XXIV

Worlds Poultry Congress 5 - 9

August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

Improving the utilization of raw materials

in poultry feeding: new technologies and
inclusion levels

Animal Science Department, Universidad

Politcnica de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain

Introduction

Quality control of ingredients: the case of SBM

Quality control allows to better know the
characteristics and nutrient value of a given

Most nutritionists use book values to characterize

and evaluate the apparent metabolizable energy
(AMEn) and AA contents of the SBM. However,
the composition and the nutritional value of
SBM depend on processing conditions during oil
extraction (Thakur and Hurburgh, 2007) as well as
on the origin of the beans (Evonik, 2010; Mateos et
al., 2011). We have conducted for the last five years
a survey involving more than 400 SBM samples from
Argentina (ARG), Brazil (BRA), and USA collected
at random from different European ports or in the
country of origin (Mateos et al., 2012a). Data on
proximal analyses, sugars, and mineral contents,
and on AA profile and protein quality variables,
including protein dispersibility index (PDI), KOH
solubility (KOH), and trypsin inhibitors activity (TIA)
are shown in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. The main
findings of the survey were that the nutrient content
of the SBM of the three leading countries in soybean
production were different. Moreover, based on the
differences detected among origins, we were able
of determining the country of origin of the samples
of the survey by NIR technology. Also, the data
indicated that the quality of the SBM, as assessed by
PDI, KOH, and TIA values, differed among countries,
a finding that should be considered when evaluating
Area: Nutrition and Feed Technologies August 06

G.G. Mateos et al.

nimal production has increased worldwide

over the last 20 years putting pressure on
the supply and availability of traditional
ingredients of poultry diets. In order to
reduce feeding cost, the number of alternatives is
limited. The world is under globalization and not
many new ingredients, in abundant and consistent
amounts, are available to substitute more common
ingredients such as soybean meal (SBM), sunflower
meal, rapeseed meal, wheat, and corn. Changes in
nutrient content and ingredient composition of the
diets, as well as modifications in particle size and form
of the feeds might improve feed intake (ADFI) and
productivity in broilers and pullets, as well as egg rate
and egg size in laying hens. New strategies to improve
relative cost of feeding include a) improving quality
control of raw materials, b) reducing safety margins
in feed formulation, c) design feeding programs to
meet the specific physiological needs of the birds, d)
rethinking on the limits imposed in the use of fats,
small grain cereals, and fibrous ingredients in the diet,
and e) judicious use of additives. In this presentation
we will focus on diverse aspects of poultry feeding
that might increase flexibility in feed formulation,
thereby reducing cost of feeding.

ingredient. Knowledge improvement permits a

reduction in safety margins of the feeds and an
increase in the level of use of specific ingredients.
For vegetable protein sources, two areas of interest
are the quantification of the antinutritional factors
(ANF) present in the meal and the analyses of the
profile and availability of the amino acids (AA).
In this respect, SBM is the most costly ingredient
worldwide for manufacturing of poultry feeds.
However, under most circumstances, quality control
of SBM is not adequate with many feed mills
evaluating exclusively crude protein (CP) content
and urease values. However, the urease method
was created more than 50 years ago and lack of
sensitivity to discriminate average from good quality
SBM. Moreover, urease does not have negative
values and therefore, values close to zero might be
indicative of good processed SBM or over-toasted
SBM.

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Worlds Poultry Congress 5 - 9

Table 1 - Influence of origin on chemical composition (% dry matter)

of soybean meal according to origin (Mateos et al., 2012a).
Argentine Brazil
n

131

USA

117

164

SEM

P<

Dry matter

88.5

88.6

88.6

0.08

NS

Crude protein

51.6c

53.0b 53.8a

0.15

***

Crude fiber

5.5b

6.4a

4.3c

0.09

***

Neutral detergent fiber

10.6b

12.0a

8.8c

0.16

***

Sucrose

7.6b

6.5c

8.2a

0.09

***

Stachyose

5.6b

5.3c

6.5a

0.05

***

Raffinose

1.3b

1.6a

1.1c

0.03

***

Ether extract

1.9ab

2.0a

1.8b

0.05

***

7.1b

Total ash

7.6a

0.05

***

Phosphorous

0.75b

7.5a

0.69c 0.79a

0.01

***

Iron, mg/kg

127b

193a

4.7

***

131b

Table 2 - Influence of origin on amino acid profile (% crude protein)

and protein quality traits of soybean meal according to origin (Mateos
et al., 2012a).
Argentine

Brazil

USA

SEM

P<

108

105

161

Lys

6.09b

6.05c

6.15a

0.006

***

Met

1.36a

1.33b

1.36a

0.002

***

Cys

1.51a

1.47b

1.50a

0.004

***

Thr

3.93a

3.88b

3.91a

0.003

***

Trp

1.37a

1.36c

1.36b

0.002

***

G.G. Mateos et al.

