variable (e.g. there may
be several eruptive points, or the presence of a
caldera), and they rarely have a layer-cake geology.
It is also important to stress that mass-wastage is
STRATOVOLCANOES
383
(a)
13.7.1 MORPHOMETRY
Pike and Clow (1981 ) collated morphometric data
for over 200 stratovolcanoes. They divided stratovolcanoes into a number of classes according to
(c)
Figure 13.25 Examples of stratovolcanoes. (a) Mt Shasta in the Cascades, westem USA. (b) Crater Lake, western USA.
(c) Mt Egmont. North Island, New Zealand. (d) Ruapehu, North Island. New Zealand.
Little information on the output rates of stratovolcanoes is available because the activity of very
few centres has been monitored over a sufficient
time interval. Output of Cerro Negro in Guatemala
has averaged 0.15 km 3 per 100 years for the first
121 years of its lifetime (c. A. Wood 1978), and
Fuego has averaged 0.38 km 3 per 100 years for the
past 450 years (Martin & Rose 1981). The three
active stratovolcanoes on Sao Miguel, Sete Cidades,
Agua de Pau and Furnas, have a combined average
output rate of 0.1 km 3 per 100 years (dense rock
STRATOVOLCANOES
385
Summary of dimensions of different classes of stratovolcano (after Pike & Clow 1981).
Table 13.3
Class
Height*
(m)
Sample
Basal
diameter
(km)
1 calk-alkaline
with summit crater
59
6-55
625-3700
2 alkaline with
summit crater
18
1.5-60.5
425--4900
11-30
1020-2700
4 calc-alkaline
with caldera
44
7.5-68.5
500-3350
5 calc-alkaline with
caldera. more silicic and
more pyroclastics than 4
32
8-59
200-1700
6 alkaline with
57
6.5-87
350--4700
19
7.5-64.5
100-1250
3 calc-alkaline with
0.1-1.75
60
0.15-0.9
80
1.2--4.5
100
Bezymianny. Shiveluch.
Mt St Helens. Lassen Peak
1.75-11
160
2.2-18
80
0.75-9
1.8-18.5
250
200
caldera
7 alkaline with
Examples
Table 13.4 Average lifetime output rates for some stratovolcanoes (after Wadge 1982).
Volcano
Oshima
SakuraJima
Akan
Shikotsu
Asama
Fuji
Hakone
Aso
Kirishima
Fuego
Santa Maria
Kluchevskoy
Shiveluch
Avachinsky
Volume
(km 3 )
(10 3 years)
Age
45
40
75
140
60
400
200
45
50
50
20
250-300
1000
100
20-30
13-15
31
32
30
80
400
25
17
100
30
10
200
60
Average
output rate
(km 3 per
100 years)
0.18
0.28
0.24
0.44
0.20
0.50
0.05
0.18
0.29
0.05
0.07
2.75
0.50
0.17
are pelean eruptions, involving the explosive collapse of viscous domes as exemplified by the 1902
eruption of Mt Pelee (Ch. 5). Less frequently,
plinian and ignimbrite-forming eruptions occur
from these cones, producing much larger
(> 10 km 3) types of pumiceous deposit. Welded
tuffs of both air-fall and pyroclastic flow origin can be
formed during this type of activity. These eruptions
also cause the more important changes in cone
morphology, e.g. Mt St Helens 1980, and caldera
collapse may result, as happened during or after the
ignimbrite-forming eruptions of Crater Lake (Figs
13.25b & 26), Santorini 1470 BC and Krakatau AD
1883. Effusive eruptions are frequently observed,
and lavas and domes may be important in the pile of
some stratovolcanoes, although these may vary
considerably in composition, even on the same
volcano. Other eruptions can occur from parasitic
centres, and scoria cones (Fig. 13 .26), spatter cones
and phreatomagmatic craters may form, perhaps
aligned along a fissure. Magma is also intruded into
the piles, and dykes and shallow intrusive bodies
are seen in the crater or caldera walls of stratovolcanoes (Fig. 13.27).
Stratovolcanoes can therefore show a wide
variety of primary volcanic products, and these may
be distributed quite differently around the volcanic
centre. Viscous lava flows and welded air-fall tuffs
may be confined to near-vent areas. Pyroclastic
flows will be channelled down canyons and valleys,
STRATOVOLCANOES
387
(a)
(')
M! Mlury
<r-
EAST
20
15
10
.0.ltrly winds
15
10
~;+J):=-- -- --
0 0
"'.
m
\77m)
hthics
". ~'."
o o
o
pumice
.... ,r '.'':
0 ...
0 0
Plinian
deposit
0000_ 0
00
0
0 0 00
0 0
m
64
, ... '...
t.~
JI.
o 0
2417
P 25
40123
-12'3
30/20
83
82=
61
60--
fine
coarse
..-,... .......
.- .... ..
f-'M,:,,:....~~t--
24-
~~~$4.23~- 22=
21
19
57117
20-
10m
56/-
5-114'9
4 6/16
81/29
... ~ .. o
0,..:.
000 Go-.oo/J 0
0. 0 0,.0
00.
55
~:ooJ~o.o~
..
58=
57
':0 ,,~;'.'-:;-~~~
4 0/-
0 ~ '0;;
"OOOOa O
0 ", 0.
00.00001100
53
~oooooooOoooQog
52
'';:0'0 00
~ o~.rt0ooJ' ~oo
50
. ~.
. . ! .. :'~'.,
56 =
54:
60/52
51
--
48 - 49 -
. 22 /-
0 000.
00 00.
P41
0.0.00 0
<;ooO.~o
.":.~ .~'. ?. ?
19
46==b
~~~~~~~ ~!~;o~Y
0\0 ooooo~o8 45
.~ ...o_~ .~~?!,?p.
12/
5 1 /1-7
".. ~. '''~'''''I
'~~' """" ~ .. .
43=44..~2
40 - 41 39
38 = =
lava
f low
o
Q
------
STRATOVOLCANOES
Bo cold . ro
UpP f" r pumicr
Se" (Bo)
3500
18500
37 000
e:
Bm co ld.ro
Middle PumICe
S."e, (Bm)
'";0'"
.,
.<:
..'"
'"
.
'0
!! Bu co ld. ro
C
:c""c.
'"
.~
e;;;
Bu
000
n ~ooO1
100000
Bu I
.,>-
'"
I m,llIon yeors
Juron'cl Trion ic
389
B
EiJ
lon lmb, il .
co -i onimbrife brf'ccia
1m!
El
mudflows
und itter . nl,oled volconiclo.lies
(bolh pyrotlo,lIc and op lel a.,;c depos its
and Inc luding palaeosols)
~ wo ldod $Cori o
scorio
docilic 1o rhyodocilic
lovo, and domes
paloeo.ol.
Ih in nlno Oul
Sfrollgroph lc oop
(b)
(c)
STRATOVOLCANOES
lithologies, both vertically and laterally. Volcaniclastic deposits are the much more voluminous
products of both examples. Santorini also shows
complex compositional variations, and products
range from basaltic through to rhyodactic. Many of
the pumice deposits also result from mixed magma
eruptions, e.g. the Lower Pumice (Fig. 6. 13 c) , the
Middle Pumice (Ch. 6) and the Minoan deposits
(Bond & Sparks 1976). Obviously, the generation,
evolution and type of magma erupted from these
volcanoes can be complex. This could involve
magma chambers on different levels and a complex
plumbing system, as well as different batches of
primary basaltic magma periodically rising into the
system. Marine stratovolcanoes could consist of an
initial stratigraphy much like basaltic seamounts
(Section 13.l0), i.e. an initial pile of pillow lavas
passing upwards into hyaloclastites, pyroclastics
and epiclastics, and then even a subaerial stratigraphic succession like the one just described.
It has also been proposed that many porphyry
copper-molybdenum-gold deposits are formed
during final consolidation of high-level magma
chambers beneath andesitic-dacitic stratovolcanoes
(Sillitoe 1973). The porphyry-copper bearing
stocks may intrude the basal parts of the volcanic
pile, although more commonly they appear to be in
the subvolcanic basement (Ch. 14). Stratovolcanoes
found in island arc settings, especially those with
submarine calderas (e.g. Santorini, Krakatau (Fig.
9.10), Rabaul and Deception Island), are thought
to be economically important because they are
considered to be favourable sites for the formation
of a whole selection of sea-floor polymetallic massive sulphide deposits, which are generally grouped
together under the general heading of 'Kuroko-type
deposits' (e.g. Colley 1976). Stratiform massive
sulphide deposits can therefore be a very important
part of the successions of these volcanic centres.
391
(c)
(d)
Three consecutive views of the caldera wall of Santorini illustrating part of the volcanic succession shown
opposite. Views move north-south from south of Cape Skaros to south of Thera town, and cover a distance of about 2 km.
Height of caldera wall is up to 300 m. Key stratigraphic markers: Lower Pumice Series (deposits of younger Bu II eruption) is
prominent light coloured layer in (c); Middle Pumice Series (Thera welded tuff, Ch. 6) is prominent dark layer in lower part of
(b). this mantles the Lower Pumice to south which is cut-out by the Bu caldera; Upper Pumice Series (Minoan deposits) is
white layer seen at the very top of the succession in (c) which can be traced northwards on top of cliffs.
~ Figure 13.31
392
(0)
Duration (years)
Sedimentation process
80-125
air-falls and
pyroclastic flows
voleonle
fecles
(olluv,ol
Ions)
:!Jl
l.
J<
ond
braided chonn.'.
flood bosin and
cooSilln. )
;;
o
C
0
u~~~
X,
pyroclo.IIC deb". flow deposil'
olr loll depo.lI.
-2
debris flows
-20-30
t s,nuou.
(b)
393
GuOtemolon
"iolconu; tronT
I prOXImal volcanic
tociu
2 ollu.,ol lod
3 shoreline toe,",
4
(b)
SHOREL INE
Figure 13.33 (a) Map showing progressive seaward displacement of the 10 fathom depth contou r from the mouth
of Samala River, as shown by hydrographic charts for 1897,
1909, 1919 and 1922. (b) Cross section of body of
volcaniclastic sediment deposited by deltaic progradation at
mouth of Samala River between 1902 and 1922. (After
Kuenzi et al. 1979.)
v""
2 Bellond Comple<
tJ.
Pea k
old pllons
3 Pelil pilon
4 Gro. pilon
:SOkm
'------'.
[T]) new
10 nd
Figure 13.36
1982.)
395
o
> @l
lava mantled
by pumicf
pumice cone
a::
~ ~ 10k. d.po.lt.
'" (;:;~
~
i;nimbrlt. limits
IL
'"
lava d.br is
flow dtpo. il
...J ( '
caldera rim
<II
~ @
'"
rhyolite lava
dill! bosoll.
~ ~ andesite
> tr;i
f5
Aeotlan Ignlmbr,lf
~ limits
(Tertiary 71
Figure 13.37 Geological map of La Primavera volcano and adjacent areas. A-C refer to different ignimbrites
erupted separately; B is the Rio Caliente ignimbrite. Numbers are rhyolite hills: 1. EI Majahuate; 2. Pinar de la
Venta; 3. EI Pedernal; 4. San Miguel; 5. Cerro Las Planillas; 6. Cerro Pelon; 7. EI Colli. The lava debris flow deposit
results from the collapse of an obsidian flow on Las Planillas. (After G. P. L. Walker et al. 1981 d.)
396
,
,
I
, ' ,, ,
", ,,
1/ ,
I
,,
'
,'
,, ,
LAKE TAUPO
~",
;;
:>--
riVer
foull
onde"te 10Yo flow
bosalt lava 110w
IITSl
0
0
0
... '----
, I
I
I
I
Figure 13.38 Map of Taupo volcanic centre, showing the major inward drainage system developed in this low profile
volcano, the diversity and distribution of volcanic and epiciastic products, and older basement. (After Grindley 1960.)
13.9.1 MORPHOMETRY
Detailed morphometric data are not available, but
we have made some approximations based on
examples from the USA, Mexico and New Zealand.
Ws (diameter of shield) varies from about 50 to
>200 km, and WVCl which is the width of the
volcanic centre defined by the rim of the caldera
(Figs 13.37 & 38) is 10-60 km. Slope varies from
< 1 to 5 and Hs (height of shield) would generally
be a few hundred metres, unless resurgence has
occurred (see below). Total volume of these shields
varies from 10 2 to > 10 3 km 3 . These volume estimates ignore the large amounts of ash lost far
beyond the limits of the volcanoes as co-ignimbrite
and distal plinian ash-fall deposits. It should be
noted that larger rhyolitic calderas do exist. The
largest recognised is Lake Toba in Sumatra, having
rim dimensions of 100 x 35 km (Ch. 8).
397
398
.I(-A,
GiU
OCIOOO'r ... .
26
EI Colli
0.
00
~(J00 0
Pe lon
lovo (0.3km 3)
la vas ( 2 .5 km 3 )
~~~~~~~~~~~~~m
10
E I Pedernal
lavas (4 .0km 3 )
avos ( 3 .1km 3)
9~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
::'" =: "
120-100
Pre-8 lavas
. :.:. :. :..
',
IO:OO:l
t:I:I:n
@]
19n1mbllt t
.:
Ignimbrite A CO-7m)
~~~
G.cordonCf
palrolo l
.pl elo, IIC
1
pyroc lO ,r lc 11.1(91'
Cltn,."pumlc.t IQftlmt,," t
C CO-Ionlmbrite o,h-fOIl
m muOf low
,t
bomb lOQ
10
10
15
Figure 13.40 Twelve measured stratigraphic sections showing lateral variations and established correlations for
the rhyolitic pumice-fall succession erupted from La Primavera volcano. (After G. P. L. Walker et al. 1981 d.l
399
400
(a)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
8:J
n neer deposit
Toupo Ignim bri te
~ 186A. O.
~ pum ice f all deposits
~ 20000y BP - 186 A.O.
