REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Worldwide, the forest products industry is a dynamic, vital and growing

enterprise. Demand for paper has been forecast to grow by nearly 50% by 2010.
This represents a growth rate of 2.8% per year. Demand growth for mechanical
wood products (i.e. for structural purposes) is also expected to advance at a rate of
1-2% per year (McNutt and Rennel, 1997).
Growth in pulp and paper production entails massive felling of trees, which in
turn leads to deforestation. Increasing competition for wood supplies coupled with
gradually rising costs of wood have generated renewed interest in the use of
nonwood plant fibers for papermaking in the highly industrialized countries
(Sabharwal and Young, 1996). The use of agricultural-residues in pulping and
papermaking might be desirable because it averts the need for disposal, which
currently increases farming costs and causes environmental deterioration through
pollution, fires, and pests.
During the last twenty-five years, there has been a great increase in global
nonwood pulping capacities. In 1970, nonwood pulp production was only 6.7% of
the worldwide pulp production. By 1993, it had risen to 10.5% and is expected to
rise to 11.3% by the end of 1998 (Atchison, 1996). Because of this increased use
and opportunities for further substitution for wood based fibers, it is important to
examine the potential benefits and problems associated with the use of nonwood
plant fibers in pulp and paper industry. The demand for nonwood plant fibers for
papermaking is expected to increase in the highly industrialized nations of Europe
and North America due to the above environmental concerns like depleting forest
resources and disposal of agricultural residues. Europe has an additional problem

with the shortage of short fibered hardwood pulp, which can be replaced by some
nonwood fibers. This will require knowledge of the processes and developments
already in place in the countries already using these raw materials in the paper
industry. Already, a number of nonwood fibers are commonly used in many
countries for papermaking. Straws are by far the largest source of nonwood fibers
followed by bagasse and bamboo (FAO, 1996)
Most of the increased use of nonwood plant fibers has been attributed to the
tremendous demand in paper and increase in nonwood pulping capacities in China
(PRC). At present China produces more than two thirds of the nonwood pulp
produced worldwide followed by India, a distant second. Table 3 gives a list of the
top 25 countries utilizing nonwood fibers. These countries account for 99% of the
total nonwood fiber used in papermaking. A look at the Chinese nonwood paper
industry would therefore provide us with a good view of the problems and
opportunities faced by the use of nonwood plant fiber in pulp and paper industry.
From this case study we can also suggest applications appropriate in other
countries.
Over the last several years, a number of plants have been tested for their
papermaking qualities (Alcaide et al, 1991, 1993; Yilmaz, 1995 a, b, c; Eroglu et al,
1994). A number of centers and organizations like Paper Industrial Research
Institute of China (PIRIC), United Nations Industrial Development Organization
(UNIDO), Central Pulp and Paper Research Institute (CPPRI) in India, and
International Agro-Fiber Research center in Wisconsin Madison have been involved
in this research (Sabharwal and Young, 1996; Judt, 1991 c; Judt, 1993; Assumpcao,
1992). These efforts have provided information and a number of nonwood fibers
have been identified as potential raw material for the paper industry. Of the many

nonwood plant fibers, bagasse is considered the most promising, and it has been
the focus of significant amounts of research. From storage, handling, and depithing
(Atchison, 1988; Rangan, 1995; Michelsen, 1994) to pulping and bleaching (Prasad
et al, 1996; Yu et al, 1994; Rangamannar, 1988) research has shown bagasse to be
a viable paper fiber source. Special consideration has been given for its use for
newsprint (Atchison, 1993, 1993; Rangan and Rangamannar, 1995). As a result, a
number of mills in the world are currently using bagasse as their primary raw
material (Potter, 1996; Pappens, 1991; Rangan, 1996). In fact, it comprises more
than 10% of all nonwood fiber used in papermaking (FAO, 1996). 5 Straw is another
major source of nonwood fibers. Significant work has been done to investigate its
use, and investigate the special problems associated with straw. One main problem
has been the presence of silica (Yilmaz, 1995; Judt, 1991; Brink, 1988). This causes
problems in washing of pulp and also in the recovery of spent liquor. Pulping
(Yilmaz, 1995; Brink, 1988), bleaching (Pekarovicova et al, 1994; Brink et al, 1988)
and handling (Jeyasingam, 1994) of straw have also been a major focus of research.
One very promising raw material, on which significant research has been done in
the US, is kenaf (Tao et al, 1995; Mayers and Bagby, 1995; Kaldor, 1992; Kokta et al,
1993; Pande, 1996; Mittal and Maheshwari, 1995b). This is due to its inherently low
lignin content and therefore higher cellulose content. Other raw materials being
investigated are hemp (Judt, 1994; Zomers et al, 1994; Jeyasingam, 1994; Wong
and Chiu, 1995), Jute (Akhtaruzzaman and Shafi, 1995; Sabharwal et al, 1995;
Sarkanen and Resalati, 1988), abaca (Peralta, 1996), reed (Chen et al, 1994;
Paavilianen and Torgilson, 1995) and bamboo (Bajpai and Bajpai, 1996; Knight,
1994). This is by no means a comprehensive list of the fibers used in the paper
industry. A number of economic studies have focused on the feasibility of nonwood

