Table of Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... i
PRIOR LEARNING..................................................................................................................................... 1
FUNCTIONS IN GENERAL ...................................................................................................................... 2
Transformation of graphs ........................................................................................................................... 3
POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS ................................................................................................................... 4
Factor & Remainder theorem ..................................................................................................................... 5
Linear Function .......................................................................................................................................... 5
Quadratic Function ..................................................................................................................................... 5
Rational Functions ...................................................................................................................................... 6
Other equations & Inequalities ................................................................................................................... 7
Partial Fractions .......................................................................................................................................... 7
EXPONENTIAL & LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION ................................................................................. 8
Exponential Function ................................................................................................................................. 8
Logarithmic Function ................................................................................................................................. 9
TRIGONOMETRIC (TRIG) FUNCTIONS .............................................................................................. 9
Unit Circle .................................................................................................................................................. 9
Graphs of trigonometric functions ........................................................................................................... 10
Triangle Trigonometry ............................................................................................................................. 11
Identities ................................................................................................................................................... 13
Solving number trigonometric functions ............................................................................................... 15
Inverse Trigonometric Functions ............................................................................................................. 15

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium

IB Mathematics HL Notes (May 2014 Session)

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

Introduction
This is part of my series of detailed IB Mathematics HL notes that I took during my mathematics course at
Kungsholmens Gymnasium. Part

consists of

big topics: Prior Learning, and Functions (including Polynomial,

Exponential, Logarithmic, & Trigonometric Functions). The study guide covers the IB syllabus, and thus contains
lots of derivations & explanations for different laws and concepts that students need to master at the end of their IB
Mathematics HL course.
Notice that there are things within this study guide that are totally not part of the syllabus, but are still put here for
the ones who are interested; these supplementary materials are put within the information boxes (see the figure
below). There are many symbols and abbreviations that are used throughout the study guide, in which some of the
most common ones are listed down below. However, most of the symbols will be defined within the guide itself; so
pay attention to these definitions when using the guide! Also, note that the mathematical formulae that appear
within small red boxes (such as the one presented down below) are the ones that appear within the IB Mathematics
HL formula booklet!
Some common abbreviations:
-

LHS, RHS: Left-Hand Side & Right-Hand Side

Min, Max: Minimum & Maximum

Trig: Trigonometric

GDC: Graphic Display Calculator

: Significant Figures

Example of an information box

Example of an equation that appear within IB Maths HL formula booklet

This guide is not for commercial use; hence, the information presented here (in which most are taken from the
internet, and from Mathematics Higher Level Developed Specially for the IB Diploma (Pearson Baccalaureate),
written by Ibrahim Wazir & Tim Garry) will not be formally referenced.
Please feel free to contact me through email (my email address is [email protected]) if you have any
questions regarding this study guide. Thank you!

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

PRIOR LEARNING
Set Theory:
-

Way to specify values of something: let

be bigger than , but smaller than , such that

this can represented mathematically as {

-

(set of complex numbers);

natural numbers);

(set of real numbers);

means belong to)

(set of rational numbers);

(set of integers);

(set of

(universal set, i.e. a common set for all the questions of a problem)

intersects

union

} (the symbol

is an integer

(i.e. it is a set where members belong to both set

(i.e. it is a set where members belong to set

or set

& set )
or both)

is the complement set of set

Notation

Meaning

Notation

Meaning

Notation

Meaning

Geometry:
-

Volume of any pyramid is

Volume of a sphere is

(where

is the area of the base,

is height of the pyramid)

(where is the radius of the sphere)

shapes are similar if one is an enlargement of the other ratios between them are always the same

shapes are congruent if they are similar & have the same size

Some theorems about angles in circles:

o

Angle at the centre is twice angle at the circumference (this is the main theory thats used to prove others)

The angles in the same segment are equal

Angle in a semicircle of a triangle that has one side as the diameter of the circle is

Opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral (with 4 corners on a circles circumference) add up to

Transformation

Information Required

Rotation

Angle; direction (clockwise or anticlockwise), coordinates of the centre of rotation

Reflection

Equation of the line of reflection

Translation

Vector of translation

Enlargement

Enlargement scale factor

In geometric transformations, it is not the shape that transforms the but the whole graph transforms (just
like a paper you transform the paper & the shapes on the paper will move as well)

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

Basic Algebra:
-

As

, but

(as the signs must be added before the root sign, i.e.

, for

to be real, then must be real

th-root of a real number always has

Rationalizing denominator: e.g.

answers ( real &

(

| | (i.e.

