UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA

GRADUATE COLLEGE

MEDICAL ETHNOMUSICOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATIONS

WITHIN WESTERN MUSIC THERAPY

A THESIS
SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
Degree of
MASTERS OF MUSIC

By
JENNIFER S. DAVIS
Norman, Oklahoma
2013

MEDICAL ETHNOMUSICOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATIONS

WITHIN WESTERN MUSIC THERAPY

A THESIS APPROVED FOR THE

SCHOOL OF MUSIC

BY

______________________________
Dr. Zoe Sherinian, Chair

______________________________
Dr. Paula Conlon

______________________________
Dr. Marvin Lamb

 Copyright by JENNIFER S. DAVIS 2013

All Rights Reserved.
3

DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to Charles Anthony my Grandpa. He was a soldier, a
hard worker, a singer, a guitar player, a square dancer, a traveler, and a loving
grandpa. Thank you for supporting me. I miss you and love you!

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First, I want to thank God for his love for me and the strength he has
given me to complete my thesis. Thank you to my family Mom, Dad, and
especially my brother Jeff, who has helped me survive graduate school in many
ways. A special thanks to Dr. Zoe Sherinian, who has spent many hours
helping me learn to express myself eloquently and concisely in written and
spoken form. Thank you to Dr. Paula Conlon, who has taught me so much
about Native American culture and Native American flute music and playing. I
owe a debt of gratitude to the many people who made it possible for me to
complete my fieldwork: Todd Balcom, Ted Cox, Joious Melodi, Martha
McQuaid, Malabika Shaw, and the Native American Flute Circle of Norman,
Oklahoma. I also want to acknowledge my fellow graduate students with whom
I have learned and laughed: Bobby Nour Elkamely, Lani Garner, Erica Martin,
Celeste Martinez, Matt McCoy, Cecelia Pullen, and Atiba Chike Williams.
Finally, I want to thank the University of Oklahoma faculty members who have
helped broaden my horizons and enriched my life: Katerina Akarepi, Miranda
Arana, Paula Conlon, Damon Frazier, Tassie Hirschfield, Zoe Sherinian,
Christina Souza, and Ken Stephenson.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements .............................................................................................. 5
Table of Contents ................................................................................................. 6
List of Tables ........................................................................................................ 8
List of Figures ....................................................................................................... 9
Abstract .............................................................................................................. 10
Chapter 1
Medical Ethnomusicology and Western Music Therapy
Introduction ................................................................................... 12
History of Medical Ethnomusicology ............................................. 24
History of Western Music Therapy ................................................ 30
Multi-disciplinary Studies .............................................................. 33
Summary....................................................................................... 37
Chapter 2
Take One Flute and Call Me in the Morning
Native American Flute and Healing
Introduction ................................................................................... 41
Tlingit-Haidi Flutist Morgan Fawcett .............................................. 44
Musical Structure .......................................................................... 48
Performance ................................................................................. 56
Context ......................................................................................... 58
Summary....................................................................................... 63
Chapter 3
These Are Drums, This is Your Brain on Drums, Any Questions?
West African Drumming and Healing
Introduction ................................................................................... 66
Musical Structure .......................................................................... 69
Performance ................................................................................. 76
Context ......................................................................................... 79
Summary....................................................................................... 84

Chapter 4
Exploring the Phenomenology of Self
Toning to Realign Chakras
Introduction ................................................................................... 87
The Chakras ................................................................................. 92
Chakras and Yoga ........................................................................ 96
The Science Behind Chakras........................................................ 99
Toning ......................................................................................... 104
Musical Structure ........................................................................ 105
Performance ............................................................................... 117
Context ....................................................................................... 120
Summary..................................................................................... 123
Chapter 5
Conclusion
Principles and Processes of Indigenous Therapies .................... 126
Native American Flute Implementation ....................................... 130
West African Drumming Implementation ..................................... 133
Chakra Toning Implementation ................................................... 135
Bibliography...................................................................................................... 139
Appendices....................................................................................................... 148

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Rhythm Played in African Drumming Class .......................................... 70

Table 2: Correlation of Chakra to Physical Organs & Body Systems ............... 103
Table 3: Chakra and Pitch Correlation ............................................................. 108
Table 4: Reduction of Toning Sessions ............................................................ 109
Table 5: Seed Vowel Sounds ........................................................................... 112
Table 6: Potency A Developmental Model..................................................... 118

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Framework for Analyzing Indigenous Healing Therapies ............... 34-35
Figure 2: Transcription of Savannah Song .................................................. 53-54

ABSTRACT
In this study of Native American flute, West African drumming, and
toning to realign chakras, I argue that these music healing practices treat the
root cause of disvalued states because they include in their performance
process the production and dissemination of the cultural values of connectivity
to and balance between a community of people, the surrounding environment,
and the self. Through participant-observation fieldwork, self-study as a
performer and patient, and secondary scientific research I show that these
cultural values manifest as reflections of community relationships,
environmental awareness, and the whole person (body, mind, and emotions).
I focus on how sound and participants intent affects the mind emotionally and
through thought processes. These changes, called cognitive flexibility, affect
the physical body producing changes such as lowered pulse, blood pressure,
and pain perception; alleviation of negative feelings; increased attention span.
This thesis provides music therapists evidence to illustrate that these
indigenous healing practices are valuable therapeutic tools for promoting
physical, mental, and emotional health. In addition, these healing practices can
demonstrate how the medical community, as a whole, can incorporate
consciousness, thought processes, and emotions into their medical models.
Implementing indigenous healing practices must include an understanding of
the cultural values and meaning from which they originate. It is from these that
the music practices structure, performance, and context of production elicit
healing effects. By familiarizing western music therapists with terminology,

10

ideas, and beliefs, with which specific cultures organize their own music healing
practices, music therapists, can implement indigenous music therapies more
effectively.

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CHAPTER 1
MEDICAL ETHNOMUSICOLOGY AND WESTERN MUSIC THERAPY

Western music therapy has been practiced in the United States since
1929. Music therapy practices were implemented on a national scale after both
World Wars to relax and calm patients (Schmidt Peters 2000: 35, 37). By 1944
its acceptance as effective therapy was evidenced by the first program for a
Bachelors of Music Therapy (BMT) degree at Michigan State University. In
addition, by 1969 the Journal of Music Therapy was published (Gioia 2007:
134). However, a lack of ethnographic music therapy studies to this day
illustrates Western classical and folk musics domination in music therapy
practices (Stige 2005: 392). This thesis seeks to illuminate the validity of Native
American flute, West African drumming1, and toning to realign chakras with the
intention of providing Western music therapists theoretical models and practical
implementations of these indigenous therapies.
During the 1990s, music therapists Joseph Moreno and Edith Hillman
Boxill began exploring, practicing, publishing, and lecturing about multicultural
music therapies (Boxill 1992, Moreno 1995 and 1998). Despite these music
therapists endeavors, indigenous music healing practices are still considered
fringe methods which are relegated as alternative therapies (Koen 2009: 17,
Stige 2005: 394). Unfortunately, therapies labeled as alternative tend to be
seen as untested and unpublished without quantifiable or explainable results
(Balcom 2013: Drum Circle). Therefore, presenting information about how
West African drumming or African drumming throughout this thesis refers to the
drumming practices of Guinea and Liberia, West Africa as taught by Damon Frazier at
University of Oklahoma, and described in Ruth Stones Music in West Africa (2004).
1

12

cultural values expressed within indigenous music healing practices elicit

recordable physical results to Western music therapy can provide them with the
hard data they need to implement these practices.
Throughout this thesis I refer to illness or disease as disvalued states. I
chose the phrase disvalued state to refer to a more holistic concept than
disease, as it links the individual, his or her lived experience, cultural
orientation, and social environment. According to the 2009 textbook, Medical
Anthropology, disease refers to the outward, clinical manifestations of altered
physical function or infection; whereas illness encompasses the human
experience and perceptions of alterations in health, as informed by its broader
social and cultural dimensions. My chosen term, disvalued state, encompasses
both these definitions (Wiley & Allen 2009: 10-19).
Music therapy in the U.S. focuses on treating disvalued states and
symptoms of disvalued states, instead of the root cause of those disvalued
states. Specifically,
Music Therapy is the clinical and evidence-based use of music
interventions to accomplish individualized goals within a
therapeutic relationship by a credentialed professional who has
completed an approved music therapy program. Music therapy
interventions can be designed to: promote wellness, manage
stress, alleviate pain, express feelings, enhance memory, improve
communication, and promote physical rehabilitation. (American
Music Therapy Association Website 2013)

I hope to provide music therapists, hospitals, and health care decision-makers

evidence to illustrate that Native American flute, West African drumming, and
toning to realign chakras are valuable therapeutic tools for promoting physical,

13

mental, and emotional health. These indigenous therapies all address the root
cause of disvalued states obstacles or incongruences between the patient
and their community, environment, and self (body, mind, and emotions).
Many symptoms such as hypertension, depression, and anxiety
disorders are treated in the U.S. with allopathic medication alone, partly,
because insurance companies cover drugs more often than therapies (Conrad
2007: 15). Consequently, pharmaceutical overuse is common in the U.S. and
produces rising insurance costs, antibiotic resistant strains of pathogens, and
the medicalization (treating non-medical problems with medication) of
behavioral and mental problems (Conrad 2007: 17, 134, 142). Thus, the
American profit-oriented health care system has not fully incorporated
indigenous music healing therapies, in part, because they cannot be bottled and
sold.
Incorporating Native American flute, West African drumming, and toning
to realign chakras (all of which involve connectivity and balance) can potentially
alleviate some of these financial and medical problems. However, implementing
indigenous music healing practices must include an understanding of the
cultural values, meaning, and context from which they originate because it is
from these factors that the music practices elicit healing effects.

By reviewing

the history of medical ethnomusicology and music therapy I hope to facilitate

dialogue between medical ethnomusicology and music therapy and provide a
culturally appropriate framework for understanding and applying Native
American flute, West African drumming, and toning (sound) to realign chakras

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into Western music therapy. This dialogue can begin by highlighting,

comparing, and contrasting the principles of effective music therapies in various
cultures. As I show in this thesis, this dialogue may find that there are
principles and processes that underlie many indigenous music therapies such
as connectivity and balance. Therefore, to successfully implement these music
healing practices within Western music therapy it is necessary to understand
the underlying cultural values of connectivity and balance expressed through
the musical structure, performance, and context of production.
The shared values within indigenous music healing practices
demonstrate how emotions and thought processes enable the mind to affect
bodily functions such as blood pressure, pulse, and pain perception. By
addressing these values, indigenous therapies can treat the root cause of
disvalued states disconnect and imbalance. This challenges the American
medical systems way of understanding and interpreting medical evidence.
Instead of relying solely on measurable physical results, Native American flute,
West African drumming, and toning to realign chakras demonstrate how the
medical community can incorporate consciousness, thought processes, and
emotions into their medical models.
My first case study explains how playing Native American flute can
reduce pulse and blood pressure, and alleviate negative feelings associated
with anxiety disorders, depression, and grief. Many Native Americans believe
that four aspects; spirituality, community, environment, and self are all linked
(Portman 2006: 453). Disvalued states occur when one or more of these

15

relationships are out of proportion (Portman 2006: 456). Many Native American
myths describe sacred sounds (such as chanting, singing, and flute music) as
having the ability to alleviate disvalued states (Portman 2006: 458, Wiand 2001:
2, 38).
The second case study considers how West African drumming can
reduce pain perception, increase focus, alter states of consciousness, promote
social unity, and alter brain and body chemistry to promote healthier immune
systems. West African drummings structure (interlocking facets), performance
(repetition), and context (collective participation) demonstrate the underlying
cultural values of connectivity and balance which are explicitly expressed
through the combined arts of dance, drum, and song.
The third case study shows how chakras can be realigned through
toning. Chakras means wheel in Sanskrit and the chakra system represents
seven energy centers in the body, which start at the base of the spine and
proceed upward to the top of the head. Each chakra is associate with major
organs and glands within the body. They are vortices of vibration or the
junction points of energy meridians and can vibrate too slowly or too fast and
become misaligned (Goldman 2005: ix). This unevenness manifests as
physical or mental symptoms of a disvalued state. Toning uses the human
voice to create sounds that help to re-balance chakras and thus resolve the
disvalued state. Most toning sessions involve making vowel sounds and
exhalations with consonant beginnings and endings. The actual sound

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vibrations created by toning, and the intent of the person toning calibrates
chakras that are out of alignment.
The concept of connectivity and balance permeate all three of these
case studies. This thesis engages centrally with the cultural and medical
concepts of connectivity and balance possible through music on three levels:
social or community (between music participants), environment (between the
music participant and the surrounding physical environment), and self (between
the music participant and their physical body, mind or consciousness, and
emotion). The act of participating in music making bonds individuals to each
other through shared experience. Music is understood as an exchange, as a
form of transactional communicationIt is within the communicative act that the
efforts of music clearly function as a medical intervention (Barz 2006: 58). This
transactional communication allows people to interact with each other in a safe
way. Emotions and thoughts that one may be hesitant to express in words can
be physically expressed in music making and promote holistic health.
The inability to express emotion can lead to mental and physical
disvalued states. It stands to reason that the road to health begins with
releasing pent-up emotion. By sharing this expulsion of pent-up emotion with
others we interface, not only with our own self (body, mind, and emotions) but
with each other. People have more ways to contact each other than ever
before in the history of the world via technology, but that transactional
communication that exists between people through non-verbal interactions is
more limited the very interaction that helps to maintain a healthy being.

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Making music together treats the social disease of disconnect between people
holistically along with the physical disease.
When we make music with others we develop a relationship with them
through our shared experience (Titon 2008: 33). For example, a group of
people making music can experience inner time when the music and mood of
the group melds into one consciousness and all other distractions fall away
(Stone 2005: 89). Shared and focused group consciousness or intent creates
an environment in which transactional communication can emerge. When we
make music together we are not alone and that realization gives us power. The
power of combined effort, intent, and focus toward a common goal allows us to
address issues of personal identity and group affinity at the same time. The
individual performers make the choice to play the music; affinity brings them
together with other performers, and the state of belonging follows (Slobin 1992:
225-226).
One of the goals of this thesis is to analyze how group music practices
promote cognitive flexibility - changes in thought processes and the brain, which
signals positive changes (like lowered blood pressure and pain reception) in the
physical body (Koen 2009: 20). Some physical changes can be traced back to
specific musical elements such as frequency, rhythm, and timbre. However,
mental and emotional changes are harder to quantitatively measure. Physical,
mental, and emotional changes are a result of not just the music, but also the
transactional communication exchanged through the music making process
between participants.