Amino acid profile

n

Protein quality traits

n

113

111

164

TIA1, mg/g

3.0b

3.0b

3.9a

August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

Utilization of fats
in poultry diets: the
use of acidulated
soapstocks
and
lecithins
Fats have been considered
traditionally as an unwanted
source of energy in poultry diets.
The reasons were multiple and
included the lack of adequate
methodology to detect the mixing
with low quality lipid sources as a
method to reduce cost. Moreover,
existing techniques for evaluating
the degree of deterioration of a fat
(i.e., peroxidation and degradation
of the structure of the fatty acids) are
of limited value. Currently, it is easy
(although expensive) to determine
the fatty acid (FA) profile and the
percentage of real fat of a given
batch of fat, which facilitates the
evaluation of the nutritive value and
the understanding of the process that
has undergone that fat. Again, the
implementation of adequate quality
control measurements will permit to
increase the level of inclusion of nontraditional fat sources in diets.

Acidulated soapstocks, recycled

oils, lecithins from the oil industry,
and their blends are sources of
PDI2, %
16.8b
15.3c
19.7a
0.36
***
fat of interest in poultry diets.
KOH solubility, %
82.1c
83.3b
86.8a
0.33
***
The use of acidulated soapstocks
UA3, gN/g
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.003
0.06
(predominantly from the soybean
and sunflower oil industries) is a
1 - Trysin inhibitor activity on dry matter bases.2 - Protein dispersibility index.
3 - Urease activity.
common practice in many areas of
the world but unknown in many
the nutritional value of commercial SBM. In a recent
poultry producing countries. Well
experiment, Frikha et al. (2012) reported that the in
processed soapstocks (pH5.0; low content of
vivo standardized ileal digestibility of 22 SBM samples
impurities, unsaponifiable, and moisture material)
are good ingredients for all kind of poultry, with
were positively correlated with KOH, TIA, and CP
content but no relation was found with PDI, NDF,
economical relevance in finisher broilers and laying
or oligosaccharide content. Therefore, nutritionists
hens diets. Soapstocks contain approximately 60%
should use different matrixes for formulating diets
free FA and 45 to 50% linoleic acid, depending on
depending on the country of origin of the beans.
origin and the conditions applied during the process.
This is an example on how a good quality controllab
Thus, its energy and nutritive value is high and its
could help feed mills to better evaluate SBM and to
use in laying hens, once the quality and the cost are
formulate diets at reduced cost.
under control, is recommended. On the other hand,

Area: Nutrition and Feed Technologies August 06

0.08

***

XXIV

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August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

the use of recycled oils from the human industry

in animal feeding is under scrutiny in the EU-27
with the aim of reducing the probability of small,
unfiltered particles from animal tissues passing into
animal feeds. However, well processed recycled
oils are good sources of energy and can be used
successfully at high levels in poultry feeding. In a
recent experiment, Irandoust et al. (2012) evaluated
the AMEn content of raw soybean oil, recycled
soybean oil, and acidulated soy soapstocks in laying
hens as well as the effects of including 4% of these
oils in the diet for a 6-wk period. The AMEn of the oil
sources was 9,127, 8,948, and 7,966 kcal/kg for the
soy oil, recycled soy oil, and acidulated soapstocks,
respectively. No differences in performance or egg
quality because of oil source were detected (Table
3). Blended fats result of the mixture of high quality
lipid materials and can be used in diets for all kind
of poultry. In a recent research, Prez-Bonilla et

al. (2011) compared the effects of three sources

of fat (soy oil, blended vegetable oils, and animal
fat) included at 3% in laying hen diets based on
corn, barley, or wheat (Table 4). Hens in all diets
performed similarly in respect to hen production,
egg weight, and feed efficiency. The only difference
observed was for egg size that was lower for hens
fed diets based on wheat and animal fat. This diet
had by analyses a linoleic acid (LNL) content of 0.9%
and thus, daily LNL intake was of only 1.08g, below
hen requirements for optimal egg size. However,
the incorporation in the diet of the blended fat
that had 30%LNL produced eggs as heavy as those
obtained with soy oil, irrespective of the main cereal
of the diet. The results of this experiment were
consistent with the suggestion of Grobas et al.
(1999) that hens require a minimal amount of LNL
in the diet (around 1.1-1.2%) for increasing egg size
and that when this requirement is satisfied, egg size

Table 3 - Effect of type of soy oil source on productive performance of laying hens from 44 to 56 weeks of
age (Irandoust et al., 2012).
Item

Feed intake g/d Egg rate %

Egg weight g

Egg mass Feed conversion ratio

BW
1
g/d
gain
g
kg/kg
kg/dozen

Fat source
100

85.9

60.4

51.9

1.93

1.40

185

RSO2

98.5

86.4

60.1

51.9

1.90

1.37

163

ASO2

98.2

85.0

60.2

51.1

1.93

1.39

196

0.362

0.004

0.16

0.30

0.01

0.01

9.3

0.10

0.39

0.72

0.07

0.40

0.30

0.34

SEM

P value

G.G. Mateos et al.