; or

)!!!

imaginary answers)

)(

same can be done with numerator

FUNCTIONS IN GENERAL
A function is a relationship between
such a way that no
-

variables (independent which is the input, & dependent which is the output),

inputs can give the same outputs to check whether an equation is a function or not, we use:

Vertical line test to see if any value of

is not a function because the

can give more than one value of

sign indicates that a value of

equations such as

can give two values of

Domain & Range:

-

Domain is a list of real values that the inputs of a function can be

Range is a list of real values that the outputs of a function can be can be either found by analysing the
function carefully using all domain values, or by finding the domain of the inverse function

Asymptotes (lines or barriers that the function cannot touch as it approaches infinity, either in - or -direction),
together with the min & max points, are very useful when looking for the domain & range

Both domain & range are very useful when graphing a function!!!

Using the graph to figure out asymptotes or min, max points is useful when looking for the domain & range

E.g. composite function

must have the domain of ,

says that the domain is only {

must also be real, even though the last equation

Description in Words

Mathematical Notation

Domain is any real number

Domain is {

Rage is any number greater than or equal to zero

Range is {

}; or
}; or

- as
}

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

) if its : (one-to-one) function; to find inverse function of a function:

A function ( ) has an inverse function (

&

variable then solve for

Interchange

Domain of the inverse function is the range of the original function

If

functions are a pair of inverse functions (i.e.

the

Domain of function
that the -axis of

Graph of

using basic algebra

&

), then:

functions always meet at a point along

must be equal to the range of function

is now the -axis of

first, then imagine a mirror along

will now be the point

, & vice versa to draw

, & similarly -axis of

is basically the reflection of graph of

about the line

, & draw

line
, just imagine

is now the -axis of

to draw

as a reflection of

, we just have to draw

the point

on graph of

on the graph of

Transformation of graphs
Function

Transformation Performed on The Graph of

Vertical Translation

units up

Vertical Translation

units down

Horizontal Translation

units right

Horizontal Translation

units left

Reflection over -axis the point

will become the point

after the reflection

Reflection over -axis the point

will become the point

after the reflection

Vertical Stretch (for

kept the same, but

or Vertical Shrink (for

values are kept the same, but

|
| |

) or Horizontal Shrink (for

) when graphing,

values will all be reduced by a factor of

Portion of original graph below -axis is now reflected above -axis

Portion of the original graph to the left of the -axis is eliminated; then the portion to the right
of -axis will be reflected to the other side

Horizontal Shrink/Stretch are related to Horizontal Translation:

-

For (

) stretch first (by factor of ) and then translation ( units to the left)

For

translation first ( units to the left) and then stretch (by factor of )

Vertical Shrink/Stretch are related to Vertical Translation:

-

For

For

values are

values will all be increased by a factor of

Horizontal Stretch (for

|

) when graphing,

stretch first (by factor of ) and then translation ( units up)

translation first ( units up) and then stretch (by factor of )

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
.

A polynomial function is defined as

function; the numbers

,,

(where

is the degree of the

are real coefficients of the polynomial, & thus

is the constant term)

the graphs of all polynomial functions share the same properties:

-

Theyre all smooth curves with rounded turns

Theyre all continuous (i.e. they have no breaks, gaps or holes)

A polynomial with degree has max zeroes the graph has max numbers of -intercepts!

For the polynomial

, as

increases, the graphs of these functions will become latter near the origin

& steeper away from the origin if

the origin); & if
-

is even, then

is odd, then

is an odd function (which is symmetric with respect to

is an even function (which is symmetric with respect to -axis)

Graph of a polynomial function of degree

has at most

turning points (which are called stationary

points in calculus) this is because first derivative of a polynomial of degree

, which has only

zeroes, & consequently a maximum of

is a polynomial of degree

stationary points)

Use these properties & some good function values (e.g. - & -intercepts) when sketching a polynomial
If

has real coefficients & has a complex root

, then the conjugate

is also a root of

Fundamental Theorem of Algebra guarantees that every polynomial function of non-zero degree with complex
coefficients has at least one complex zero
Synthetic Substitution:
-

If

following variables (i.e. the nested computations) as

now lets define these

& finally

then the value of

can be calculated using

synthetic substitution (as described by the figure here)

When a polynomial is written in factorized form, we can always expand it to easily figure out the sum & the
product of the roots of the function the results from functions of degree , , &
(without formal proofs) for any polynomial function of the form
-

Sum of the roots is

Product of the roots is

lead us to the following results

.

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

Factor & Remainder theorem

Any polynomial
-

can be written as

is the divisor;

, where:

is the quotient

, which can basically be found by the process of long division when

remainder & it must be a polynomial of a lower degree than
as

, then

If

&

i.e.

