Lagrageano

Lagrangian Mechanics
MS4414 Theoretical Mechanics

William Lee
Contents
1
Introduction
The Principle of Least Action
Examples
Conserved Quantities
Introduction
Newtons equations describe all mechanical systems. However sometimes it is convenient

to use an alternative formulation using the Lagrangian or Hamiltonian equations of motion.
These formulations are useful when the systems are best described by unusual coordinate
systems.
A simple example is a pendulum which is best described by equations of motion for the
pendulum angle .
N.B. Neither Lagrangian nor Hamiltonian mechanics can handle friction.
MS4414, Theoretical Mechanics
The Principle of Least Action
Action
The action of a system S can be calculated from the Lagrangian L:

Z B
SAB =
L(t) dt
(1)
The Lagrangian is given by

L=K V
(2)
where K is kinetic energy and V is the potential energy
Lagrangian Equations of Motion
Lagranges equations of motion are derived by finding
a trajectory x(t) which minimises the action

Z B
L(t, x, x)
dt
S=
(3)
If x(t) is the minimal trajectory then S is unchanged if x(t) x(t) + x(t) where x(tA ) =
x(tB ) = 0.
S + S =
where x =
d x
dt
S + S =
Z

L(t, x + x, x + x)
dt
(4)

L
L
x +
x dt
L(t, x, x)
+
x
x
(5)
Subtracting S from either side

S =
B
A

L
L
x +
x dt
x
x
(6)

L
L d x
dt
x +
x
x dt
(7)
Rewriting the second term

S =
B
A
If x(t) is the particle trajectory, which minimises S, then S = 0 i.e.

Z B
L
L d x
0=
dt
x +
x
x dt
A
(8)
Integrate the second term by parts (boundary term is zero because

x(tA ) = x(B) = 0)
B

d L
L
x
x dt
0=
x
dt x
A

Z B
d L
L
x dt
0=
x dt x
A
Z
www.industrial-maths.com/wlee/ms4414.html
(9)
(10)
William Lee
This integral must be zero for any (small) choice of x(t). The only way this can be true is if
the term in square brackets is zero. Thus Lagranges equations of motion are
L
d L
=
dt x
x
(11)
Remember that the Lagrangian is given by L = T V where T is kinetic energy, and V is

potential energy.
In the case where a system is described not by a single coordinate x but by a collection of
coordinates qi , i = 1 . . . n, there are n Lagrangian equations of motion each of the form
L
d L
=
dt qi
qi
(12)
The coordinates qi do not have to be the Cartesian coordinates of the particles making up the
system. They can be any sort of coordinate, e.g. the angle of a pendulum, the distance a particle travels along a magnetic field line. This is the power of the Lagrangian and Hamiltonian
approaches.
Examples
Some examples to show that Lagrangian mechanics and Newtonian mechanics are equivalent.
Free Particle According the Newtons first law a particle on which no forces are acting will
move at constant velocity.
L(x,
x, t) =
m 2
x
2
Lagrangian equations of motion

L
d L
=
dt x
x
Substituting in the Lagrangian for a free particle
m
x=0
Integrate
x = const.
in agreement with Newtons second law.
William Lee
Particle in a conservative force field
A particle of mass, m moves in a conservative force-
field with potential energy V (x). Newtons second law states that the
m
x = V
The Lagrangian of the system
x) =
L(x,
m 2
x V (x)
2

L
d L
=
,
dt xi
xi
i = 1, 2, 3
substitute in the Lagrangian

m
xi =
V
xi
write in vector form

m
x = V
Pendulum The equations of motion of pendulum with a large angle of oscillation are hard
to derive from Newtons Laws. They are simple (simpler!) to derive in the Lagrangian framework. If the length of the pendulum is r and the angle is ( = 0 is the ground state of the
pendulum)
ma
mg
William Lee
1
T = mr2 2
2
(13)
V = mgr (1 cos )
(14)
1
L = mr2 2 mgr (1 cos )
2
(15)
L
= mgr sin
L
= mr2

d L
= mr2
dt
(16)
(17)
(18)
Thus the Lagrangian equations of motion are

mr2 = mgr sin
(19)
As mentioned above, Lagrangian equations of motion can only be derived for systems without friction (otherwise a potential energy cannot be defined). If I want to derive equations
for a pendulum with friction in the Lagrangian framework I have to derive the friction free
equations and then return to the Newtonian framework to add in friction terms by hand.
mr2 = mgr sin mr
Exam Question (2008r)
(20)
Consider a one-dimensional system which consists of two parti-
cles of masses m1 and m2 , with coordinates x1 and x2 (x1 < x2 ) interacting through gravity.
Write down the expression for the Lagrangian of the system and derive the Lagrangian form
of the governing equations.
m1 2 m2 2
x +
x
2 1
2 2
Gm1 m2
Potential energy: V =
x2 x1
Kinetic energy: K =
Lagrangian: L =
m1 2 m2 2 Gm1 m2
x +
x +
2 1
2 2 x2 x1