~
1:.:.1 300000y 8P
'
, Vall .. Caldora
topographic r im
~ g~~-~~~~~:n~g~~O:'~k'
-,:T normal
lower
5km
'----"
L']J }UPPtr
foult
~ ~~~:~~e ~~~~:r~'
early rhyoll ,.
lote pyroclas'ics
lake beds, olluvlum
401
'C!
o
!
rhyolite demu
rhyolite pumice cone
20km
I
402
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
La Primavera lacks a well defined structural expression of a caldera because subsequent uplift of the
central parts of the volcano has masked original
relationships. What is significant is a circular area
of lake sediments 10 km in diameter associated with
rhyolite lavas erupted on a ring fracture (Clough et
aZ. 1981, 1982; Fig. 13.45). For this reason the
sediments are believed to have been deposited in a
caldera lake. The caldera was formed by the biggest
explosive eruption of the volcano, i.e. the event
which produced the Rio Caliente ignimbrite (Figs
13.37 & 39; see Ch. 8). A 30 m scarp around the
northeastern edge of the centre may be the original
embryo rim (continuous with the outer ring or
rhyolite extrusives mentioned above).
Updoming and inversion of topography (Fig.
13.4Sb) have provided an opportunity to examine
the caldera fill of a rhyolitic volcano. The lake
deposits have a maximum exposed thickness of
-100 m, and they rest on top of the ignimbrite
:5
Figure 13.47
caldera.
403
404
405
The neovolcanic zone (the zone of recent and ongoing volcanism at the spreading centre, cf. on the
ridge flanks) is only 1-2 km wide. At low spreading
rates the neovolcanic zone lies within a well defined
rift valley (Fig. 13.49) and is dominated by a
discontinuous line of central volcanoes. These are
elongate parallel to the spreading axis, and typically
have dimensions of 1-4 km in basal diameter and
heights of about 250 m. They are dominated by
pillow lava (Ballard & van Andel 1977, Luyendyk
& Macdonald 1977, Macdonald 1982).
At intermediate spreading rates the medial rift
valley is less well defined, and the volcanoes are
more elongate along strike, appear to be fissure-fed,
and may be interrupted by en echelon offsets (Fig.
13 .49). Heights are only a maximum of 50 m and
pahoehoe-like sheet flow lavas are more common.
At high spreading rates there is no definable axial
V E -2x
Inner woU
(c) Fost
CE NTRAL SHIELD
VOLC ANO
CENTR AL
VOLCA 0
Figure 13.49 Schematic illustration of characteristics of volcanoes and the central rift of mid-oceanic spreading ridges with
different spreading rates. (After Macdonald 1982.)
13.10.2
SEAMOUNTS
(bJ Emerged
flow foor
breccia
- - '"
(0 ) Subm erged
0 , . . . ,
~
lava
407
408
-- -
- --.: -.
----
-~~-=-
--
FURTHER READING
inlectlon
of moomo
In clple nl
. ' aV e
C2
...
-b
~ Infermed ia te
~
lIoOes
ijj
::..
.:~:.
C3 ..
jff
:...
,. (~
dlrlclion of flow
moyemlnt
-b
Fin al .'age
C4
column ar
jolnlld
.............:.. rhyolill
hyaloclastites and
lava lobes averaging a few metres 10 m) in
diameter.
409
410
-----:--::::-:;;;;;;~~~
alaeogeograp y
.
.In the lower
. s relationships
""ctioo (After
of theCas
p et aI. t981.1 h and facie
reco~~stralia.
Plate 14 A. schematic
southeastem
Volcaniclastics,
412
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
14.1 Introduction
The consideration of facies descriptors in Chapter
1, and the subsequent documentation of the facies
characteristics of volcanic successions and of the
processes involved (Chs 3-13), have paved the way
413
414
415
limestone
B
Lillill
G
U
E)
extrusive I Intrusive
feldspoth lc
rhyolite domes I
lonimbrile
cryptodomes
co
- ,onlm br Ite
',nely laminated locuslr in e ~
10V - brecc ia
ashy sedlmenls
co - Ivnlmbrl!. ashes I
Iluvlo - lacustrine
surqe deposits I InlervolcanIC sediments
flow ashy sedimen t s
wllh channels
E3
'Hydrothermal alteration is a general term embracing the mineralogical, textural and chemical
response of rocks to a changing thermal and
chemical environment in the presence of hot water,
steam or gas' (Henley & Ellis 1983, p. 10). The
14.3 Factors affecting original lithological
upper limits of this process are ill-defined and are
characteristics and depositional
gradational into low grade burial metamorphism.
structures
According to Henley and Ellis (1983), hydrothermal alteration involves ion-exchange reactions,
The preserved outcrop, handspecimen and petromineral phase transformations, mineral dissolwion
graphic characteristics of volcanic facies may be
and
new mineral growth. Although the original
-'SIgnificantly influenced by post -depositionaf~
416
417
14.3.2 DEVITRIFICATION
Since glasses are thermodynamically unstable they
can undergo post-eruption devitrification, which
involves the nucleation and growth of fibrous
crystallites of largely quartz (after cristobalite and
rarely tridymite) and both sodium-rich and potassium-rich alkali feldspar (Lofgren 1970, 1971a &
b). Lofgren's studies involved the experimental
devitrification of rhyolitic obsidian glass under
Figure 14.4 Devitrification features of glassy rocks. (a) Radiate, fibrous devitrification spherulites from Carboniferous rhyolite
dyke, Bathurst. New South Wales, Australia; plane-polarised light; width of field is 10 mm. (b) As in (a). crossed nicols. (c)
DevitrificatiOn spherulites, sometimes amalgamated and arranged in trams, Upper Devonian Boyd Volcanic Complex, New
South Wales, Australia; slab is 8 cm long. (d) Granophyrically recrystallised, originally glassy dacite lava, Lower Devonian
Merrions Tuff Formation, New South Wales, Australia.
called the hydration front. In addition, a straininduced birefringence, a change in colour from pale
yellow-green to pale green and pale reddish brown,
and the development of micrometre-sized bubbles
were noted. The glassy stage is marked by felsitic
texture and minor spherulites, whereas the spherulitic stage is marked by abundant spherulites and
micro-poikilitic quartz. Spherulites consist of radiating clusters of fibres, and vary in size from
100 mm to several centimetres (Figs 14.4a & b;
Section 4.10.2). When large, they are generally
spherical with smooth surfaces, but some irregularities are found (Fig. 14.4c). Sometimes spherulites
can amalgamate to produce an elongate train of
connected, overlapping spheroids (Fig. 14.4c) ,
often concentrated and aligned along flow layering.
Large spherulites with internal cavities or vughs are
called lithophysae (Fig. 14.4c). Lofgren (1971a)
found that the morphology of spherulites varied
according to the temperature of the run. At runs
below 400C their outlines were nearly circular,
between 400C and 600C bow-tie shaped aggregates
occurred and at 700C lath-like fibres, or open
framework circular clusters of spaced fibres occurred. The granophyric stage, although not noted in
Lofgren's experiments, is common in old, devitrified glassy rocks and is dominated by finegrained, roughly equidimensional, recrystallised
aggregates of quartz and feldspar, rather than
elongate fibres (Fig. 14.4d).
Devitrification can produce an apparent granularity through the development of spherulites and
orbs, which at times may give rocks an apparent
clastic character and overprint original textures.
Patchy devitrification can also give rocks a patchy
domainal texture, the boundaries between devitrified and non-devitrified zones (glassy, altered)
being called devitrification fronts.
Devitrification and hydration occur through the
depolymerisation effects of water in breaking
Si-O-Si bridges and hydrolysing tetrahedral oxygen
to OH-. The liberated Si04 tetrahedra are then free
to reorganise and to nucleate quartz and feldspar
crystal structures in the presence of alkalis (network
modifiers), which diffuse through the glass network
(Lofgren 1970; see also Ch. 2). Lofgren found that
adding alkalis in solution increased the devitrifi-
419
420
14.3.3 PALAGONITISATION
When basaltic magma is chilled or quenched by
contact with water it forms a pale brown to reddishbrown glass called side rome lane or a black glass
called tachylite (MacDonald 1972). Tachylite was
thought to be black due to very fine, dispersed
grains of magnetite (Peacock & Fuller 1928, R. E.
Fenner 1932, MacDonald 1972, Kawachi et al.
1983). However, Kawachi et al. (1983) have established that the black grains are not magnetite but
quenched crystallites of pyroxene. In pillow lavas
the two glass types may occur together in layers at
the margins of pillows O. G. Moore 1966, Kawachi
et al. 1983). These glasses, especially sideromelane,
are susceptible to alteration.
When sideromelane alters it changes to a paleyellow to yellow-brown hydrated altered glass
called palagonite (Peacock & Fuller 1928, J. G.
Moore 1966, Hay & Iijima 1968, MacDonald 1972,
Kawachi et al. 1983), which is either finely fibrous
or gel-like, and isotropic. The formation of
palagonite involves hydration and ion-exchange
0. G. Moore 1966). Moore found that during the
formation of palagonite in submarine hawaiian
basaltic glasses, sodium, calcium and manganese
were lost, whereas potassium, iron and titanium
were gained relative to the unaltered glass, presumably due to exchange with sea water. He also
found that the palagonite layers at the margins of
421
14.3.S DIAGENESIS
The concept of diagenesis encompasses the mineralogical and textural changes associated with
lithification and the early stages of burial of any
sediment or rock system. It is of fundamental
importance in hydrocarbon exploration because it
modifies original porosity, generating secondary
porosity and causing hydrocarbon maturation.
Significant textural and mineralogical changes can
be produced by dissolution of original components,
precipitation of and replacement by new mineral
phases, and compaction. These processes occur
under the influence of increasing pressure, temperature and significant fluid flux during burial.
Diagenesis can be viewed as the low grade, initial
stages of metamorphism.
In volcanic rock systems, diagenesis is just as
significant if not more so than in sedimentary
systems, given the usual abundance of metastable
glassy material and the presence of labile mineral
components, especially in basaltic to intermediate
rocks. Granophyric recrystallisation can be considered to be a diagenetic process. In addition to
these, the growth and overprint by burial metamorphic mineral assemblages, typically zeolite
facies assemblages, can be significant in causing
major modification of original rock textures and
components (e.g. Raam 1968, D. K. Davies et ai.
1978b).
14.3.7 DEFORMATION
423
be beyond recogmtlon, depending on its postdepositional history. Fiske (1969) suggests a combination of both careful hand specimen and thinsection examination to verify the existence of
pumice.
The point of carefully documenting the characteristics of facies is to identify those characteristics
which give clues to the mode of deposition or
environmental conditions, or both, at the time of
emplacement. For example, angle of repose crossbedding in epiclastics suggests tractional sediment
transport and deposition; structureless to faintly
laminated epiclastic claystones or mudstones suggest settling out of suspension and very quiet
aqueous conditions; well defined eutaxitic texture in
a thick, massive, undeformed volcaniclastic deposit
suggests welding and deposition by pyroclastic flow.
However, there are few facies or facies characteristics which by themselves unequivocally identify
the host depositional environment or the spatial
context of a facie:>; within a broader palaeogeography. This applies in both sedimentary and volcanic
terrains. For example, eutaxitic texture by itself
may indicate a near vent, welded air-fall deposit
(Ch. 6) or ignimbrite (Ch. 8), in both cases
suggesting a subaerial setting. Only more detailed
analysis, and consideration of related facies will
determine which it is and, if it is ignimbrite,
whether it is proximal or distal. Pillow lavas (Ch. 4)
indicate a subaqueous depositional environment,
but the environment could have been a lake or the
sea. The water depth could be anywhere from only
several metres to kilometres, and the vent could
have been subaqueous or subaerial. Also, subaerially erupted basaltic lavas can flow into water
and transform into pillow-lavas (Section 4.6).
Accretionary lapilli (Ch. 6) indicate the existence of
subaerial conditions, but final deposition could
have been in a subaerial or aqueous environment
and may have occurred close to or far away from
vent (Ch. 5). Ballistic bomb-sag structures are one
424
FACIES MODELS
interpretations of each facies and the total association of facies in terms of origins (stage 5),
environment of deposition and environmental
conditions.
425
426
Selected references
Sections 13.3-6, Greeley and King (1977), Swanson
et at. (1975), Swanson and T. Wright (1981), Waters
(1961), Ollier (1967b), OIlier & Joyce (1964), Joyce
(1975), Mohr (1983), Choubey (1973), Subbarao
and Sukheswala (1981), Bultitude (1976b) White
(1960) and Bristow and Saggerson (1983).
Description
The principal volcanic elements of continental
basaltic provinces and the basins in which they
occur will be flood and valley-fill lavas (Chs 4 &
13), cinder cones, maars or tuff rings and shield
volcanoes. Important accessory sedimentary environments will include fluvial channels, which will
be constantly relocated as flood lava ponds in
valleys. The fluvial systems will be incisive and
erosional, acting against the aggradational effects of
the basaltic volcanism in building up the topography. Fluvial successions will therefore not be
thick or extensive, and will only be preserved in the
rock record through the capping effects of valley-fill
lavas, producing 'deep lead' deposits which, in
eastern Australia, are renowned for their precious
metal and precious stone alluvial resources.
Lacustrine and swamp deposits and environments
may also be relatively short-lived. Their origin
could be either within maars or tuff rings, or
craters, or be due to damming up of valleys by lavas
or ponding within the flat landscape dominated by
flood lavas. They may be short-lived because
contemporaneous erosion could breach their
physical margins or because they become buried
under a new lava flow. The basaltic succession may
be underlain by alluvial-fluvial deposits and basement from which it may be separated by a regional
unconformity, and upwards may pass again into
alluvial-fluvial successions as volcanism wanes.
Locally, where lavas have flowed over swampy
areas, or into lakes or rivers, hyaloclastites, and
427
Facies model
See Figure 14.7.
Economic significance
These settings may host concentrations of alluvial
precious metals and stones (called 'deep lead'
deposits) in river channel successions buried by
flood basalt lavas. Diamonds may occur in kimberlite pipes, diatremes and breccia pipes in the root
zones of maars and tuff rings.
Selected references
Section 13.7, Pike and Clow (1981), Vessell and
Davies (1981), Roobol and Smith (1976), Fiske et
at. (1963), Lipman and Mullineaux (1981), Thompson et at. (1965), Gregg (1960), Grindley (1960),
Neall (1979), Gorshkov (1959), Aramaki (1963) H.
Williams and McBirney (1979, pp. 312-3), Branch
(1976) and R. W. Johnson (1976, 1981).