mills (Kauppi, 1989; Saha et al, 1990; Perham, 1990; Hurter, 1990; Ray et al, 1992).
Not all of the studies have been encouraging to those interested in nonwood pulp
mills. However, there have been a number of mills that have continued to use
nonwood plant fibers as their main raw material.
Wood, as a papermaking fiber is a relative newcomer. For 90% of its existence
of almost 2000 years, paper has been made exclusively from nonwood plant fibers.
The first true paper, credited to Tsai Lun in 105 AD in China, was apparently made
form true hemp (Cannabis Sativa). First among the papermaking fibers were hemp
and China grass (Ramie, Boehmeria nivea). As demand for paper grew, so did the
search for other suitable raw materials. The first suitable raw fiber that Chinese
found (i.e. straight from the plant) apparently was the inner bark of Mulberry
(Broussonetia papyrifera). Another raw material used was Bamboo (Atchison and
McGovern, 1989). During the next several centuries, the art of papermaking grew
far and wide from Japan in the east, to Siam (now Thailand) in the south, to Chinese
Turkestan in the west. In Turkestan, in 751 AD, papermaking was learned by the
Arabs who brought it westward over their trade routes. Papermaking reached
Samarkand, Baghdad (793 AD), Damascus, Cairo (900 AD), and Fez (1100 AD). From
there it spread to Spain in 1151 AD then to France in 1348 AD and later on to
Germany in 1390 AD. In the region where 7 paper mulberry, bamboo and China
grass were not available, replacement raw materials such as linen and cotton rags
were used (Atchison and McGovern, 1989). In 1450, the invention of printing using
movable type in Germany resulted in a great reduction in the cost of book
publishing. This created a demand for printing surfaces which parchment could not
meet. During the next 150 years, mills for making paper by hand were built in
nearly every country in Europe (Atchison and McGovern, 1989). As printing costs

declined, the literacy rates increased and many schools and universities were
founded. This increase in literacy led to increase in publishing and in particular, the
first newspapers around the year 1600 AD. The resulting increase in demand could
not be met only from rags and old ropes. Therefore, the search for alternative raw
materials was intensified. Laboratory experiments were conducted on hundreds of
vegetables, leaves, barks, weeds and wood. Trial copies of books were actually
printed on paper made from asbestos (in 1727), lime tree bark (in 1786),
marshmallow, swamp moss (in 1799) and straw (in 1800) (Atchison and McGovern,
1989). With the advent of Fourdrinier continuous web paper machine in 1805
followed by the cylinder machine in 1809, increased the speed of paper production
thus resulting in an increased production at lower cost. This further improved the
demand for raw materials (Atchison and McGovern, 1989). In 1827, straw was
brought into successful commercial use. However, straw by itself, could not satisfy
demand for all grades and experiments on other raw material continued. Between
1840-1885, experiments on wood yielded four commercially successful pulping
processes. Pulps from these processes proceeded to displace straw from a number
of paper grades. But straw held its own as a major raw material for corrugated
board for sometime and reached its peak in 1940 with a production of 2/3 million
tons. Since then, due to the economics of supply and high labor cost of collection,
nonwood plant fibers have been almost entirely replaced by wood as papermaking
raw material in most developed countries (Atchison and McGovern, 1989). 8 Today,
the highest ratio of nonwood to total papermaking pulp capacities are in the
developing market economies of Asia, Africa and Latin America, as well as the
centrally planned economies of Asia. Some of these regions have more nonwood
plant pulping capacities than wood pulping capacities. Indeed, China has more than

twice as much. Further, total nonwood plant pulping capacity worldwide is

increasing faster than the wood pulping capacity. Their respective annual rates of
increase were 6% annually for nonwood as compared to 2% annually for wood pulp
during the period from 1988- 1993. It is expected to be 2.5% annually for nonwood
and 1% for wood during the period from 1993-1998. As a result, nonwood plant
pulping capacity (as a percentage of total papermaking pulp capacity) has
increased from 6.7% in 1970 to 10.6% in 1993. It currently stands at 10.4% and is
expected to reach 11.2% by 1998. Of the total 20,887,000 metric tons of nonwood
plant fiber pulp produced in 1995, 15,957,000 metric tons were produced in China.
This accounts for over 76 percent total world nonwood plant fiber pulp production
and over 83% of total Chinese pulp production. At the same time, the level of
pollution from these mills is very high. In 1996, Nan Ping city, a mid-size city in
Fujian Province, had 86 small papermills. These paper mills discharged 19 million
gal/year of wastewater and 26,000 tons/year of COD* (51% of the total COD
discharge for the city). Some of these mills were closed in 1996 (Xing, 1996). Due to
the expected shortage and rising prices of wood for papermaking in the US,
nonwood fibers are expected to be a source of papermaking fibers in the US in the
near future (Atchison, 1992 a). At the same time, Europe has a shortage of short
fibered hardwood pulp and is thus an importer of this kind of pulp. Some of the
nonwood fibers have the properties to replace these fibers. The use of nonwood
fibers for papermaking is thus also expected to grow in Europe. The development of
these industries will need to borrow from the experiences of the nonwood mills
already in existence around the world. Since most are in China, a look at that
countrys nonwood fiber paper industry would therefore be of some help.