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Therefore, using an inclusive method that takes into account more than
just the music elements such as ethnomusicologist Jeff Todd Titons
hermeneutical phenomenology, will provide a way of consciously being-in-theworld2 (music making) that incorporates perception, meaning, and experience
from all participants (Titon 2008: 38). We come to know the people we make
music with through transactional communication, which consists of non-verbal
cues, expressed through facial expressions, body movement, and of course,
the sound itself. It is through this shared transactional communication that each
participant is empowered to make changes in their thought processes and
consciousness.
Another significant level of connectivity and balance is the music
participants relationship to their surrounding physical environment (plants,
animals, eco-system, etc). Making music that awakens our senses to the
world around us helps us consciously engage with the environment. How we
interact with our environment reveals balance or imbalance. For instance, if the
nature of our relationship with the environment is one of reciprocity, we
recognize that we are part of something larger than ourselves - balance.
However, if the nature of our relationship with the environment is one of
ignorance or dominance we only recognize our own needs, effectively living as
if we are the center of the universe imbalance. By bringing the environment
into our consciousness, group music making allows us to adjust our relationship
Jeff Todd Titon uses the phrase being-in-the-world to explain how we perform in
the world. The culmination of all the things we do in a day makes up how we are in
the world. It can illuminate how we interact with the people, environment, and
circumstances in our lives. In this case I am describing what it means to musically bein-the-world of the group music therapy practices (Titon 2008: 27).
2

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to the world. For example, the Garfish song sung by many Native American
tribes in Eastern Oklahoma is an offering to the fish, and in return the fish allow
the Native Americans to catch them for sustenance, a reciprocal relationship in
the minds of these tribal members (Jackson and Levine 2002: 291).
Finally, the last aspect of connectivity and balance with which this thesis
engages is the music participants awareness of her own body, thought
processes, and emotions. Scientific research show that lowered immune
function, increased stress response, and heightened pain perception result from
imbalances within the body such as hypertension (high blood pressure) and
insufficient or excessive chemicals such as serotonin and cortisol (Bittman
2001, Maxfield 1994, Turner 1992). In all of these studies, blood pressure and
brain chemicals changed after participants played music together. A study
conducted in 2001 by neurologist Barry Bittman, tested several groups with
different levels of interaction ranging from drumming with no interaction, to
drumming with open communication between participants and facilitator
(Bittman 2001: 39). The music itself helped lower blood pressure through
entrainment,3 however, the group music making contributed to community
building and revealed changes in brain and blood chemistry (Bittman 2001: 43).
These brain and blood chemistry changes were not as profound in the groups
that had little to no interaction (Bittman 2001: 44). Therefore, physical and

Christian Huygens, a Dutch mathematician, observed that when two pendulum

clocks of the approximate same size were mounted next to each other they began to
swing in synchrony after a period of time. When the vibrations of one object change
those of another, they are entrained. This principle is used often in music therapy to
change body rhythms such as blood pressure, pulse, and brain waves (Goldman 2008:
14).
3

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mental disvalued states can emanate from a real or perceived detachment from
or disassociation between ones self, ones community, and the physical
environment.
In this study of Native American flute, West African drumming, and
toning to realign chakras, I argue that these music healing practices treat the
root cause of disvalued states because they include in their performance
process the production and dissemination of the cultural values of connectivity
to, and balance between, a community of people, the surrounding environment,
and the self. Through participant-observation fieldwork, self-study as a
performer and patient, and secondary scientific research, I show that the
cultural values of connectivity and balance manifest within the structure,
performance, and context of these music practices as reflections of community
relationships, environmental awareness, and the whole person (body, mind,
and emotions). I focus on how sound (specifically the elements of frequency,
timbre, and rhythm) and participants intent affects the mind emotionally and
through thought processes, which therefore, affects the physical body, resulting
in lowered pulse, blood pressure, and pain perception. I also show how the
alleviation of negative feelings associated with grief, anxiety, and depression
through music practice increase attention span and promotes unity between
group participants.
I have a very personal interest in indigenous therapies because I take a
significant amount of medication to treat my disvalued states of systematic
lupus erythematosis (chornic autoimmune disease) and lupus nephritis

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(degenerative kidney disease). I experience symptoms of edema (swelling),

hypertension (high blood pressure), anemia (which causes exhaustion and
weakness), joint pain, headaches, and fever. Some of these symptoms are
constantly present like edema, hypertension, and anemia. However, joint pain,
headaches, and fevers occur periodically and are called flares. Sunlight, lack of
sleep, and stress can induce flares. Therefore, I decided to incorporate selfstudy as one of my methods. Because Native American flute, West African
drumming, and toning to realign chakras can help lower blood pressure and
stress levels, they can be very helpful to patients suffering from any type of
autoimmune disease or cancer. This has been true in my self-study.
Besides the usual scientific research conducted with secondary
resources, I invested many hours of field experience and interviewing
practitioners. For my Native American flute research, I successfully completed
seven credit hours of Native American Music courses at the University of
Oklahoma, four of which focused specifically on Native American flute. I
attended the Native American flute circle meetings at the Jacobson House
Native Art Center in Norman, Oklahoma for the past three years, interviewed
Tlingit-Haidi flutist Morgan Fawcett who currently uses Native flute as a way to
manage his fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, and attended the 2012 Native
American flute festival at Medicine Park, OK. I also attended Native American
flute concerts featuring Native flutists Cherokee flutist Tommy Wildcat,
Comanche flutists Calvert and Timothy Tate Nevaquaya, Kiowa flutist Terry

22

Tsotigh, Kiowa-Comanche flutist Thomas Mauchahty-Ware II, and Lakota flutist

Kevin Locke.
To test my hypothesis that Native American flute playing lowers blood
pressure, I conducted an experiment on myself which measured my blood
pressure and pulse before and after playing the Native American flute for ten
minutes per day for a period of thirty days. At the end of my experiment my
results showed that playing Native American flute lowered my blood pressure
an average of eight points systolic and five points diastolic. These findings will
be discussed in greater length in chapter two.
To complete my research for West African drumming I successfully
completed the graduate World Music class, at the University of Oklahoma,
which spent one quarter of the semester on West African Music. I also graded
for an undergraduate African American Music class at the University of
Oklahoma, in which one-third of the class focused on West African music. I
attended African drumming classes taught by Damon Frazier at the University
of Oklahoma, and I hosted a drumming circle therapy session at the University
of Oklahoma conducted by board certified music therapist Todd Balcom, who is
a percussionist and specializes in facilitating drum circles.
To conduct research on toning to realign chakras I attended yoga
lessons taught by Ted Cox and Martha McQuaid at Spirit House Yoga in
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. I also attended toning sessions to realign my
chakras with energy healer Joious Melodi in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. In
addition, I conducted a 30 day self-experiment much like my Native American

23

flute experiment. I toned for 10 minutes every day, took my blood pressure and
pulse before and after toning, and also kept a journal recording my thoughts
and feelings before, during, and after toning. These results will be discussed
further in chapter four.

HISTORY OF MEDICAL ETHNOMUSICOLOGY

Because music and medicine (cultural beliefs and practices associated

with disvalued states) are both an integral part of many cultures,
ethnomusicologists have studied and written about the relationship between
music and healing for decades. However, the subfield of medical
ethnomusicology has only recently emerged as evidenced by the formation of
the Medical Ethnomusicology Special Interest Group within the Society for
Ethnomusicology (Society for Ethnomusicology: 2010). Medical
ethnomusicology closely resembles medical anthropology. Both sub-disciplines
study health and illness through cultural beliefs and practices. The previous
studies in ethnomusicology did not specifically focus on a cultures use of music
to treat disvalued states. Therefore, medical ethnomusicology focuses solely
on health and illness as they relate to musical practice and performance within
culture (Barz 2006: 60, Wiley 2009: 28). Thus, by familiarizing Western music
therapists with terminology, ideas, and beliefs with which specific non-Western
cultures organize their own music healing practices, music therapists can
implement indigenous music therapies more effectively.

24

Early publications in ethnomusicology that focused on music were written

from an ethnomedical viewpoint (understanding music and healing from within
the indigenous culture) (Densmore 1927, Chernoff 1979, Nettl 1956, Radin
1948). For example, ethnomusicologist Frances Densmores 1927 article, The
Use of Music in the Treatment of the Sick by American Indians, was the first
ethnomusicological publication, according to my research, that specifically
explained how Native American belief that all living creatures have an internal
power that affects the positive or negative outcome of their healing vocal songs
(Densmore 1927: 555). This was fundamentally important for the field of
ethnomusicology because the healing effects of any indigenous music healing
practices can be better understood when viewed through the cultural values of
that society.
Another early publication and presentation involving indigenous music
healing practices was ethnomusicologist Bruno Nettls paper entitled, Aspects
of primitive and folk music relevant to music therapy, delivered at the 1956
National Association of Music Therapy. Although ethnomusicologist John
Chernoffs book, African Rhythm and Sensibility (1979), does not focus
specifically on music and healing, he gives an intimate picture of West African
life through their musical practices. As a participant-observer Chernoff explains
that African music is not an entity unto itself, but it is woven into every aspect of
life work, play, birth, death, and healing. Therefore, music also plays a part in
health for West Africans. In fact the music provides an example of how cultural
values support a healthy environment. The interlocking facets (small motifs

25

played separately that fit together) within West African rhythms mirror the
cultures emphasis on collective participation and equality (Chernoff 1979: 51).
Equal participation in drumming provides collective identity and belonging, both
of which contribute to mental and physical health.
According to my research, medical ethnomusicological publications
appeared to decrease during the 1970s and 1980s except for an article by
Carol E. Robertson-DeCarbo in The Journal of Ethnomusicology in 1974 titled,
Music As Therapy: A Bio Cultural Problem. However, literature in the field
increased in the early 1990s (Maxfield 1990, Roseman 1991, Janzen 1992,
Turner 1992, and Laderman 1996). Melinda Maxfield (1990) and Edith Turner
(et al 1992) employed a biocultural method by recording physical results of
music healing performances, as well as considering cultural context and the
contribution of their cultural values.
Maxfield is a specialist in cross-cultural healthcare methodologies and
researcher on the effects of percussion. Her dissertation measured changes in
brain wave activity of twelve participants when exposed to various drumming
patterns (shamanistic, I ching, and free drumming) associated with shamanistic
trance (Maxfield 1990: v). While studying drumming associated with the African
healing rituals such as Gnoma, anthropologist Edith Turner discovered that the
brain perceives less pain when inundated with repetitive low-frequency
drumming4 (Turner 1992: 197).

For instance, on several occasions I experienced relief from significant joint pain which
lasted the rest of the day when I participated in West African drumming classes (Spring
2011).
4

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In her 1991 book, Healing Sounds from the Malaysian Rainforest,

ethnomusicologist and anthropologist Marina Roseman gives a thorough
analysis of Temiar beliefs and daily practices; specifically those related to
health and illness. Temiar are a Senoic group, one of nineteen Orang Asli
groups of Malaysia. They live on the fringes of the rainforest. Musical
transcriptions, audio recordings, and pictures enhance her descriptions of
Temiar illness etiology, categorization, and how treatments are administered
through singing ceremonies (Roseman 1991: 181). While Rosemans research
was not directly intended to promote implementation of Temiar healing
practices into Western medicine, it does ask the reader to think about healing
and illness from a critical viewpoint (Roseman 1991: 11-13). Critical medical
anthropologists argue that healing practices are culturally constructed in every
culture, including within biomedicine in the West (Brown 2009: 9). For example,
medical professions in the west have a traditionally strict mind/body dichotomy.
If a patient experiences physical problems they are sent to biomedicine
professionals until a diagnosis and/or treatment is found. If no diagnosis or
treatment can be found, then the patient may be sent to a mental health
professional. Although our consciousness and thought processes are not
physically observable like our human brain, they do affect how our brain
operates, and what signals the brain sends to the body. If medical
professionals can acknowledge the already embedded cultural beliefs in
Western medicine, they may be more open to incorporating indigenous music

27

healing methods because they recognized the values they carry such as
connectivity and balance, which are vital to holistic healing.
Two more books focusing on music healing within cultural contexts
published in 1996 are Steven Friedsons Dancing Prophets: Musical
Experience in Tumbuka Healing, and Carol Laderman and Marina Rosemans
The Performance of Healing. Friedsons book describes the healing practices
in Malawi that use drumming, singing, dancing, and community participation.
Ladermans (et al) book delineates healing as performance (which often
involves music) from four theoretical perspectives: performance as an event, a
genre, an act, and rhetoric (Laderman 1996: 2). The first dissertation in
ethnomusicology found in my research, that focused solely on indigenous
music healing practices is Devon Emerson Hintons Musical Healing and
Cultural Syndromes in Isan completed at Harvard University in 1999; which
explores musical healing rituals in Northeastern Thailand. These publications
encourage studying the group music healing practice as a whole, taking into
account not only the musical elements, but the personal interactions between
the participants themselves. It is from the transactional communication within
the personal interactions that music healing takes place.
The term medical ethnomusicology was first used in a publication by
ethnomusicologist Gregory Barz in an article within the 2002 anthology titled
The a Wake Project: Uniting Against the African AIDS Crisis. This article and
his 2006 book Singing for life: HIV/AIDS and Music in Uganda, depict how the
people of Uganda, Africa use music, dance, and drama to convey HIV/AIDS

28

education and awareness through localized knowledge which reaches the

people in a way that Western volunteers and doctors cannot. The musical
performances also help those living with HIV to manage their symptoms and
live positively. Barz convincingly argues that the efficacy of healing is not just
from music itself, but from the indigenous cultural beliefs expressed within the
music (Barz 2006: 58).
Publications on music and healing research in the early 2000s strived to
bridge the gap between modern science and indigenous healing experiences.
Psychologist Joyce Beverly Lounbserrys 2001 dissertation The Power of the
Drum, examined the physical, psychological, and spiritual effects of drumming
on eight women drummers from culturally diverse backgrounds. In addition, in
his 2003 dissertation, Devotional Music and Healing in Badakshan,Tajikistan:
Preventative and Curative Practices, ethnomusicologist Benjamin Koen
employed a holistic methodology using ethnomusicological techniques and
physiological experiments (Koen 2003: ii).
Similarly, in 2004, ethnomusicologist Judith Becker published the book,
Deep Listeners: Music, Emotion, and Trancing, in which she explored the
relationship between physical manifestations of religious trance with cognitive
changes and how music facilitates these events (Becker 2004: 4). Her
research strives to provide quantifiable evidence of existential experiences in an
effort to make indigenous healing practices more palatable to Western music
therapy and medicine. By recording brain wave function during indigenous
music making practices, researchers have been able to provide quantifiable

29

evidence of how and when thought processes and consciousness changes.

Most medical ethnomusicological publications after 2005 incorporate multidisciplinary studies such as science, psychology, ethnomusicology, and
religion, and will be discussed later in this chapter. These studies open up a
dialogue between ethnomusicology and Western music therapy. However, the
applications of indigenous music healing practices within Western music
therapy are not often addressed. By illuminating the processes and principles
of connectivity and balance within indigenous therapies that address the root
cause of disvalued states, this thesis seeks to provide models and methods of
implementing these cultural values within Western music therapy practices.

HISTORY OF WESTERN MUSIC THERAPY

Western music therapy was first practiced in the U.S. in the early 20th
century by Eva Vescelius and Isa Maud Ilsen to help mental patients and
humanize factory worker conditions. The first music therapy courses were
offered in New York City in 1919. Western music therapy practices were
implemented on a national scale after both World Wars to relax and calm
patients suffering from what is now diagnosed as post-traumatic stress
syndrome disorder. Western hegemony in curriculum and the structure of the
music academy insured that classical music was most often used in music
therapy, although the type of music used is infrequently referenced in the
literature (Schmidt 2000: 33-37).

30

In 1944 Michigan State implemented the first program for a degree in

music therapy. The National Association for Music Therapy was founded in
1950, and by 1969 the first Journal of Music Therapy was published (Gioia
2007: 134-135). In 1971 The American Association for Music Therapy was
formed, and the Certification Board for Music Therapists began in 1983. The
most recent landmark was the unification of NAMT and AAMT to form The
American Music Therapy Association in 1994 (Schmidt 2000: 37-40).
In music therapy texts published from 1950 to 2004 only two chapters
reference multicultural therapy. Even then, the texts mostly refer to helping the
multicultural patient maintain their identity while assimilating with Western
culture. There is no mention of incorporating indigenous music healing
practices (Pavlicevic 2004: 249-266). In addition, at the 10th Annual World
Congress on Music Therapy conference in 2002, only five of the eighty papers
presented engaged with the use of multicultural music therapy through
indigenous music healing practices (Fachner 2002).
The lack of multicultural music therapy studies published in journals and
books illustrates Western classical and folk musics domination in music therapy
practices (Stige 2005: 392). For example, in a survey of articles from The
Journal of Music Therapy from 1971 to 1994, there were no articles associated
with indigenous healing practices (Gioia 2006: 124). However, by the 1990s
multicultural music therapy was promoted by some professional music
therapists in the U.S., most notably by music therapists Edith Hillman Boxill and
Joseph Moreno (Boxill 1992, Toppozada 1995, Moreno 1988, 1995).