Description
Stratovolcanoes show complex primary variations
in erupted products in time and space, and
epiclastic processes and mass wastage of the steepsided cones further complicates the stratigraphy of
the pile (Ch. 13). We have already discussed the
principal volcanic elements of stratovolcanoes in
Chapter 13. Short lavas, domes and shallow intrusives (commonly basaltic andesite to dacite in
composition) are the main cone-building elements,
and armour the cone against erosion. These are
flanked by, and interdigitate with, various types of
pyroclastic and epiclastic rocks. Pyroclastics may
428
flUVia l .. dlment,
loke .. d,menls
~-
E:1
D
~
Figure 14.7
(b)
rn
bOlalt laval
deoroded cinder centl
IOkm
!
(c)
(d)
Facies model
See Figure 14.8. Note that this model is a very
generalised one, depicting a relatively large proportion of volcaniclastics. However, as noted in
Chapter 13, many stratovolcanoes consist of a much
higher proportion of lavas and intrusives than
shown here, especially in the near-vent 'core' area
(e.g. Bultitude 1976a).
429
.I' .
3
4
6
7
al har
..
I
3
4
5
6
7
9
10
conlemporaneous
l ahar
flUVial
phn,.n
so,1
$eo" o
fluv.ol
lahar
CUi
s.1(hmenIS
fa ll depo .. t
fa ll dep.,,,
sed ,ments
.1I.n 9 ,n ba> - canyon
I nto
1- 6
E3
subsurface InlnU1V'
boslment
IOkm
Figure 14.8 Generalised facies model for continental stratovolcanoes. Note the significant variations from the proximal nearvent cone facies to the distal ring plain environment where epiclastic volcaniclastics are dominant. Also see Figure 13.32.
Economic significance
Description
S elected references
Section 13.9, G. P. L. Walker et al. (1981d), R. L.
Smith and Bailey (1968), Byers et al. (1976),
Lipman (1975, 1984), Bailey et al. (1976), Christiansen (1979), M. C. W. Baker (1981), Grindley
(1960), Healy et al. (1964), McPhie (1983, ancient
outflow ignimbrites) G. P. L. Walker (1984a),
Lipman et al. (1984) and Nathan (1976).
shield are largely erosional, and depositional processes are restricted to alluvial settings and to local,
shallow lakes formed in valleys, or perhaps developed on the low slopes of the shield. The eroded
volcaniclastic debris is largely removed from the
volcano and is deposited in basins marginal to the
centre, and the shields are therefore composed
dominantly of ignimbrite with volumetrically small
amounts of epiclastic interbeds. Large volumes of
pumice, ash and crystals will be removed to be
deposited in large fluvial outwash plains flanking
the ignimbrites (perhaps more than 50% of most
ignimbrites ends up in such epiclastic sequences),
or are even transported into the marine environment. Many, especially small-volume, non-welded
ignimbrites such as the Taupo ignimbrite (Chs 7 &
8) have a low probability of even being preserved in
the geological record.
When a number of silicic centres are associated
together in time, such as in the Taupo Volcanic
Zone in New Zealand or the San Juan Volcanic
Field in the western USA, ignimbrite shields will
overlap. Anyone stratigraphic section could therefore contain a number of ignimbrites from different
centres, and in both pf these fields ignimbrites from
one centre are known to fill in older calderas of the
other centres. Facies associations will be diverse,
lateral facies relationships will be abrupt and
stratigraphic relationships will be complex.
Facies model
See Figure 14.9.
Economic significance
Precious and other epithermal metal deposits are
the most important resource associated with continental silicic volcanoes. Epithermal deposits of
mercury, arsenic, antimony, gold, silver, lead and
zinc may be found associated with shallow level
hydrothermal systems both inside and outside the
caldera margins, and may be associated with
diatremes and breccia pipes (Sillitoe et ai. 1984). In
addition, porphyry copper-gold deposits may be
associated with deeper-level intrusives. Bedded
sulphides may occur in deep caldera lakes, but no
substantial deposits of this type are yet known from
continental silicic centres.
431
ep.claslic sediments
welded 'gnlmbrlte 2
'Some
I~~~~~~t==
surge
~
plinian2fall
geomelrlc
rel ations
2
faN
welded 'gnlmbrlte
I!~~~~~~~~fi~ii~~=
welded
surge If all I
phn.an
basement
[11
[E
o
~
plinian fa ll deposit s
younger succeulon
c:2J
co - Ignimbri te breccias
subsurface SOurCe
magma chamber
10
20km
past - erupti ve ep lclost lc diment. from
rewo r ked centre - In this COte marine
transgressive sandstones or alluv ial fluvial sediments
pluton /
Figure 14.9 Facies model for continental silicic volcanoes depicting the variations in facies associations from the focal
caldera complex to the ignimbrite plateau or shield outside the caldera.
432
Selected references
Section 13.10, Macdonald (1982), Ballard and van
Andel (1977), Luyendyk and Macdonald (1977),
Macdonald and Luyendyk (1977), Searle and
Laughton (1981), R. N. Anderson et al. (1982),
Newmark et al. (1985), Moores (1982) and
Coleman (1977).
Description
As summarised m Section 13.10, basaltic rift
volcanism associated with mid-ocean spreading
ridges (MORs) occurs within the median valley.
The morphology of the volcanoes varies from the
central type where spreading rates are low, to
elongate, fissure-fed ones with intermediate spreading rates, to very elongate shield-like volcanoes at
high spreading rates. Both pillowed and nonpillowed lavas are common in these volcanoes.
However, ridge crests and oceanic lithosphere are
dominated by ridge-parallel fractures and faults,
which form in the environs of the ridge due to
tectono-isostatic adjustments as the lithosphere
ruptures and spreads away from the ridge crest.
Because of this, the original volcanic mounds are
likely to be highly dismembered. In the rock record
their recognition as discrete volcanoes, or parts
thereof may be nearly impossible. More commonly,
their activity and original presence is preserved
only as an almost imperceptible part of the layer 2
basaltic layer of oceanic crust and ophiolites.
A veneer of pelagic sediment and downward
transition into a mafic sheeted dyke complex and
gabbroic and mafic-ultramafic cumulate rocks,
complete the stratigraphy associated with MOR
volcanism (Ch. 15). This stratigraphy is similar to
that of ophiolites, as discussed in Sections 15.2 and
3.
Basaltic rift volcanism may also take place in
marine settings within submerged sialic crust (e.g.
some Archaean greenstone belts). In this situation
the nature of the volcanic pile will depend on the
nature of the vent (whether a point-source or
fissure), the rate of extension, the rate of magma
discharge and the water depth. All transitions from
Facies model
For a typical ophiolitic facies model see Figure
15.1. For ensialic rift basaltic facies model, see
Figure 13.50.
Economic significance
Marine basaltic rift volcanism is significant for its
potential as a source of Cyrus-type copper-pyrite
mineralisation (and to a lesser extent zinc, lead,
manganese, nickel, cobalt, silver and gold). Ore
deposits occur as massive bodies at the sediment or
seawater-basalt interface, and as subjacent, intensely hydrothermally altered stockworks.
Manganese nodules with significant concentrations
of Mn, Cr, Ni and Co may form post-depositionally
at the sediment-basalt interface and within the
sediment pile. Mineralisation at seafloor spreading
centres has been reviewed by Rona (1984).
Selected references
Section 13.10, J. G. Jones (1966), J. G. Moore and
Fiske (1969), Batiza and Yanko (1983), Searle
(1983), Thorarinsson (1967) and Kokelaar and
Durant (1983).
Description
See Section 13.10. Where basaltic seamounts
develop on oceanic lithosphere, their preservation
Facies model
See Figure l3.50. Note: eruptions that begin in
relatively shallow waters (e.g. Surtsey, Thorarinsson 1967), may consist only of the upper pyroclastic
succession with or without the succeeding subaerial
lava cap.
Economic significance
Basaltic seamounts are not noted for their resource
potential, although development of ferromanganese
crusts (see Section 14.3, discussion on palagonitisation) and nodules could produce significant manganese deposits, which in ancient successions have
been called Lahn-Dill-type deposits.
Selected references
Section l3. 7, Bryan et al. (1972), Bauer (1970),
Black (1970), Ball and Johnson (1976), Pichler and
Friedrich (1980), Pichler and Kussmaul (1980),
Self and Rampino (1981), Sigurdsson et al. (1980),
Mitchell (1970), J. G. Jones (1967b), Klein (1975),
Klein and Lee (1984) and Ricketts et al. (1982).
Description
Marine stratovolcanoes are generally similar to their
wholly subaerial counterparts: they have significant
relief above their base, they are large and steep-
433
434
oI
I?Q]
5
!
IOk m
I~:~~;ii
hyaloclosllies
feeder Ilnlruslve Igneous bod ies with
hydrothermal olloralton envelope and
vl ln stockwork mlnerallsallon
lavas
Figure 14.10 Facies model for marine stratovolcanoes and environs. Compare with the model for continental
stratovolcanoes. The significant differences are the presence of pillow lavas and submarine mass-flow volcanic
sediments in the marine stratovolcano pile.
Facies model
See Figure 14.10.
Economic significance
As for continental stratovolcanoes, marine andesite-dacite stratovolcanoes should have potential
for porphyry copper-molybdenum-gold deposits
and higher level epithermal vein zinc, lead, gold
and silver mineralisation. In addition, where a
substantial part of the stratovolcano is submerged,
seafloor hydrothermal springs may have potential
for producing massive, exhalative sulphides. These
could occur in two sites - either on the flanks,
associated with lateral hydrothermal springs, or
where the summit is a collapsed caldera, in a
summit basin fed directly by the vent hydrothermal
system (e.g. Santorini, Krakatau). The steep flanks
Selected references
M. A. Reynolds and Best (1976), M. A. Reynolds
et at. (1980), Ohmoto (1978), Kouda and Koide
(1978), Ohmoto and Takahashi (1983), Sato (1977),
Sangster (1972), Spence and De Rosen-Spence
(1975), De Rosen-Spence et at. (1980) and Kokelaar
et at. (1984, 1985).
Description
Although acidic magmas can be erupted in intraoceanic settings and result from differentiation and
fractionation processes m basic-intermediate
magma chambers, they are more common in
marine environments floored by continental (sialic)
basement (Ch. 13; Fig. 13.44). The popularity of
submarine felsic and silicic centres as exploration
targets stems from their association with Kurokotype and Canadian Archaean base-metal ore deposits. Because of the difficulties associated with
observing modern marine (especially submarine)
volcanoes much of the current understanding
comes from the rock record, especially from the
closely studied Kuroko successions of Japan and
those of the Archaean Abitibi greenstone belt of
Canada. Although some workers have interpreted
the Kuroko successions as submarine calderas
(Kouda & Koide 1978, Ohmoto 1978, Ohmoto &
Takahashi 1983), others (Cathles et at. 1983) have
suggested that volcanism occurred in a narrow
extensional rift-like basin, presumably from scattered point sources. The two ideas are, in fact, not
mutually exclusive, and are similar in many regards
to the ideas about the Canadian volcanic centres
(e.g. Spence & De Rosen-Spence 1975; see Section
14.8.10).
The essential elements of the Kuroko successions
seem to be subaqueous dome-like lavas, associated
435
436
Facies model
See Figure 14.11.
Economic significance
Massive stratiform sulphides are the most significant
resource likely in such settings. These should
accumulate during quiescent times or in quiescent
settings associated with pelagic-hemipelagic sediments, or both, may be in local trapped basins
(between several domes), or perched (on top of
domes) basins. There they will be protected from
the influx of significant volumes of pyroclastics and
epiclastics. Such settings should be fed by hydrothermal springs. It appears that many Kuroko-type
massive sulphide deposits show clastic textures and
are thought to have been mechanically transported.
Hence, the difficulty lies in finding environments
marginal to domes where these redeposited,
slumped sulphide deposits have come to rest. A
footwall stockwork system of sulphides and perhaps
precious metals may also be prominent.
Selected references
Cas (1978b, 1979, 1983a), Cas et al. (1981), Fiske
and Matsuda (1964), Fiske (1963) and J. V. Wright
and Mutti (1981).
Description
Shallow-marine to subaerial silicic volcanic centres
produce abundant pyroclastic deposits, and the
successions of the centres themselves will be similar
to those of continental silicic volcanoes (see Section
14.8.3). However, where such centres interface
directly with deep-marine basins, a significant
proportion of the erupted products will be deposited
in these basins. Much will be redeposited by
normal subaqueous mass-flow processes, perhaps
derived from shoreline settings. Slides, rubble
avalanches, debris flows and turbidity currents
(Ch. 10) will build an apron of volcaniclastics
interdigitating with normal basinal facies. Other
deposits will result from the interaction between
pyroclastic flows and sea water (Ch. 11). Except for
dense block and ash flows, there is considerable
doubt that most pyroclastic flows will continue to
flow underwater as gas-supported pyroclastic flows
(Ch. 9). They may interact explosively with sea
water, and the debris may then be redeposited as
large-volume, very thick mass-flow deposits of
juvenile volcanic debris, in associated basins,
frequently well away from the original volcanic
centres. In these settings stratigraphy may be
continuous, and the volcaniclastic succession will
interrupt the accumulation of normal basinal sediments and will interdigitate with them. These basin
sediments will be largely sandy turbidites and
interbedded hemipelagic mudstones.
Facies model
See Figure 14.12.
Economic significance
These successions will have little resource potential
unless they are associated with distal hydrothermal
oI
2km
I'~ 1111
zone 01 ollerotlon
I,' "1
437
(quench - Irogmented
lavas I Inlruslves)
hyoloclo.t~es
Figure 14.11 Facies model for relatively deep marine felsic (silicic) volcanic centres. The model depicts areally extensive
deep-marine felsic lavas, followed by smaller dome-like bodies. The mineralisation is depicted as being associated with
the youngest. smallest domes, as appears to be the case in the Kuroko region. Intermediate depth volcanic centres may
also contain local in situ accumulations of pyroclastic deposits, such as tuff cone and tuff ring successions.
Description
Facies models
RHYOLITIC VOLCANISM
Selected references
Economic significance
Being subglacial successions, these types of volcanics have no specific economic significance other
438
(0)
South ..._ _ _
~
--
-..-..
--
----ir-:----,-----;-:~------.
15
19
North
West
I----~ Eo$l
20
T------T~r---~------._------~I_----- ~~ -
-- ~.:-:;~-:.?