SO2

1 - Body weight gain. The initial BW of the hens was 1,31539 g. 2 - Soy oil, recycled soy oil and acidulated soy oil
soapstock.3Standard error of the means (n = 12 replicates of 6 hens each).

Table 4 - Influence of the main effects of cereal and fat source of the diet on performance of laying hens
from 22 to 54 wks of age (Prez-Bonilla et al., 2011).
Cereal

Cereal

Egg
Egg weight g
production %

Fat

FCR kg/kg BW gain

92.1

64.1

59.1

115.3

1.95

202b

Wheat

91.5

63.6

58.2

115.4

1.98

243a

Corn

92.9

64.5

59.9

117.3

1.96

238a

91.7

64.3

58.9

115.6

1.96

221b

92.6

64.5

59.7

115.8

1.94

210b

92.2

63.5

58.5

116.6

1.99

251a

1.10

0.26

0.78

1.11

0.017

9.71

NS

NS

NS

NS

AVO

Lard
SEM

ADFI g/d

Barley

SBO
Fat

Egg mass g/d

Probability3
Cereal

NS

Fat

NS

NS

NS

1- Soybean oil and acidulated vegetable soapstocks. 2 - Standard error of the mean (12 replicates of 21 hens each per
treatment).3 - The interaction between main cereal of the diet and source of supplemental fat was not significant (P >0.05).
Area: Nutrition and Feed Technologies August 06

XXIV

G.G. Mateos et al.

respond to increased levels of fat (up to 3-4%) in

the diet. Also, data of this experiment indicated that
vegetable oils were more effective for increasing
egg size than animal fats whereas the opposite was
true for BW gain of the hens.
Lecithins are a natural component of soybeans
obtained during the process of oil refining after
extracting the oil from the soybean flakes. The raw
soy oil is hydrated through steam addition and the
lecithin gums precipitate. Lecithins are becoming
abundant and are available at competitive price
for use in poultry feeding in some countries. The
unprocessed gums contain approximately 25%
moisture, 50% phospholipids, and 25% soy oil
that remain combined with the phospholipids after
the process (Russett, 2000). Lecithins can be used
in poultry feeds in substitution of other vegetable
oils, such as soy oil, acidulated soapstocks, and
animal fats. The benefits of using feed grade
lecithins include better fat digestibility because of
its emulsifying effects, especially in young birds.
Feed grade lecithins are a good source of energy
(approximately 70% of that of the original soy oil),
and in addition is rich in essential FA, phosphorus (P),
choline, vitamin E, and inositol (Table 5). Because of
its high viscosity, the product is difficult to handle
and makes necessary the blending at different
ratios with the original oil or with the corresponding
acidulatedsoapstocks and other lipids.
Table 5 - Composition and nutrient content of soy
oil and feed grade soy lecithins (Anonimo, 2010).
Soy oil Lecithins
Gross energy, MJ/kg DM

38.9

29.5

AMEn broilers, kcal/kg

9,232

6,998

Total phosphorous, %

3.94

Digestible phosphorous, %

3.55

Choline, %

3.94

Fatty acid content, % fat

95.3

71.5

Linoleic acid, %

51.0

38.3

Utilization of fibrous
ingredients in poultry diets
Traditionally, most research conducted on poultry
feeding considered dietary fiber (DF) as a diluent
of the diet (Jansen and Carr, 1985; Mateos et al.,
2002) with negative connotations in relation with
voluntary FI and nutrient digestibility. Consequently,
commercial diets, especially those for young broilers,

Area: Nutrition and Feed Technologies August 06

Worlds Poultry Congress 5 - 9

August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

were formulated to contain less than 3% CF.

