1

Page

An Investigative Project in
Comparative Anatomy
About The
Skeletal System
Of the Avians (Common Barn Owl)
Submitted by:
Ryan Jacob C. Agdon
BSE 31
Submitted to:
Dr. Johnny A. Ching
Dean, CSCS
Comparative Anatomy Professor

SKELETAL BIOLOGY OF AVIAN (BIRDS)

2
Page

All vertebrate animals have skeletons. A skeleton allows an animal to stand and protects
its internal organs and tissues. The avian skeletal system looks similar to that of mammals but

Page

must accommodate a bird's need to be light enough to fly while having necessary body support.
Consequently, the skeleton of a bird includes some unique features.

Some vertebral sections (sections

of the backbone) are fused to provide
the rigidity required for flight.

The sternum (breastbone or keel)

has a surface area large enough to
allow for the attachment of the main
flight muscles.

The size of the skull is

proportionally small when compared
to the skulls of other species because
a large head would make flying
difficult.

The tail is a short section of fused

bones called a pygostyle.

The
ribs include the uncinate
process, which involves overlying
flaps that project from the ribs and
connect adjacent ribs, giving strength
to the rib cage so that it does not collapse during flight.

The neck is long in most species. A long, flexible neck acts as a shock absorber,
protecting the delicate tissues of the brain from too much jarring when a bird lands. Because
a bird's body is rigid, the long neck allows the bird to reach food located on the ground more
easily. A long neck also allows a bird's center of gravity to adjust when the bird changes from
the upright position of walking or perching to the more horizontal position of flying.

The bones of birds are lighter in weight than those of mammals. Some of the bones are
hollow and actually act as part of the avian respiratory system. These bones, called pneumatic
bones, include the skull, humerus, clavicle, keel, pelvic girdle, and lumbar and sacral vertebrae.
Other important bones in the avian skeleton are the medullary bones. These bones include
the tibia, femur, pubic bone, ribs, ulna, toe bones, and scapula. Medullary bones are an important
source of calcium when hens are laying eggs. Eggshells primarily are made of calcium, and a
hen's body mobilizes 47 percent of its body calcium to make an eggshell. When in production, a
commercial laying hen cannot obtain enough dietary calcium to allow for daily egg production.

Page

Without medullary bones to draw calcium from, the hen would produce eggs with very thin and
weak shells.
Although important differences exist between the skeletons of birds and other animals,
several similarities are present as well. In general, birds have the same skeletal structure as many
other animals, including humans (as shown in Figures 1 and 2).

Fig. 1. Comparison of chicken (left) and human (right) arm bones. Source: Public domain.

5
Page

Fig. 2. Comparison of chicken (left) and human (right) leg bones. Source: Public domain.
The common joints of the arms of chickens and humans are easily identifiable.

The joint between the scapula and the humerus is the shoulder.

The joint between the humerus and the radius/ulna is the elbow.

The joint between the radius/ulna and the metacarpus is the wrist.

Both the human leg and chicken leg have a femur, a fibula, and a tibia. In a chicken, the
femur holds the thigh meat, and the fibula/tibia combination holds the meat of the drumstick. The
metatarsus of a chicken is known as the shank, and the chicken walks on its toes. A comparison
of the leg joints of chickens and humans is not quite as obvious as a comparison of the arm
joints.

The joint at the top of the femur is the hip.

The joint between the femur and the fibula/tibia is the knee.

The joint between the fibula/tibia and the metatarsus is the ankle.

Page

An animation showing the Biomechanics of avian flight is available online and explains
the skeletal adaptions that allow for flights.
A bird's skeleton is similar to yours in some ways it has a skull and legs and other
features yours has but it also has some important and very useful differences.
For example, the total number of bones in a bird's body is lower than for mammals or
reptiles. That comes in handy when a bird wants to take to the air.
The bird skeleton is extremely lightweight, but strong enough to withstand the stresses
that a bird experiences when taking off, flying, and landing. The bird's hollow bones make the
skeleton lighter for flying, and allow more oxygen to be absorbed from the air into the blood for
that extra energy a bird needs.
Bird bones usually contain air. Many bird
hollow, with struts or trusses (cross walls) that
structural strength. Some flightless birds like penguins
bones, however.

bones are
crisscross
for
have only solid

Bird skull bones have air cavities that are continuous

with the nasal cavities.
Trunk bones including the vertebrae, breastbone and
also contain air sacs invading from the lungs. These are all called
bones.
The number of hollow bones in a bird's body will vary
species to species, though large gliding and soaring birds tend to have

pelvic bones
pneumatic

from
the most.