d
dt
L
x i
L
,
xi
i = 1, 2.
William Lee
Particle 1: m1 x1 =
Gm1 m2
(x2 x1 )2
Particle 2: m2 x2 =
Gm1 m2
(x2 x1 )2
Exam Question 2007r
Consider a one-dimensional system which consists of three particles
of masses m1 , m2 , and m3 , with coordinates x1 , x2 , and x3

(x1 x2 x3 ) connected by two identical springs of modulus and free length L:
x1
x2
x3
Write down the expression for the Lagrangian L of the system, and derive the Lagrangian
form of the governing equations.
m1 2 m2 2 m3 2
x +
x +
x
2 1
2 2
2 3
Potential energy: V = (x3 x2 L)2 + (x2 x1 L)2

2
2
Kinetic energy: K =
Lagrangian:
L=
m1 2 m2 2 m3 2
x 1 +
x 2 +
x 3 (x3 x2 L)2 (x2 x1 L)2
2
2
2
2
2
Lagrangian equations of motion:

L
d L
=
,
dt x i
xi
i = 1, 2, 3.
m1 x1 = (x3 x2 L)
m2 x2 = (x3 x2 L) + (x2 x1 L)
m3 x3 = (x2 x1 L)
William Lee
Conserved Quantities
4.1 Conservation of Momentum

If there a collection of particles only interact with each other
0=
X L
xi,
Using the Lagrangian equations of motion

X d L
0=
dt x i,
Integrate
X L
x i,
const =
For standard systems
L=
Xm
x 2 V (x )
X
X L
=
m x i,
const =
x i,
Or
const =
m x
i.e. conservation of momentum.
4.2 Conservation of Angular Momentum

The Lagrangian should be unchanged when positions xi, and velocities are rotated through
an angle :
x x + x,
0=
x x + x
L
L
x +
x
x
x
Cycle the triple product
William Lee
0 =
X
L
L
+ x
x
x
x
Apply the Lagrangian equations of motion

X
d L
L
0 =
x
+ x
dt x
x
Valid for arbitrary

0=
X
d
x
dt
L
x
L
+ x
x
L
= m x
x

L
d X
x
0=
dt
x
0=
d X
[x (mi x )]
dt
I.e. conservation of angular momentum.
William Lee

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Lagrangian Mechanics

MS4414 Theoretical Mechanics

The Principle of Least Action

Newtons equations describe all mechanical systems. However sometimes it is convenient

MS4414, Theoretical Mechanics

The Principle of Least Action

The action of a system S can be calculated from the Lagrangian L:

The Lagrangian is given by

where K is kinetic energy and V is the potential energy

Lagrangian Equations of Motion

Lagranges equations of motion are derived by finding

a trajectory x(t) which minimises the action

Subtracting S from either side

Rewriting the second term

If x(t) is the particle trajectory, which minimises S, then S = 0 i.e.

Integrate the second term by parts (boundary term is zero because

MS4414, Theoretical Mechanics

Remember that the Lagrangian is given by L = T V where T is kinetic energy, and V is

Lagrangian equations of motion

MS4414, Theoretical Mechanics

Particle in a conservative force field

A particle of mass, m moves in a conservative force-

Lagrangian equations of motion

substitute in the Lagrangian

write in vector form

MS4414, Theoretical Mechanics

Thus the Lagrangian equations of motion are

Exam Question (2008r)

Consider a one-dimensional system which consists of two parti-

Lagrangian equations of motion

MS4414, Theoretical Mechanics

Exam Question 2007r

Consider a one-dimensional system which consists of three particles

of masses m1 , m2 , and m3 , with coordinates x1 , x2 , and x3

Potential energy: V = (x3 x2 L)2 + (x2 x1 L)2

Lagrangian equations of motion:

MS4414, Theoretical Mechanics

4.1 Conservation of Momentum

Using the Lagrangian equations of motion

i.e. conservation of momentum.

4.2 Conservation of Angular Momentum

Cycle the triple product

MS4414, Theoretical Mechanics

Apply the Lagrangian equations of motion

Valid for arbitrary

I.e. conservation of angular momentum.

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