The use of high energy diets for poultry has
resulted in a decrease in the crude fiber (CF) content
and changes in the overall structure of the feed.
These modifications affect the development and
function of the digestive organs, including the size
of the gizzard and of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT)
(Mateos et al., 2012b). Recent research (GonzlezAlvarado et al., 2007, 2008; Amerah et al., 2009;
Jimnez-Moreno et al., 2010; Svihus, 2011) has
shown that the inclusion of moderate amounts of
different fiber sources in the diet improves digestive
organ development and increases HCl, bile acids, and
enzymes secretion. Hetland et al. (2003) recorded
higher starch digestibility and amylase in the
jejunum in broilers fed 10% oat hulls than in control
birds. Some of these effects were a consequence
of better gizzard functioning, with an increase in
gastroduodenal refluxes that facilitated the contact
between nutrients and digestive enzymes. However,
the potential benefits depend at a great extent on
the physico-chemical characteristics of the fiber
source used. Research conducted by our group has
shown that poultry requires a minimal amount of
fiber in the diet for proper functioning of the GIT.
Data of Gonzlez Alvarado et al. (2007, 2010),
Jimnez Moreno et al. (2010), and Mateos et al.
(2012) on the effects of different sources of fiber on
growth performance of broilers and digestive trait
characteristics are shown in Tables 6 to 10. The
response to fiber inclusion depended on the source
and level of dietary fiber and the characteristics of
the diet as well as on the physiological status and
health of the bird. In particular, the inclusion in the
diet of moderate amounts of coarse insoluble fiber
sources such as oat hull, at levels between 2 and
3%, improved growth performance of broilers fed
low fiber diets.
The beneficial effects of fiber inclusion in the
diet were also apparent in pullets and in laying hens
(Hetland et al., 2005; Hetland and Svihus, 2007). In
a recent study (Guzmn, unpublished data) reported
that the substitution of up to 4% of wheat straw
or oat hulls in a corn-SBM diet (2,900 kcal AMEn/
kg and 1.12% lys) improved energy efficiency and
tended to improve ADG (Table 11). Frikha et al.
(2011) studied the effect of particle size (MPS) of
corn and wheat in diets for brown egg pullets from
1 to 120 d of age. The cereal of the diet was ground
using a hammer mill provided with a 6, 8, or 10 mm
screen. At 45 d of age, BWG and feed conversion
ratio (FCR) of the pullets was improved more with
the use of the smaller MPS (Table 12). Also, the
relative length of the small intestine was reduced

XXIV

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August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

Table 6 - Effects of oat hulls and soy hull inclusion in the diet on growth performance of broilers1 (GonzlezAlvarado et al., 2007).
Control1

Oat hulls2

Soy hull3

SEM (n=36)

ADG (g)

13.2

13.3

13.3

ADFI (g)

17.2a

16.6b

FCR

1.30a

ADG (g)

Probability3
C1

C2

0.09

NS

NS

16.7ab

0.19

NS

1.25b

1.26b

0.019

**

NS

31.7b

33.4a

33.4a

0.42

**

NS

ADFI (g)

43.2

44.3

44.6

0.55

NS

NS

FCR

1.37a

1.33b

1.34b

0.008

***

NS

1 to 4 d of age

1 to 21 d of age

1 - Data presented correspond to the average of the rice (1.5% CF)- and the corn (2.5% CF) based diets. 2 - The sepiolite
of the control diet was substituted (wt/wt) by 3% oat hull or 3% soy hull in the corresponding experimental diets. 3 - C1
contrast = control vs. fiber inclusion; C2 contrast = oat hulls vs. soy hulls.

Table 7 - Effects of inclusion of oat hulls and sugar beet pulp in the diet on growth performance and selected
carcass components of broilers at 42 d of age of age (Gonzlez-Alvarado et al., 2010).
Control1

Oat hulls

Sugar beet pulp

SEM (n=5)

Probability

ADG (g)

17b

19a

18ab

0.4

**

ADFI (g)

22

24

23

0.6

NS

1.33a

1.21b

1.23b

0.017

**

4.15a

3.94b

3.94b

0.055

55b

60a

56b

0.9

**

1 to 10 d of age

Energy efficiency

1 to 42 d of age
ADG (g)
ADFI (g)

88ab

90a

85b

1.0

FCR

1.59a

1.49b

1.53b

0.014

**

Energy efficiency2

4.97

4.87

4.89

0.045

NS

900

901

892

4.2

NS

265

266

264

2.5

NS

222

219

217

3.8

NS

G.G. Mateos et al.

FCR

Carcass yield (g/kg BW)

Empty BW3
Leg quarter yield
Breast yield5

1 - The sepiolite was substituted (wt/wt) by 3% oat hull or 3% sugar beet pulp in the corresponding experimental diets.
2 - Energy efficiency (kcal AMEn/g BW gain). The AMEn determined at 32 d of age was 3,117, 3,255, and 3,210 kcal/
kg for the control, oat hulls, and sugar beet pulp diets, respectively. 3 - g BW excluding the gastrointestinal tract and its
contents. 4 - Drumsticks, thighs, and back posterior to the thoracic vertebrae, including bones and skin. 5 - Pectoralis
mayor and Pectoralis minor, including bones and skin.