~~~=~:
-- ----
We st
15
5~m
lSI
Merrlons Tuff
.nferred
0
0
-,
~
Member E
cIOSl,C$
f]I]
Member A
clastics
Mamb..r 0
closlics
1,'=" 1 Member
loyos
Membe r J
pem es
Member M
closlics
Member L
closll cs
Membe r F
closl iC!
lime plones
Member H
loyos
Member C
peliles
Member K
cloltica
meolured secllon
Figure 14.12 Facies model for deep-marine voicanic successions derived from shallow marine-subaerial silicic
volcanic centres. (a) Basin floor facies fed by subaerial ignimbrites flowing into water and subaqueous fissure lava
eruptions, interdigitating with normal basin terrigenous epiclastics, Lower Devonian Merrions Tuff, southeastern
Australia. The three cross-sectional perspectives are arranged from northernmost (top) to southernmost (south).
Each clastic interval consists of multiple thick, massive sedimentation units (after Cas 1978). Also see Figure
10.27 for greater detail. (b) (opposite) Volcanic apron, interdigitating with normal deep-marine basin, epiclastic
terrigenous sediments, Lower Devonian Kowmung Volcaniclastics, southeastern Australia (after Cas et al. 1981).
Wollondilly
volcanics
wombeyan
volcanics
Cobra
Creek
Kowmung
River
LAMBIE
GROUP
-825
800
UNCONFORMITY
~ E G;
3"'5e
o C ..
"0.0
III
breccia
8"
altered
vitriclasts
~
E:;]
zone of no
outcrop
d
thinly interbeddde
sandstone on
mudstone d'mentation
graded se I
unit
Vertical scale
in metres
600
./
limestone
clasts
mudstone
intraclasts
'c S/or
vOIC~~:te clasts
quar
block shale
intensely
deformed zone
600
Silicic Breccia
Member
./
./
./
"
439
440
Selected references
Arndt and Nisbet (1982), Huppert et al. (1984),
R. W. Hutchinson (1973, 1980), Naldrett and
Macdonald (1980), Ricketts et al. (1982), Dimroth
et al. (1978), Sangster (1972), Spence and De
Rosen-Spence (1975), De Rosen-Spence et al.
(1980) and Thurston (1980).
Description
How different were physical volcanic processes in
the Precambrian from those operating during the
Phanerozoic? Tectonic controls, settings and conditions may have been different, and some of the
erupted magmas may have been different from
those erupted in more-recent times. In particular,
during the Archaean, the atmosphere may have had
a different composition and density, and the
occurrence of komatiite lavas (Ch. 4) in Archaean
greenstone terrains records the eruption of very
high temperature ultramafic lavas quite different
from any magmas erupted in modern settings
(Huppert et al. 1984, Arndt & Nisbet 1982). The
geothermal gradient may have been different and
the tectonic regime was also almost certainly
different. Nevertheless, the basic physical principles
that we have reviewed in this book should be as
applicable to Precambrian volcanic successions as
they are to more-recent volcanics. Lavas of all types
(basaltic, andesitic and rhyolitic) in all physical
forms (pillowed, massive and dome-like) have been
described in Precambrian successions (e.g. Ricketts
et al. 1982, Dimroth et al. 1978, De Rosen-Spence
et al. 1980). Similarly hyaloclastites, ignimbrites,
air-fall deposits and redeposited epiclastic volcaniclastics have been recognised (Ricketts et al. 1982,
Dimroth et al. 1978, De Rosen-Spence et al. 1980,
Thurston 1980). It is clear that the physical
volcanic processes were therefore similar to those
operating in modern volcanic settings, although the
larger-scale tectonic controls, processes and settings
may have been different.
SUMMARY
UM
~~~
mafic volcanics
, II
~
Intermed la e yolcanlcs
..
Facies models
See Figure 14.13 for basic-intermediate-felsic piles.
Also see Figure 14.11 for details of the upper parts
of these piles.
Economic significance
Archaean mafic-ultramafic volcanic piles are hosts
to many rich nickel-copper deposits, with accessory
cobalt and gold. The basic-intermediate-felsic piles
are known hosts to zinc-copper and lead-zinccopper-silver massive sulphide deposits.
14.9 Summary
The aim of this chapter has been to provide those
working in ancient volcanic successions with an
awareness of the problems of rock identification,
UM
UM
----- ----------------------------------------------
granitOids
~~
La te Archaean - Proterololc
Upper Monlle - thin,
dlff. r.nt iat ing, ( intermediate - )
maf ic - ultramafic compasition
( Pb - ) Zn -Cu (- Ag ) are
body
441
Figure 14.13 FaCies model for Precambrian basic-intermediate-felsIc volcanic cycle, representing perhaps one of
several such cycles In many volcanic piles (After Hutchinson 1973) Also see Figure 14.11, which can be taken to reflect
details of the top of such piles
442
Plate 15 Aerial view of part of the East Africa Rift system on the border of Tanzania and Kenya. North is to the right. The
volcanoes and lakes are characteristic of the landscape of the rift. The major volcano in the centre left is Ngorongoro
Immediately above (west of) Ngorongoro is Olduvai Gorge. (After Sheffield 1981.)
444
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
Volcanism and
tectonlC settlng
Initial statement
The relationship between volcanism and tectonic
setting is a diverse topic. One approach to this
subject in recent years has been from a geochemical
point of view, the approach being to correlate
particular geochemical properties or trends in
modern volcanics with their specific tectonic setting,
and to use the patterns derived from modern
successions in trying to identify the tectonic affinities of ancient volcanic successions. Ancient volcanic successions not only suffer from the effects of
deformation in masking the original tectonic context, but also from the chemical overprints of metamorphism and alteration. In spite of advances in
isotope and trace-element geochemistry, the geochemical approach offers little hope of unambiguously clarifying the original tectonic context by
445
446
carefully by the scale of supposed modern analogues, as well as by a clear understanding of all the
dynamically important tectonic elements of each
tectonic setting, their relationships and extent.
However, having said this, care needs to be taken
with Archaean terrains, because it is uncertain
whether the geothermal gradient was the same as at
present, and whether the scale of tectonic systems
was the same as modern ones, or perhaps smaller.
Areas of modern volcanic activity can be classified
into one of the following tectonic settings:
(a)
447
(0 )
OCEANIC
CRUST - MANTLE
SEDIMENTS
CANYON
MOUNTAIN
CYPRUS
VOLCANICS
BASALT
GABBRO
DIABASE
LAYER 2
Vp 5.1 km 5-1
2
OCEANIC
LAYER
TRONDJ.
TRONDJ.
PYROXENITE
MOHOROVICIC
Vp 6 .Bkm 5-1
8
PERIDOTITE
PERIDOTITE
PERIDOTITE
DISCONTINUITY
.c
Q.
41
PERIDOTITE
UPPER
MANTLE
Vp 8 .1 km 5 -I
10
12
14
(b)
~
>
Ii:
(f)
"c
n
::0
:;;
" ~
...
~
,., ~0E :::0 c
1;
0
In
:;;
"c
0
(;
~
LL
"c
00
0
0::
0
c0"
""
(;
U
"'"
c
.s::;
'"
0
.a
E
a.
::E
"n0
0;
"
E
0
"
(f)
,
..
..
.. "
u
.~
"0
a.
a.
<t
>
"00
"
449
HOT
SPRINGS
(c)
5048
, _-
---G~eeRO
-............
..
i!!!ii
oqu,fer
274m
375m
p,lIows
'~i~m brecclo
flows
~
846m
,
ASTHE
_- - - - - . . , Sea floor
IfIHlntl_<:>M........ tronSlhon
I055m
OSPHERE
Figure 15.1 (a) Comparison of stratigraphy of several known ophiolites with the seismic stratigraphy of
oceanic crust and mantle (after Moores 1982). (b) Expanded definition of a complete ophiolite (see text) (after
Moores 1982). (c) Schematic representation of the section intersected in Deep-Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) Hole
504B, southern flanks of the Galapagos spreading centre, south of the Costa Rica Rift (after R. N. Anderson et
al. 1982)
will also be marked by significant thicknesses of terrigenous sediments. Oceanic crust formed near
island arcs will be mantled by pyroclastic and
redeposited volcanic sediments (see Section 15 .3)
The areal extent of oceanic crust during active
ocean basin life is huge and measurable in terms of
millions of square kilometres. However, because of
the developmenl of subduction systems and the
subducted. In old orogenic belts preserved oceanic
potential of oceanic crust is low, as most will be
subducted. In old orogenic belt preserved oceanic
crust is likely to occur as long fault slices caught up
in accretionary prisms of subduction complexes,
or as slabs obducted over the leading edge of the
overriding plate and its volcanic arc , whether it be
oceanic or continental (e.g. Coleman 1971, H. L.
Davies & Smith ]971, Moort's 1992).
Oceanic crust is pervasively normally faulted.
This faulting occurs during the initial stages of
rifting, as the oceanic crust moves from the initial
vok-ank rift valley beyond the flanks of the ridge
(Macdonald I n2). It need not be the result of
su bseq uen! deformation.
The geochemistry of the basalts is typically
450
REMNANT
ARC
SUBDUCTION
4 ~.. :.;;;;
, ....;;.;;
.. :..:,;;
..,.:ec
:. ~rt:
oX
B
12
16
TRENCH
-,
~~~~======9 4
I \
VE 5.
./
- 400
-300
OUTER
SWELL
'"
\
l. V. z. \
,
/
- 500
- 200
-100
-50
12
16
Iront
50
100
200
km
Figure 15.2 Essential elements of an active back-arc-interarc-marginal basin and its associated arc-subduction
complex. (After Karig 1974.)
OCEANIC VOLCANISM
451
452
Intraplate oceanic volcanism occurs upon a basement of older oceanic crust and lithosphere, the
characteristics of which have been described in
Section 15.2. It can be represented by a single
oceanic volcano (Sections 13.10.2 & 14.8.5), or
lines of volcanoes such as the Hawaiian-Emperor
seamount chains. Individual seamounts may be
< 1 km to tens of kilometres in diameter and will
have a volcanic pedestal stratigraphy up to several
kilometres thick (e.g. J. G. Jones 1966, J. G.
Moore & Fiske 1969; Fig. 13.50). This will consist
of a basal pile of predominantly basaltic pillow
lavas, hyaloclastites, and if the seamount approaches
sea level, a veneer of pyroclastic-hyaloclastic layers,
capped by coherent submarine lavas, perhaps all
fringed and ultimately surmounted by limestones,
organic colonies, etc., as atolls form. (Such a
volcanic stratigraphy can also be produced subglacially, e. g. J. G. Jones (1969); Section 13 .11 ;
Fig. 13.5l.) The basaltic rocks may be alkaline or
tholeiitic and geochemically variable (MacDonald
1968, Frey & Clague 1984, Hawkins & Melchior
1984). Associated sediments are likely to be pelagic
and volcaniclastic, and carbonate mass-flow deposits
are likely to form aprons. Lines of oceanic islands
with increasing age trends away from and perpendicular to MORs are interpreted in terms of passage
of a lithospheric plate over resurgent sub-lithosphere mantle hot-spots (J. T. Wilson 1963,
Menard 1964, McDougall 1974), and trace the
direction of movement of the host lithospheric
plate.
As for volcanism associated with mid-oceanic
ridges and crust formation, the preservation potential of oceanic volcanic islands in the rock record is
low and they, too, should get subducted along with
the oceanic lithosphere. They could conceivably be
preserved as parts of ocean crust slices in convergent margin accretionary complexes (Section 15.2),
or as discrete ofT-scraped, sheared-off blocks in
these settings (e.g. G.]. Macpherson 1983), in
which case they may be highly deformed, even
dismem bered.
453
Figure 15.3 Geography of the Ethiopian Rift Valley between r oo' and 8"40' North, showing the vari ation In volcaniC
landforms and centres and the interaction between volcanism, normal surface processes and enVironment s, and te ctonics.
(After DI Paola 1972)
(b)
o,
500
IOOOkm
200
400km
LEVAN TINE
RIFT
EGYPT
..
I
SUDAN
r:?
CARLSB'ERG
RIDGE
Ethlopion Ploteou
Horor (Somolloll)
Ploteou
E. UQonda Plateou
Figure 15.4 (a) Setting of the East Africa Rift System (after
B. H. Baker et al. 1972). (b) Distribution of volcanic centres
about the East Africa Rift System. but not including those of
the south em Ethiopian Plateau (after Mohr & Wood 1976).
Volcanoes of the graben-rift system are generally the
youngest. their development coinciding with the initiation of
active rift--graben formation. The widespread volcanism of
the bordering plateaux preceded rift formation.
455
---.~-, /1
- -
~ .L,
,
IOOOkm
Figure 15.5 (a) Distribution of grabens and other structural basins in the western USA containing Miocene, Pliocene and
Quaternary sedimentary and Quaternary volcanic rocks (after Eaton 1982). (b) Distribution of Miocene and younger normal faults
with known or suspected Quaternary movement. The extent of the Miocene and younger continental volcanic arc is shown by the
bold line, the modern arc being confined to the northern third of the area shown. Strike-slip faults in southern and coastal California
are also shown. (After Eaton 1984.)
456
BASIN - RANGE
PROVINCE
7.
y/
i
.\
COLORADO
PLATEAU
"If
.,
.,
....
RIO GR ANOE
RIFT
CENTRAL MEXICAN
VOLCANIC ARC
trench and line of volcanoes may have a straighttrace (Tonga-Kermadec Islands) or be curved
(Marianas arc, Fig. 15.7). The arc system has a
regular structure: trench; inner trench wall; forearc
basin slope (or arc-trench gap), perhaps above an
accretionary prism; arc block, including an outer
non-volcanic line of islands; volcanic arc-back-arc
basin-marginal sea-interarc basin; and, in some
systems, a remnant or third arc (Figs 15.2 & 7), all
developed above an arcward-dipping seismic
(Benioff) zone. Karig (1970,1971,1974) has shown
that in the western Pacific many marginal basins are
the products of successive rifting and splitting of the
arc block and the oceanward migration of the frontal
half of the rifted block by the opening of a new
interarc basin, as discussed in Section 15.3. The
other half of the rifted arc block is called the remnant
arc, or third arc. A new line of volcanoes forms
PACIFIC
OCEAN
BASIN
PARECE
VELA
BAS IN
4 ...
457
458
"
NORTH CAPE
-t-
gnhthnt
.;-
,ync hno
......
TTTTT
Mlocono - Roconll
IV
. / /. q,.
"
...
