The Global Positioning System: a Satellite Navigation System

The Global Positioning System is an earth-orbiting-satellite based system that provides

signals available anywhere on or above the earth, twenty-four hours a day, that can be used
to determine precise time and the position of a GPS receiver in three dimensions.
GPS is funded by and controlled by the U. S. Department of Defense (DOD) but can used by
civilians for georeferencing, positioning, navigation, and for time and frequency control.
GPS is increasingly used as an input for Geographic Information Systems particularly for
precise positioning of geospatial data and the collection of data in the field.
Effective use of the GPS system does require training, appropriate equipment, and
knowledge of the limitations of the system.
1.1. Segments of the Global Positioning System
1.1.1. Space Segment

The Space Segment of the system consists of the 24 GPS satellites.

o These space vehicles (SVs) send radio signals from space.
o Their configuration provides user with between five and eight SVs visible from any
point on the earth.
o Figure 1. GPS Satellite

o Figure 2. GPS Constellation

1.1.2. Control Segment

The Control Segment consists of a system of tracking stations located around the world.
o These stations measure signals from the SVs, compute orbital data, upload data to the
SVs, then the SVs send data to GPS receivers over radio signals.
o Figure 3. GPS Master Control and Monitor Network

o Figure 4. GPS Control Monitor

1.1.3. User Segment

The User Segment consists of the GPS receivers and the user community.
o GPS receivers convert SV signals into position, velocity, and time estimates.
o Four satellites are required to compute the four dimensions of X, Y, Z (position) and T
(time).
o Figure 5. Four GPS Satellite Solution

o GPS receivers are used for navigation, surveying, time dissemination, and other
research.
o Navigation receivers are made for aircraft, ships, ground vehicles, and for hand
carrying by individuals.

o Figure 6. GPS Navigation

1.2. GPS Positioning Services

1.2.1. Precise Positioning Service (PPS)

Authorized users with cryptographic equipment and keys and specially equipped receivers
use the Precise Positioning System.
o The PPS provides (95% of the time) a 22 meter horizontal accuracy, a 27.7 meter
vertical accuracy, and a 100 nanosecond time accuracy.
o Authorized users include U. S. and Allied military, certain U. S. Government
agencies, and selected civil users specifically approved by the U. S. Government.
1.2.2. Standard Positioning Service (SPS)
Civil users worldwide use the SPS without charge or restrictions.
Most receivers are capable of receiving and using the SPS signal.
Prior to May 2, 2000, The SPS accuracy was intentionally degraded by the DOD by the use
of Selective Availability (SA).
o With SA the SPS provided (95% of the time) a 100 meter horizontal accuracy, a 156
meter vertical accuracy, and a 340 nanoseconds time accuracy.
o Without SA the SPS provides a much improved performance, perhaps as good as 20
meters horizontal and 30 meters vertical. No new specification for the SPS without
SA has been issued as of 7/01/2000.
1.3. GPS Satellite Signals and Data

 The SVs transmit two microwave carrier signals.

o The L1 frequency (1575.42 MHz) carries the navigation message, the SPS code
signals known as the C/A (coarse acquisition) Code, and the P (precise) Code used for
the PPS.
o The L2 frequency (1227.60 MHz) carries the P Code used for the PPS. The phase
difference between the P-Code on L1 and L2 is used to measure the ionospheric delay
by PPS equipped receivers tracking both frequencies.
o A C/A Code modulates the L1 carrier phase.
The C/A code is a repeating 1 MHz Pseudo Random Noise (PRN) Code.
This noise-like code consisting of a repeating sequence of 1023 bits modulates
the L1 carrier signal.
There is a different C/A code PRN for each SV.
GPS satellites are often identified by their PRN number, the unique identifier
for each pseudo-random-noise code
o Figure 7. GPS Signals

The GPS Navigation Message consists of time-tagged data bits marking the time of its
transmission by the SV and includes:
o Clock data parameters describe the SV atomic clock and its relationship to GPS time.

o Ephemeris data parameters describe SV orbits for short sections of the satellite orbits.
o An ionospheric model that is used in the receiver to approximates the phase delay
through the ionosphere at any location and time.
o The amount to which GPS Time is offset from Universal Coordinated Time. This
correction can be used by the receiver to set UTC to within 100 nanoseconds.
o Figure 8. Navigation Data Bits

2. Using GPS
2.1. One Receiver Using Civilian Code-Phase Tracking
The receiver tracks the satellites by aligning a set of receiver-generated C/A Codes with the
received C/A Code sequences from the satellites.
These measurements of code alignment times are called pseudo-ranges because they not
actual range measurements, but are relative times of arrival all offset by the receiver clock
bias common to each C/A code generated in the receiver.
The GPS receiver gathers and interprets the Navigation Message transmitted by the SVs it is
tracking, computing a position for each satellite at the moment of C/A code transmission.