Birds have more neck (cervical) vertebrae (back bones) than many other animals. Most
birds have 13 to 25 of these very flexible bones. Thanks to this bone structure, birds are better
able groom their feathers.

7
Page

Buff-breasted
Sandpiper
(Courtesy NEBRASKA land Magazine/NGPC)

preening

Birds are the only vertebrate animals to have a fused collarbone (the furcula or
wishbone). They're also the only vertebrate animals to a have a keeled breastbone a breastbone
that's long and has a structure on it shaped like a ship's keel.
A ship's keel runs from the front of a ship to the back and the ship's entire framework
attaches to it. The keel part of a bird's breastbone extends outward from the top of the bone and
down the breast area and acts as an anchor for a bird's strong wing muscles. The keel is a feature
of strong flying or swimming birds.
Most birds have only four toes. Some have only three. The ostrich has just two toes. Most
perching birds have four toes, with three that point forward and one that points back. However a
few groups including cuckoos, cockatoos and parrots, and owls, clutch the branch with two
toes forward and two back.

8
Page

COMMON KNOWLEDGE ABOUT BARN OWL

CHARACTER/DESCRIPTION
The Barn Owl is a pale, long-winged, longlegged owl with a short square tail. The size of the bird
varies depending on subspecies, it measures about 25
45 cm (centimeter) in overall length, with a wingspan
of some 75110 cm. It has a light face with peculiar
shape and black eyes which gives the flying bird an
odd and startling appearance; like a flat mask with
oversize oblique black eye slits, the ridge of feathers
above the bill somewhat resembling a nose. The
common owl is sometimes called the "monkey faced
owl" because of its white, heart shaped face and dark
eyes. Its nocturnal of prey with keen eyesight, but
often locates its prey by sound alone. The common barn owls flight is whisper quiet. Its prey
rarely recognizes the danger until its too late. The barn owl can keep a barn or structure free
from mice better than cats!!

TAXONOMY
Kingdom: Animalia

Page

Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Strigiformes
Family: Tytonidae
Genus: Tyto
Species: Tyto

Alba

NATURAL HISTORY
Mythologically, one might assume that the Barn Owl would be associated with Athena in
the Greek pantheon. Well, this is not so. It turns out that the Greeks saw a difference in these
types of owls as well and the Barn Owl was sacred to Ares, not
Athena. With its excellent predation, you can see why Ares
might be a fine choice. The Barn Owl is unfortunately one that is
villainized in Mythology. The Newuk tribe believed that if you
were a wicked person, you became a Barn Owl when you died,
otherwise you would become a great horned owl. In Britain, a
screeching Barn Owl supposedly predicted a storm was coming.
Or if you were in a storm, it predicted that the storm would be
over. Most interesting though is that there have been plenty of
UFO sightings that were in reality Barn Owls. Apparently barn
owls sometimes get luminous mold or fungus on their feathers
due to where they perch, etc. This combined with their white
belly gives the appearance of a glowing object in the sky.
Combined with its silent flight, you get a silent glowing object
zipping this way and that. Just like a UFO! Barn Owls do not
migrate at all, they simply wander from the territory of their birth
in random directions to set up their own nests. Up to 80% of all
barn owls dont make it to adulthood, which is about 10 months of age.

EXTERNAL DESCRIPTION

Page

10

The common Barn Owls vary in size based on

gender a male owls is usually between 13-15 inches long
and females are about 14-20 inches long. The upper parts
of the owl are light grey with numerous dark lines and
scattered pale spots on feathers. There are buff marks on
the wings and back. The underparts are white with a few
black dots sometimes no black dots. Sparse feathering on
lower legs. The facial disk is heart shaped that is white with
brownish edges with brown marks at the front of the eyes
which have black iris. Its beak is off white and they have
yellowish-brownish feet.