31

In addition, in 2001, the online journal, Voices: A World Forum for Music
Therapy was formed. Their vision statement says that the forum
intends to support discursive practices of music therapists around
the world by producing a free first class online international
forumbecause culture has an important role in music and music
therapy, we will encourage contributions that find their source in
the cultural influences of each continental region. (Voices 2013)
Similarly, academics from medical ethnomusicology and medical anthropology
fields began research and writing from a multi-disciplinary approach. For
instance, Music Healing in Cultural Contexts, edited by Penelope Gouk in 2000,
includes articles from many in medical ethnomusicology and anthropology
fields, including music therapists. Since the beginning of the 21st century many
publications about music and healing have been written from a multi-disciplinary
approach incorporating scientific studies, ethnomusicology, music therapy,
psychology, and religion. While no specific underlying themes are addressed
across the literature, this thesis argues that cultural values of connectivity and
balance permeate indigenous healing therapies, and can be applied within
Western music therapy to address the root cause of disvalued states. This
thesis is multi-disciplinary in that I have tried to incorporate cultural values and
beliefs, psychological and cognitive behavioral studies, as well as scientific
research employing allopathic Western methods of testing.

32

MULTI-DISCIPLINARY STUDIES IN HEALING

Music therapists use entrainment (for definition see footnote 2) to calm

patients by lowering pulse and blood pressure, and alter moods (Lawlis 1988:
143). The implications of entrainment within medical ethnomusicology were
addressed by Martin Clayton (et al) in the article In Time with the Music: The
Concept of Entrainment and its Significance for Ethnomusicology (2005). The
term entrainment is most often associated with Western music therapy.
However, Clayton argues that entrainment is a universal principle in all music
healing practices, and therefore is an essential principle within indigenous
music healing. For example, African drumming is uniquely suited for
entrainment because of its repetitious nature. The repetitious nature of African
drumming can be used to entrain our bodily rhythms and put them in sync with
others. By exposing a patient to drumming rhythms that are slower paced than
his heart rate his blood pressure may be reduced (Nunez 2006: 13-14).
Musician and author Ted Gioias 2006 book, Healing Songs, gives a
detailed history of Western music therapy, indigenous music healing practices,
and alternative healing methods that incorporate methodologies from music
therapy and indigenous therapies. Gioia describes a dichotomy between music
healing traditions, which seem to be delineated along the same dichotomy of
Western music and world music; where Western music is appropriate for use in
Western music therapy, and all other musics can potentially be used in
alternative therapy (Gioia 2006: 107). Gioias book calls for more testing of

33

alternative music therapies including indigenous music healing practices upon

which medical decision-makers can incorporate these methods of healing within
Western music therapy (Gioia 2006: 156-157).
Music therapist Kristen Chase notes that indigenous music healing
practices have an overwhelming number of cultural factors involved religion,
psychology, biology, anthropology, etc (Chase 2003: 85). How does one
determine which factors or combinations affect healing? In The Oxford
Handbook of Medical Ethnomusicology published in 2008, Rosemans article,
A Fourfold Framework for Cross-cultural, Integrative Research On Music and
Medicine provides a clear starting point. She suggests approaching research
and field work from four main branches: musical, sociocultural, performative,
and biomedical (Roseman 2008: 20). In addition, the following sectors overlap
and influence the four main branches: gender, politics, economics, religion,
kinship, and subsistence techniques (see Figure 1).

FIGURE 1: Framework for analyzing indigenous healing practices

Fourfold Framework (Roseman 2008: 25)

34

Overlapping Sectors

(Roseman 2008: 29)

The Oxford Handbook of Medical Ethnomusicology includes twenty-one

articles written by leading scholars in ethnomusicology, anthropology, and
music therapy. Amrita Rose Brummel-Smiths article Music and the Meditative
Mind: Toward a Science of the Ineffable, explores the importance of intent
when aligning chakras with sound, and opens a dialogue between music
therapy and energy healing, which I will expound upon in chapter four of this
35

thesis. Also in 2008, University of Maryland egraduate May May Chiang wrote
a thesis titled, Research on Music and Healing in Ethnomusicology and Music
Therapy which contains a useful review of literature that overlaps both fields.
As alternative or indigenous healing practices have gained popularity in
the U.S. due to increasing publications, another field of therapy and medical
practice has emerged referred to as ICAM (integrative, complementary, and
alternative medicine) (Koen 2009: 4). For more information about ICAM see
Appendix 13. A seminal publication incorporating ICAM and medical
ethnomusicology is Koens 2009 book, Beyond the Roof of the World: Music,
Prayer, and Healing in the Pamir Mountains. Koen writes from a participantobserver perspective demonstrating a model for incorporating ICAM into
Western medical practice using the case of the people and culture of
Badakhshan Tajiksistan. He explores the role of prayer and faith within music
healing practices (Koen 2009: 6).
Western doctors and music therapists may also be reluctant to
incorporate indigenous music healing practices because the efficacy of these
practices stem, in part, from participants expectations of a positive outcome;
like a cultural placebo effect (Lounsberry 2001). Because the patients have
faith or belief in the music healing practice itself (or the power the ritual
represents), the brain triggers the needed chemicals (endorphins, etc) to
facilitate physical changes in the body (be it lowered blood pressure or
perceived less pain) (Becker 2004). American or western patients may not have
a belief in these alternative cultural practices and thus, their use may not

36

provide this placebo effect. Further, by showing how indigenous music healing
practices elicit healing effects in a quantitative manner, Western music
therapists will be more likely to convince health care decision makers and their
patients to incorporate these methods.

SUMMARY

Medical ethnomusicology studies health and illness through the lenses of

culture and music healing practices (Brown 2009). Most medical
ethnomusicology studies borrow theoretical perspectives from medical
anthropology (Roseman 1991, Wiley 2009). Ethnomedicine (studying health
and illness from the indigenous cultures point of view) dominated most early
medical ethnomusicology studies until the late twentieth century (Densmore
1927, Radin 1948, Nettle 1956, DeCarbo 1974, Chernoff 1979). By the 1990s
scholars began to interpret data from a biomedical viewpoint recording
quantifiable physical, mental, and spiritual changes from indigenous music
healing practices which helped raise awareness of these indigenous therapies
within Western medicine (Lawlis 1988, Lounsberry 2001, Maxfield 1990, Turner
1992).
Although Western classic art and folk music have dominated the field of
music therapy in the U.S. and Europe since the early 1900s, a few music
therapists began to promote multicultural music therapy (Boxill 1993, Moreno
1995, Toppozada 1995). By the 21st century academics in both

37

ethnomusicology and music therapy began using an interdisciplinary approach

incorporating theoretical perspectives from anthropology, ethnomusicology,
psychology, religion, medicine and science (Becker 2004, Gouk 2000, Koen
2003, 2008, 2009, Roseman 2008, Stige 2005). However, because
multicultural therapy is still regarded as a fringe discipline, health care
professionals need to better understand the efficacy of indigenous music
healing practices in order to properly embrace and incorporate them (Chase
2003, Fachner 2002, Gioia 2006, Pavlicevic 2004). The first step towards
implementing indigenous music healing practices is to understand the
underlying cultural values in various indigenous music healing practices, which
with little medical risk can have a significant impact to a patients total wellbeing.
In this thesis I focus on the underlying cultural values of connectivity and
balance, which manifest within Native American flute, West African drumming,
and toning to realign chakras as community relationships, environmental
awareness, and the whole self (body, mind, and emotions). I show it It is within
the expression of these cultural values that healing occurs. Thus, this thesis
provides music therapists with an understanding of the socio-cultural context of
each of these therapies as well as presenting quantitative scientific study
results and models for application, which supports the efficacy of Native
American flute, West African drumming, and toning to realign chakras. In
addition, this thesis shows how principles and processes based on the cultural

38

values of connectivity and balance transcend cultural boundaries and can be

applied to any music healing activity.
Chapter two begins with a brief history of the Native American flute and
its use as a healing instrument within Native American practices. Anecdotal
evidence supports the Native flutes use as a therapy tool used by Native
Americans and non-Natives for the past 25 years. An in-depth interview and
short biography of Tlingit-Haidi flutist Morgan Fawcett demonstrates how the
Native flute can help those suffering with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and Fetal
Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FAS/FASD) manage their symptoms and improve
their quality of life. A scientific study by Miller and Goss (2012), and self-study
show how playing and listening to the Native American flute can lower blood
pressure, pulse, and heart rate variability.
Chapter three considers how West African drumming practices in
particular support and enhance drum circle therapy. While drumming circles
are employed by Western music therapists within the U.S., understanding the
cultural values of connectivity and balance expressed within West African
drumming practice can help them implement more effective drumming for
healing. I draw on multiple scientific studies, as well as field experience, and
participation in a music therapist-led drum circle to support the potential effects
of West African drumming.
Chapter four elucidates how toning can realign chakras to promote
health and wellness. Chakras are elucidated within their original context in
India, via Hindu sacred texts. Further, the existence of chakras, and their use in

39

energy healing are explained through scientific theories such as Einsteins

unified field theory and quantum physics. A review of toning literature, selfpractice, and field experiences are interpreted through the cultural values of
connectivity and balance.
Chapter five shows that principles of connectivity and balance and
processes (such as intent, cognitive flexibility, and curative practices) transcend
cultural boundaries and can be applied to any music healing process. Several
methods of implementation and additional sources are suggested for Native
American flute, drumming circles in general, and toning to realign chakras.

40

CHAPTER 2
TAKE ONE FLUTE AND CALL ME IN THE MORNING:
NATIVE AMERICAN FLUTE AND HEALING

Although known primarily as a courting instrument, Native American flute

frequently provides therapeutic relief to players and listeners alike. Many
musicians, psychologists, therapists, and lay people use the Native American
flute to treat high blood pressure, post-traumatic stress disorder, grief,
depression, anxiety, and attention deficit disorder (DeMaria 2001: 25, Jones
2010, Metzger 2006: 144, Miller 2012, Rybak 2009, and Wiand 2001). This
chapter focuses on the use of Native American flute as a tool for improving
physical, mental, and emotional health in order to bring attention to the Native
American flutes cultural importance as a healing instrument and encourage
further dialogue between music therapy and medical ethnomusicology.
Much of this chapter sketches a biography of Tlingit-Haidi flutist Morgan
Fawcett. Through Fawcetts biography, interviews with other Native American
flutists, my self-experimentation, and anecdotal and scientific evidence I argue
that the cultural values of connectivity and balance manifest within the structure,
performance, and context of Native American flute music as reciprocity,
environmental imitation, and personal expression. It is through the practice of
connectivity and balance within Native American flute music that one
experiences healing effects. These cultural values are evident within the
structure of Native American flute music through the musical elements of pitch,
rhythm, timbre, and melody. This chapter presents several methods for
implementation of the Native American flute as physical, mental, and emotional
41

therapy, which I hope will provide alternatives for implementation of Native

American flute in Western music therapy in the U.S.
Although primarily known for its use as a Native courting instrument, a
means to move the emotions, significant evidence supports the use of Native
American flute for mental and physical healing as well. Three origin stories in
particular relay the use of the Native American flute as a tool for healing.
Kokopelli (the Anasazi flute player pictograph which originated in the southwest)
appears in the Emergence myth of the Mimbres Indians (New Mexico area) in
the form of a Locus. Towards the end of the story Kokopelli heals himself from
a stab wound by playing music on his flute (Joyce 1996: 32). The Tohono
Odham Nation (previously known as Papago located in southWestern Arizona)
has a story of a young man who lost his wife through infidelity. To relieve his
grief and depression he played a flute which soothed his broken heart (Joyce
1996: 87).
There is also a Comanche origin story about a husband and wife who
rode out to battle together. However, during the course of the battle the wife
was killed and every night the husband cried for his wife in his teepee. One day
he heard a beautiful sound which occurred when wind blew through holes a
woodpecker had drilled into an old cedar tree. The sound soothed his soul.
The spirit told him to take a branch and make a flute; then to go to his tent every
night and play the flute instead of crying. The spirit told him this flute playing
would be a blessing for him and his people. The man did what he was told and
he and his people were prosperous (Birdshead 2012: Interview). All three of

42

these stories support the Native American flutes use as a tool for physical,
mental, and emotional healing.
Some Native American tribes continue to use the Native flute for healing
purposes. Published academic sources also relay that the Apache, Kiowa, and
Iroquois use the Native American flute for healing and relaxation (Wilson 1994:
51, Burton 1998: 5, Conlon 1983: 198). However, it is difficult to find detailed
information about this use because of the sacred nature of healing ceremonies.
Comanche flutist and artist, Doc Tate Nevaquaya commented that most of
these healing flute songs died with their last player (Wilson 1994: 51). In
addition, much information about the Native American flutes use for healing
faded away because of the forced removal of Native American tribes, and laws
forbidding them from practicing their native music well into the 1960s (Crawford
2001: 3-4).
However, researchers report that Plains area tribes use the flute to
overcome sorrowand as an aid to meditation (Burton 1998: 198). In this
sense, the flute functions as a spiritual communicator to speak with the
godswhat we now call meditating, or altering consciousness, the ancient
Native American accomplished with his flute playing which helped him summon
spirits to ask for wisdom, blessing, or healing (Price 1990: 4). According to a
survey of World Music Traditions Report in 1983, Native Americans use music
(including the Native American flute) as therapy in North America (Boxill 1993:
400).

43

Tlinget-Haidi flutist Morgan Fawcett continues this practice of using

Native American flute to treat physical, mental, and emotional problems.
Morgan is Tlingit and of the Eagle Moiety5. He is Kaagwaantaan from the Box
House. His Tlingit name is Sheens and his English name is Morgan Fawcett.
Fawcetts early childhood in Juneau, Alaska was devoid of structure because of
drug and alcohol dependence in his home. As long as he got approval from his
father he could do whatever he wanted eat pancakes and ramen, hang
around downtown Juneau, and play video games (Harrison 2012: 13). Fawcett
experienced a drastic life change when he left Juneau to live with his adoptive
grandparents Sue and Roy Hempell in Oregon.
Suddenly he had an extremely structured household, his diet changed
from boxed food to food made from scratch, and he moved from a big city to a
small town. He had just left an abusive home and was sullen and depressed.
He usually relied on playing video games as an escape, so much so that he
was addicted to them. His grandmother thought it best that he not play video
games anymore so she destroyed them and also enrolled him in codependency counseling. These changes were very hard for a young
emotionally troubled pre-teen and he became increasingly angry and depressed
(Harrison 2012: 13). However, after a few weeks he began to adjust and then
something came into his life that would change it forever.
His family stopped at The End of the Trail Museum in the Redwood
National Park while on vacation. A museum worker let Fawcett play a Native

Tlingets are from the Pacific Northwest Coast of the United States. Tribal members
belong to one of two Moietys. Each Moiety is then divided into Houses.
5

44

American flute from their collection and assumed he was a longtime musician
after hearing him play only five minutes (Indian Health Board 2012). On the
familys return trip through the same park, Fawcetts great-grandfather Tommy
Joe Redmond gifted Fawcett this flute for his 14th birthday (Fawcett 2007: liner
notes).
As Fawcett played the Native American flute, he noticed that it had a
profound effect on his emotions. Fawcett says that, when I first started playing
the flute it was a relief. I played anytime I had a significant feeling (happy,
depressed, and angry) using the flute as a coping mechanism (Harrison 2012:
13). At this point Morgan had not yet been diagnosed with Fetal Alcohol
Spectrum Disorder (FASD), but he had poor memory and learning problems in
school which caused him a lot of frustration and stress (Indian Health Board
2012).
Most people with FASD look normal but are undiagnosed or often
misdiagnosed as ADHD, bi-polar, oppositional defiant, or conduct disorder
(Indian Health Board 2012). FASD describes a range of disabilities that can
occur as a result of maternal consumption of alcohol during pregnancy. Fetal
Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) is a diagnostic term that details four areas of criteria
which include central nervous system damage, growth deficiencies, facial
features, and functional deficiencies. A person diagnosed with FAS will deal
with FASDs their entire life (Fawcett 2012: Interview).
Fawcetts FASD symptoms are vast. He suffers from short-term memory
loss, ADHD, cognitive impairment, and sensitivity to light (Fawcett 2011: Video).