(110, 106, and 105 cm/kg BW) with increases

in MPS. Similarly, Safaa et al. (2009) compared
productive performance of brown egg laying hens
fed isonutritive diets based on corn and wheat
in which the cereal was ground with a hammer
mill provided with a 6, 8, or 10 mm screen. Egg
production, egg size, and egg quality were similar
for all treatments but hens fed the coarse ground

cereal had lower ADFI than hens fed the medium or

fine ground cereal (Table 13).
The changes observed with inclusion of a fiber
source in the diet might result in improvements
in nutrient digestibility, growth performance, GIT
health, and eventually, animal welfare (Aerni et
al., 2000, Sklan, 2003, Gonzalez-Alvarado et al.,
Area: Nutrition and Feed Technologies August 06

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Table 8 - Effects of particle size and source of fiber on growth performance, AMEn content and the gizzard
weight, and pH in broilers from 1 to 21 d of age (Jimnez-Moreno et al., 2010).
Growth performance
Fiber source

BWG (g) ADFI (g)

FCR

AMEn1
(Mcal/kg)

Empty weight
(%BW)

pH

Control2

29.3b

40.1ab

1.36a

3.01d

2.38d

3.64a

Mycrocrystalline cellulose

31.5ab

41.9a

1.33ab

3.02d

2.32d

3.38ab

Oat hull, 0.5-mm screen

32.4a

41.7a

1.29b

3.21a

2.73bc

2.92b

Oat hull, 2-mm screen

32.1a

41.6a

1.29b

3.16ab

3.31a

2.86b

Sugar beet pulp, 0.5-mm screen

30.5ab

39.9b

1.31ab

3.10bc

2.56cd

3.09ab

Sugar beet pulp, 2-mm screen

30.2ab

39.3b

1.30b

3.09c

2.99b

2.76b

0.57

0.90

0.014

0.012

0.057

0.156

SEM (n = 5)
Effects

G.G. Mateos et al.

Gizzard1

Probability

Diet

**

NS

**

***

***

**

Control vs. fiber

**

NS

***

***

***

**

Cellulose vs. (oat hulls + sugar

beet pulp)

NS

NS

***

***

**

Oat hull vs. sugar beet pulp

**

NS

***

***

0.5 vs. 2-mm screen

NS

NS

NS

***

NS

(Oat hull + sugar beet pulp)

(0.5 vs. 2-mm screen)

NS

NS

NS

***

NS

1 - Average of data at 4, 9, and 21 d of age. 2 - The control diet contained 3% sepiolite and 1.5% CF. The sepiolite of
the control diet was substituted (wt/wt) by 3% cellulose, oat hulls, or sugar beet pulp in the corresponding experimental
diets.

Table 9 - Effects of pea hull inclusion on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, and jejunal morphology
in broilers from 1 to 18 d of age (Jimnez-Moreno et al., 2011).
n

Pea hulls1 (%)

0

2.5

5.0

7.5

SEM

Probability
Linear Quadratic

Growth performance
ADG (g)

30.0b

31.2b

34.5a

31.1b

1.01

NS

ADFI (g)

41.2

41.2

45.9

39.6

1.15

NS

NS

FCR

1.376a 1.323b 1.332b

1.378a

0.014

NS

**

Energy efficiency2

18

0.227b 0.235a 0.235a 0.232ab

0.0024

NS

EE digestibility

18

90.7b

91.8a

91.3ab

0.32

NS

**

18

3,198a 3,222a 3,174a

3,126b

***

***

AMEn (kcal/kg)

92.1a

Apparent ileal digestibility (%)

Crude protein

75.9c

82.1a

79.3b

76.2c

0.85

NS

***

Starch

90.2

94.2

93.9

93.6

1.83

Jejunal morphology
Villus height (m)

12

863

930

852

751

53.0

NS

Crypt depth (m)

12

125a

118ab

115ab

110b

5.2

NS

Villus height:crypt depth ratio

12

7.31b

8.83a

8.13ab

7.14b

0.39

NS

**

1 - The control diet (1.6% CF) was diluted (wt/wt) with 2.5, 5.0, or 7.5% of pea hulls, according to treatment. 2 - g BW
gain/kcal AMEn ingested. 3 - Data determined at 18 d of age.

Area: Nutrition and Feed Technologies August 06

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Table 10 - Effects of oat hulls (OH) and sugar beet pulp (SBP) inclusion in the
diet on crop and ceca microbiota (log10 cfu/g) of broilers reared on floor pens1
at 36 d of age (Mateos et al., 2012).
Control2 OH3 (5%) SBP3 (5%) Probability
Crop
Lactobacilli

7.9b

7.1b

8.4a

***

Ceca
Lactobacilli

9.8

8.6

10.0

Clostridium perfringens

5.9a

1.2b

6.2

Enterobacterias

8.4a

5.9b

8.4a

**

1 - Woodshavings as litter.2 - Contained 1.6% CF.3 - The control diet was diluted (wt/
wt) with 5% OH or 5% SBP, according to treatment.