Remainder Theorem: if a polynomial function

row (incl.

&

is divided by

(i.e.

,&

), then the remainder

, then

can be found using synthetic substitution (where

,

has the same degree

are both factors of

this is because if

Since

(this is because if

) as already shown, then the bottom red

) must be the coefficients of the function

(see the figure below)

Factor Theorem is a special case of remainder theorem it states that if & only if
polynomial

has

, is the

can obviously be factorized)

, then

must be

is divided by

as one of its factor since

is a factor of

, then

, then the
must be a root of

factor theorem is mostly used to figure out the roots of a polynomial function!

Linear Function
Linear function has the general form of
-

(where

is the slope, & is the -intercept):

lines are perpendicular only if their slopes are negative reciprocals of each other (
Midpoint of the line (that joins

points

& ) is (

Quadratic Function
(the bigger | | is, the smaller the parabolas, as the

Quadratic function has the general form of

graph grows more quickly);

is called the discriminant which indicates whether the zeroes are rational

or not; ways of solving quadratic functions are factorizing, completing the square, graphing, & quadratic formula
Solving by Factorization:
-

Factorized form of a quadratic function is

, where

theyre -intercepts) as the line of symmetry is midpoint between

&

are roots of the function (i.e.

& , then line of symmetry is

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

-

For
, thus
o

&

can be found by trying to find

as

E.g.

factors of the product

&

factors of , that add up to

&

For

as

we need to find

, that add up to , & then factorize the equation

as

E.g.

we can now replace

&

with

&

Solving by Completing the Square & Quadratic Formula:

(

[(

square changes general form into vertex form, i.e.

) very

&

useful for sketching (as we can use graph transformations) the vertex of the graph is
-

completing the

Vertex form can be used to algebraically work out the quadratic formula e.g. for

(where

, then

Rational Functions
Steps in Sketching a Rational Function

(note that

&

must have no common factors):

(1) Factorize both denominator & numerator

(2) Find -intercepts by setting

; then find -intercepts by setting

then do sign analysis by computing some values

(3) Find vertical asymptotes by solving the equation

of

close to vertical asymptotes (from both sides) to indicate if

is negative or positive at these values

(4) Find horizontal asymptotes or oblique asymptotes by analysing the end-behaviour as outlined down below
(5) Calculus ( st & nd derivative tests) can be used to work out the max & min (the turning points) of the graph
(6) Sketch the graph; note that

can be equal to the value of the horizontal asymptote, since horizontal

asymptote is only defined when

is approaching

)
) for

End Behaviour (derived by evaluating

-

If

, then the -axis (line

If

, then the line

If

, then the graph has no horizontal asymptote; however if the degree of

degree of

(i.e. if

, then:

) is a horizontal asymptote
is a horizontal asymptote

), then

will have an oblique asymptote

is one more than the

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

o

Since

(where

is a constant remainder) now, as

is the quotient,

(which can be found by long division) is the oblique asymptote

Other equations & Inequalities

When working with inequalities & other types of equations, if therere
the intersection of these

possible ranges for , then final solution is

ranges; however algebra can often give extraneous solutions, which must be eliminated:

With radical expressions (e.g.

With rational expressions (

), check all solutions by direct substitution to avoid extraneous solutions!

), then if the solution makes the denominators zero, then its extraneous!

With quadratic expressions appearing in the inequalities, then remember to use the sign charts to solve!!!
With absolute values on one of the side, then:
-

For normal equations,

o

Write down

possible choices we only have to solve two of them (this is because either therere

of equivalent choices, or
o
-

For |

pairs

of the choices lead to impossible contradiction)

, then solve it like normal, but remember to check solutions to make sure that

For inequalities,
then its self-solved!!!

If one of the side is less than , while the other side is bigger than

For | |

If both sides of the inequalities are bigger than , then square them both (as squaring wont affect the sign)

If were unsure if the sides are less than or bigger than , then square them both, & check the solutions!