45

He experiences fatigue and delay in his muscles, and extreme susceptibility to

addiction (Keeker 2012). He also suffers from spina bifida, scholiosis, submucus cleft palate, and deformed hips. Fawcetts eyes focus at two separate
times, he has the cognitive skills of a four-year old, and the overall brain
development consisting of an eleven-year old (Fawcett 2012: Living with
FASD).
All of these symptoms are different types of disvalued states (physical,
mental, or emotional illness). Fawcett says, with FASD, you could have
ADHD; but instead of being on Ritalin, I play the flute (Indian Health Board
2012). The soothing notes and rhythmic playing of flute music helps some
people with FASD settle and regulate themselves to handle challenges that are
just minor hassles for those without FASD.
Because the Native American cultural values of connectivity and balance
stem from a basic belief in the combining of four aspects of reality: spirituality,
community, environment, and self (Portman 2006: 453), a disvalued state
occurs when there is disharmony between these elements (Portman 2006:
456). The Medicine Wheel is often used by tribes to depict connectivity visually
(see Appendix 2 for a picture of a medicine wheel). The Medicine Wheel is
represented in many tribes by a circle divided into four parts. The circle
symbolizes the interaction of all things. Each of the inner four parts
corresponds to directions, emotions, life cycles, and specific beliefs within each
tribe. Despite the uniqueness of individual tribes Medicine Wheels, many
agree it is each persons responsibility to keep themselves at equilibrium.

46

Sound (in the form of spoken prayers or chants, songs, and flute music) is often
used restore this balance (Portman 2006: 458).
Native American traditions frequently describe the creation of the world as
being sung into existence by sacred songs (Wiand 2001: 38). For example, in
the Hopi Flute Ceremony, reed flutes are played during a reenactment of
emergence which symbolizes creation and renewal (Payne 1993: 18). Sound,
in the form of prayers and music, is used to restore wholeness and balance
(Wiand 2001: 2).
The material and construction of Native American flutes forges a bond
between the maker and/or player and his environment. Native flutes are most
often made out of wood a living thing (Jones 2010: 38). Aromatic cedar (a
symbol for healing and renewal) is the most popular wood used (Popper 1997).
The material of the flute itself engages the players sense of touch and smell.
Wolfs Mourn (Native flute maker and player) - Every tree has a
soul, every soul a song. Every time you hold a piece of wood in
your hand, let the tree know you appreciate its gift. Gaze deep
into its grain, touch it, smell it, listen for a whisper of its song.
Give honor and thanks for the trees life and your skill to play the
wind song once more through its wood. (Herman 2004: 18)

The heart or center of the cedar is removed to make the flute, and the player
has the obligation to restore the heart of the cedar with his own heart
(Ashmore 2007: 7). Making and playing Native flute demonstrates the Native
American cultural value of reciprocity, much like Eastern Oklahoma tribes sing
the Garfish song as an offering to the fish before they catch them (Jackson
2002: 291). The cultural values of connectivity and balance are also evident

47

within the musical elements of pitch, rhythm, timbre, and melody in Native
American flute music

MUSICAL STRUCTURE

PITCH
The pitches played on Native American flutes can help restore balance
within our bodies. Many believe (energy healers in particular) the entire
universe is governed by vibrations (our bodies, environment, and the cosmos),
which exert frequencies (although not all of them are audible to the human ear).
For instance, Pythagoras believed each planet creates a specific frequency
determined by its revolution and velocity (Gioia 2006: 94). Based on Hindu
philosophy, many forms of energy healing use specific pitches (frequencies) to
realign chakras (energy centers in the etheric body see Chapter 4).
Similarly, some Native Americans believe that one can restore the haromny
(physical, mental, and emotional) in their life by re-aligning the frequencies of
our body with the environment and cosmos (Kahonrotern:ni 2011) through
playing Native flute music. For example, Sakoieta Widrick of the Mohawk Wolf
Clan (Onkwehonwe or Iroquois), asserts that all things in the universe vibrate
at their own individual frequency (Kahonrotern:ni 2011). Therefore, playing in
certain keys or sustaining certain notes can help one attain balance with the
universe. Widricks website lists body organs, planets, chakras, and bodily
functions along with labels of the frequency at which they vibrate (see Appendix

48

3). By playing or hearing pitches played on the Native American flute one can
realign their body rhythms (pulse and blood pressure).

RHYTHM
The rhythm of Native American flute music is often slow and/or irregular or
rubato (free flowing with no distinct consecutive beats). For example, of 50
Native American flute songs I sampled, 42 of them have a tempo slower than
80 beats per minute or no discernible rhythmic cycle (Appendix 4).
Consequently, listening to and/or playing the Native American flute can
significantly lower heart rate in many cases, as well as calm anxiety. Almost as
soon as Tlingit-Haidi flutist Morgan Fawcett began playing Native American
flute, he noticed changes in his ability to handle stress. When I play the flute, it
lowers my blood pressure and eases stress away, says Fawcett. For instance,
Fawcetts heart rate drops so low when he plays for concerts and workshops
that he must take breaks to keep from becoming too relaxed when performing
(Fawcett 2010: Interview).
As mentioned in the introduction, I take a significant amount of medication
for hypertension because of kidney disease. I performed an experiment to
discover whether or not playing Native flute would help lower my blood pressure
and allow me to lower my medication dosage. For thirty days I played the
Native flute for ten minutes per day. I took my blood pressure and pulse before
and after each playing session.

49

My results showed that playing Native American flute lowered my blood

pressure an average of eight points systolic and five points diastolic6 (from
152/95 to 144/89 on average). In comparison it takes me at least twenty to
thirty minutes exercising to achieve the same drop in blood pressure, which is
not always feasible because of energy and joint problems I have related to
lupus. Based on my experience I conclude that playing Native American flute
can be a realistic alternative for people who need to lower their blood pressure
but cannot always physically handle exercising.
In addition, Dr. Eric Miller (adjunct professor of music therapy at Montclair
State University) and Dr. Clint Goss (a recording artist, performer, and music
workshop facilitator with a PhD in computer science) recently conducted a pilot
study to measure the physiological effects of the Native American flute. They
chose fifteen Native American flute players from the 2009 Flute Haven Native
Flute School in Phoenixville, PA to participate. The subjects listened to three
pieces of music: Canyon People by R. Carlos Nakai (1993), Lost by Ball
(2002), and a cello composition Prayer for Compassion by Darling (2009), as
well as playing two Native flutes themselves (one low-pitched flute (between A3E5 or 220.0-329.6 Hz) and one high-pitched flute (between G4-E5 or 329.0659.3 Hz) (Miller 2012: 8-9).
Miller and Goss recorded subjects electroencephalographic brainwaves
(EEG), heart rate, electrodermographic activity (EDG), blood volume pulse
(BVP), and electromyogenic (EMG) activity (Miller 2012: 7). The results

Systolic is the pressure present in the veins while the heart is contracted. The diastolic
pressure is present when the heart relaxes in between beats.
6

50

showed that heart rate variability (HRV) increased significantly during flute
playing as opposed to just listening to flute music or the cello piece. Increased
heart rate variability is an integral part of treatment for clinical conditions such
post-traumatic stress syndrome (PTSD), asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD), recurrent abdominal pain, hypertension, anxiety, fibromyalgia,
and major depressive disorder (Miller 2012: 29). Therefore, playing and
listening to Native American flute not only lowers blood pressure and pulse, but
promotes a healthier heart function which is integral to overall health.

TIMBRE
Timbre, the quality of sound, of a Native American flute has also
been reported to help alleviate negative emotions. The timbres of Native
American flutes differ according to construction, materials, and players
individuality. However, because most Native flutes are made out of
wood they have a mellow, relaxed, and smooth timbre. Therefore, some
psychologists also use the Native American flute in their therapy
sessions with patients suffering from anxiety disorders.
Clinical psychologist and West Florida Adjunct Professor, Dr.
Michael B. DeMaria uses Native American flute on a consistent basis
with his clients. He says, The Native American flute is one of the most
effective instruments in soothing the listener and player, inducing altered
states of consciousness that help establish the relaxation response, and
helping individuals who have a difficult time accessing and expressing

51

their feelings (DeMaria 2001: 25). His website is listed in Appendix 10.
Tim Wind Walker Crawford (flute maker and player) also notes that
Native American flute music relaxes those suffering from posttraumatic
stress syndrome (Crawford 2001: 165).
Some people use the Native American flute music to help manage
feelings of grief and loss. For instance, Morgan Fawcetts Savannah
Song the eleventh track on his Ancestral Memories CD (2007) was very
comforting to me when I was dealing with the death of my Grandfather in
2012. It is played on an F-sharp flute made by Vance Pennington. It
sounds very mournful with fast pulsating vibrato7 although the tempo is
slow. He also employs bends8 on the end of most of the phrases. The
timbre of this flute is woody, almost as if you can hear the air moving
over the grains in the wood, and the piece is played at a soft to medium
volume. The slow tempo combined with the timbre of the flute soothed
my melancholy emotional state, and therefore helped me express and
release my grief (See Figure 2).

Vibrato is a Native flute ornamentation that is produced when the player uses the
speed of their breath to oscillate the pitch slightly above and below the fingered note
in alternation.
8 An ornamentation in Native flute playing when the player lets the breath die away
during the playing of a note to achieve a slight pitch and dynamic drop at the end of
the said note.
7

52

FIGRE 2: Transcription of Savannah Song Ancestral Memories (2007) Morgan

Fawcett composed by Morgan Fawcett

53

FIGURE 2 Continued:
Transcription of Savannah Song Ancestral Memories (2007) Morgan Fawcett

PITCH/SCALE

Pentatonic (five note scale)

The key of D major is used only

for ease of reading the
transcription.

ORNAMENTATIONS
The
marking represents an ornamentation called the flip, which
indicates for the player to raise and lower one or more fingers off the tone holes
quickly. The symbol is indicative of the relative pitch change during a flip
ornamentation.
As indicated above all long notes have vibrato, and all long notes end with a
bend (slight decay/descent) of volume and pitch).

TEMPO/METER
The tempo of this piece is 56 beats per minute. However, there is no set
rhythmic cycle meter. Eighth notes indicate faster notes, and the half notes
indicate longer notes held out anywhere from three to six beats. The bar lines
indicate phrases with plenty of time in between for a leisurely breath.

DYNAMICS
The entire song is played softly with occasional increase and decrease of
volume.

54

MUSICAL STRUCTURE - continued

MELODY
Melodies played on Native flutes can also affect ones mood. The
descending motion at the end of most phrases in, Savannah Song, evokes
relaxing imagery and can help soothe patients suffering from anxiety disorders
or post-traumatic stress syndrome (Figure 2). It is possible that descending
slow melodies help boost ones mood because they trigger serotonin release in
the brain. However, testing this is beyond the scope of this thesis. Of course,
not all Native American flute melodies are slow and pensive. Fawcett says his
style of playing depends on his mood. When he is happy he plays pieces that
have faster tempos and more disjunct (skipping) melodies, when he is sad he
plays slower pieces with more conjunct (step-wise) melodies (Fawcett 2012:
Interview).
An example of one of his joyful compositions is Children Dance, the
third track on his Tears of Our Fathers CD (2008). This piece is played on a
double E flute.9 Played at a loud volume, this piece is bouncy and exuberant
(about 110 beats per minute). He does not use one of the double chambers as
a drone, as is often done. Instead he creates different harmonies and uses
both chambers to facilitate the skipping melody. He uses a dog bark (or pop)10

A double flute has two adjacent air chambers which can be played at the same
time, usually with one chamber played as a drone.
10 Dog bark or pop is a Native flute ornamentation in which the player plays from a
lower note to a much higher note quickly and the high note is short and cut off, which
usually indicates the end of a phrase or song.
9

55

at the end of most phrases and uses no vibrato in Children Dance except for
on the occasional long note at the end of some of the phrases. The tempo,
skipping melody, and bright timbre of Children Dance is ideal for lifting one out
of a depressed mood.

PERFORMANCE

The performance of Native American flute does not have to be a highly

stylized craft like one hears from professional Native flute players such as
Tlignit-Haidi Morgan Fawcett, Aleut-Seminole Mary Youngblood, and NavajoUte R. Carlos Nakai. The ease with which one can learn to play the Native
American flute makes it even more valuable for healing. No special training is
needed. There are many resources (books, teachers, flute makers) readily
available for anyone interested. Playing the Native American flute provides a
safe and creative outlet for expressing emotions. While music education is not
referred to as music therapy, its therapeutic results cannot be ignored. While
students do not always have access to a public education music program,
Native American flute classes and workshops can equip students with an
alternate creative outlet for expression.
Besides Fawcetts three released CDs (all on his own label), Ancestral
Memories (2007), Tears of Our Fathers (2008), and Legacy (2010), he has
contributed greatly to awareness of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and Fetal Alcohol
Spectrum Disorders. In April of 2005, he began a non-profit foundation, One

56

Heart Creations, to raise awareness for FAS/FASD. Through this organization

Fawcett has traveled all over the US presenting workshops and concerts at
schools, community events, and hospitals. He teaches people how to use the
Native American flute to manage physical, emotional, and mental difficulties as
an alternative to drugs, alcohol, and video games. He has gifted over 650 flutes
to youth in the last four years (Fawcett 2005). Through his flute performances
Fawcett not only treats his own disvalued states, but allows others to
experience the healing effects of flute with him, which facilitates social unity and
affinity when he presents programs in Native American schools.
Another way the performance of Native American flute elicits healing
effects is through the simple act of breathing. Playing the Native American flute
requires an awareness of breath which relates to the wind and often symbolizes
a spirit. It is the wind which gives the flute its voice (Ashmore 2000: 9).
Neuroscientist and educator Alan Watson has shown that playing Native flute is
beneficial for those with childhood asthma (Watson 2009: 153).
Playing Native flute may also stimulate brain activity by increasing the
oxygen level in ones body which leads to better memory capacity and retrieval.
Fawcett noticed that in school he could retain and recall information better,
especially in the afternoon, when he played his Native American flute every day
during lunch (Harrison 2012: 13). In fact, he raised his grade point average
from a 1.57 at age thirteen to a 4.0 at age nineteen (Keeker 2012, Fawcett
2012: Living with FASD). Fawcett attributes his ability to function so well, even

57

with fetal alcohol syndrome disorders, to playing the Native American flute
(Fawcett 2012: Interview).
While there are composed pieces within the Native flute repertoire, the
final and essential aspect of performing Native flute is individual expression
through improvisation and ornamentation. It is through this freedom of selfdiscovery and proclamation that one finds balance in the world through sharing
a unique and valuable viewpoint. For instance, playing the Native American
flute helped Fawcett build up his self-esteem because he wrote his own music.
People enjoyed it and expressed appreciation for his playing. He said, That
experience helped shape my life and changed how I saw myself as a persona
part of a community (Fawcett 2012: Interview). The flute also helped him to
develop more meaningful relationships with other people and express himself
through photography, and, even more recently, through writing short stories and
poetry (Harrison 2012: 13).

CONTEXT

The context of Native American flute playing allows one to interact with
themselves, their environment, and their community. In solitary situations
Native flute music can help one express or experience emotions that otherwise
seem overwhelming. For instance, soon after the release of his first compact
disc, flute maker and player Tim Windwalker Crawford was contacted by a
flute dealer in Michigan, WI who sold his music to a customer. The customer

58

had recently lost a loved one. She relayed that the only way she could deal
with the overwhelming stress created by her loss was to sit in a darkened room,
on the floor, listening to her music of the Native American flute (Crawford 2001:
164).
In addition, when one is faced with a stressful situation playing flute can
help trigger physical changes in our bodies to calm us. For example, Fawcett
says that playing the Native American flute calms him and allows his brain to
operate more clearly so that he can communicate eloquently during his
presentations and concerts (Fawcett 2005). Fawcett says that it helps slow
down his brain and levels the chemicals in it so that he is clear and concise
(Harrison 2012: 14). In addition, hospice workers like Kay Metzger often employ
the Native American flute for pain management with terminally ill patients
(Metzger 2006: 144).
Some people have also used Native flute music to help hospital patients.
Flute player Crawford was contacted by the same flute dealer in Michigan, WI
again. The flute dealer sold Crawfords music to a woman whose son was
seriously injured in a car accident. When she played the CD for her son while
he was in the hospital his doctor was amazed at her sons reduced blood
pressure and reduced heart rate (Crawford 2001: 163).
Also noted by Crawford, neuroscientists believe that music can
strengthen and create new synaptic activity within the brain which can benefit
those with learning disabilities (Crawford 2001: 165). While this correlation
deserves more research and discussion it is beyond the scope of this thesis.