LOCOMOTION
The Common Barn Owl flies in a majestic way soaring
high over use in the deepest of the night. How do they
do this? The wings push air down and the air pushes
them upwards. Partly, the push comes from the angle the
wings are held at and partly from the curvature of the
wings. The air travels faster above the bird's wing than it
does below, and this makes the pressure lower above the
wing. They use strong muscle in their breast to "flap
their wings"

COMMUNICATION

Page

11

Barn Owls have unique ways of communicating

to one another. They utilize a complex variety of chirps,
squawks, screeches, hisses and screams to communicate
with their partner. The owl will modify their original
sounds to express their current emotional state to their
mate and offspring.
One of the most unique attributes about Barn
Owls is their ability to make facial expressions. They
have many tiny facial muscles that they manipulate to
change the expression on their face. They use these
facial expressions as part of their communication to
their partner and babies.

HABITAT
In earlier times barn owls nested in tree cavities mainly
in silver maple, American Sycamore, and white oak
trees. Nowadays you can find barn owls are found in
abandoned building and barns. Barn Owls are nearly
cosmopolitan, living in North America, South America,
Europe, Africa, India, Southeast Asia, and Australia.
Their northern range is limited by the severity of winter
weather and food availability. These owls prefer open
lowlands with some trees, including farmlands, plantations, urban areas, various forest types,
semiarid shrub lands, and marshes.

SKELETAL SYSTEM
An Owl's skeleton is typical for birds. Designed for both walking and flying, it is very
light and strong. In owls, the skeleton makes up about 7-9% of its total body weight. Many of the
bones which would be separated in mammals are fused together in birds, making them strong to
support their weight on the ground. In addition, some of the larger bones are hollow, with bony
internal bracing. This helps reduce overall weight.

12
Page

Several Owl species have

obviously asymmetrical skulls, which is
an adaptation to for directional hearing.
Owls' head turning ability

An owl can turn its head up to 270

degrees left or right from the forward
facing position. An owl cannot turn its
head full circle from a forward facing
position as is the common belief. There
are several adaptations that allow this:
1) An owl's neck has 14 vertebrae,
which is twice as many as humans.
2) Owls have only one occipital
articulation with the cervical vertebrae.
(There is only one bone situated on top of
the backbone.) Humans have two articulations. This allows the owl to pivot on the vertebrae
column much like your body can pivot on one foot. Their muscle structure is arranged in a
manner
that
allows
this
movement
as
well.
3) Owls have a special arrangement of the jugular veins with associated bypass connector
blood vessels, to ensure that blood supply (and return) are not impeded as the neck is rotated.
The large flat breastbone, or Sternum, supports the large and powerful flight muscles. It
also protects the heart, lungs and other internal organs. In the Tytonidae family of owls,
the Carina, or Sternum Keel is broad, becoming narrower towards the abdomen, and the lower
edge of the sternum has only small notches on each side. In the family Strigidae, the carina is
narrow at its upper part, and becomes broader towards the belly, while the lower edge of the
sternum has two deep notches on each side.
The wing bones are relatively long in owls, and the associated wing surface area is broad,
producing a low wing loading. This allows for easy take-offs, and effortless flight, even when
carrying prey.
The foot bones, or tarso-metatarsi, are relatively short and stout in owls, most likely to
aid in the efficient killing and carrying of prey.
The Spectacled Owl's skeletal system is similar to most birds, designed for walking and
flying, it is light and strong. Their skeleton makes up 7-9% of their total body weight. Many of
the bones that would be seperated in humans are fused in owls in order to support the owl's body
weight on the ground. Some bones are also hollow in order to reduce their overall weight.
Contrary to popular belief, owls cannot turn their heads in a full circle, however they can turn
their heads up to 270 degrees left or right from the forward facing position. In order for this to be

Page

13

possible; an owl's neck has 14 vertebrate (twice as many as humans); Owls only have on
occipital articulation (the bone on top of the backbone), while humans have two, allowing the
owl to pivot on the vertebrate column the same as humans pivot on their foot (their muscular
system also assists this movement); their jugular veins are arranged in a manner that enables this
movement
without
cutting
off
blood
supply.
Other bones that are pertinent to the Spectacled Owl's function include the sternum, the carina,
the wing bones, and the tarso-metatarsi. The sternum is the large, flat breatbone that supports the
flight muscles. In addition, it protects the heart, lungs and other internal organs.
The carina, or the sternum keel, is an extension of the breast bone. It runs along the midline of
the sternum, perpendicular to the plane of the ribs. The carina functions as an anchor for the
attachment of the birds wing muscles, providing leverage for flight. In Spectacled Owls, the
carina is narrow at its upper part and becomes broader towards the belly while the lower edge of
the
sterbum
has
two
deep
notches
on
either
side.
The wing bones are relatively long and the wing surface is broad which allows for easy take-offs
and effortless flights. The tarso-metatarsi are the foot bones. They are relatively short and stout
in owls, which aids the efficient killing and carrying of prey.