 The measured pseudo-ranges are corrected for SV clock bias, ionospheric delay and other
offsets.
The coordinates of the receiver are computed by finding a position where the set of pseudoranges intersect when a common receiver clock offset is accounted for.
o Figure 9. Intersection of Pseudo-Ranges

GPS time in the receiver is computed from the receiver clock offset that allows the corrected
pseudo-ranges to converge at the receiver position.
Four satellites (normal navigation) can be used to determine three position dimensions and
time.
2.1.1. Position
Position dimensions are computed by the receiver in Earth-Centered, Earth-Fixed X, Y, Z
(ECEF XYZ) coordinates.
Figure 10. ECEF X, Y, and Z

 Position in XYZ is converted within the receiver to geodetic latitude, longitude and height
above the ellipsoid.
Figure 11. Geodetic Coordinates

Latitude and longitude are usually provided in the geodetic datum on which GPS is based
(WGS-84).
o Receivers can often be set to convert to other user-required datums.
o Position offsets of hundreds of meters can result from using the wrong datum.
o Receiver position is computed from the SV positions, the measured pseudo-ranges,
and a receiver position estimate.

o Four satellites allow computation of three position dimensions and time.

o Three satellites could be used determine three position dimensions with a perfect
receiver clock.
In practice this is rarely possible and three SVs are used to compute a twodimensional, horizontal fix (in latitude and longitude) given an assumed height.
This is often possible at sea or in altimeter equipped aircraft.
o Five or more satellites can provide position, time and redundancy.
o Twelve channel receivers allow continuous tracking of all available satellites,
including tracking of satellites with weak or occasionally obstructed signals.
2.1.2. Time
Time is computed in the same solution as position and is used to correct the offset in the
receiver clock, allowing the use of inexpensive oscillators in low-cost receivers.
Time is computed in SV Time, GPS Time, and UTC.
o SV Time is the time maintained by each satellite's atomic clocks.
o SV clocks are monitored by ground control stations and occasionally reset to maintain
time to within one millisecond of GPS time.
SV Time is set in the receiver from the GPS signals.
o SV Time is converted to GPS Time in the receiver using the SV clock correction
parameters.
GPS Time is a "paper clock" ensemble of the Master Control Clock and the SV clocks.
o It is measured in weeks and seconds from 24:00:00, January 5, 1980 and is steered to
within one microsecond of UTC.
o GPS Time has no leap seconds and is ahead of UTC by several seconds.
Universal Coordinated Time (UTC) is computed from GPS Time using the UTC correction
parameters sent as part of the navigation data bits.
2.1.3. Velocity

 Velocity is computed from change in position over time, the SV Doppler frequencies (the
change in carrier frequency due to the combined movement of the satellites and the
receiver), or both.

2.2. GPS Errors

GPS errors are a combination of noise, bias, blunders.
o Figure 12. Noise, Bias, and Blunders

2.2.1. Noise Errors

Noise errors are the combined effect of PRN code noise (around 1 meter) and noise within
the receiver noise (around 1 meter).
Noise and bias errors combine, resulting in typical ranging errors of around fifteen meters
for each satellite used in the position solution.
2.2.2. Bias Errors

Bias errors result from Selective Availability and other factors.

o Selective Availability (SA) is the intentional degradation of the SPS signals by a time
varying bias.
o SA is controlled by the DOD to limit accuracy for non-U. S. military and government
users.
o The potential accuracy of the C/A code of around 30 meters is reduced to 100 meters
(95% of the time).

 Other Bias Error sources:

o SV clock errors uncorrected by Control Segment can result in one meter errors in
position.
o Tropospheric delays: 1 meter position error.
The troposphere is the lower part (ground level to from 8 to 13 km) of the
atmosphere that experiences the changes in temperature, pressure, and humidity
associated with weather changes.
o Unmodeled ionosphere delays: 10 meters of position error.
The ionosphere is the layer of the atmosphere from 50 to 500 km that consists
of ionized air.
o Multipath: 0.5 meters of position error.
Multipath is caused by reflected signals from surfaces near the receiver that can
either interfere with or be mistaken for the signal that follows the straight line
path from the satellite.
Multipath is difficult to detect and sometimes hard to avoid. Care in antenna
placement at fixed sites, special antenna configurations, and special tracking
techniques can help sometimes.
2.2.3. Blunders

Blunders can result in errors of hundreds of kilometers.

o Control segment mistakes due to computer or human error can cause errors from one
meter to hundreds of kilometers.
o User mistakes, including incorrect geodetic datum selection, can cause errors from 1
to hundreds of meters.
o Receiver errors from software or hardware failures can cause blunder errors of any
size.
2.3. Geometric Dilution of Precision (GDOP)
GPS ranging errors are magnified by the range vector differences between the receiver and
the SVs.
o Poor GDOP, a large value representing a small unit vector-volume, results when
angles from receiver to the set of SVs used are similar.