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However, many therapists who work with the learning disabled use the Native
American flute. In fact, Chris Ti Coom Flutes designs the Crane Flute Series
specifically for this purpose. The wood used for making Crane Flutes is blessed
in a pipe ceremony before being carved in order to dedicate the flute to the
specific healing goals of the owner. Many clients who purchase the Crane
Series Flutes use them in therapy programs with autistic and asthmatic children
and hospice work (Chris Ti Coom Flutes 2010).
One of the most popular trends in recent years is the formation of Native
flute circles. Participating in flute circles brings people together and creates a
spiritual bond. Flutes are played in many North American Indian tribes.
Therefore, opening flute circles to anyone interested appeals to the masses
without appropriating any particular ceremonies or rituals from specific tribes.
For example, musician and author Mary Jane Joness thesis indicates that
within many flute circles it is readily acceptable that flute playing is a spiritual
act, but leaving the individual to define that spirituality is considered the best
way to ensure that all feel comfortable and welcome in meetings (Jones 2010:
29). The flute circle context allows one to bond with others through a shared
activity although the significance of Native American flute music may differ from
individual to individual.
In Fawcetts case, playing Native American flute (along with relocating
with his Grandparents) encouraged him to learn more about his ancestral roots.
Fawcett comes from a long ancestral line of Matriarchs of Alaskan Royalty.
Fawcett is the grandson of Lillian Fawcett Marvin of Raven Nest House (Raven

60

Frog) and Harvey B Marvin Eagle Box House (Eagle Wolf), grandson of Mrs.
Katherine White, of the Wassketon Shark Clan (the first people of Juneau). His
other grandmother is Leona Bean, Eagle Wolf of Wrangle, AK, and he is the
great-great grandson of Aaron Bean Raven Devil Fish, (first people of Kake)
(the cover picture on the Ancestral Memories CD). His mother Valerie Fawcett
is full Tlingit and his father James Strong is Tlingit, leaving Morgan a Tlingit
(Fawcett 2007: CD liner notes).
By gaining a sense of belonging in his community and with the support of
family members, Fawcett became more interested in his Tlingit heritage. He
learned about Tlingit culture from conversations with elders and by listening to
the stories they share when the family gets together (Fawcett 2012: Interview).
Morgan says, Just because I wasnt raised in it doesnt mean that I dont have
those profound connectionsthose feelings of coming home, and being able to
identify those connections fills up that canyon of emptiness in my life (Harrison
2012:13). Native American flute can offer patients a way to create social and
spiritual community with others through flute circles, even if they do not come
from a Native American heritage. The creation of a spiritual and social bond
treats the root cause of disvalued states, and thus supports a more holistic and
healthy lifestyle.
Since the Native American flutes emergence into American popular
culture in the 1980s it has also been associated with energy healing and the
New Age Movement. One can go into any store in North America that sells
compact discs and find at least a few CDs labeled New Age that contain Native

61

American flute music. However, the integrity of the intent behind these
publications may not always coincide with Native American healing philosophy.
Therefore, when discussing the Native American flutes use inside and
outside Native culture, authenticity and intellectual property rights become
important issues to Native Americans, even more so when non-Native cultures
appropriate the Native American flute specifically for the purpose of music
healing therapy. As noted earlier, the lack of detailed information about Native
Americans use of the flute for healing is due, in part, to its sacred nature.
Is it appropriate for non-Native cultures to implement the Native
American flute for healing? In her article The Contemporary Native American
Flute: Bending or Breaking Tradition?, Ethnomusicologist and Native
American specialist Paula Conlon stipulates that Native American flutists such
as Doc Tate Nevaquaya and Kevin Locke have been generous in sharing their
knowledge of Native culture with Native and non-Native groups, but there was
never a question as to who was native and who was not (Conlon 2010: 25).
Ownership of Native American flute music does belong to Native Americans,
but many people, Native and non-Native, may find a sense of identity by
listening to and playing Native American flute music. Discovering the healing
nature of the Native American flute and incorporating it into your life and the
lives of others should be done with respect for the Native American culture,
which requires an effort to learn about Native American history, tradition, and
beliefs. Using the Native American flute for healing purposes with an effort to
respect its cultural heritage potentially educates the world about the importance

62

of Native American culture and the wisdom of healing held in these

communities.
Consequently, Morgan Fawcetts use of Native American flute to treat
disvalued states and bring attention to FAS/FASD while maintaining the
integrity and respect of his ancestry provides an excellent example of
implementation. In fact, in 2011, State Legislature granted Fawcett the 2011
NOFAS Leadership Award (NOFAS 2012). The National Organization on Fetal
Alcohol Syndrome (NOFAS) is the leading voice and resource for the Fetal
Alcohol Spectrum Disorders community. It was founded in 1990, and is the
only international non-profit organization committed solely to offering FASD
primary prevention, advocacy, and support (NOFAS Article 2012). Also in
2011, Fawcett was recognized by President Obama at the White House in
Washington D.C. as a Champion of Change for all his work to raise awareness
of FAS/FASD (The White House Blog). Morgan Fawcetts use of Native
American flute to manage physical, mental, and emotional difficulties provides
concrete evidence of how Native American flute music can be used to help
people achieve a holistic healthy lifestyle defined by connectivity and balance to
ones self, environment, and community.

SUMMARY

The Native American flute, while very important in Native American

culture as a courting instrument, also holds a significant place in Native healing

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traditions of the past and present. Native Americans worldview consists of a

four-fold framework, in which all parts influence and are influenced by each
other. In many tribes this philosophy is depicted by a medicine wheel. The
circle represents unity, equality, and connectivity. The inside of the circle is
divided into four sections representing different aspects of the environment,
humanity, and community (Dub 2006: 36, Portman 2006: 453, Rybak 2009:
336). Native American flutes and Native flute music mirror the different parts of
the Native American worldview. Native flutes and flute music provide a way for
the flute maker, player, and/or listener to treat disvalued states. These
disvalued states are caused by imbalance between the inner elements of the
medicine wheel which represent all the elements of life.
The flute itself represents nature and the environment because of its
source material (wood usually from cedar trees) (Jones 2010: 38, Portman
2006: 459, Rybak 2009: 335). The players breath represents wind and spirit.
The song played on the flute represents the players emotions and is a form of
communication directed towards family, community, ancestors, and the Great
Spirit (Dub 2007: 126, Jones 2010: 22, 27, Price 1990: 4). These
manifestations of connectivity and balance in Native American flute music can
lower blood pressure and pulse; alleviate negative emotions associated with
anger, stress, depression, and grief; and provide patients with a positive group
experience (flute circles) with which they can develop a sense of individuality
and belonging.

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Native American flute music treats the root cause of detachment and
disharmony, rather than treating symptoms alone. Bodily functions (like blood
pressure and heart rate) can be measured, recorded, and tangibly presented,
providing scientific validity that is often required of soft science for them to be
considered legitimate therapies. Bringing attention to successful
implementation of Native American flute as therapy, with careful
acknowledgement of the heritage associated with it, will supply medical
professionals with the hard data they require of therapies before these
techniques are accepted.
Music therapy practices throughout the rest of the world include the
neural, psychological, emotional, cognitive processes, socio-cultural dynamics,
spirituality, belief, and the metaphysical as central concerns that play critical
roles in achieving and maintaining health (Koen 2008: 7). Because this holistic
approach to healing is not yet a dominantly accepted practice in Western
medicine, the new sub field of medical ethnomusicology has an important role
in providing academic research and writing incorporating many and varied world
healing practices. Much like Native American flute, chapter three illuminates
how the underlying cultural values of connectivity and balance manifest within
West African drumming as collective participation, social unity, and equality.

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CHAPTER 3
THESE ARE DRUMS, THIS IS YOUR BRAIN ON DRUMS, ANY QUESTIONS?
WEST AFRICAN DRUMMING AND HEALING
For many years I have thought about the healing power of the
drum, and the philosophy I have come to is that the drum is a kind
of trinity. The body of the drum, which comes from a tree,
contains the living spirit of that tree. Great care is taken to make
sure that the wood of the drum is alive. And the same is true of
the skin; whether it is the tanned hide of a goat or a buffalo, it also
contains a spirit that is still alive. And when you join these two
spirits with that of the person playing the drum, the result is an
irresistible force, a trinity, a balance that gives the drum its healing
power Babatunde Olatunji. (Hart 1990: 214)

Nigerian drummer and virtuoso West African percussionist, Babatunde

Olatunji illustrates the underlying values of connectivity and balance within West
African drumming through the interaction of the drummer with the spirits of the
environment. He shares himself in the process, which extends to the
community in most West African contexts (Christopher 2006). As an alternative
or supplement to medical and psychological support, African drumming circles
are increasingly popular in community and music therapy contexts in the US.
However, if the cultural values of collective participation and equality that
underlie West African drumming were better understood by music therapists,
the medical community could implement its use in therapy more effectively
enabling participants relate to other people and develop a sense of belonging
and community identity, which contributes to holistic healing (Neher 1962: 152).
Belonging and identity enhance the patients physical health by decreasing
stress response in the body.

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African drummings interlocking facets, timbre, repetition, inner time, and

performance practice of collective participation, illustrate the African cultural
values of connectivity and balance (Chernoff 1979, Stone 2004).
Understanding how these cultural values expressed through African drumming
promote physical, mental, and emotional health can provide a clearer link
between quantifiable physical results and the aforementioned elements of
African drumming. Through self-study as a performer and patient, and
secondary scientific research, I show that participating in drum circles can alter
brain waves, body chemistry, blood pressure, and pulse which facilitate
increased immune function, focus, relaxation, and assists pain management.
African drumming also leads to greater group unity (Achterberg 1985, Bittman
2001, Janzen 1992, Maxfield 1999, Nunez 2006, and Redmond 1997).
To learn the practice and as a means to study my own physical
responses, I attended African Drumming classes at the University of Oklahoma
and hosted a drumming circle facilitated by board certified music therapist Todd
Balcom. The purpose of this research was to demonstrate how West African
drumming can be effectively implemented in community and music therapy
contexts, and to illustrate the underlying values of connectivity and balance
within West African drummings structure, performance, and context.
To encourage implementation of West African drumming as a viable
therapy in medicine and psychology, one must address the history of Western
hierarchical musical values. This discourse originated in the idea of orientalism,
a Western style for dominating, restructuring and having authority over the

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Orient, which stemmed from early 19th century colonialism (Said 1978: 3).
Colonialists viewed everything about Eastern and African cultures as inferior,
including their music. Thus, in the Western musical hierarchy harmony
(considered the pinnacle of Western music) resides at the top, melody
(associated with Asia) in the middle and rhythm (associated with Africa and
Native Americans) at the bottom (Sherinian 2010: Personal Communication).
The instruments associated with melody and rhythm in these
marginalized countries and the people who play them are sharply contrasted to
the Western instruments and musicians associated with harmony. Masculine,
civilized, and refined often describe melodic instruments; feminine, primal, and
in touch with the ecstatic frequently describe drums and other idiophones
(Gioia 2006: 74). Ted Gioia notes that many music therapists and music
therapy textbooks require that
The music therapy area be sound-proofed so that sounds
produced inside the room will not penetrate to the halls. This
admonition not only negates the sound of the music, its very
essence, but also delegitimizes the communal aspect that is such
a critical part of music-making in traditional cultures and, one
suspects a major contributor to its efficacy in healing in these
settings. For the music therapist, drums may be allowed, but
please dont play them too loudly. (Gioia 2006: 132)
In addition, many Western doctors and therapists view healing
associated with drums as shamanistic practices; while therapies administered
with instruments of higher frequencies and an emphasis on melody are seen as
legitimate music therapy practices because even though the age of colonialism
has passed the values of Western musical hierarchy linger (Gioia 2006: 107).
The assumption that drums are not melodic instruments reveals a major flaw in
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this world-view. African languages are tonal; inflections of pitch and timbre
delineate changes in meaning. African drumming imitates speech and each
drum is made with a specific timbre in mind (Chernoff 1979: 75). To help dispel
music therapys aversion to drumming, and encourage more effective
implementation of drumming circles in Western music therapy this chapter
shows how connectivity and balance are expressed within the structure,
performance, and context of West African drumming.

MUSICAL STRUCTURE
INTERLOCKING FACETS
In West African drumming ensembles each person plays a facet (short
motif or phrase) that interlocks with the other parts to create a polyrhythmic
composition (Stone 2005: 85). Facets allow each member to have self-identity
while simultaneously experiencing group unity. For example, I played a short
four beat phrase on my djun djun drum in my drumming class which locked with
the other medium range and higher parts over a span of 32 units (Example 1).
Because this was a class designed for students with no musical experience our
example of interlocking rhythms is quite simple compared to rhythms typically
played in West Africa. However, the basic principle of interlocking facets was
present. I felt a sense of autonomy by playing an individual part, but I also felt
like a part of something larger than myself by hearing how my facet fit into the
overall sound of the drumming ensemble.

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TABLE 1: Rhythm played in African Drumming Class

I = Improvisation

R = Rim stroke

Break Rhythm = only played by master drum to signal rhythm changes and endings.
Djembe pitches:
Y = open stroke (high pitch)
X = slap stroke (middle pitch)
0 = bass stroke (low pitch)

BREAK RHYTHM--------------------Feli/Kriti
(master drum)

Djembe

Y Y Y Y Y

Kenkeni
(baby)

Sangba
(dad)

Djun djun
(mom)

X X

X X

X X X X X
R

0 0 0 0 0

R
X

0
R

R
X

Each box represents one unit of time. This particular rhythmic cycle contains 32 units. The shading divides the units into
groups of four. The thick boxes divide the units into groups of 16.

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In addition, in West African drumming rhythms there is no inherent

downbeat or stressed beat (as in Western metrical concepts). The rhythm
defines itself by the relationships of each individual part to the others (Chernoff
1979: 51). This relational view of individual parts reflects the interface West
Africans perceive between each other within their communities. John Chernoff
says,
This may help explain why African drumming in particular is
helpful for mental, physical, and spiritual healing because of the
internalized rhythmic relationships, and because there is no
stressed beat it can accommodate more than one person at a
time and allow for individuality while still promoting solidarity and
unity. (Chernoff 1979: 51)
Music therapy resources and efficiency can benefit from West African
drummings ability to accommodate the therapeutic needs of more than one
patient at a time. Patients in the drumming circle can experience unity, while
individuals play facets within in the texture to express their individuality.
By experiencing individuality and belonging because of the faceting
within a drumming circle, participants negative thought processes and
perceptions change. For example, when I first began attending my drumming
class I felt isolated and unqualified because I was the only graduate student in
the class and I had never played an African drum before. However, by the end
of the first class I already felt more at ease with everyone around me and was
confident I could play my facet on my drum. I believe this is a direct result of
drumming with a group of people because we did not talk to each other or share
anything about ourselves. We just played drums together and that was enough
to make me feel a part of the group and be confident about the part I had to
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play. My mood, perception, and thought processes were always more positive
at the end of drumming class. I conclude that these mental and emotional
changes allowed physical changes, such as serotonin release to improve my
overall health.
One academic study in particular seems to correlate my theory by
purporting that West African drumming can affect brain and blood chemistry.
Neurologist Barry Bittman recorded changes in biochemistry through his 2001
study of The effects of group drumming on cortisol production and natural killer
cell activity. In his study, blood pressure and brain chemicals changed after
participants played music together. Bittman tested four drum circle groups,
each with different levels of interaction ranging from drumming with no
interaction to drumming with open communication between participants and
facilitator (Bittman 2001: 39). The group with the most communication between
participants and music therapist created space for individual expression and
group unity (Bittman 2001: 43). His results showed decreased stress response
in those drumming circle participants, which indicates changes in brain and
blood chemistry. These changes along with increase of natural killer cell
activity boost immune function (Bittman 2001: 43). From these results, I
surmise that transactional communication occurring within the music between
participants elicits healing effects, and not just the music itself.