Parts of the Skeletal System

KEY:
1. skull

3. furcula

2. cervical vertebrae

4. coracoid

Page

6. keel

14

5. uncinate processes of ribs

7. patella

17. pygostyle
18. synsacrum
19. scapula

8. tarsometatarsus

20. lumbar vertebrae

9. digits

21. humerus

10. tibia (tibiotarsus)

22. ulna

11. fibia (tibiotarsus)

23. radius

12. femur

24. carpus (carpometacarpus)

13. ischium (innominate)

25. metacarpus (carpometacarpus)

14. pubis (innominate)

26. digits

15. illium (innominate)

27. alula

16. caudal vertebrae

Feet

15
Page

Types of bird feet

Birds' feet are classified as anisodactyl, zygodactyl, heterodactyl, syndactyl or
pamprodactyl.[8] Anisodactyl is the most common arrangement of digits in birds, with three toes
forward and one back. This is common in songbirds and other perching birds, as well as hunting
birds likeeagles, hawks, and falcons.
Syndactyly, as it occurs in birds, is like anisodactyly, except that the third and fourth toes
(the outer and middle forward-pointing toes), or three toes, are fused together, as in the belted
kingfisher Ceryle alcyon. This is characteristic of Coraciiformes (kingfishers, bee-eaters,rollers,
etc).
The zygodactyly (from Greek , a yoke) is an arrangement of digits in birds, with
two toes facing forward (digits two and three) and two back (digits one and four). This
arrangement is most common in arboreal species, particularly those that climb tree trunks or
clamber through foliage. Zygodactyly occurs in
the parrots, woodpeckers (including flickers), cuckoos (including roadrunners), and some owls.
Zygodactyl tracks have been found dating to 120110 Ma (early Cretaceous), 50 million years
before the first identified zygodactyl fossils.[9]
Heterodactyly is like zygodactyly, except that digits three and four point forward and
digits one and two point back. This is found only introgons, while pamprodactyl is an
arrangement in which all four toes may point forward, or birds may rotate the outer two toes
backward. It is a characteristic of swifts (Apodidae).

16
Page

SOME INFORMATIVE TRIVIAS ABOUT OWLS

How many eggs does an owl lay at a time?

Barn owls usually lay 5 to 6 eggs. The female starts incubating the eggs as soon as the
first egg is laid, and lays an egg every 2-3 days. The eggs hatch after 31-32 days incubation, and
will hatch in the order they were laid (ie. 2-3 day intervals).

How do birds mate and reproduce?

Birds reproduce by internal fertilization, during which the egg is fertilized inside the
female. Like reptiles, birds have cloaca, or a single exit and entrance for sperm, eggs, and waste.
The male brings his sperm to the female cloaca. The sperm fertilizes the egg.
Barn owls are monogamous. Mated pairs usually stay together as long as both owls are
alive.
Courtship begins with display flights by males which are accompanied by advertising
calls and chasing the female. During the chase, both the male and the female screech. The male
will also hover with feet dangling in front of the perched female for several seconds; these are
known as moth flights.
Mating System: monogamous
Barn owls breed once per year. They can breed almost any time of the year, depending
upon the food supply. Most barn owls first breed when they are 1 year old. Most barn owls raise
one brood per year, but some pairs have raised up to three broods in one year
Barn owl pairs often use an old nest instead of building a new one. The female lines the
nest with shredded pellets to make a soft surface for the eggs. She lays 2 to 18 eggs (usually 4 to
7). The female incubates the eggs for 29 to 34 days. The chicks are altricial, and must be brooded
by the female for about 25 days after hatching. They leave the nest on their first flight 50 to 70
days after hatching, but they return to the nest to roost for 7 to 8 weeks. The chicks usually
become independent from the parents 3 to 5 weeks after they begin flying. (Marti, 1992)
Key
Reproductive
Features:
iteroparous;
year-round;
gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual; oviparous