( is a constant) by using inequalities properties, then

solutions must be

&

Partial Fractions
Using partial fractions is useful in evaluating certain integrals in calculus for
(where , , & are all integers), then

,&

are called partial fractions of

By making the denominator the same on both sides, we have

(in which the

symbol means that the LHS & RHS are identities, i.e. theyre equal for all values of ):
-

To find the numerators of the partial fractions, therere generally

o

First Method: Expand

,

ways of doing this:

, & then equate coefficients of ,

,. on LHS with those on RHS to solve for the constants , , &

Second Method: Since theyre identities, we can substitute in any values of

e.g. substitute in a value of
leaving

that makes

, in which

that make the terms become

, making nd & rd term disappear from equation,

can now be easily solved do similar things to solve for , &

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

-

,
o

However if

is made of repeated linear factors, then

e.g. for

function
o

can be easily found, as theyre all factors of function

,&

, then

&

,&

are

must be different powers of

,

is made up of a quadratic factor that cant be simplified, then numerator of

If

of the partial fractions

) e.g.

would be a linear function (i.e.

Notice this process of finding partial fractions only works for proper fractions, i.e.
than

,&

must be of a lesser degree

; if its not a proper fraction, then perform long division first i.e. for

result can be quoted as partial fractions of

with the addition of

, then the final

in the end!!!

EXPONENTIAL & LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION

Exponential Function
Definition of Exponential Function:
called the base, domain
-

is called the exponent, &

Using calculus, rate of change of

depends on the amount of

If

at

present at time
(where

), where (note that

(the range is

&

) is

is the constant coefficient

is

is a constant) rate of change

(where

thus exponential functions are useful for real-life phenomena

is the independent variable), then

is called the exponential function (or

natural exponential function) this can be figured out by doing graphical analysis as followed:
-

The value of must be such that the slope of the tangent line at
(as this would give base

Since

Since a point on

This slope is thus

Base

is equal to

special properties when doing calculus & when using GDC!)

, thus the tangent line

tangent line

on the graph of

will touch the graph of

at point

will have coordinate of (

at a distance from

must be the slope of the line connecting point

), thus the slope of the

& point (

; since its a better estimate when

is the best choice for natural phenomena (e.g. decay) as it models changes that occur continuously

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

(

Compound-Interest Formula is

(where

) +

*(

is the half-life)

is original amount; &

is amount after time ) now let

( )

now equate this to half-life formula, i.e.

( )

, which means that

Logarithmic Function
Logarithmic function is the inverse of exponential function general form is
), in which the domain is

(note that

) common logarithm (base

& the range is

&

) is denoted as

; while natural logarithm (base ) is denoted as

Properties of Logarithms (direct proofs!!!):
( )

Change-of-base formula is

(for any

, where

When solving logarithmic function, remember to check for extraneous solutions!!! this is because a logarithmic
expression is undefined if the value inside the function is negative (i.e. its undefined when

for

TRIGONOMETRIC (TRIG) FUNCTIONS

Unit Circle
Angle ( ) is defined as ratio between the arc length ( ) & radius ( ) of a circle, i.e.
(described by the function
-

) in which

, then

is a real number & thus has no units; however radians (

For

cycle, then

Let

be the area of a sector &

for a unit circle

) can be used as its unit just for convenience

is angle (in radians) of that sector, then

;&

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

Trig functions are defined based on - & -coordinates on a unit circle:
-

Sine

Cosine

Tangent

(this has period of

); cosecant

(this has period of

); secant

(this has period of

(this has period of

(this has period of ); cotangent

(this has period of )

Unit circle is defined as:

Since tangent is defined as
(in which

(i.e. rise over run), thus for any linear graph

, the slope is

is the angle between that line & the horizontal)

Some Common Trig Values to Remember

(Use symmetries to work out others!!!)

Figure
When solving problems, draw this circle which is easily
remembered using symmetries & the values on the left table!
(Figure was modified from original which was the work of Jim.belk,
published here on Wikipedia, licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0

Graphs of trigonometric functions

Functions

Functions

,&

When sketching, graph transformations can be used if trig functions are written in standard forms which are:

,&

are odd functions which have symmetry about the origin

are even functions which have symmetry about the -axis

period is calculated by

For

&

For

Amplitude is max value in the range & this is indicated by | | in the standard forms above

As

:
(

&

period is calculated by

, thus vertical asymptotes appear whenever

similar reasons, on graphs of functions

,&

10

, which happen twice in

cycle due to

, asymptotes will also re-appear after period of

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

Triangle Trigonometry
Instead of using the unit circle as in circular trigonometry, we use SOH CAH TOA (which is based on the sides of
a right-angle triangle) to definite different trig functions in triangle trigonometry:
-

SOH (

Thus,

); CAH (

); & TOA (

;&

Some Common Rules & Definitions in Triangle Trigonometry:

-

Angle of Elevation is the angle that is above the horizontal; while Angle of Depression is below the horizontal