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REPETITION
Repetition is another musical element of West African drumming, and
may promote changes in blood pressure and pulse. For example, in the
previously noted rhythm performed in my West African drumming class (Table 1
bottom four rows) each part, except for the master drum, produced an ostinato
(repeating) rhythm or time line. Every West African drumming performance
contains a time line of some sort usually played on a bell or with a shaker
(Stone 2004: 81). The time line highlights the rhythmic tension that
characterizes a particular beatthe power of cross-rhythms is magnified by
repetition (Chernoff 1979: 112). The repetition inherent in West African
drumming is a catalyst for changes in blood pressure and pulse.
Many music therapists use the law of entrainment to achieve changes in
blood pressure and pulse in their patients (Lawlis 1988:143). Entrainment
(discovered in 1665 by Dutch scientist Christian Huygens) states that if two
rhythms are nearly the same, and their sources are in close proximity, they will
always entrainnature is efficient and it takes less energy to pulse together
than in opposition (Balcom 2013, Goldman 2008: 14). Entrainment implies
synchronicity between two or more rhythms. Repetition is necessary to
produce synchronization, and West African drumming is uniquely suited for this
task.
As a result of entrainment from repetition, Hal Nunez suggested that
because the drum resonates and its skin and hollowness are analogical to the
ventricles and chambers of the heart, it has power to affect blood pressure and

73

pulse (Nunez 2006:13-14). I recorded my blood pressure and pulse before and
after each West African drumming class. Six of the ten sessions my blood
pressure lowered 3 to 4 points and my pulse rose 4 points. The other four
sessions my blood pressure rose 4 to 5 points and my pulse dropped 4 points.
The sessions that resulted in higher blood pressure were the days I had lupus
fares, which can contribute to high blood pressure.
While my self-study cannot be conclusive because of extraneous factors
such as carrying drums up and down the stairs before and after playing and my
medical condition, it does provide some insight and basis for further research
with a larger, more controlled group. Heart disease is the leading cause of
death in the U.S.; and high blood pressure is one contributing factor. Besides
diet and exercise, participation in drumming circles is a safe, medication free
therapy. Patients may not be able to completely substitute West African
drumming for the blood pressure medication, but it may allow them to lower
their dosage.

PITCH & TIMBRE

The pitch and timbre of West African drums may also affect brain wave
patterns, which can facilitate increased focus and attention span. The West
African environment provides wood and skin for drums. Makers carefully select
materials and craft each drum to resonate with certain pitch ranges and timbres,
which produces the inherent melodic and thickly textured sound of African
drumming circles (Chernoff 1979: 75, Stone 2005: 19). The varied pitches and

74

timbres also represent the West African cultures value of collective participation
and equality. Although many West African drums used in drumming circles in
the U.S. are produced from synthetic materials, makers strive to retain the
same pitch, timbre, and resonance of their West African counterparts (Nunez
2006:13-14).
The African drumming classes I attended used the djembe and djun djun
drums common in Guinea, West Africa. The goblet-shaped djembe produces
three distinct pitch ranges with a dry focused timbre that dissipates quickly. The
djun djun bass drum set includes three sizes: small kenkeni (the baby),
medium sangba (the daddy), and large djun djun (momma). These drums
are referred to as family unit, which illustrates the importance of familial and
community relationships in West Africa (Frazier 2010: Interview). Djun djun
drums are barrel-shaped with two heads. One head rests on the floor and the
other head is played with sticks. The djun djun bass drums (especially the
momma drum, which I played) deliver a dark booming timbre which resonates
longer than the djembes (see Appendix 5 for photographs of drums).
Before several of these drumming classes, I had lupus flares which
caused a headache and joint pain in my shoulders, back, hips, and knees.
After each of these drumming classes I felt refreshed, energized, and my joint
pain was significantly lower. The West African drumming sessions proved to be
effective pain management which lasted the rest of the day. My experience
seemed to correlate with other published studies about drumming and reduced
pain perception.

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Anthropologist Edith Turner and psychologist Andrew Neher (1962) both

ascertained that because mixed sounds (more than one frequency at a time)
transmit along more than one nerve pathway in the brain, drumming (which
contains many low frequencies or pitches) is more likely to transmit energy to
the brain than other stimuli (Turner 1992: 198). Melinda Maxfield, PhD
specialist in cross-cultural healthcare methodologies and researcher on the
physical effects of percussion agrees.
Because the auditory tracts of the ears pass directly into the
reticular activating system of the brain stem, which coordinates
sensory input, strong repetitive neuronal firing in the auditory
pathways and the cerebral cortex, such as would be experienced
from drums, can theoreticallyfilter out other stimuliincluding
pain (Maxfield 1994: 159).

Thus, incoming stimuli such as drumming override the pain signals coming from
other parts of the body. Therefore, the brain perceives less pain when
inundated with repetitive low-frequency (pitched) drumming.

PERFORMANCE
EXTENDED PLAYING SESSIONS
Because of the inherent repetition present in West African drumming,
most drumming experiences involve extended playing sessions. During my
fieldwork, playing sessions lasted anywhere from 5 to 20 minutes. I did not
experience any change of consciousness while drumming. However, I did
experience increased focus. Before one of my drumming classes I tried to
solve a personal problem, but I was so stressed out about other responsibilities

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related to work and school, I could not focus. During drumming class, I tried not
to think about anything but the facet I was playing and how it fit into the overall
composition. Then after a few minutes I did not even have to focus on that
action anymore, my hand and arms just continued to play without prompting
from my mind. We played for two 20 minute sessions that day. By the time I
got home from class (five minute drive from campus), I had easily come up with
a solution for my personal problem, as if it had just been waiting for me to clear
out all the other distracting thoughts. From this experience I conclude that
drumming for an extended playing time does help increase focus and provide
clarity of thought.
Several studies corroborate African drummings ability to increase focus.
One of the first medical studies published about African drumming explore how
the body enters a trance state. In 1961 psychologist Andrew Neher found that
Prolonged attention to rhythms increased the Alpha and Theta
brainwaves associated with deep states of relaxation or
meditation. Even so-called hyper vigilant individuals selected
for study because they could not achieve Alpha wave states
were shown to produce them during their first drumming session
after only twenty to thirty minutes. (Neher 1961: 449)
John Janzen, a medical and socio-cultural anthropologist, who studied healing
practices in Africa associated with Ngoma (a widespread form of ritual and
healing in Central and Southern Africa), theorized that brainwave
synchronization can be attained by the administration of repetitive music from
extended playing sessions (Janzen 1992: 127).
Additionally, in his 2006 dissertation Effects of Drumming on Anxiety in
Latino Male Youth, clinical psychologist and creator of the medicinal Drumming
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Praxis program in San Francisco Sal Nunez, confirmed that once both
hemispheres of the brain synchronize, participants experienced a sense of
clarity and heightened awareness which increased focus and attention span.
To achieve this synchronization, participants had to play for at least 20 minutes
(Nunez 2006: 66). The extended playing sessions due to repetition in West
African drumming can increase participants focus and attention span.
Therefore, extended drumming sessions, based on the West African
performance element of repetition, can benefit patients suffering from ADHD,
behavior disorders, and for those who experience brain fog or fuzzy thinking
because of medication side effects.

INNER TIME
Inner time is another shared experience that results from not only the
repetition common in West African drumming, but the solidarity and unity
experienced when each facet played fits perfectly into the overall rhythm or
groove of the group. There were times I experienced inner time playing with my
classmates in African drumming class. For example, sometimes during a
session I found myself having to count and pay attention in order to continue
playing my facet at the right time, otherwise it felt as if I had lost the beat.
Conversely, other times I felt as if I intuitively knew when and what to play
because all the other parts seemed so solid and tight. It was in these latter
sessions that I experienced inner time. Not only was the overall rhythmic
composition pleasing, but the silence or spaces created between the drumbeats

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produced a euphoric state (or high) for me. It was obvious all our parts were
interlocking precisely because there were no stray drumbeats in the silences. I
experienced a new level camaraderie and respect toward my classmates
because of this musical achievement, which also increased the bond I had
formed with my classmates.
Similarly, Sal Nunez found during his study of the effects of drumming on
Latino youth, that during extended playing sessions participants experience
inner time; where they encounter a flow or high that gave them a new
awareness of the event (Stone 2004: 89). This shared perspective creates
solidarity not only between the players, but also with the audience or community
at West African drumming events. In drumming therapy groups each
participant is both a participant and an audience member. Experiencing inner
time provides patients with a sense of accomplishment and helps them develop
a sense of community within a group.

CONTEXT
COLLECTIVE PARTICIPATION
The most important aesthetic value in West Africa is collective
participation, without it there is no meaning (Chernoff 1979: 23). Involvement
in the music making process requires participation from performers and the
audience. Audience members participate through clapping, dancing and
singing. Therefore, anyone present during African drumming becomes part of
the performance itself. West African drumming derives its correlation to

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healing, at least in part from its ability to involve the entire community in the
medical process (Gioia 2006: 33). Therefore, the practice of collective
participation can provide a sense of belonging, one of humanitys most basic
needs. Psychological anguish can affect the body physically; therefore, finding
a group of people with whom one can create strong relationships can be
integral in maintaining good health.
I had a mixed experience of belonging in my West African drumming
class. Out of the 12 students enrolled 4 were apathetic in their attendance and
participation. These students often quit playing in the middle of a session for no
apparent reason, and they often texted while the teacher spoke. This greatly
reduced the feeling of belonging on days they were present. During the three
classes when these students were absent, playing sessions lasted much
longer, I experienced inner time more often, and they were three of the
sessions where my recorded blood pressure was lower at the end of class.
The healing force of African drumming stems from two relational elements: one
stretching out into the community and surrounding environment and the other
reaching into the body itself (Gioia: 2006: 42). These apathetic students
exemplify the Westerners problem of not recognizing the meaning and
purpose of ones relationship to the music as an event (Chernoff 1979:33). To
receive the full benefits of African drumming a participant needs to understand
the respect many Africans hold for each other and their value of community
partnership, which requires consistent committed participation (Chernoff 1979:
35).

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Two scientific studies also support the idea that African drummings
collective participation can help patients develop a sense of belonging and
group identity. Nunez drum circle participants reported feeling good, relaxed,
tranquil, and at peace after the African drumming sessions (Nunez 2006: 113).
The Western world often views drumming as barbaric and disruptive to group
cohesion (Gioia 2006:161). However, social practices around the world and
particularly in Africa reveal that social integration is promoted by highly
rhythmic soundsthe drums throbbing heart-beat sound attracts and unifies
(Gioia 2006:162).
In addition, neurologist Barry Bittmans 2001 study revealed that
increased immune function was higher in groups that interacted with each other
verbally, visually, and physically, than in groups which only played with no
interpersonal communication (Bittman 2001: 45). In this study, four groups were
tested: the first with 50% instruction and 50% participation, the second with
20% instruction and 80% participation, the third with 100% drumming, and the
fourth led by a music therapist that emphasized camaraderie, group
acceptance, light-hearted participation, and non-judgmental performance. The
latter experienced the most change in classic stress response which resulted
in increased immune function (Bittman 2001: 46). Although all four groups
drummed together, a facilitated group achieved better physical responses than
the other three groups. The facilitator in the fourth group encouraged a specific
intent for the drumming session one of interaction and camaraderie. Because

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the participants held this intention in mind, I believe their musical

communication created stronger physical changes.
Increased immune function is valuable not only for healthy individuals but
especially for those who have chronic diseases such as HIV/AIDS, lupus, and
various forms of cancer. Participating in drumming circles can help these
individuals maintain their health without extra medication, and provide important
personal interaction to counteract depression, a frequent side effect of chronic
disease.
Collective participation can also allow patients to learn to trust each
other. An example of this occurred during the drum circle session I attended
led by licensed music therapist Todd Balcom. He began our session by asking
us to stand in a close circle facing inward. We extended our left hand palm up
in front of us and placed an egg-shaped shaker in the palm of our left hand. In
synchronization, we picked up the shaker with our right hands and placed the
shaker into the palm of the person on our right. We continued this motion and
gradually increased the speed.
The sounds of the shakers moving created a cyclical rhythm pattern.
Next, Todd asked us to close our eyes and continue passing the shakers with
one exception: if anyone dropped a shaker they could not pick it up, they had to
keep their hand motions going even if there was no shaker to pass. Soon after
we closed our eyes, there were intermittent sounds of shakers hitting the
ground followed by laughter. Finally, all of the shakers had fallen and we

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continued the hand motions, only now instead of the shakers creating the
rhythm, the sound of our hands clapping together sustained the rhythm.
After this exercise, Balcom led us in a discussion about the musical and
non-musical things that occurred during the exercise. One participant said, It
was hard to continue the actions once I dropped the egg shaker. I wanted to
stop and pick it up. Balcom remarked that his favorite thing about this exercise
was that it teaches the drum circle participants that it is okay to make mistakes
(Balcom 2013: Drum Circle). The coordinated cooperation required for this
exercise incorporated the cultural value of connectivity as group trust. Each of
us had to trust that our neighbors hand would be there even though our eyes
were shut. Within this context a participant learned to shift her normal thinking
pattern of fault or regret and thus react differently. Her changed reaction led
her to feel a sense of belonging and community even when she did not perform
as well as she expected or hoped (Garner 2013: Questionnaire).

DIVERSITY
Many West Africans acknowledge and value heterogeneous sound
within drum, dance, and song. This is evident in the different shapes and
timbres of the drums played in my African drumming class, as well as in the
drumming therapy session I hosted. Besides the djembe and djun djun drums
described earlier, my drumming class also used a feli and kriti. The instructor
and master drummer Damon Frazier improvised over the students timeline to
produce the cross-rhythmic patterns and tension (see Table 1 master drum first

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line). Frazier played a goblet-shaped drum called a feli (basically a djembe)

with oval pieces of metal with rings (called csing csing) fastened to the rim of
the drum. The csing csing provided a snare-like timbre and increased the
drums sustain. Damon also played the kriti with sticks. It is made out of a
hollowed piece of wood with three different length slits cut into it that produced
at least three different pitch ranges.
The master djembe with csing csing generated a sharp tinny timbre with
a higher pitch and longer resonance than the students djembes. The kriti
supplied a bright, cutting timbre to the ensemble. These improvisational
instruments produce a polyrhythmic texture against the constant ostinato of the
other djembes and djun djuns. Therapists can utilize this timbral diversity to
help incorporate individual expression and group cohesion at the same time.

SUMMARY
Drumming circles in West Africa can facilitate personal and group
transformation from a disvalued state to a holistically healthy state through
incorporation of West African cultural values of collective participation and
equality. West African dance, drum, and song do not exist as separate
mediums from each other (Stone 2005: 15). They are integrated into their daily
practices as much as breathing, sleeping, and eating. Every work task, art
form, and even recreation, reflect the West African cultural values of
connectivity and balance (Chernoff 1979: 154, Stone 2005: 39).

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West African drummings interlocking facets and collective participation

demonstrates a perceived association between group members. Each
participant in the West African drumming circle has a short repetitive facet that
interlocks with everyone elses part creating a rich polyrhythmic texture, in
which no one part is more important than another (Stone 2005: 28-30). This
cooperative composition allows for equality and personal expression. Each
participant has a significant and personal contribution, when combined together
creates a composition that is larger than the sum of its parts (Chernoff 1979:
159). Because African drumming circles allow for the equal participation of all
community members, participants can experience healing transformation
through the cooperative effort of all the members of the community (Chernoff
1979: 51).
This perceived bond between group members can alter body chemistry
and brain chemicals resulting in increased immune function (Bittman 2001,
Chernoff 1979). West African drummings collective participation also
encourages equality and a sense of belonging where each persons individual
playing is important and part of the whole (Gioia 2006, Nunez 2006). Results
from many studies show that the timbre of African drumming can affect brain
waves. Brain wave changes signal changes in consciousness, reduce pain
perception, and increase focus and attention span (Neher 1061, Turner 1992,
Nunez 2006). The variations of timbres available from a variety of drums can
also facilitate individual identity and group affinity (Turner 1992).