breeding

17
Page

Female barn owls incubate the eggs and brood the chicks until the oldest chick is about
25 days old. The male brings food to the female and the chicks. The female tears up the food to
feed it to the chicks. The female also keeps the nest clean by eats the feces of the chicks for the
first few weeks after they hatch. The parents feed the chicks for up to 5 weeks after they fledge.
(Marti, 1992)
Parental Investment: no parental involvement; altricial; pre-fertilization; (provisioning,
protecting: female); pre-hatching/birth (protecting: female); pre-weaning/fledging (provisioning
male, female, protecting female); pre-independence (provisioning: male, female, protecting:
male, female)

Where do barn owls live and nest?

Barn Owls put their nests in holes in trees, cliff ledges and crevices, caves, burrows in
river banks, and in many kinds of human structures, including barn lofts, church steeples, houses,
nest boxes, haystacks, and even drive-in movie screens.
Barn owls are the most widespread of all owl species, and are found on every continent
except Antarctica. In the Americas, barn owls occur in suitable habitat throughout South and
Central America, and in North America as far north as the northern United States and
southwestern British Columbia. In Europe, barn owls range from southern Spain to southern
Sweden and east to Russia. They are also found throughout Africa, across central and southern
Asia, and throughout Australia. Barn owls have been introduced to some oceanic islands to
control rodent pests.

Page

18

Biogeographic Regions: Nearctic (native); palearctic (native); oriental (native);

Ethiopian (native); neotropical (native); Australian (native); oceanic islands (introduced)
Other Geographic Terms: Holarctic; cosmopolitan

How long do owls live for?

Two year old female Barn Owl, Co. Kerry, 24th July 2013 (M.O'Clery). Barn Owls which
are kept in captivity regularly live to be 15 or even 20 years old, but they obviously don't face the
same hazards as a bird in the wild.
Most barn owls do not live very long. Many only survive one breeding season. However, some
individuals do live for many years. The oldest wild barn owl lived 34 years. (Marti, 1992)

What do they look like?

Barn owls are medium-sized owls with long legs that have feathers all the way down to
their grey toes. They have large, round heads without ear tufts. Barn owls have rounded wings
and a short tail that is covered with white or light-brown, downy feathers. They have a light
brown spotted head and back, and a light grayish belly. Females are larger than males. They
weigh 570 grams, while males weigh around 470 grams. Females also have a slightly longer
body length (34 to 40 cm for females, 32 to 38 cm for males) and wingspan than males. The
wingspan of barn owls ranges from 107 to 110 cm.
There are up to 35 subspecies of barn owls. These subspecies are different from each
other in size and color.
Other
polymorphic

Physical

Features:

endothermic;

homoeothermic;

bilateral

symmetry;

Sexual Dimorphism: female larger

Range mass

430 to 620

21.85 oz

15.15

to

Range length

15.75 in

32 to 40 cm
12.60

to

Range wingspan

107 to 110

cm

43.31 in

42.13

to

What do they eat?

Barn owls hunt small mammals such as mice, voles, shrews, rats, muskrats, hares and
rabbits. They may also prey on small birds.

Barn owls begin hunting alone after sunset. They have excellent eyesight in neardarkness. When it is completely dark, owls use their excellent hearing to find prey. Owls have
special feathers the make them very quiet fliers. They can attack an animal without being heard,
which helps them hunt successfully. Barn owls attack their prey by flying low above the ground
(1.5m-4.5 meters above the ground) and grabbing the prey with their feet. They use their bill to
nip the prey through the back of the head to kill it, and then they swallow it whole. Barn owls
save extra food to eat later, especially during the breeding season. (Marti, 1992)

Primary Diet: carnivore (eats terrestrial vertebrates)

Animal Foods: birds; mammals

Foraging Behavior: stores or caches food

What eats them and how do they avoid being eaten?