The figure to the right shows a triangle where:

o

Angle is opposite side similarly, is opposite ; & is opposite

Its area is

; however,

, & height can be any side

of the triangle
-

Solving a triangle is to find out all of its

sides or angles of it are known therere

triangle even when only

known sides/angles):

angles however, its usually possible to solve a

sides &

,&

(where

&

: therere infinitely many triangles very easy to solve!!!

and

: there can only be

cases (i.e. possible combinations of

mean angles & sides respectively)

unique triangle with these info use sine rule to solve for the triangle

: there can be several triangles used sine rule to solve for the triangle!

and

: there can only be

unique triangle with these info use cosine rule to solve for the triangle

Sine Rule: as

this indicates that the largest side is always opposite to the largest angle!
Cosine Rule (derived by using a general triangle
-

By Pythagoras theorem:

However,

in a coordinate plane as described by the figure below):

(by the definition of the unit

circle), therefore the cosine rule is

Solving Triangles with

Information

Let the base line be where the unknown side of the triangle lies; also, let be the given angle, while & be
the

given sides, such that side is next to angle the conditions for the cases described down below

depend entirely on the relationships between the values of , , &

11

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

1. When the given angle is acute:
Case

(gives no triangle)

Case

(gives

right-angle triangle)

Condition
Description

does not reach the base line

Case

(gives

Arc length of is tangent with the base line

triangles)

Case

(gives

triangle)

Condition
Description

touches base line twice, thus makes

Case : solution is theres no triangle

Case

Case : use sine rule to solve

triangles

touches base line once, thus makes

triangle

& : use sine rule to solve for the one unique triangle!
of the triangles; then use the identity

to solve the other!

2. When the given angle is obtuse:

Case

(gives no triangles)

Case

(gives

triangle)

Condition
Description

touches base line twice, thus makes

triangles

Case : solution is theres no triangle

Case : use sine rule to solve for the one unique triangle!

12

touches base line once, thus makes

triangle

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

Identities
In general, the tips to prove trig identities (which are denoted by the symbol ) are:
-

Do not attempt to work on both sides of the equation at the same time, but work independently on only
the equation this is because until proven, we are not sure whether the

side of

sides are actually equal

Choose the side that looks more complicated, & transform it into the form of the other side; once done, the
identity will be totally proven!

Rationalization of expressions is very useful when proving identities thus use it often!!!

1. Co-Function Identities (which can all shown to be true by using Graph Transformations):
-

By doing basic graph transformation (incl. reflection & horizontal translation) on the graph of
transform it to the graph of

), then its true that

) similarly:

Since cosecant & secant are the reciprocals of sine & cosine, thus the same relationship applies:
o

2. Supplementary-Angles Identities (can also be proven by graph transformation):

3. Pythagoras Identities:
-

As the equation describing the unit circle is

, thus

can be proven by direct proof using definitions of

can also be proven by direct proof using definitions of

4. Compound-Angle Identities:

13

&
&

to

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

Compound-Angle Identities for Cosine:
-

By using Pythagoras theorem & coordinates of points

By using cosine rule on triangle

From

Hence,

&

&

in the diagram above, we have:

, we have:

, then
(

properties, then

; but due to even & odd function

and

Compound-Angle Identities for Sine (using compound-angle identities for cosine, & co-function identities):
-

((

((

Compound-Angle Identities for Tangent by using the definition of tangent function:

-

Now divide all the terms by

, then:

o
-

Similarly:
o

14

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

5. Double-Angle Identities (using compound-angle identities):

Solving number trigonometric functionS

ways of approaching trigonometric equations are:
-

Graphical analysis using GDC (esp. in paper ) quote the answers in

Algebraic analysis to give exact solutions:

significant figures (

Use identities to rewrite the equation using just

Its also easier to remember the trig values of some common angles if you use symmetries & divide the
unit circle into

trig function (if not possible, try to use only

sections as described by Figure

&

!!!)

on the previous page)

When solving trig equations algebraically, never cancel out any terms (even though they might appear on
both sides of the equations), as this would lead to elimination of

Due to repetitive nature of trig functions, many values of

or several solutions

can give the same value of ; because of this, many

questions would give the domain that the solutions could be in be extremely careful with this when solving!!!
-

If the domain isnt given, then a general solution must be given! e.g. solution for the equation
must be quoted as

), instead of just

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Drawing a general right-angle triangles & using Pythagoras theorem are extremely useful when solving problems
with compositions of trigonometric & inverse trigonometric functions; also, its extremely important to think about
domain & range of inverse trigonometric functions, as theyre only defined for specific ranges:
-

For

, the domain is

, & the range is

For

, the domain is

, & the range is

For

, the domain is

, & the range is

15