2010, Kalmendal et al., 2011). Also, depending on

the amount and type of dietary fiber, as well as on
the composition of the basal diet, the profile of the
existing microbiota in the distal part of the GIT might
be affected (Amerah et al., 2009, Shakouri et al.,
2006). Under practical feeding conditions, particle
size and solubility of the fiber fraction in the digestive
environment and the degree of lignification, are key
characteristics affecting bird productivity because

of its effects on rate

of feed passage in the
upper part of the GIT and
fermentative ability in the
distal part. In practice, the
response of these variables
to dietary fiber inclusion
depends on nutritional
and
management
practices, including rearing
conditions, access of the
birds to litter materials,
feed form, composition of
the basal diet, and health
status of the birds.

The main areas of

research on the effects of fiber on poultry are
related to its influence on 1) rate of feed passage
and organ size development, 2) secretion of HCl,
bile salts, and digestive enzymes, and nutrient
digestibility, 3) FI and growth performance, and
4) intestinal health and mucosa integrity, animal
behavior, and microbial growth. The results of all the
experiment conducted in the last 10 years on these
areas of knowledge indicate that the inclusion of a
G.G. Mateos et al.
Table 11 - Effects of inclusion1 of fiber source in the
diet on growth performance of brown-egg laying
pullets from 0 to 5 wk of age2 (Guzmn, unpublished
data).
1 - Added in substitution of the whole diet (g:g). OH:
oat hulls, WS: wheat straw, SBP: sugar beep pulp. 2 - 10
replicates of 40 initial pullets per replicate with a control
corn-soybean meal diet.

Area: Nutrition and Feed Technologies August 06

XXIV

G.G. Mateos et al.

fiber source in low fiber diets for poultry benefits

the development of the GIT, nutrient digestibility,
gut health, and productive performance and that
the effects differ depending on the solubility and
of other physico-chemical properties of the fiber
source. The amount of fiber required depends on
the characteristics of the fiber source, especially of
its solubility, lignin content, and particle size. Under
commercial conditions, birds require a minimum
and a maximum amount of fiber in the diet for
optimal performance. The inclusion of up to 3%
of an insoluble fiber source, such as oat hulls or
sunflower hulls, in conventional corn-SBM diets of
young chicks might improve the profitability of the
poultry industry.

Worlds Poultry Congress 5 - 9

August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

within the GIT, which in turn might result in faster

rate of passage, increased pH, and lower nutrient
digestibility (Jimnez-Moreno et al., 2009a,b, 2011).
All these changes might result in a modification in
the microflora population of the gut (Dunkely et al.,
2007; Kalmendal et al., 2011; Mateos et al., 2012b).
The optimum MPS of poultry diets is a subject
of debate. Under most practical conditions, growth
of chicks will benefit from coarsely ground feeds
because big particles are retained for longer in the
gizzard than fine particles, resulting in improved
function of the GIT. However, coarse particles are
difficult to agglomerate, and often reduce the
quality of the pellets. Thus, both effects; better GIT

Feed particle
size and diet
form

Table 12 - Influence of the main cereal of the diet and screen size of the
cereal on growth performance of pullets from 1 to 120 days of age (Frikha
et al., 2011).

Most feed for meat

production are presented in
pellet form which requires
a reduction in particle size.
As a consequence, the
activity of the gizzard and
the development of the GIT
is reduced with pelleting,
because fine particles are
retained for less period
of time in the gizzard. A
reduction in gizzard size
and activity might result
in less intensity of the
antiperistaltic movements

Cereal

From 1 to 45 d

From 1 to 120 d

BWG, g

ADFI, g

FCR

BWG, g

ADFI, g

FCR

9.9

25.6

2.58

12.0

53.0

4.42

Wheat

10.0

25.4

2.54

11.9

52.4

4.39

S.E.M. (n = 18)

0.061

0.25

0.02

0.06

0.56

0.032

10.3a

25.7

2.50b

12.0

52.6

4.36

9.9b

25.6

2.58a

12.0

53.0

4.43

10

9.7b

25.2

2.60a

11.9

52.6

4.42

S.E.M. (n = 12)

0.08

0.31

0.023

0.07

0.68

0.039

0.718

0.456

0.065

0.380

0.435

0.557

***

0.588

0.330

0.874

0.454

Corn

Screen size, mm

Effect
Cereal
Screen size

Table 13 - Influence of main cereal and mean particle size (MPS) of the diet on productive performance of
laying hens from 20 to 48 wk of age1 (Safaa et al., 2009).
Item