.......----'
IOO km
Figure 15,8 Extensional. graben-dominated basins and normal faulting associated with the Taupo Volcanic
Zone of New Zealand. (After Sporli 1980.)
c.
491
APRON
492
_ ~";:'f~i''''
-'~
\ 7.
BASEMENT
10
-\
o
I
OIPPING
REFLECTORS
,,--
~-
CONTINENTAL
CRUST
10
10km
,
461
comm.).
(b)
NAZCA PLATE
DID[
i50
graben.
active volcano
seism ic plane,depth in km
trench
70'
462
divergent
mid-oceanic ridges
marginal seas or back-arc basins
of spreading origin
continental rifts
narrow African rift types
broad Basin and Range types
'passive'
convergent
(b)
Figure 15.11 Schematic representation of crustal lithospheric stress-field configurations. orientations of resultant
fractures and the controls of these on the passage of
magma through the crust and lithosphere. (a) Normal
faulting. (b) thrust faulting. (c) strike-slip faulting.
463
c.
464
--------~ O
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ==---'-'----------105
10
U
CL>
15 :;:
TOFUA
TROUGH
LAU BASIN
-_
"
' ,"
25
50km
..........
. ---"
VE 22.
3-0 ~
35 l
" 0 (\l
465
(c)
466
(b)
FURTHER READING
(c)
(d)
(e)
(t)
467
APPENDIX I
469
1.l.2 MAXIMUMGRAINSIZE
Measuring the average maximum juvenile and lithic clast
size is an important field technique, which involves
measuring, at numerous localities, the long axis of several
of the largest clasts in a deposit. In some detailed sections
the variation in grainsize between different layers of one
deposit is measured. Usually the sizes of the three or five
largest clasts are then averaged, and this would closely
approximate the coarsest one-percentile often quoted by
sedimentologists. Average maximum pumice (or scoria)
and lithic sizes can be plotted up as isopleth maps (Chs
6-8). As with isopach maps, maximum-size isopleth
maps are important in locating the vent from which
pyroclastic fall deposits were erupted, and for comparing
their dispersal in order to characterise the type of
eruption. However, for pyroclastic fall deposits, such
isopleth maps have certain advantages over an isopach
map, because at some localities it may not be the original
depositional thickness that is being measured. The top of
a deposit may have been eroded by either a later surge or
flow, which is sometimes common with near-vent plinian
deposits, or by later local erosion or soil-forming
processes. It may also have been overthickened by
secondary slumping, especially if the fall was deposited
on a steep slope. Also, some extremely widely dispersed
(ultraplinian) deposits may be thickest just down-wind of
the vent (Chs 6 & 8), and secondary thickening of distal
ash may occur (Ch. 6).
Measurements of maximum clast size are also used to
analyse the energetics of pyroclastic fall eruptions. This is
especially so for large ballistic clasts; that is, those clasts
which are so heavy that they follow ballistic trajectories
and are unaffected by wind drift. The distance at which
ballistics fall from the vent (that is, their range) can be
used to estimate initial gas thrust velocities from the vent,
or the muzzle velocities of the ballistics from the vent
(Ch. 6). L. Wilson (1972) presented tables of calculated
ranges for particles of varying radii and density, launched
at speeds between 10 and 1000 m S-l and various
angular elevations. These are reproduced in Table 1.1,
and cover most ballistic clast sizes (Ch. 6).
For plinian deposits the muzzle velocity can be
conveniently calculated from measurements of maximum
clast size using the equation of L. Wilson (1976, 1978):
uij=
(8grooo)
(Ll)
3CQo
PHYSICAL ANALYSIS
Table 1.1
Velocity
(m S~l)
471
Logarithms (base 10) of the ranges of larger pyroclastic particles (after L. Wilson 1972).
Density
(g cm- 3)
1.0
Launched at 45 radius
Launched at 66 radius
Launched at 37 radius
(cm)
(cm)
(cm)
3.0
10.0
30.0
100.0
1.0
3.0
10.0
30.0
100.0
1.0
3.0
10.0
30.0
100.0
10
3.5
2.5
1.0
0.5
2.9556
2.9369
2.8559
2.7579
3.0032
3.0017
2.9914
2.9760
30075
3.0070
30060
30043
2.8261
2.8073
2.7242
2.6222
2.8736
2.8719
2.8601
2.8427
2.8786
2.8785
2.8770
2.8753
1.9790
1.9614
1.8830
1.7846
20211
2.0207
2.0099
1.9937
2.0268
2.0267
2.0254
2.0236
30
3.5
2.5
1.0
0.5
3.6440
3.5719
3.3383
3.1364
3.9315
3.9208
3.8680
3.7965
3.9583
3.9571
3.9483
3.9356
3.4896
3.4235
3.1834
2.9752
3.8010
3.7897
3.7329
3.6544
3.8290
3.8276
3.8180
3.8036
2.6641
2.5897
2.3497
2.1373
2.9505
2.9395
2.8843
2.8070
2.9775
2.9762
2.9673
2.9540
100
3.5
2.5
1.0
0.5
4.0418
3.7372
3.6042
3.3549
4.6867
4.6173
4.3999
4.2139
4.9660
4.9514
4.8817
4.7912
3.8644
3.7468
3.4194
3.1673
4.5529
4.4821
4.2548
4.0556
4.8358
4.8195
4.7461
4.6504
3.0228
2.9034
2.5717
2.4068
3.7156
3.6437
3.4116
3.2078
3.9873
3.9721
3.9026
3.8097
300
3.5
2.5
1.0
0.5
4.23894.7075 5.0257
4.11104.58494.9177
3.7592 4.2319 4.6183
3.4931 3.9647 4.3891
5.6581
5.5914
5.3732
5.1779
4.04104.5111 4.86735.23575.5274
3.91114.38524.75735.13685.4571
3.5575 4.0304 4.4499 4.8381 5.2261
3.29063.75904.21034.59205.0199
600
3.5
2.5
1.0
0.5
4.29594.77445.13235.54045.9162
4.1652 4.6458 5.0139 5.4302 5.8157
3.8073 4.2817 4.6933 5.1087 5.5245
3.5373 4.0098 4.4526 4.8524 5.2928
1000
3.5
2.5
1.0
0.5
4.34264.82755.21125.65106.1029
4.21004.6948 5.0861 5.5273 5.9760
3.8477 4.32314.75175.18105.6329
3.5749 4.0479 4.5032 4.9130 5.3772
3.27553.76934.18814.64825.1767
3.1407 3.6332 4.0573 4.5119 5.0191
2.7752 3.2547 3.7089 4.1463 4.6333
2.5003 2.9732 3.4489 3.8687 4.3578
5.3861
5.2957
5.0127
4.7744
472
Table 1.2 Details of sieve analyses of a sample of a pyroclastic fall. surge and flow deposit. The samples are all from the Upper
Bandelier Tuff collected from the locality shown in Plate 8. These data are used as a basis for the graphical analysis of the size
distributions shown in Figure 1.1.
Fall
Grainsize
(mm)
>16
>8
>4
>2
>1
>0.5
>0.25
>0.125
>0.0625
<0.0625
Surge
(<1
wt%
Cumulative
wt%
>-4
>-3
>-2
>-1
>0
>1
>2
>3
>4
<4
2.49
7.01
11.27
12.25
28.17
23.61
9.10
2.92
1.38
1.80
2.49
9.50
20.77
33.02
61.19
84.80
93.90
96.82
98.20
100.00
wt%
2.48
6.10
11.30
15.23
19.34
23.50
22.05
Flow
Cumulative
wt%
wt%
Cumulative
wt%
2.48
8.58
19.88
35.11
54.45
77.95
100.00
7.96
2.88
5.69
5.87
13.57
17.56
10.80
10.58
13.97
11.13
7.96
10.84
16.53
22.40
35.97
53.53
64.33
74.91
88.88
100.01
(1.2)
0<1>
(1.3)
(<P84 - <P16)/2
(1.4)
Fall
Surge
-0.35
1.65
2.8
1.85
Flow
0.8
2.8
PHYSICAL ANALYSIS
(b) Foil
(0)
II>
N
'iii
c=
84
473
Flow
30
30
20
20
10
.s:
-4
l-
II>
16
50 1--+---+---14
-2
4
1/4
40
-4
1/16 mm
16
Groin diameter
-2
4
0
I
114
40
1116 mm
(.)
Surge
16
II>
>
o
:;
E
crYllo ls
IiI hics
::J
pumice
-4
-2
16
4 J5
1/4
I/l6mm
Groin diameter
-2
4
0
I
1/4
4J5
1116 mm
Groin diameter
Figure 1.1
Graphical representation of the three grainsize analyses from samples of the Upper Bandelier Tuff in
Table 1.2. (a) Cumulative plot on probability ordinate. The 16th, 50th and 84th percentiles are drawn, and their
intersection with the grainsize distribution curves gives the grain diameters used to derive the Inman parameters
in Table 1.3. (b) Histograms for components separated by methods described in the text. The components have
their own grainsize distributions, while each deposit has an overall distribution which is the combined distributions
of the three components. The fall deposit is well sorted for a pyroclastic deposit. and is distinctively unimodal,
having a high proportion of crystals within a limited size range in the 0.5 and 1 mm size classes. The flow deposit
is poorly sorted and polymodal. The sub-populations reflect more than one transport process affecting the various
grainsizes and components differently in the moving pyroclastic flow (Ch. 7); note that ngain there is a peak in the
proportion of crystals in the 0.5 and 1 mm size classes. The surge deposit is unimodal, but the distribution has an
extended coarse tail, or is negatively skewed. It is quite well sorted, but not as good as the fall deposit. This
sample is also a core sample through several laminae which make up this depositional unit
Walker (1971), which showed that better sorted pyroclastic fall deposits generally had values of Gq, < 2.0,
while less well sorted pyroclastic flow deposits had values
greater than 2.0 (Fig. 5.3). Table 1.4 shows the essential
Table 1.4 Differences in descriptive summaries of sorting
used by sedimentologists and volcanologists.
Sorting
(0<1
Sedimentary
deposits
Pyroclastic
deposits
0- 1
1- 2
poorly sorted
well sorted
2-4
poorly sorted
>4
474
<1>16
<1>50
<1>84
3
<1>84 -
<1>16
+ <1>95
(1.5)
= graphic mean
-
6.6
<1>5
= mc USlve grap IC
(I 6)
..
stand ar d deVlaUon
(a measure of sorting)
PHYSICAL ANALYSIS
475
III
E
-
10 ~----+-----~~~~~~~----~--
o
c
'E
...
().II:--N'++------+-----!----t---~-
0.01/-- - + - - - - + - - - - ! - - - - t
001
01
1
10
Diameter (em)
100
(a) O5gcm- 3
3
(b) IOgem- 3
4-:::::--1---+---+ i=:---I---+-------t
III
III
:;
c
'E
III
-=
+-----1r----+---i- -I-----;----t-- - +
-I
o
-2
-I
0
I -2
(c)
25 g em - 3
(d) 3 5 g em- 3
01
C2
EF= -
P2
The weight percentage of crystals separated from artificially crushed large pumice clasts is assumed to represent
the original magmatic crystal content (G. P. L. Walker
1972). Together with component analysis, these data are
important in determining the amount of crystal enrichment or depletion, or glass (vitric) enrichment or
depletion in particular types of porphyritic pumice
deposit. Enrichment or depletion in either of these
components is controlled by, and therefore can be used to
assess , aeolian fractionation processes in falls, and
transport processes in flows and surges. Also, from these
data, total erupted volumes can be better calculated. Most
pumice deposits (falls, flows and surges) have lost some
vitric component, usually transported far beyond where
the thickness of the deposit can be measured or isopachs
drawn, and therefore the amount of crystal enrichment is
a means of estimating this loss.
Usually, large weighed pumice clasts are crushed to
free all the crystals. Tests can be made to determine the
minimum clast size that gives the true magmatic
crystal: glass ratio. Ratios may be inconsistent in small
clasts. For most routine studies, a number of clasts from
the> 16 mm size classes are suitable; with very coarsely
porphyritic pumices larger clasts may be needed . Crystals
can then be separated from the vitric fraction by panning
under water, or if the vitric fragments prove too dense to
be hydraulically separated this can be supplemented by
hand picking or counting with a binocular microscope.
The weight of the loose crystals can then be expressed as
a percentage weight of the original clasts or, together with
results from component analysis, used to define the
enrichment of crystals in a deposit, expressed as an
enrichment factor , EF (G. P. L. Walker 1972), given by
..J
-I
-I
o
1 -2
o
L0910 particle radius (em)
PI
xC1
(I. 7)
476
crystals
Figure 1.4 Maps showing the basic data for the determination of the total mass and volume of the Hatepe plinian
deposit erupted from Lake Taupo. New Zealand (Chs 6 & 8).
Map (a) is derived from isopachs of the deposit (Fig. 8.51 a)
and bulk density data. The other maps give isopleths
(g cm -2) for the different components in the fractions of the
deposit finer than 2 mm. The figures in the bottom righthand corner of each map give the total mass for the on-land
part of the deposit (After G. P. L. Walker 1981 c.)
= M/(Ml - M 3)
Ml -MI
--''----'-- x 100%
(1.9)
(1.10)
Ml - M3
STRATIGRAPHIC ANALYSIS
Table 1.5 Mass and volume calculations for the Hatepe
plinian deposit based on crystal concentration studies (after
G. P. L. Walker 1981 c).
V' volume within mapped area* (km 3 )
M' mass within mapped area*
P'.c2<2 mm pumice*t
C' free crystals
L'.c2 <2 mm lithics*
2.33
1.13
0044
0.09
0.11
2.20
0.37
2.57
3.67
3.70
6.00
1.48
3.22
2.64
2.78
0.02
0.47
3.27
4.67
4040
7.00
1.76
477
478
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
soils,
erosion surfaces,
(epiclastic) sediments and
lavas.