 Figure 13. Poor GDOP

o Good GDOP, a small value representing a large unit vector-volume, results when
angles from receiver to SVs are different.
Figure 14. Good GDOP

GDOP is computed from the geometric relationships between the receiver position and the
positions of the satellites the receiver is using for navigation.
GDOP Components:
o PDOP - Position Dilution of Precision (3-D)
o HDOP - Horizontal Dilution of Precision (Latitude, Longitude)
o VDOP - Vertical Dilution of Precision (Height)
o TDOP - Time Dilution of Precision (Time)
While each of these GDOP terms can be individually computed, they are formed from
covariances and so are not independent of each other.

o A high TDOP, for example, will cause receiver clock errors which will eventually
result in increased position errors.
2.4. Satellite Visibility
o GPS satellite signals are blocked by most materials. GPS signals will not mass
through buildings, metal, mountains, or trees. Leaves and jungle canopy can attenuate
GPS signals so that they become unusable.
o In locations where at least four satellite signals with good geometry cannot be tracked
with sufficient accuracy, GPS is unusable.
o Planning software may indicate that a location will have good GDOP over a particular
period, but terrain, building, or other obstructions may prevent tracking of the
required SVs.
Figure 15. Good predicted GDOP, Poor Visibility

2.5. Differential GPS (DGPS) Techniques

o The idea behind all differential positioning is to correct bias errors at one location
with measured bias errors at a known position.
o A reference receiver, or base station, computes corrections for each satellite signal for
all satellites in view.
o DGPS receivers require software that can apply individual pseudo-range corrections
for each SV prior to computing a position solution.
2.5.1. Differential Code-Phase GPS (Navigation)
o Differential corrections may be used in real-time or later, with post-processing
techniques.
Real-time corrections can be transmitted by radio link.

 The U. S. Coast Guard transmits DGPS corrections over radiobeacons covering

much of the U. S. coastline.
Private companies broadcast corrections by ground-based FM-radio signals or
satellite radio links.
Corrections can be recorded for post processing.
Many public and private agencies record DGPS corrections for distribution by
electronic means.
o To remove Selective Availability (and other bias errors), differential corrections
should be computed at the reference station and applied at the remote receiver at an
update rate of five to ten seconds, fast enough to keep up with the rapid changes in the
SA bias.
Figure 16. Differential Code-Phase Navigation

Figure 17. Errors Reduced by Differential Corrections

o DGPS is not able to eliminate all sources of error discussed in the next section.
o Bias errors are less common at great distance from the reference receiver.
o 300 to 500 km are considered reasonable reference-remote separations for Code-Phase
DGPS.
2.5.2. Differential Carrier-Phase GPS (Surveying)
o Positions can also be calculated by tracking the carrier-phase signal transmitted by the
SVs
Figure 18. Carrier Phase Tracking

o All carrier-phase tracking is differential, requiring both a reference and remote

receiver tracking carrier phases at the same time.

o In order to correctly estimate the number of carrier wavelengths at the reference and
remote receivers, they must be close enough to insure that the ionospheric delay
difference is less than a carrier wavelength.
o This usually means that carrier-phase GPS measurements must be taken with a remote
and reference station within about 30 kilometers of each other.
o Using L1-L2 ionospheric measurements and long measurement averaging periods,
relative positions of fixed sites can be determined over baselines of hundreds of
kilometers.
o Special software is required to process carrier-phase differential measurements.
o Carrier-phase tracking of GPS signals has resulted in a revolution in land surveying.
o A line of sight along the ground is no longer necessary for precise positioning.
o Positions can be measured up to 30 km from reference point without intermediate
points.
o This use of GPS requires specially equipped carrier tracking receivers.
Figure 19. Differential Carrier-Phase Positioning

o Post processed static carrier-phase surveying can provide 1-5 cm relative positioning
within 30 km of the reference receiver with measurement time of 15 minutes for short
baselines (10 km) and one hour for long baselines (30 km).
o Rapid static or fast static surveying can provide 4-10 cm accuracies with 1 kilometer
baselines and 15 minutes of recording time.

o Real-Time-Kinematic (RTK) surveying techniques can provide centimeter

measurements in real time over 10 km baselines tracking five or more satellites and
real-time radio links between the reference and remote receivers.