GMD2

Cereal type

Fine

Medium

Coarse

SEM
(n = 16)

BW gain, g

483

494

19.3

483

466

516

23.6

Hen-day egg production, %

79.9

81.1

0.64

79.9

79.9

81.6

0.78

Egg weight, g

64.5

64.0

0.21

64.1

64.1

64.4

0.25

Egg mass, g

52.1

52.4

0.46

51.8

51.8

53.1

0.56

108.8

108.9

0.62

107.9b

108.0b

110.6a

0.76

Feed conversion, kg/kg

2.09

2.08

0.022

2.09

2.09

2.08

0.027

Feed conversion, kg/dozen

1.62

1.60

0.017

1.60

1.61

1.61

0.021

Mortality, %

2.08

1.25

2.19

1.56

1.25

Corn

Feed intake, g/d

SEM
(n
= 24)
Wheat

1 - Average initial BW of 1,597 9.2 g.2 - Cereals passed through 6-, 8-, and 10-mm screens, respectively.

Area: Nutrition and Feed Technologies August 06

XXIV

Worlds Poultry Congress 5 - 9

August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

function and improved pellet quality counteract each

other, resulting in different outcome in different
experiments (Abdollahi et al., 2010; Mateos et al.,
2012b). Probably, coarse grinding might be of higher
benefit in the presence of digestive diseases o when
the health status of the birds limits growth. Serrano
et al. (2012a,b) conducted two separate trials with
broilers fed a corn-SBM diet as mash, crumbles, or
pellets (2 mm ) from 1 to 21 d of age (Experiment 1;
pen study) or from 1 to 25 d of age (Experiment 2;
battery study). In the pen study, all broilers were fed
a common pelleted diet from 21 to 42 d of age. In
both trials, broilers fed crumbles or pellets from 0 to

21 d of age had better ADFI and ADG than broilers

fed mash. Most of the improvement in FCR with
pellet feeding occurred during the first 10 first d of
life and were related to reduce feed wastage. Data
on the effects of feed form on growth performance
of broilers reared on floor (Serrano et al., 2012a) are
shown in Table 14.
When the feed is offered as mash or crumbles,
young chicks show preferences for medium size
particles and reject very small or very large particles.
Consequently, there are some benefits of improving
the uniformity of the particles when the feed is

Table 14 - Influence of feed form on ADG (g), ADFI (g), and feed to gain ratio (F:G) of broilers from 1 to 42
d of age (Serrano et al., 2012a).
1 to 21 d

21 to 42 d

ADG

ADFI

F:G

ADG

ADFI

Mash

34.6b

57.0ab

1.65

89.1

Crumbles

42.4

58.8a

1.39b

43.4a

56.3b

1.30c

0.71

0.79

0.0316

<0.001

<0.05

<0.001

1 to 42 d
F:G

ADG

ADFI

F:G

154.0b

1.73b

62.5b

106.7c

1.71a

90.6

166.1

1.83

67.1

113.8

1.70ab

87.8

161.0a

1.84a

66.1a

109.9b

1.66b

2.24

0.0154

0.61

1.20

0.0137

<0.001

<0.001

<0.001

<0.001

<0.05

Diet form

Pellets
1

SEM (n = 12)
Effect

1.26

0.11

1 - Twelve replicates of 65 birds each per treatment. 2 - The interaction between diet form and SBM source was not
significant (P> 0.05).

Table 15 - Influence of AMEn and feed form (FF) of the diet on BW gain (g/d),
ADFI (g/d) and FCR of pullets (Frikha et al., 2009a).
1- 45 d
Treatment

1 - 120 d

BWG

ADFI

FCR

BWG

ADFI

FCR

Low

10.5b

27.8a

2.65a

11.8c

56.3a

4.77a

Medium

10.8a

27.5a

2.54b

12.1b

54.5b

4.51b

High

10.9a

26.5b

2.44c

12.3a

52.2c

4.23c

0.06

0.15

0.017

0.05

0.45

0.028

Mash

10.6

26.9

2.55

12.0

53.9

4.50

Pellet

10.9

27.7

2.54

12.2

54.8

4.51

S.E.M. (n=24)

0.05

0.12

0.014

0.04

0.37

0.023

AMEn

***

***

***

***

***

***

FF

***

***

0.72

**

0.09

0.71

AMEna

S.E.M. (n=16)
FF

Effect

a - AMEn was 11.44, 12.05 and 12.66 MJ/kg from 1 to 45 d, 11.11, 11.71 and 12.32
MJ/kg from 46 to 85 d and 10.96, 11.55 and 12.13 MJ/kg from 86 to 120 d of age
for the low, medium and high energy diets, respectively.

not pelleted. Frikha et al.