APPENDIX II
Origin
Essential characteristics
Preservation
potential
Recognition
potential
Epiclastic reworking
(fluvial, shoreline)
(Ch.10)
very good
very good
2 Epiclastic mass-flow
redeposition
(subaqueous)
(Ch.10)
very good
very good
homogeneous composition;
good in welded moderate
clast support of pumice or scoria;
ignimbrites
sheet to lensoidal geometry;
fines depleted; crystal-enriched
if magma porphyritic; intercalated
with other recognisable ignimbrite
facies; usually at tops of flow units;
thickness <2 m
concentration zones in
ignimbrites (upper part
of layer 2b) and scoriaflow deposits ICh. 7)
4 Fines-depleted
ignimbrite (Ch. 7)
homogeneous composition;
crystal-rich matrix if magma
porphyritic; massive - occasional
bedding; thickness - several to
>10 m; succeeded by volcanic
breccia (lithic-rich ground layer
of ignimbrite)
low
poor
479
480
Grainsize textural
class
B Conglomerateopen framework
(rounded clasts
essential)
C Brecciaclosed framework
(angular clasts)
Origin
Essential characteristics
5 Epiciastic reworking
similar to 1 and 2
and mass-flow redeposition
(deposits with granular
matrix) (Ch. 7)
Preservation
potential
very good
Recognition
potential
very good
7 Non-welded (uncollapsed
pumice) ignimbrite and
scoria-flow deposits
(Ch. 5) (Fig. 5.24a)
compositionally homogeneous
often very poor poor
(subject to variation in content
and composition of lithics
which may form breccia horizons);
intemally massive (with exception
of ignimbrite veneer deposits in
violent ignimbrites (Ch. 7) which
may be crudely layered); up to a
few tens of metres thick; may
contain gas segregation pipes &
pods with clast-supported fabric;
accretionary lapilli may be present;
gradational downwards into 4 or 17
8 Epiciastic redeposition
and mass-wastage
(includes gravitational
collapse, including
caldera margin collapse
breccias (Chs 8 & 13)
(Ch. 10) (Fig. 10.10)
compositionally homogeneous to
moderate
heterogeneous; disorganised to
graded-stratified facies for
redeposited units; massive to
diffusely layered for mass-wastage
(e.g. scree slopes, avalanches,
surface mounds on debris flows);
local lobate geometry to more
extensive for redeposited facies
and where large-scale sector
collapse has occurred; thickness
up to hundreds of metres;
associated epiclastic facies may
contain tractional structures
moderate
9 Aa lavas (Ch. 4)
(Fig. 4.6)
compositionally homogeneous
poor for
(basaltic); very irregular spinose
spinose top
clast morphology; variation in
surface
vesicularity; accidental ciasts
incorporated from substrate;
margins brecciated and interior
massive; usually less than 10m thick
moderate
Origin
Grainsize textural
class
Essential characteristics
Preservation
potential
481
Recognition
potential
good
11
good
good
12 Agglutinates
(Chs 3 & 5)
(Figs 3.13 & 6.8)
homogeneous composition
(basaltic, rarely peralkaline);
moulded fluidal clast shapes and
accommodation (Chs 3 & 5);
sector to annular geometry around
vent; variable thickness up to tens
of metres; interbedded massive
lavas (clastogenic lavas, Ch. 4)
moderate
very good
13 Agglomerates
(Chs 5 & 12)
(Fig. 6.6)
poor
very difficult
14 Quench-fragmented
compositionally homogeneous;
lavas, cryptodomes,
very angular to splintery clasts;
shallow intrusives
coarse blocks to finely granulated
(hyaloclastites) (Chs 3 & 4) glassy aggregates; may be
(Figs 3.12 & 25)
crystal-rich if porphyritic
good
very good
good
very good
15 Hydrothermal explosion
breccias (Chs 3 & 13)
poor
poor
16 Hydraulic fracture
breccias (Ch. 14)
(Fig. 14.5)
compositionally homogeneous to
very good
partially heterogeneous; clasts
variably altered; angular to splintery
clasts; 'jigsaw puzzle' fit of clasts
where little transport of clasts has
occurred; confined to cross-cutting
zones centimetres to metres wide
Lava dome/flow-front
talus deposits (Chs 4 &
10) (Fig. 10.12)
very good
482
Grainsize textural
class
Origin
Essential characteristics
Preservation
potential
Recognition
potential
17 Pumice-fall deposits
(subplinian, plinian,
ultraplinian) (Chs 5 & 6)
(Figs 6.14, 41c & 8.49,
Plate 8)
poor,
recognised by
context; good
for welded
deposits
18 Scoria-fall deposits
(hawaiian, strombolian)
(Chs 5 & 6) (Figs 3.16,
5.4, 6.6 & 6.10, Plate 5)
very poor
19 Lithic concentration
zones (base of layer 2b)
and ground layers of
violent ignimbrites
(Chs 7 & 8)
(Figs 7.10 & 26)
homogeneous to heterogeneous
good for
good if
lithic clast composition;
lithic
preserved
gradational upwards into matrixconcentration
supported and lithic-poor breccia
zones in welded
(upper part of layer 2b);
ignimbrites;
interbedded with other ignimbrite
otherwise poor
facies - underlain by basal layer
(sand to microbreccia grainsize);
thickness generally <1 m; ground
layer of violent ignimbrites may
overlie 4 or 21, and is sharply
overlain by layer 2b ignimbrite facies
20 Co-ignimbrite breccias
(lag breccias and ground
breccias) (Ch. 8)
(Fig. 820)
good if
capped by
welded
ignimbrite
good if
preserved
21
poor
poor
Fines-depleted
ignimbrite
(Chs 7 & 8)
(Figs 7.28 & 30b)
very poor
Grainsize textural
class
Origin
Essential characteristics
Preservation
potential
483
Recognition
potential
moderate
to good
23 Glacial dropstone
deposits (Ch. 10)
(Figs 10.2 & 13)
very good
(structure
distinguished
from pyroclastic
bomb sags by
context)
24 Epiclastic reworking
and/or mass-flow
redeposition with
granular matrix (Ch. 10)
(Figs 10.28a & 31 b)
very good
moderate
very good
moderate
27 Co-ignimbrite breccias
and proximal ignimbrites
(Ch. 8) (Fig. 8.20)
excellent for
welded
ignimbrites,
otherwise poor
484
Origin
Grainsize textural
class
Essential characteristics
Preservation
potential
Recognition
potential
compositionally homogeneous to
poor
heterogeneous; variable
vesicularity of juvenile clasts (Ch. 3);
presence of ballistics and impact
sags; cored lapilli; massive, bedded
and cross-bedded intemal
structures; thickness of multiple
base-surge piles (tuff rings) up to
tens of metres
good if
preserved
29 Ground or ash-cloud
surge deposits
(Chs 5 & 7)
(Fig. 5.23, Plate 8)
compositionally homogeneous to
good when
heterogeneous microbreccias
capped by or
(dependent on composition of
within welded
parent pyroclastic flows and lithic
ignimbrite
succession
content); stratified and crossstratified; position below and above,
respectively, pyroclastic flow facies;
thickness generally <2 m
moderate
within thick
caldera lake
successions
very good in
undeformed
terrains
very good
very good
very good
very good
31
E Sandstones
(sand-sized framework
grains predominant)
Epiclastic reworking
abundant tractional structures;
(Ch. 10) (Figs 10.19 & 24) cross-stratification is either high
angle of repose or hummocky
cross-stratification (cf. surge
cross-stratification); body and
trace fossils
32 Epiclastic mass-flow
redeposition (Ch. 10)
(Fig. 10.28, Plate 11)
33 Weathered and/or
devitrified lava/dykes
(Ch. 14) (Fig. 2.10)
recognition as
lavas difficult
in instances
34 Fine-grained ignimbrite
(Chs 5 & 8) (Fig. 5.16c)
recognition of
origin may be
difficult
poor unless
welded
Grainsize textural
class
Origin
F Mudstones
(mud-sized grade
predominant
Essential characteristics
Preservation
potential
485
Recognition
potential
good if in
welded
ignimbrite
successions
(co-ignimbrite
ashes) and in
lacustrine and
deep marine
successions
moderate;
difficulty in
distinguishing
from redeposited origin
for subaqueous
ashes
poor
good if
preserved
see 29
see 29
38 Epiclastic
(Ch. 10) (Fig. 1020)
as for 31 and 32
very good
very good
39 Fine-grained ignimbrite
(Chs 5 & 8) (Fig. 5.16c)
as for 34
poor unless
welded
recognition may
be difficult
as for 35
see 35
see 35
41
as for 36 and 37
Surge deposits
(Chs 5 & 7)
see 36 and 37
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Walker and R. Croasdale, ]. Geol. Soc., Lond. 127,
17-55 by permission of G. P. L. Walker and Blackwell
Scientific Publications; Figure 6.13d reproduced from K.
Bloomfield et al., Geol. Rundschau 66, 120-46 by
permission of K. Bloomfield and the publisher; Figures
6.16a-d and 13.37-40 reproduced from G. P. L. Walker
et al., Geol. Rundschau 70, 1100-18 by permission of
G. P. L. Walker and the publisher; Figures 6.17-19
reproduced from G. P. L. Walker,]. Volcanol. Geothenn.
Res. 8, 69-94 by permission of the author and Elsevier
Science Publishers, Figures 6.18 and 6.19 also from
G. P. L. Walker, Bull. Volcanol. 44,223-40 by permission
of the author and the publisher; Figure 6.20 reproduced
from L. Wilson, Geophys.]. R. Astr. Soc. 45, 543-56 by
permission of the author and Blackwell Scientific Publications; Figure 6.22 reproduced from S. Self, N.z. ].
Geol. Geophys. 18, 189-95 by permission of the author
and the publisher; Figure 6.23 reproduced from K. J.
Murata et al., Bull. Volcanol. 29,765-96 by permission of
the publisher; Figures 6.26 and 6.28 by S. Self et al.,
reprinted from Nature Vol. 277, pp. 440-3 by permission
of S. Self and the publisher, copyright 1979 Macmillan
Journals Limited; Figure 6.27 reproduced from I. A.
Nairn and S. Self,]. Volcanol. Geothenn. Res. 3, 39--60
by permission of S. Self and Elsevier Science Publishers;
Figures 6.30a-c reproduced from H. Sigurdsson, Science
216 (4 June 1982), 1106--8 by permission of the author
and the publisher, 1982 by the AAAS; Figures
6.33-36 reproduced from S. Self and R. S. J. Sparks,
Bull. Volcanol. 41, 196--212 by permission of S. Self and
the publisher; Figures 6.38 and 7.27 reproduced from
G. P. L. Walker, in Tephra studies (S. Self and R. S. J.
Sparks, eds), 317-30 by permission of the author and D.
Reidel Publishing Company, Figure 6.38 also from S. N.
Carey and H. Sigurdsson, J. Geophys. Res. 87, 7061-72
by permission of the author and the publisher, 1982
by the American Geophysical Union; Figures 6.40 and
6.42-45 reproduced from R. S. J. Sparks and J. V.
Wright, Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Paper No. 180, 155--66 by
permission of R. S. J. Sparks and the Geological Society
of America; Figure 6.46a reproduced from J. V. Wright,
Geol. Rundschau 69, 263-91 by permission of the author
and the publisher.
/ Figure 7.1 b reproduced from L. Wilson and J. W.
Head, U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. No. 1250, 513-24 by
permission ofL. Wilson and the U.S. Geological Survey;
Figures 7.2 and 7.3 reproduced from R. S. J. Sparks,
Sedimentology 23, 147-88 by permission of the author,
the Editor and Blackwell Scientific Publications; Figures
7.4,7.5, 7.6b and 7.8 reproduced from J. N. Wilson,].
Volcanol. Geothenn. Res. 8, 231-49 by permission of the
515
516 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
the publisher; Figures 8.12, 8.31, 8.33 and 8.47a
reproduced from J. V. Wright, Bull. Volcanol. 44,
189-212 by permission of the author and the publisher;
Figure 8.16 reproduced from C. H. Bacon, J. Volcanol.
Geothenn. Res. 18, 57-115 by permission of the author
and Elsevier Science Publishers; Figure 8.17 reproduced
from S. Self and J. V. Wright, Geology 11, 443--6 by
permission of J. V. Wright and the Geological Society of
America; Figure 8.19 reproduced from J. V. Wright and
G. P. L. Walker, Geology 5, 729-32 by permission of
J. V. Wright and the Geological Society of America;
Figures 8.20c, 8.21-23 and 13.27 reproduced from T. H.
Druitt and R. S. J. Sparks, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res.
13,147-71 by permission ofR. S. J. Sparks and Elsevier
Science Publishers; Figure 8.24 reproduced from D.
Ninkovich et al., Bull. Volcanol. 41,286--98 by permission
of D. Ninkovich and the publisher; Figure 8.25 reproduced from R. S. J. Sparks and T. C. Huang, Geol.
Mag. 117,425-36 by permission of R. S. J. Sparks and
Cambridge University Press; Figure 8.30 reproduced
from J. V. Wright et al., in Tephra studies (S. Self and
R. S. J. Sparks, eds), 433-9 by permission of J. V.
Wright and D. Reidel Publishing Company; Figures
8.32b and 8.48 reproduced from G. P. L. Walker et al.,
J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 10, 1-11 by permission of
G. P. L. Walker and Elsevier Science Publishers; Figure
8.32c reproduced from G. P. L. Walkeretal., Geology 8,
245-9 by permission of G. P. L. Walker and the Geological Society of America; Figure 8.37 reproduced from
P. W. Lipman and R. L. Christiansen, U.S. Geol.
Survey Prof Paper No. 501B, 74-8 by permission of
P. W. Lipman and the U.S. Geological Survey; Figures
8.40 and 8.41 reproduced from D. H. Ragan and M. F.
Sheridan, Geoi. Soc. Am. Bull. 83,95-106 by permission
of M. F. Sheridan and the Geological Society of America;
Figure 8.42 reproduced from R. L. Smith and R. A.
Bailey, Bull. Volcanol. 29, 83-104 by permission ofR. L.
Smith and the publisher; Figure 8.45 reproduced from
M. F. Sheridan, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 81, 851-68 by
permission of the author and the Geological Society of
America; Figures 8.5la and 1.4 reproduced from G. P. L.
Walker, N.z.J. Geol. Geophys. 24, 304-24 by permission
of the author and the publisher; Figures 8.S1b, c and
8.53 reproduced from G. P. L. Walker, J. Volcanol.
Geotherm. Res. 9, 395-407 by permission of the author
and Elsevier Science Publishers; Figure 8.54 reproduced
from G. P. L. Walker, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 8,
69-94 by permission of the author and Elsevier Science
Publishers.
Figure 9.1a reproduced from R. S. Fiske, Geol. Soc.