Barn owls do not have many predators. Nestlings are sometimes taken by stoats and
snakes. Adults may be killed by great horned owls occasionally. Barn owls in Western Europe
are much smaller than those in North America. These owls are sometimes killed by golden
eagles, red kites, goshawks, buzzards, peregrine falcons, lanners, eagle owls and tawny owls.
When facing an intruder, barn owls squint their eyes, spread their wings and sway their
head back and forth while hissing. If the intruder is not scared away by this display, the owl falls
on its back and strikes at the intruder with its feet. (Marti, 1992)

INTERESTING FACTS:

Owls can turn their heads 270 degrees

Owls are farsighted meaning they cannot see things close to their eyes
Barn owls can be recognized by their heart shaped face.
The barn owl is not only the worlds most widely distributed species of owl, but is also
one of the most widespread of all birds, as it is found on every continent except
Antarctica.
Though they occur throughout the tropics, they avoid areas with cold winters. Scotland
has the most northerly breeding barn owls in the Northern Hemisphere.
Prolonged periods of snow cover can be devastating for barn owls, leading to many birds
starving, as they are unable to find their food.
Mice, voles and shrews form the bulk of the diet, but they will also take young rats, and
have even been observed catching fish from ponds.
One of the most unusual feeding records is of a barn owl catching flying hawk moths.
The supply of food dictates the number of eggs laid and the number of chicks that fledge.
In good vole years, eggs are laid early and big broods often reared successfully.
Barn owls usually form monogamous pairs, but cases of bigamy, with one male paired
with two females, occur occasionally.
Nests are usually in barns or holes in trees, but sometimes quarries or rocky outcrops are
used.
In eastern England barn owls are far more likely to nest in trees than in barns.
They readily adopt nest boxes, and this is a proven way of increasing populations in areas
where a shortage of suitable nesting sites limits the number of breeding pairs.
No actual nest is made, though the female may form a slight hollow.
The clutch size is highly variable: four to seven eggs are normal, but as many as 14 have
been recorded.

If there is a plentiful supply of voles, a pair may have two broods, though the second is
invariably smaller than the first.
Like all owls, incubations starts when the first egg is laid. The hatching is asynchronous,
which means that each egg hatches 30 days after it was laid, so the smallest chick in a
brood may be two weeks younger than its eldest sibling.
Such a hatching system favors the oldest chicks, and these are most likely to survive if
supplies of food are scarce.
The chicks will make their first flights when around 50-55 days old, but wont be
independent of their parents for another month.
British barn owls have distinctive white breasts, but in central and eastern Europe they
are a shade of dark yellow-orange.
British barn owls are largely resident and seldom move far, but dark-breasted Continental
birds are recorded regularly in eastern Britain.
Though they typically hunt in the dark, its not unusual to see barn owls hunting during
the day, particularly in mid-winter, or when they have chicks to feed.
After many years of decline, the British population is now thought to be increasing
slowly.
These owls dont hoot, but the male has a distinctive shrieking call, often repeated several
times.

REFERENCES:

Duncan, James R. 2003. "Owls of the World: Their Lives, Behavior and Survival ".
Firefly Books
Johnsgard, Paul A. 2002. "North American Owls: Biology and Natural History ".
Smithsonian
Knig, Weick and Becking. 1999. "Owls: A Guide to the Owls of the World ". Yale
University Press
Long, Kim. 1998. "Owls: A Wildlife Handbook ". Johnson Books
Sterry, Paul. 1995. "Owls: A Portrait of the Animal World ". Smithmark
The Owl Pages [Internet] Available at http://www.owlpages.com/articles.php?
section=Owl+Physiology&title=Reproduction
Common Barn Owl [Internet] Available at http://kelliejustus.weebly.com/
Barn
Owl
Tyto
Alba
[Internet]
Available
at
http://www.biokids.umich.edu/critters/Tyto_alba/
Perrins, Christopher, M.. et. al., The Encyclopedia of Birds. Facts on File Publications,
1985.
2003. "The Owl Pages" (On-line). Accessed January 26, 2004 at
http://www.owlpages.com/species/tyto/alba/Default.htm.

Marti, C. 1992. Barn Owl. Pp. 1-15 in A Poole, P Stettenheim, F Gill, eds. The Birds of
North America, Vol. 1. Philadelphia: The Academy of Natural Sciences; Washington DC:
The American Ornithologists' Union.
Extension [Internet] Available at http://www.extension.org/pages/65374/avian-skeletalsystem#.VeWQeUeUeSo
Bird Anatomy [Internet] Available at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_anatomy