(2009a) compared diets in
mash or pellet form (2.5 mm
) varying in AMEn content
from 1 to 45 d of age from
2,750 to 2,850 kcal/kg
followed by mash diets to
120 d of age. They reported
that from 1 to 45 d of age
BWG and ADFI increased
with the use of pellets but
that FCR was not affected
(Table 15). Also, gizzard
relative weight at 120 d of
age was higher (22.9 vs.
20.7 g/kg BW) in pullets fed
pellets than in pullets fed
mash. Frikha et al. (2009b)
reported higher ADG and
ADFI from 1 to 45 d of age
and from 1 to 120 d of age
for pullets fed pellets than
for pullets fed mash (Table
16). Recently, Guzmn et al.

Area: Nutrition and Feed Technologies August 06

G.G. Mateos et al.

Diet form

XXIV

Worlds Poultry Congress 5 - 9

Table 16 - Influence of the main cereal and feed form of the diet on productive
performance of pullets from 1 to 120 days of age (Frikha et al., 2009b).
1 to 45 d

1 to 120 d

BWG, g

ADFI, g

FCR

BWG, g ADFI, g

FCR

Corn

10.66

26.53

2.49

12.29

53.90

4.39

Wheat

10.51

26.40

2.51

12.11

53.61

4.43

G.G. Mateos et al.

Cereal

August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

age, pullets fed crumbles

had significant (P < 0.001)
higher ADFI and ADG and
were more efficient than
pullets fed mash (Table
17).

Hens show preference

for particle size within
a give range and had
Feed form
less preference for very
Mash
10.28
25.69
2.50
12.02
52.78
4.39
fine or course particles
Pellet
10.89
27.24
2.50
12.37
54.73
4.42
(Green, 1991). Thus, the
4
use of roller mills that
0.069
0.253
0.023
0.048
0.664
0.044
SEM (n=12)
produced a more uniform
Effect5
meal might have same
Cereal
0.13
0.72
0.48
*
0.76
0.52
advantages over the use
Feed form
***
***
0.84
***
*
0.63
of hammer mills because
of better uniformity. In
1 - BW gain, g/d. 2 - Average daily feed intake, g. 3 - Feed conversion ratio, g/g. 4 this respect, a recent
SEM (12 replicates of 24 pullets from 1 to 45 d of age and of 22 pullets from 46 to
120 d of age per each main effect). 5 - The interactions were not significant (P> 0.05).
trial conducted by our
group (Prez-Bonilla et
al., unpublished) recorded
higher feed intake and productivity in hens fed a
(unpublished data) conducted and experiment with
corn diet ground with a roller meal that when
brown egg pullets fed five isonutritive diets with
ground with a hammer mill. However, no differences
AMEn contents ranging from 2,850 to 3,050 kcal/
were observed when the diet was based on barley.
kg in mash or in crumble form. From 1 to 35 d of

Table 17 - Effects of feed form of diets

varying in AMEn content from 2,850 to
3,050 kcal/kg on growth performance of
brown egg laying pullets from 1 to 35 d of
age (Guzmn, unpublished data).

10

Area: Nutrition and Feed Technologies August 06

XXIV

Worlds Poultry Congress 5 - 9

August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

It was observed that the visual appearance of

rolled corn was better than that or hammer milled
corn. However, no differences in this respect were
observed for barley.

Main cereal of the diet,

cereal processing, and
enzyme supplementation

Cereal processing is a common practice in piglet

feeding but its use in poultry is debatable. We
have conducted several experiments comparing
the effects of heat processing of barley (Gracia et
al., 2003; Garca et al., 2008) or corn (Gonzalez
Alvarado et al., 2007; Gracia et al., 2009) on
digestive traits and growth performance of broilers.
When needed, adequate enzymes were included
in the diets forming a factorial arrangement of
treatments. Most of these studies showed that
heat processing of the cereals improved nutrient
digestibility at all ages and might improve BWG and
FCR during the first stages of life (0 to 10 d) but
not thereafter. Enzyme supplementation improved
nutrient digestibility with more clear effects in the
diet based on heat processed cereal than in those
based on raw cereal.

Conclusions
The number of ingredients available for poultry
worldwide is abundant but not always the use of
unknown raw materials is cost effective. In fact,
most of these new ingredients are not available

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Nutritionists from different countries and even

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12

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FRIKHA, M., SERRANO, M.P. and MATEOS, G.G.

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soybean meal compared to the quality of soybean
meal from other origins. Journal American Oil
Chemistry Society 84:835-843.

Area: Nutrition and Feed Technologies August 06

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