Am. Bull. 74, 391-406 by permission of the author and
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
517
518 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
by permission of the Editor.
Figure 15.1a and b reproduced from E. M. Moores,
Rev. Geophys. Space Phys. 20, 735-60 by permission of
the author and the publisher, 1982 by the American
Geophysical Union; Figure 15.1c by R. N. Anderson et
al., reprinted from Nature Vol. 300, pp. 589-94 by
permission of R. N. Anderson and the publisher, copyright 1982 Macmillan Journals Limited; Figure 15.2
by D. E. Karig, reproduced from the Annual Review of
Earth and Planetary Sciences Volume 2, 51-75 by
permission of the author and the publisher, 1974 by
Annual Reviews Inc.; Figure 15.3 reproduced from G.
Di Paola, Bull. Volcanol. 36,517-60 by permission of the
author and the publisher; Figure 15.4a reproduced from
B. H. Baker et al., Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Paper No. 136,
1-67 by permission of B. H. Baker and the Geological
Society of America; Figure 15.4b reproduced from P.
Mohr and C. A. Wood, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 33,
126-44 by permission of P. Mohr and Elsevier Science
Publishers; Figure 15.5a by G. P. Eaton, reproduced
from the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
Volume 10,409-40 by permission of the author and the
publisher, 1982 by Annual Reviews Inc.; Figure
15.5b reproduced from G. P. Eaton, Tectonophysics 102,
275-95 by permission of the author and Elsevier Science
Publishers; Figure 15.6 reproduced from W. R.
INDEX
Numbers in italic type refer to text figures, and numbers in bold type refer to text sections.
lithic 334
loss from eruption columns 242
phreatomagmatic 3.18, 3.25
turbidites 9.2.2, 287-9
vitric 335
ash cloud surge S.6.2, 7.7.3
deposits S.7.3, 7.10, 484, 485, 5.20,
5.23
ash fall deposits
distal silicic 6.9
ash flow tuff (see also ignimbrite) 225
Askja 65,116,143,159,166,168,3.21,
6.17,6.33,6.37,6.44
Aso caldera 103, 395
aspect ratio 62, 64, 71, 89
Ata caldera 395
Augustine volcano 154
autobreccia 3.7, 481, 3.27
nomenclature 12.7
auto brecciation 3.7
autoclastic
processes 34
rocks 4
avalanches 300-3, 330, 10.3, 10.4,
10.8-10
ballistic fragments (see also bombs) 133,
6.24,13.20
clast trajectory - velocity calculations
470
ranges Table I.l
Bandai-san 351
Bandelier tuffs 232, S.7.1, 256-8,
Plate 13,400,3.24,6.14,6.17,
6.19, Plate 8, 8.20, 8.26-30, 8.36,
8.42,8.44,8.46, /.1, Table 1.2
ash cloud surges 120, 341-2,5.23,
8.28
Barcena volcano 296
basaltic lavas
eruption of 4.4
features of subaerial lavas 4.S
fire fountains 64
massive 73
passage into water 4.7
pillow 73
sheet 73
submarine 4.6
basaltic pyroclasts 48-9
basaltic shield volcanoes 13.2, 13.1-5
Galapagos type 13.2.2
Hawaiian type 13.2.1
Icelandic type 13.3.3
basaltic successions facies models
continental 14.S.1, 14.7
description 427
economic significance 427
facies model 14. 7
basanite 17
base surge 114--15, 7.7.1,5.18,5.19
depositional processes 7.9
deposits S.7.1, 7.10, 484, 485, 5.19,
5.21,5.22,6.10,7.35,7.37-44,
13.23
dry 115,206
subaqueous 9.7
transport mechanics 7.S
wet 115,206
basement 455,458
igneous rock types as indicators IS.10
basic rocks
definition 16
Basin and Range Province 446, IS.6,
15.5,15.6
bentonite 244
Bezymianny 107
Big Glass Mountain
obsidian flow complex Plate 2, 86
519
520
INDEX
airfall 341
ignimbrite 342
pyroclastic flow deposits 342-3
pyroclastic origin 11.5.1
surge deposits 341-2
crystal concentration
determinations 475-6
epiclastic processes 11.4.3
eruption-related processes 11.5.2
factors affecting 11.4, 11.6
ignimbrites 242
in magmas 11.4.1, 11.3
pyroclastic flows 103, 11.4, 11.5
crystal content of magma, 11.3
effects on viscosity 2.5.5
crystal-rich volcaniclastics Ch. 11,
Plate 11, 11.2
airfall deposits 341
deposits 11.5
epiclastic origins 345
fragmentation modes 11.3
ignimbrite 342
mixed pyroclastic and epiciastic origin
11.5.2
pyroclastic origin 11.5.1
surge deposits 341-2
terminology 344
crystallisation
effects on exsolution 35
second boiling 35
Cyprus type massive sulphide deposits
405
dacitic lavas 4.8, 4.18, 4.19
Dali Ash 271-5, 280, 323, 344,3.23,
9.1,9.2
Deborah Volcanics 2.13, 3.11
debris flows 29,323-5,2.13,10.30
cohesive 29, 323
dead zones 29
deposits 323-5, 480, 483,10.31
flow state 29
grain dominant 325
interior channels 29
laminar flow 29
levees 29, 325
mobility 7.2
plug flow zones 29, 325, 2.13
turbulent flow 29
yield strength 29, 325
Deccan Traps 61, 369
decompression of magma 36, 40
decompressional vesiculation 35, 36
deep-sea ash layers 9.6
bioturbation of 288
estimating duration of large
magnitude explosive eruptions 289,
9.16-18
Deep-Sea Drilling Project 447
deformation of volcanic successions
415-16.,14.3.7,14.6
degassing of magma 60
INDEX
density
determinations for modern pyroclastic
deposits App. 1.1.6
juvenile fragments 3.20
magmas 2.3
pumice 3.21, Table 7.2
devitrification 8.10.3, 415, 416, 14.3.2,
14.4
associated vapour phase crystallisation
419
chemical effects 419
in ignimbrites 419, 8.37, 8.45
spherulites 419,14.4
stages 418
diagenesis of volcanic successions 415,
14.3.5
diamictite 307, 483
diatremes 377
diffusion coefficient 36
diffusion of volatiles 36
basalts 36
effect of viscosity 36
rhyolites 36
domes 81, 4.18, 4.21-4, 4.29
caldera 13.9.4
collapse 5.4.1
cratered 81
marginal talus deposits 481
resurgent 400
rhyolitic 83, 87
subaqueous silicic 88
Donzurobo Formation 281
double grading 275
Dyffryn Mymbyr Tuff 9.7
East Africa Rift Plate 15,453,15.3,15.4
EI Chichon 223
ensialic marginal basin 451,460
entablure 71, 4.10
epiclastic
definition 4, 8, 34, 56, 294, 360
deposits Ch. 10, App. II.
fragmentation 34, 3.8
epiclastic processes Ch. 10
response to volcanic events 295
rhyolitic volcanoes 401
sediment transport 10.3
stratovolcanoes 13.7.4
epithermal mineralisation 416
erosion
in volcanic terrains 10.2
rates 295
eruption column 5.2.1, 5.7, 5.8, 8.8,
8.9,8.11, Table 5.2
ash loss 242
collapse 5.4.2, 150,8.3
duration Table 5.2
effect of wind 102, 13.28
gas thrust zone 98
height 38, 42, 98-103, 5.9, 6.20,
Table 5.2
phreatomagmatic 103
umbrella region 99
13.6
Ethiopian Rift Valley 15.3
eutaxitic texture 166,8.38
pseudo- 270, 417
explosive fragmentation of magma 3.2
open vent 3.2.2 .
role of magma mixing 3.3
sealed magma chamber 3.2.1
subaerial vents 36-8
subaqueous vents 38-41
vesicle growth 3.3, 3.4
exsolution of volatiles 3.1,3.2
carbon dioxide 34
crystallisation induced 35
decompressional 35, 40
factors controlling 34, 35
first boiling 35
water 34
fabric 10
facies
analysis 4-12
associations of 6, 11, 424
concept 1.2
definition 5
description of 1.3, 14.6
descriptive lithological aspects 12.4
fossils in 1.3.5
geometry of 1.3.1, 14.2
interactive stratigraphic/facies
diagrams 415
interpretation 14.6
lithology of 1.3.2, 12.2.2, 12.4, 14.3
palaeocurrents of 1.3.4.
palaeoenvironmental indicators 14.5
post -depositional modification 14.3
sedimentary structures of 1.3.3
stratigraphic relationships 4, 14.2,
1.1,1.2
trends 425
facies models
basaltic seamounts 14.8.5, 13.50
continental basaltic volcanic
successions 14.8.1, 14.7
continental silicic volcanoes 14.8.3,
14.9
13.32,14.8
14.12
functions 425
ignimbrite 8.7
521
13.49,15.1
13.51
14.13,14.11
14.8.7,14.11
uses 14.7
volcanic centres/successions Ch. 14,
14.8
felsic 17
felsic volcanoes-continental see rhyolite
volcanoes
associated deep marine facies 14.8.8
felsic volcanoes-submarine-facies models
description 435-6
economic significance 436
facies model 14.11
fiamme 166,251,255,8.38,8.43
fines depletion processes in pyroclastic
deposits 7.46
fire fountains 64
first boiling 35
Fish Canyon Tuff 232,342,8.17,8.18
vent system 8.4.3
Fishguard Volcanic Group 280
fissure vents 64
flood basalt Plate 4, 60,4.5.2
aspect ratio 71
eruption of 64
paleoflow indicators 73
vents 64,13.3,13.7, Table 13.1
flood lavas Plate 4
area 60,369
basalts 4.5.2
Columbia River Plateau 61,369,4.10
Deccan Traps 61, 369
discharge rate 63
eastern Iceland 61
effusion rate 63
eruption duration 61, 63, 369
Ethiopian flood basalt province 369,
13.6
flow distances 61
length 60
thickness 61
vents 60,64,370,13.7, Table 13.1
volume 63, 369
flow banding 28, 78, 84, 87,2.10,2.11,
4.23
7.3
522
INDEX
of sediments 43
fluidised sediment flows 320
Fogo plinian deposit 150, 341, 6.15,
6.17,13.29
Fogo volcano 143
Fort Rock tuffring 13.14
fragmentation
of magmas Ch. 3
Froude Number 310
Fuego volcano 108, 153,295,384,392,
5.6,6.25,13.32
fuel-coolant interaction 43, 45
Fuji 383
fumarolic pipes 258, 8.45-7
Furnas 384
Galapagos rift 74
Galapagos shield volcanoes 13.2.3
Galiarte cone 6.9, 6.11
Garth Tuff 276, 9.7, 9.8
gas bubbles
effects on viscosity 2.5.6
gas segregation pipes 96, 181, 7.3.4,
7.7, 7.14-16
geochemical fingerprinting of modern
pyroclastic deposits 478
geothermal systems 401
Gerringong Volcanics 3.11, 3.12, 10.13,
10.19
glacial sediment transport 305-8, 10.14,
10.15
deposits 305-8, 483, 10.13, 10.14
diamictite 307, 483
till, tillite 307, 483, 10 .15
grading
gravity-density 190
lateral in pyroclastic flow deposits
7.3.5
reverse 188, 189,304,323
shear induced 190, 305
vertical in pyroclastic flow deposits
7.3.3
grain flow 303-4,310,320,10.11
grainsize 9, 358
classification, non-genetic Tables
12.7, 12.8, App. II
classification of pyroclasts Table 12.6
determination App. 1.1.3
distribution App. 1.1.3
Folk and Ward statistical parameters
474
graphical standard deviation 472
Inman statistical parameters 472
maximum App. 1.1.2
median diameter 472
pyroclastic fragments 353
sieving methods 471
sorting statistic 472
Green Tuff, Pantelleria 168, 6.46, 6.47
ground layer 119, 198,202,482
ground surge 5.6.2, 7.7.2
deposits 5.7.2, 7.10, 484, 485
compound 8.33
cooling units 255
crystal concentration 242, 342
definition 110, 224
density 8.40, Table 7.2
deposits 5.5.3, 7.3
devitrification 8.10.3
distances travelled Table 8.2
eruption rate 63, 8.7.3, 8.34
eruption sequence Plate 8,8.18
facies model 8.7, 7.27,8.30
fiamme 251, 255
fines depleted 199, 248, 480, 483,
7.28
fumarolic pipes 258
gas segregation pipes 7.3.4,7.7,
7.14-16
grade 255
grain size characteristics 7.9, 7.11,
7.13,7.18,7.36,7.45, Table 1.2
ground breccia, layer 119, 198,202,
241,483, 7.26,8.20
head deposits 198, 202
intracaldera 227, 235
intraplinian ignimbrite 232
lag breccias 238, 483, 8.19, 8.20, 8.22
landsat image 8.2
lateral grading 7.3.5
lithic concentration zones 188,482,
7.10
maps 8.1,8.3-6,8.32
occurrence 8.2
outflow sheets 227, 8.17
palaeocurrent indicators 8.8
pumice concentration zones 188,480
rheomorphism 255
rootless explosion craters 251
sillar 258
simple 8.33
size 224, 8.13
source vents 8.4
stratigraphy 8.7, 8.17
thickness 7.3.1,7.9,8.4,8.31
valley pond 200, 247, 7.31,8.32
vapour phase crystallisation 8.10.2,
8.42,8.45,8.46
veneer deposit 200, 247,7.30,7.31,
8.32
vents 8.4, 8.14, 8.16
vertical grading 7.3.3
vitrophyre 252
volume Table 8.1
welding 8.10.1, ,8.37-44
ignimbrite forming eruptions Ch. 8
Inman grainsize statistical parameters
472
graphical standard deviation 472
median diameter 472
sorting 472
interactive stratigraphic diagrams 13 .30,
13.39,14.1
intermediate rocks
definition 16
INDEX
mineralogy 16