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Additionally, African drummings repetitious nature can change blood

pressure and pulse by altering the players internal biological rhythms (Lawlis
1988, Stone 2004, Nunez 2006). Repetition in African drumming also leads to
extended playing sessions. Extended playing sessions can increase focus and
promote unity through the shared experience of inner time (Janzen 1992,
Nunez 2006). These quantifiable mental and physical outcomes demonstrate
the viability of African drumming as an effective therapy for physical, mental and
emotional disvalued states. In addition, experiencing music together, such as in
African drumming circles, reminds us that we all have something unique and
valuable to contribute to this world.
Chapter four continues with the theme of connectivity and balance, but
moves the focus from the outward external communal body the internal
individual body by examining how toning to realign chakras can promote
connectivity and balance within a single person. In this sense the community
becomes the person, and the individual members become the different aspects
of a person: body, mind, and emotions.

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CHAPTER 4:
EXPLORING THE PHENOMONOLOGY OF SELF:
TONING TO REALIGN CHAKRAS
Know thyself. This phrase permeates history through philosophers,
writers, scientists, and scholars since its inscription in the outer court of the
Temple of Apollo at Delphi in 330 B.C. As with most alternative healing
methods, finding healing or wholeness requires one to know themselves. This
implies not only understanding how our physical body works, but how our
thoughts and emotions affect the body. Knowing how our relationships with
external stimuli (people, animals, and environment) affect the body is best
described as connected knowing (Wright 2000: 1).
The term chakra is often associated with New Age philosophy in the
U.S.. However, the chakra system originates from Hindu religion and yogic
philosophy, particularly those Hindu treatises which focus on the practice of
tantric yoga. Chakra means wheel in Sanskrit. There are seven main chakras
that start at the base of the spine and proceed upward to the top of the head.
Chakras are described as wheel-like spinning vortexes, points of intersection
between various planes - physical, emotional, mental and spiritual (Avalon
1974: 2-3, Judith 1988: 13, Leadbeater 1927: 4-5). They are also vortices of
vibration or the junction points of energy meridians (Goldman 2005: ix).
Energy flows through our bodies along pathways similar to the central nervous
system called nadis and if any of the seven chakras are too open or closed,
there is a disruption of energy. This energy blockage manifests as a disvalued

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state (Avalon 1974: 73-74, Judith 1988: 16, Leadbeater 1927: 41, Parkhurst
1998: 34).
The chakra system provides a bridge between the physical self and the
etheric self. The etheric self refers to a field of energy that exists beyond the
physical matter of the human body. The etheric body is often referred to as an
aura, and this etheric body or aura can provide vital information such as where
a disvalued state may emanate from (Brennan 1998: 32, Hunt 1996:24, 27). It
is the belief of most students of chakra study that all life contains energyit is
in us and around us at all times the etheric self exerts energy just like our
physical body but is not visible to most people. Not all forms of energy are
visible to the physical eye (Parkhurst 1998: 24, Scelba 1998: 6). For example,
the wind is a very powerful source of energy but it cannot be seen although it
can be measured, felt, and exert force on objects we can see. The etheric
body is similar in the way that it exerts force on physical systems in our body.
Some scientists have been able to measure the electromagnetic activity
believed to be our etheric body it too can be measured, felt, and exert force
(Goldman 2008: 96, Hunt 1996: 15, 20, 22). Our physical bodies are the
densest form of our energy and therefore visible to everyone. The other more
subtle energy form (our etheric body) that surrounds our physical bodies is not
visible to most people. The chakras described above are similar in density to
the etheric or auric body. While chakras affect physical systems (namely the
nervous system and adrenal glands) they do so by transferring energy from

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their less dense energy field to the physical bodys more dense energy field
(Leadbeater 1972: 49, Parkhurst 1998: 29, Mercier 2007: 8).
Because each chakra resides in close proximity to major organs, nerve
ganglia, and endocrine glands within the body, one can treat a disvalued state
by balancing or aligning the chakras related to the patients distinct problem
whether it is physical, mental, or emotional. By using sounds, colors, elements,
or yoga positions that correspond to each of the seven chakras one can
unblock the chakras as needed (Judith 1988: 24). Focusing on the chakras
while participating in a physical activity like toning or yoga, allows the patient to
recognize the link between physical action and emotional or mental health.
American medical practices and music therapy tend to treat disvalued
states and symptoms of disvalued states instead of the core problem (American
Music Therapy Association 2013). Perhaps because the core problem behind
many disvalued states are often mental or emotional obstructions or
disproportion. While Western medicine and music therapy have begun to
incorporate some indigenous therapies, energy healing like toning to realign
chakras can provide a way for patients to develop connected knowing.
Understanding how their emotions and thought processes affect their physical
and mental well-being can help patients pinpoint areas of discrepancies and
imbalance to alleviate disvalued states.
Understanding the physiology of our bodies can provide valuable
information, but to understand how our mind (consciousness or thought
processes), emotions, and body interact with each other we must find a system

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that can incorporate internal connected knowing. The Indian chakra system
can facilitate an understanding of how our body, mind, and emotions transact
with each other. When the chakras are understood, opened, and connected
together we have bridged the gulf between matter and consciousness,
understanding that we, ourselves, are the bridge (Judith 1988: 4). Realigning
chakras is about understanding how our consciousness can affect matter. In
this case, the matter involves bodily functions such as pulse, blood pressure,
and brain and blood chemistry that affect our overall health.
This chapter focuses on using toning to realign chakras. Toning refers to
any sound that the human body can make with the intention of restoring
balance to ones system. A patient can tone for themselves or have a
practitioner tone for them. Toning is not singing. There is no aesthetic value
attached to the sounds created, rather the goal is to create the right vibration
(frequency and resonance), and vocable to affect the chakra with which one is
working. Sometimes this manifests as making vowels sounds, and sometimes
it manifests as inhalations and exhalations with consonant beginnings and
endings.
Focusing on ones chakras and participating in a physical activity, such
as toning or yoga, allows the patient to make an association between physical
action and emotional or mental health. The relationship between breathing in
yoga and toning is similar as well. Therefore, to gain a better understanding of
chakras and their origins in yogic practices, I studied hatha yoga with Ted Cox
& Martha McQuaid at Spirit House Yoga in Oklahoma City, OK. To experience

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how toning works to realign chakras and thus treat the core problem of
disconnect and imbalance, I attended toning sessions conducted by energy
healer Joious Melody in Oklahoma City, OK. I practiced toning by myself with
the help of toning literature and CDs, and instructions from energy healers
Joious Melodi and Malabika Shaw (owner of Vision Holistic in Newton, MA). I
argue that cultural values of connectivity and balance manifest within the
structure, performance, and context of toning as a reflection of connected
knowing, a mental awareness and realization of ones whole self (body, mind,
and emotions), and the relationship between these parts. Through my field
experiences and secondary scientific and anecdotal research I focus on how
frequency, resonance, and conscious intent can affect the physical, mental, and
emotional body and promote connected knowing to allow the patient to address
the core problems of disconnect and imbalance.
Just like the practice of yoga in America is often extracted from its Hindu
roots, toning to realign chakras can be abstracted from its religious roots as
long as the principles of connectivity and balance remain core to the practice.
Toning requires no religious study and employs no foreign languagesonly
seed vowel sounds are used (see Table 5). Vowel sounds hold no offensive or
obtrusive suggestions to the commoner Westerner (Goldman 2005: 13, 98). In
fact, Western music therapists already employ methods in which elements of
music (rhythm, pitch, and timbre) affect physical cycles in the body such as
pulse, blood pressure, and brain chemistry. For example, music therapists use

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music with a slow rhythmic pulse to help lower patients pulse and blood
pressure.

THE CHAKRAS

While there are more than just seven chakras (many minor ones are
recognized as well) this chapter will focus on the seven main chakras (Maxwell
2009: 808, Starcher 1999: 133). The first chakra, Muladhara (root), located at
the perineum (base of the spine) is associated with survival, grounding,
firmness, and stability and is in close proximity to sciatic nerve. The sciatic
nerve basically functions as a root for the entire nervous system (Catalfo 2006:
61, Judith 1988: 60-62, Maxwell 2009: 810, Parkhurst 1998: 95, Rippentrop
2009: 233, Schneider 2004: 26, Starcher 1999: 141, Wauters 2010: 31). The
second chakra, Svadhisthana (sweetness), located in the lower abdomen in
close proximity to the sacral vertebrae and sacral plexus (which hooks into the
sciatic nerve), is associated with circulation, urinary elimination, sexuality, and
reproduction (Catalfo 2006: 62, Judith 1988: 112, 117, Maxwell 2009: 810,
Rippentrop 2009: 231, Schneider 2004: 29, Starcher 1999: 149, Wauters 2010:
45).
The third chakra, Manipura (lustrous gem), located in the solar plexus
over the adrenal glands is associated with the power of life, vitality, and
equilibrium (Catalfo 2006: 62, Leadbeater 1927: 20, Maxwell 2009: 810,
Parkhurst 1998: 72, Rippentrop 2009: 231, Schneider 2004: 31, Starcher 1999:

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159, Wauters 2010: 59. Some regard the third chakra as the main nadi
(channels through which energy flows to and from the chakras in the body).
Therefore, to have an open and healthy third chakra one must do the following:
Break the cycle of fear and withdrawalby reconnecting with the
self in a loving and accepting way. If we are not in touch with our
ground, our bodies, our passions and pleasures, desires and
unions, we have no fuel for our fire (the third chakra). If we do not
love ourselves, giving ourselves room to breathe, to explore, to
make mistakes, then we have no air for the fire to burn. (Judith
1988: 166, 172, 176)
The representation of the chakras unity illustrates the very definition of
connected knowing. For our bodies to operate in a healthy balanced manner
one must pay attention to emotions, thoughts, and physical activities as a whole
unit. It follows, therefore, that one must take into account each of these aspects
of the self as a whole when diagnosing and treating disvalued states.
The fourth chakra, Anahata (unstruck), located at the heart, is associated
with compassion and love. The chakras are often divided into upper and lower
chakras. Lower chakras are related to physical things and upper chakras are
related to spiritual things like thought and consciousness. The heart chakra
divides the upper and lower chakras and belongs to both (Catalfo 2006: 63,
Maxwell 2009: 810, Rippentrop 2009: 231, Schneider 2004: 37, Starcher 1999:
171, Wauters 2010: 73. The task of chakra four is to integrate and balance the
realms of mind and body; in so doing, it brings a radiant sense of wholeness to
the entire organism and realization that we are an exquisite interpenetration of
both spirit and matter (Judith 1988: 212). The theme of connectivity and
balance continues to permeate the philosophy behind the chakra system and

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equips one with the ability to lead a healthy and whole life without being
completely dependent on others to control ones course of treatment.
Chakra five, Visuddha (purification), located near the throat, is
associated with communication, creativity, sound, vibration, and self-expression
(Catalfo 2006: 64, Maxwell 2009: 810, Mercier 2007: 78, Rippentrop 2009: 165166, Schneider 2004: 39, Starcher 1999: 180, Wauters 2010: 87). Part of
opening this chakra requires purification (a release of all emotions and thoughts
usually with sound (speaking, singing, or toning). Everything in nature has a
vibration and sound can change that vibration, sound can even change the
cellular structure of matter (Judith 1988: 266, Jenny 1967: 12, 13, 133).
Therefore, using sound to release ones repressed thoughts and emotions can
unblock chakras and allow energy to flow through the body as is necessary to
maintain health.
Chakra six Anja (to know or perceive), located at the center of the head
between the eyes close to the pineal gland influences endocrine and central
nervous systems. The Anja chakra is associated with the third eye an etheric
organ of psychic perception (Catalfo 2006: 65, Judith 1988: 316,319, Maxwell
2009: 810, Rippentrop 2009: 231, Schneider 2004: 45, Starcher 1999: 190,
Wauters 2010: 101). Chakra seven, Sahasrara (thousand fold), located at the
top of the head, is associated with consciousness , thought processes, and
spirituality (Catalfo 2006: 66, Judith 1988: 368, Maxwell 2009: 810, Rippentrop
2009: 233, Schneider 2004: 49, Starcher 1999: 199, Wauters 2010: 115).

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Besides Hinduism, the idea of energy centers within the body are found
in various religions and philosophies, for example, the Indian (Asiatic) Shastra
and American-Indian Maya scripture of the Zunis called the Popul Vuh (Avalon
1974: 3). However, the term chakra and most of the information circulating in
the U.S. today about chakras has its origins in Hinduism. The Vedas (sacred
Sanskrit texts dated as early as 2000 BC, comprised of four books: Rgveda,
Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda) discuss chakras as one of the official
items Vishnu (a major Indian male deity) held in his arms as he descended to
earth (Griffith 1899: 309, Judith 1988: 9).
Most specifically the chakras and their use as meditation centers are
contained in the sixth chapter of Shritattvachintamani, titled Chat-chakranirupani (Description of and Investigation into the Six Bodily Centers) written by
Indian yogi Tantrik Purnananda Syami in 1577 (Avalon 1924: v,vii). Chatchakra-Nirupani was translated into English by K. Narayanaswami Aiyar and
published with comments by Arthur Avalon in 1924 (Leadbeater 1927: 95). This
tantric yoga system teaches how to harness energies that exist within and
without the human body to attain pureness in all aspects of being. Through
conscious control of mind and emotions one also becomes enlightened
physically and spiritually (Avalon 1924: 183, 186, Leadbeater 1927: 115,
Mercier 2007: 22-23).

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CHAKRAS AND YOGA

Many forms of meditation around the world incorporate the idea of

chakras to facilitate connected knowing understanding the body, mind, and
emotions as a whole. The Western view of yoga tends to emphasize physical
fitness (McQuaid 2012: Interview). However, the word yoga itself means
balance. Yoga practitioner Martha McQuaid says that, Yoga is intended to
tone the mind and emotions as well as the body (McQuaid 2012: Interview).
The Brahma Yogatattva Upanishads from the Vedic texts were adapted in
Tibetan Buddhisms Vajrayana theory. This theory states that through
meditation oneness can be obtained in one lifetime (Mercier 2007: 22-23). In
addition, psychotherapist and psychiatrist Carl Jung promoted the Western
understanding of kundalini (a type of yoga) as a way to develop higher
consciousness (Mercier 2007: 24).
Yogas asanas (poses) are, in fact, designed to activate and balance the
chakras. Many people report feeling a rush of emotion during certain poses
(Catalfo 2006: 63). On November 21, 2012, I participated in a private yoga
session with Martha McQuaid, a yoga professor and professional Western
classical musician. The session focused on two or three poses related to each
chakra. We started with Muladhara (first chakra) and worked our way up to
Sahasrara (seventh chakra) (see Appendix 6 for example of asanas related to
each chakra). At first, it seemed just like every other yoga class I had attended.
The stretching poses were relaxing, the hero and warrior poses (knee bends)

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worked my leg muscles hard, but then we did back bends to open up Manipura
(the fourth chakra located near the heart). These poses were very
uncomfortable for me. Although the stretch felt good, I felt extremely exposed
and vulnerable. When I mentioned this to my instructor Martha McQuaid, she
said, Part of yoga is allowing yourself to be uncomfortable and stay in the
pose (McQuaid 2012). This struck a chord with me because I recently started
psychotherapy, which has also required me to experience uncomfortable
emotions I would rather ignore. The experience of allowing myself to be
uncomfortable in some yoga poses, yet still hold them, gave me courage to
allow myself to experience uncomfortable emotions instead of avoiding or
repressing them. Yoga focused on the chakras provided a mental link for me
between physical action and emotional health. I realized that if I could feel safe
being uncomfortable physically, I could be safe being uncomfortable
emotionally. I trusted the potential benefits of connectivity between my
physical, mental, and emotional processes.
Another example of connective knowing occurred Saturday September
16, 2012, during my beginning yoga class. I experienced frustration when
trying to perform a deep knee bend against the wall using a block. I was so
frustrated I almost started crying. I could hold the pose just fine when I
performed the deep knee bend away from the wall using my own balance.
Later when I was writing my field notes, I recalled feeling scared that I would
hurt my knee because I did not trust that the wall and block would hold me up.
After realizing why I felt frustrated and upset, I recognized a parallel in my

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emotional life with my physical experience in yoga. I have a hard time trusting
others because I fear emotional hurt, so I often do things for myself to avoid
trusting others. However, by practicing yoga my physical body was able to help
my mind recognize an emotional problem. It is this kind of experience that
leads to connected knowing living with a consciousness that recognizes our
physical, mental, and emotional parts as a whole, and the importance of being
in trusting communities, relationships with others, and ones self.
These experiences suggest there may be a correlation between yoga,
chakras, and emotional health. Western music therapy is mostly based upon
psychological effects of music that, in turn, elicit physical changes (Leeds 2010:
162). By showing music therapists how toning to realign chakras develops
connected knowing (understanding how ones thought processes and emotions
physically affect the body) this chapter provides a model and modes of
implementation for music therapists to incorporate into their practices. But
before the structure, performance, and context of toning is explained, I present
evidence from scientific studies that explain and demonstrate the existence of
the etheric body and chakras. These scientific studies are important because
many music therapy programs have to be approved by a board of directors who
require scientific data to support the efficacy of the proposed therapy.