intermediate-silicic multivent centres
13.8
intraglacial volcanism see subglacial
intra-plate volcanism - tectonic setting
continental 446, 15.5
oceanic 446, 15.4
inverse volcanoes 395
Irazu volcano 153,6.23,6.25
island arc volcanism 446,15.7,15.2,
15.7,15.8,15.12
isopach maps 469,6.15,6.21,6.22,
6.29,6.34,6.44,6.45,8.4,8.31,
8.32,8.51,8.54
isopleth maps 470, 6.15, 8.31,8.32,
8.53,8.54
Ito pyroclastic flow 7.18, 8.3, 8.20
Jeffreys equation 22
jokulhlaups 317, 409, 10.24
juvenile fragments 3.5.1
Kaingaroa ignimbrite 3.23
Karoo basalts 369
Katla volcano Plate 6
Kauai 299
Kawera geothermal field 404
keratophyre 19
Kilauea 45, 140,364-5,369,4.5,6.11,
13.2,13.3
Koko crater 5.24
Komagatake 110
komatiite lavas 30, 60, 4.12, 4.31,4.32
eruption temperatures 90
Reynolds Numbers 90
rheology 90
thickness 90
viscosities 90
komatiitic basalts 89
Kos 345, 402, 13.44
Kowmung Volcaniclastics 344, Plate 14
Krakatau 110, 151,223,281-2,386,
391,9.10
Kuroko ores 40,395,401
Kyushu caldera 395
La Garita caldera 233, 8.17
La Primavera volcano 79,85,88,375,
397-400,13.9.4,4.21-3,6.17,
6.19,8.12,8.31,13.37,13.39,
13.45-7
Laacher See
Tephra 244
volcano 244
Laguna de Bay 394,13.36
lahars 323-7, 480, 483
Lake Atitlan 289, 7.13
Lake Toba 243, 397,8.24
Laki basalt flow 61,63,4.1
laminar flow 15,2.7
landslides 299-300, 10.5-7
lapilli 47
lava deltas 75
523
magma
density of 2.3,2.2
mixing 15,3.3
network modifying elements 26
network structural units 26
polymerisation in 26
properties of Ch. 2
rheology of 15
solubility of water 24, 3.1
temperature of2.2, Tables 2.2, 2.3,
2.4
viscosity of2.4, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8,
Table 2.4
yield strength 2.4, Table 2.4
magmastatic pressure 36
magmatic associations 2.1.2
magmatic explosions 3.2, 34
mantle bedding (air-fall deposits) 96
marginal basin volcanism 446, 15.3,
15.2,15.7
Marianas Island Arc 15.7
mass flow/movement 297, 298, 304,
307-8,316--29,330, App. 11,10.29
Mauna Iki 4.5, 4.7
Mauna Kea 364, 366, 13.4
Mauna Loa 62,365,4.6
Mauna Vlu 67,69,73,76,365,369,4.5
Mayon volcano 108
Mayor Island 173
Megalo Vourno 6.6
Merapi 107
Merrions Tuff 88, 273, 281, 282, 323,
Plate 11,343-4,4.30,10.27,14.4
mesa lavas 81
metamorphism of volcanic successions
415, 14.3.6
microcontinental arc volcanism 446,
15.8,15.8,15.9
microlites 8
mid-oceanic ridge, 13.48, 13.49
central volcanoes 405
hawaiian type shield volcanoes 406
hydrothermal vents 405
lavas 75
median rift valley 405--6
mineralisation 406
tectonic setting 446, 15.2
vents 74, 13.48
volcanic activity 75, 446, 15.2
volcanoes 13.10.1, 13.48, 13.49
mid-oceanic ridge rift volcanism-facies
models
description 432
economic significance 432
facies model 13.50, 15.1
milling 47
Mineral King Roof Pendant 282
mineralisation
continental basaltic volcanic
successions 427-8
continental silicic volcanoes 430--2
continental stratovolcanoes 428
deep marine distal felsic volcanics 436
524
INDEX
7.15,8.4,11.4
7.44,13.13,13.22,13.23
Mt Mazama 235
Mt Misery 387, 5.15,6.32,13.28
Mt Napier 3.13
Mt Pelee 107, 110, 118, 119, 130,202,
218,225,351,386,3.20,3.24,
5.10,5.15,5.20
Mt Rainier 301-2, 307, 325, 10.10,
10.14
Mt Ruapehu see Ruapehu
Mt St Helens 45
ash cloud surges 120
ash fall deposits 165,243,5.8
avalanche 300-2
blast deposit 118, 218-19,7.45
debris flow deposits 191, 325, 351
dome collapse 107
glaciers 307
ignimbrites 1l0, 179,202,223, 7.1,
8.6,8.35
lahars 325
landslide 299, 386, 10.6
phreatic explosion craters 46, 251,
280,8.35
plinian fall deposits 144
pyroclastic flows 5.10, 5.12,7.1
Mt Shasta 13.25
mudflow 323-5, App. II
muzzle velocity 6.2,470,6.20
Mweelrea Group 280
nephelinite 17
Newberry Crater 4.23
Newer Volcanics volcanic province 374,
379,13.13,13.15,13.16,13.22
305-7,308-15,329-30
157
3.4.4
surges 5.6.1
water: magma mass ratio 42,45,3.9
phreatoplinian fall deposits 131, 6.8.2,
261,6.33-5
482,6.13-15,8.12
6.37,6.38
INDEX
Pukeonake scoria cone 5.24,10.12
pumice 36, 49, 3.19
concentration zones in ignimbrites
188,480
crystal content App. 1.1.5
diapirs 86
density 3.21, Table 7.2
fall deposit (see also plinian fall
deposits) 5.4
flotation 315, 10.21
flow deposits (see also ignimbrites)
5.5.3
flow transport mechanics 7.4, 8.23
giant pumice beds 403,484,13.45,
13.46
mixed 41,170,3.22
recognition in the rock record 14.4
terminal fall velocity 7.23
vesicle nucleation size 36
pumice cones 13.4, 374
Purrumbete, Lake 380, 5.21,7.37,
13.13,13.15,13.22
Puu Hou 382
Puu Ki littoral cones 13.24
Puu Waawaa pumice cone 366, 374
pyroclastic
definition 4, 8, 350
nomenclature/classification of deposits
12.2,360
pyroclastic deposits - modern
area plots 470
ballistic clast trajectory-velocity
studies 470
classification Tables 7.1,12.1-5
component proportion analysis App.
1.1.4
components Table 12.6
dating 478
density App. 1.1.6
fines depletion processes 7.46
geochemical fingerprinting 478
grain size characteristics (see also
pyroclastic fall, flow, and surge
deposits) 5.3, 1.1, App. 1.1.3,
Table I.2
grainsize determination App. 1.1.3
isopach maps 469
isopleth maps 470
mass calculations 1.4, Table 1.5
maximum grain size studies App. 1.1.2
methods of study App. 1
muzzle velocity 470
physical analysis App. I.1
porosity App. 1.1.6
relationship to topography 5.1
sieving 471
sorting classes 472-3, Table 1.4
stratigraphic analysis App. 1.2
tephrochronology 477
terminal fall velocity 475
thickness App. 1.1.1
volume calculations 470, 1.4,
Table I.5
525
thickness 7.3.1
valley pond ignimbrite 200
yield strength 183
pyroclastic flow forming eruptions 5.4
column collapse 5.4.2, 150,8.3,8.8,
8.9,8.10,8.11
526
INDEX
sorting 7.10.3
pyroclasts 3.5
bombs 47,134,3.14
classification of grainsize and
nomenclature Table 12.5
crystals 3.5.2
juvenile fragments 3.5.1, 3.20
lithic fragments 3.5.3
phreatomagmatic 3.18, 3.25
quartz keratophyre 19
Queen Mary's Peak 384
quench fragmentation 34, 40, 42, 43-5
products 54--6
Quill, St Eustatius 116,5.22,6.31
Quizapu volcano 143, 164
Rabaul ignimbrite 198,201
Racks Tuff 276,9.7
ramp structures
in rhyolite lavas 86--7
Ramsey Island volcanic succession 276,
280
Red Rock Volcanic Complex 6.8
resurgent domes 400-1
reverse grading 304,323,10.12
basal layers of pyroclastic flows 188,
189
Reynolds Number 15, 28
rheology
definition 16
of fluidised pyroclastic flows 183
oflavas 65
of magmas 15, 16,21
rheomorphism 168, 173,255,8.43
rhyolite lavas 4.21~
basic inclusions 85
cryptodomes 82
domes 81
eruption of 4.9
features of 4.10
flow directions 87
flow fronts 87
growth 4.10.4
internal structure 4.10.4
lithology 4.10.2
ramp structures 85-7, 4.27
ring fractures 398
stony 83-4, 4.23
subaerial4.9
subglacial 88
surface features 4.10.3
talus aprons 87
thickness 81
vents of 4.9
rhyolitic volcanoes/centres 13.9,
13.37-43,14.9
associated craters 13.9.5
bimodal associations 401
caldera collapse 398
caldera collapse breccias 398
caldera sediments 13.9.4
deposits 13.9.3
domes 13.9.4
epiclastic processes 401
eruption styles 13.9.3
evolutionary cycles 400
facies models 13.37, 14.9, 14.11
geothermal systems 401
giant pumice beds 403
hydrothermal explosion craters 404
life expectancy 13.9.2
maps 13.37, 13.38, 13.42
morphometry 13.9.1
output rates 13.9.2
repose periods 13.9.2
resurgent domes 400
rhyolitic tuff rings 404
ring fractures 398
shadow zones 401
stratigraphy 13.39, 13.40
submarine calderas 401, 13.44
ring plains 383
Rio Caliente ignimbrite 232, 237, 244,
8.7.2,258,402,5.3,5.16,8.12,
8.20,8.31
Rocche Rosse coulee, Lipari 87
Roches lava, Montserrat 78
rock fall 298-9, 10.3, 10.4
rootless vents 46,279,382,9.9
Roseau ash 9.4
Roseau subaqueous pyroclastic deposits
9.3,9.4
Roseau Tuff 226, 271, 283, 9.3
Rotoehu ash 46, 339, 341, 11.5
Rotoiti Breccia 339, 11.5
Rotongaio ash 158,260,8.49,8.52,8.53
rounding 10, 359
Roza Member, Columbia River Plateau
61,63,369,4.1,13.7, Table 13.1
Ruapehu 45,116,173, Plate 12,383,
3.27,6.39,10.31,13.25,13.43
Saidmarreh landslide 179
salic 17
San Francisco volcanic field 373, 6.8,
13.8,13.12
San Juan volcanic field 397, 8.1
San Pedro volcano 5.15
sandurs 317, 409
Santa Maria volcano 63, 143,229,295,
392,10.1
Santaguito dacite dome 63, 199
Santorini 116, 143, 158, 166,223,233,
237,241, Plate 9, 343-4,5.4,6.3,
6.8,6.40-42,7.9,7.10,7.12,7.15,
8.2,8.3,8.4,11.4,13.30,13.31
scoria 36, 48,3.16
concentration zones 480
fall deposits see strombolian fall
deposits
INDEX
deposits 13.7.3
dimensions Table 13.3
epiclastic processes 13.7.4
eruption styles 13.7.3
facies model 13.32, 14.8, 14.10
life expectancy 13.7.2
marine 391, 14.10
mass wastage 13.7.4
mineralisation 391
morphometry 13.7.1
output rates 13.7.2, Table 13.4
parasitic centres 386
repose periods 13.7.2
ring plains 383
summit caldera 13.26, 13.27, 13.31
stratovolcanoes-continental-facies models
description 436
economic significance 429
facies model 14.8
stratovolcanoes-marine-facies models
description 433-4
economic significance 434
facies model 14 .10
strength of magmas 2.6
stress field
conditions for volcanism 15.1, 15.11
igneous rocks as indicators 15.12
Stromboli 137,386,10.5
strombolian fall deposits 131,482,5.4,
6.5-11,13.23
classification 6.3.3
volume estimates Table 6.1
strombolian style eruptions 129
gas velocities 137
mechanisms and dynamics 6.3.2,6.12
subaerial vents
explosive fragmentation of magma
36-8
subaqueous granular mass flow 317-23
subaqueous ignimbrites 9.3
subaqueous lavas
basaltic 4.6
silicic 4.11
subaqueous pyroclastic flows Ch. 9
deposits 9.2.1
passage from air into water 9.5,9.11,
9.13
submarine eruption of9.4, 9.12
subaqueous surges 9.7
subaqueous vents
explosive fragmentation of magma
38-40,3.7
subaqueous welding 9.3
subduction
Andean type 464-5
Marianas type 464-5
sub-intraglacial basaltic and rhyolitic
volcanism 13.11, 13.51,13.52
basaltic 408
moberg 409
rhyolitic 88, 409
tindas 408
tuyas 408, 13.51
527
528
INDEX
thermal oxidisation 96
thermal remanent magnetisation 98, 281
tholeiite 17
temperature of magmas 19, 20
till, tillite 307, 494
tindas 408
Toba deep-sea ash layer 289, 8.24
Toba Tuff 243
Tongariro 6.39, 13.43
Tokiwa Formation 271,284--5,9.1
Toledo caldera 244,398,13.42
Tonga-Kermadec arc 15.12
tonsteins 244
torrent flow 316-18, 10.23
Tower Hill Volcanic Centre 380-2,
5.21,6.10,7.40,7.41,13.15,
13.20,13.22,13.23
tractional sediment transport 308-16,
329-30,10.16
tractional sedimentary structures
309-14, 10.17-19
Treasure Mountain Tuff 342,8.38
tuff cones 13.5, 13.14, 13.17, 13.21,
Table 13.2
deposits 378
eruptive activity 379
tuffrings 13.5, 13.14, 13.17, 13.22,
13.23, Table 13.2
deposits 378, 13 .23
eruptive activity 379
rhyolitic 404
'tuff, use of 12.5
Tuluman Islands 79, 88, 403
tumuli 69, 4.8
turbidite 318-20, 10.26-9
ash 9.2.2, 286-7
turbidity currents 318-20, 10.25, 10.26,
10.29
turbulent flow 15,2.7
tuyas 408,13.51
Ukinrek maars 115, 382, 13.14, 13.19
ultrabasic
definition 16
komatiites 4.12
lavas 89
ultramafic 17, 90
ultraplinian eruptions 6.6
ultraplinian fall deposits 131, 6.6
Taupo pumice 153,8.12.2
Usu volcano 78, 4.20
Valles caldera 244, Plate 13,398-400,
8.20,13.42
Valley ofTen Thousand Smokes
ignimbrite 233, 8.5
vapour phase crystallisation 8.10.2,419,
8.42,8.45,8.46,8.47
variolites 420
vents
central 8.4.4
flood basalt provinces 13.3, 13.7
ignimbrite fissure vents 8.4.1, 8.14