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THE SCIENCE BEHIND CHAKRAS

To date etheric bodies and chakras have been photographed, recorded

electromagnetically, and explained through proven scientific theories such as
Einsteins unified field theory (Goldman 2005: 28, Judith 1988: 13, Hunt 1996:
41-43, 46-47). The etheric body (sometimes referred to as the subtle energy
field or aura) is important because chakras reside in the same energy space.
This will be further explained through the following scientific studies. Charles
Webster Leadbeater, a theosophist and author of the 1927 book The Chakras,
first developed the idea that the etheric body and chakras can be seen by a
clairvoyant (Mercier 2007: 26-27). In 1939, Russian electrical engineers
Semyon and Valentina Kirlian developed pictures of auras by using
photographic film placed on top of a conducting plate while another conductor
was attached to the object to be photographed (hand, leaf, etc). Next, they
exposed both conductors to a high-frequency electrical field which allowed the
film to capture the shadow of the object as well as a glow surrounding the
object itself (See Appendix 7). While many parapsychologists and most energy
healers (toning for example) maintain that the glow surrounding the shadow is a
picture of the etheric body or subtle energy field (aura), other scientists argue
that there are too many factors such as moisture in the object itself, moisture in
the air, and negative ions present that may skew these results (Goldman 2005:
28, Judith 1988: 13). However, the results still show that something causes a

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glow to be photographed extending beyond the objects visible physical body

and it cannot be disproved that this is the etheric body.
Valerie Hunt a research scientist, author, lecturer and Professor
Emeritus of Physiological Science at UCLA, discovered during her research in
the 1970s at UCLA that the human body emits bioelectrical energy even when
all muscles are at full rest. She explained that the body has two electrical
systems: one involving the nervous system, brain, neurons, and nerves, which
cause muscle contraction, nerve transmission, glandular secretion, and
sensation; and the other is the electrical system she recorded when the body is
at rest, which probably emanates from atoms and cells. This recorded
electromagnetic energy is referred to as an aura by many energy healers but
she described it as a human energy field (Hunt 1996: 20). However, her book
is written in laymans terms so that the average reader can understand. This
may be why I could find no mention of her study or discoveries outside of the
parapsychology, energy healing, and biofeedback communities.
In addition to recording the human energy field that extends beyond the
physical body, Hunt received a grant to conduct an experiment to study
emotions, human energy field, and neuromuscular effects of Rolfing (healing
sessions focused on loosening joints and connective tissue). Physicians,
scientists, and aura readers were present. Electromagnetic readings were
taken from each of the main chakra areas and the entire human energy field as
well. The readings by the aura readers and the electromagnetic equipment
corroborated. When the aura readers saw the chakra field opening, the

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electromagnetic equipment recorded an increase in amplitude in the area of the

specified chakra. Similarly, before a participants heart rate responded to
stimuli by increasing or decreasing, a change in the electromagnetic reading of
the body energy field near the organ (heart) was recorded (Hunt 1996: 24-25).
This evidence shows that changes in the physical body seem to be preceded by
changes in the human energy field (aura or etheric body). Subsequently Hunt
says, by manipulating the energy field we can refine and encourage coherency
in all tissues and biological systems; this approach could produce results more
rapidly and dramatically than could any other known medical, psychological, or
educational approach (Hunt 1996: 36). Therefore, it is the theory of most
authors, teachers, and practitioners of toning that since the chakras reside in
the human energy field, rebalancing them with toning may help to not only
rebalance ones physical, emotional, and mental disvalued states, but alter
cellular mass as well (DAngelo 2005: 110, Goldman 2005: ix, Hunt 1996: 77,
Judith 1988: 16, 24, Leeds 2010: 163, Mercier 2007: 80, Rigby 1998: 142,
Rippentrop 2009: 228, Scelba 1998: 6, Speed 2009: 103, Wauters 2010: 14).
In effect, toning could potentially eradicate errant cellular masses such as
cancer. But, how does toning (using frequencies and vocables) affect physical
changes through the auric body and the chakras?
Einsteins unified field theory states that all matter is organized energy.
Everything that has matter has an energy field. There are no firm boundaries
with fields like there are with dense material substances (such as the human
body). But the human energy field (like all other energy fields) is an open

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dynamic system than can constantly and selectively transact with all
environmental fields (Hunt 1996: 46-47). Since any field can transact with any
other field, fields can exert force on each other (Brennan 1988: 22). Thus,
sound such as toning can exert force on our own human energy field or
anothers human energy field. Although sound is not dense material physical to
the human eye, it does manifest as matter in the form of waves and vibrations.
Therefore, it has an energy field with which to interact. Hence, sound can affect
chakras because they exist in the human energy field. But, how are chakras
related to specific parts of the physical body?
Although chakras reside in the human energy field as opposed to the
physical body, they correspond to nerve ganglia, organs, and endocrine
systems as mentioned previously. Theosophist Society member Alice Bailey
and Leadbeater (author of The Chakras1927) were some of the first to
associate the chakras with particular endocrine glands and the sympathetic
nervous system (Mercier 2007:27). The Theosophical Society was founded in
1875 and its international headquarters are at Adyar in Madras, India. They
study Eastern religions, particularly Hinduism. Because of Baileys and
Leadbeaters initial interest, many energy healers have drawn conclusions
based on the original Hindu texts as to which glands and nerve systems
correlate to which chakra (see Table 2).

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Table 2: Correlation of chakras to physical organs and body systems

CHAKRA

ORGANS/LOCATION

7, Sahasrara
6, Ajna
5, Vishuddi
4, Anahata
3, Manipura
2,
Svadhisthana
1, Muladhara

Crown
Third Eye
Throat
Heart
Solar Plexus
Sacral

NERVE GANGLIA ENDOCRINE

SYSTEM
Sympathetic
Pituitary
Superior cervical
Pineal
Cervical spinal
Thyroid
Thoracic spinal
Thymus
Lumbar spinal
Adrenals
Sacral spinal
Pancreas

Perenium (base of
Sciatic nerve,
spine)
Coccygeal spinal
(Judith 1988: 18, Parkhurst 1998: 33, Scelba 1998: 9)

Adrenal cortex

Although it is not known exactly how chakras transmute energy from the
human energy field (etheric body or aura) to a usable form within the human
structure, they seem to function as energy transformers translating less
dense energy to more dense energy. The energy then translates into
hormonal, physiologic, and ultimately cellular changes throughout the body
(Parkhurst 1998: 29). Richard Maxwell, a neuroscientist, postulated a theory in
a 2009 article in Zygon: Journal of Religion & Science that links chakra activity
to a physical corollary via gap junction mechanisms (electrical communication
between cells at certain growth points along the spine). Maxwell stipulates that
with appropriate forms of concentration such as toning (sound/music), color
therapy, or yoga patients can stimulate gap junction cell function to influence
the central nervous system and glandular functions of their own body. The
electrical activity of the gap junctions can be measured and compared to
physiological responses such as hormonal secretions and changes in brain

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waves and pain perception through the central nervous system (Maxwell 2009:
818-819).

TONING

The term voice toning was first used by Laurel Elizabeth Keyes. In the
1960s Keyes was a teacher and author of comparative religions and philosophy
who taught and practiced toning at Restorium, a retreat house in Denver,
Colorado (Rigby 1998: 130). Toning is the use of self-created sounds
(elongated vowels, inhalations and exhalations sometimes with consonants at
beginning, sighing, humming, and moaning) to resonate with physical body
parts and with the human energy field in order to restore balance (Leeds 2010:
163).
Toning is an innate and natural act. For example, think about the sounds
that a baby makes soft murmurings, babbling excited speech, yawns, cries,
screams, coos inborn tendencies to produce sound to affect the outcome of
some feeling whether it is an emotion, thought, or physical sensation. Babies
make sounds to initiate change in their lives feeding, diaper change, soothing,
entertainment, and of course communication (Keyes 2008: 27).
Toning to realign chakras develops a transactional communication
between the body, mind, and emotions. This connected knowing allows a
patient to treat the core problem of imbalance between these different aspects
of being from which disvalued states emanate. The transaction of sound with

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the human energy field (where chakras reside) enables energy to be transferred
to the physical body. This energy can then treat disvalued states such as
emotional blocks, pain, anxiety states and phobias, stress related symptoms,
depression, obsessive/compulsive conditions, and various forms of addictive
behavior (Rigby 1998: 139, Rippentrop 2009: 228).
Because chakras reside within the human energy field, disvalued states
manifest as blockages of energy within certain chakras (Parkhurst 1998: 81.
Toning can realign and open blocked chakras so that energy from the etheric
body (human energy field or auric body) can transfer to the physical body and
facilitate the integration of psychological, mental, and physiological process,
which in turn, can treat the aforementioned disvalued states (Goldman 2008:
97, 112, Rigby 1998: 130-131). The following music analysis provides music
therapists with the specific elements, tools, and choices that will support the
successful implementation of toning to realign chakras as therapy.

MUSICAL STRUCTURE

There are seven musical elements within the structure of toning that
contribute to the development of connected knowing: frequency (pitch),
vocables, volume, duration, timbre, rhythmic pattern, and harmony (if more than
one voice is toning at the same time) (Rigby 1998: 131). Because my field
experience did not include group toning, the use of drums, or other rhythmic
instruments all variables except harmony and rhythmic pattern are present.

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However, four of the five toning sessions analyzed for this chapter have an
additional element of background music played from a CD.
Everything in the universe vibrates, although it may not be audible to the
human ear. Frequency is the number of wave cycles completed per unit of time
(Leeds 2010: 16). Sound travels in compression waves, and frequency
(measured in Hz) is the number of times air molecules compress into each
other per second. (Goldman 2008: 4, Leads 2010: 16). Every vibrating object
has its own frequency as was described above in relation to auras (Goldman
2005: 18, Goldman 2008: 7, Leeds 2010: 15). Therefore, sound is an effective
medium for exerting change within the auric body and the physical body
(Goldman 2008: 9, Scelba 1998: 6, Waters 2010: 20). How does one
determine which pitches to use?
FREQUENCY (PITCH)
To treat a disvalued state with toning one must create a pitch with a
frequency that resonates with the chakra where the disvalued state emanates.
For instance, my lupus caused kidney damage and degenerative disease. Not
all sources agree which chakra relates to kidneys, but all agree it is either the
first, second, or third chakra (Judith 1988: 18, Parkhurst 1998: 33, Scelba 1998:
9). In addition, adrenal glands are located directly above the kidneys and they
are related to the first and third chakras. Therefore, when I tone at home I
always spend time focusing on my first three chakras. The frequencies I most

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often make to focus on these chakras are between 349.23 Hz and 440 Hz11
(Western pitches F4 to A4). Similarly, during my toning session with Joious
Melodi, she felt drawn to work with my third chakra for 30 minutes of our one
hour session using frequencies between 347 Hz and 395 Hz (slightly below F 4
to slightly above G4).
There are two ways a frequency can resonate with another frequency:
free resonance occurs when an object begins to vibrate only when it comes into
contact with a frequency that exactly matches its own, and forced resonance
occurs when one vibrating source produces vibrations in another object even
though those two objects may not share the exact same frequency. Forced
resonance is generally referred to as entrainment in music therapy and
alternative healing circles (Goldman 2008: 8, 14; Leeds 2010: 49). This implies
that perfect frequency match is not required to rebalance chakras, but finding a
close enough match for forced resonance to occur is necessary. Therefore,
therapists employing toning in their practices do not have to worry about finding
the exact frequency. Intent for achieving connectivity and balance through
visualization and positive thoughts is the most important element for
implementation of toning, and will be addressed in detail later in this chapter.
Some sources about toning purport that each chakra is related to specific
pitches and or a group of frequencies with specific intervals (scale, mode, or
raga) (Parkhurst 1998: 95, Rigby 1998: 158, Rippentrop 2009: 235, Wauters

All frequencies listed to correspond to the tempered (Western) scale and notes in this
thesis were obtained from the chart on Michigan Technical Universitys Physics website
http://www.phy.mtu.edu/~suits/notefreqs.html
11

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2010: 14). For example, these sources argue that Muladhara (first chakra)
responds to the Ionian mode beginning on Western pitch C.
TABLE 3: Chakras and Pitch Correlation
Chakra
Western
Note/Key

Muladhara

Svadhistana

Manipura

Anahata

Vishuddha

Anja

Sahaswara

(Parkhurst 1998: 95, Rigby 1998: 158, Rippentrop 2009: 235, Wauters 2010:
14)

Of the four live toning sessions I analyzed Joious Melodi (toning

practitioner) used pitches C4 and G4 for a majority of the session (see Table 4).
While this could seem to implicate that these toning sessions were conducted
centered around the Western Ionian or Lydian mode beginning on C
(corresponds to the South Indian ragas Sankarabharanam or Kalyani). Melodi
asserts that she does not think about frequencies or pitches while toning. If I
go to my head to determine what note to use then it takes me out of my
connection with an inner part of me that guides me its more of an intuitive
sound, one that just comes naturally (Melodi 2012: Interview). However, I
assert that the frequencies and their intervals are culturally influenced, even if
they are not conscious decisions. The method for pitch selection reinforces the
importance of unity and symmetry between our mind, body, and emotions. It
demonstrates the melodic or scale material one feels most comfortable with and
will thus use. During toning, one must spontaneously respond to emotional and
physical urges vocally without using the mind as a filtering device. This allows
there to be equality between mind, body, and emotions without the mind
dominating what is allowed to be expressed.
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TABLE 4: Reduction of toning sessions

My toning session with Joious Melodi. The frequencies indicated for each
chakra/body position are the most frequently used in relation to those
chakra/body positions.
Chakras/ Body
Position*

Hz

Pitch+

Vocable

Feet

365391
394

F#4 G4

348392
395

F4 G4

Wooshing
oo
oo w/
oscillation
oo

520
390,
521
585

rd

Knees, & 3
chakra
st
nd
rd
1 ,2 ,&3
chakras
rd
th
3 &4
chakras
Fifth
Sixth
Seventh

Volume
pp= 40-55 dB
p= 56-70 dB
p/Soft

Duration

Background CD Pitch

12 sec

Indiscernible

p/ Soft

13 sec

Indiscernible

p/ Soft

15 sec

p/ Soft

17 sec

C5

Exhalations
oo
oh

p/ Soft

12 sec

G4, C5

oo, oh

p/ Soft

16 sec

D5

ah

pp/ Very soft

20 sec

C4/5, G4/5
waves
C4/5, G4/5
waves
C4/5, G4/5
waves
C4/5, G4/5
waves
D4/5, G4/5

G4

G4

+Pitches are the closest match to the frequency, but not always exact
*Because Joious works with both her hands (often in different positions on the
body) it is difficult to separate exactly which chakra is being worked on,
therefore the positions indicated are the positions both hands were during the
toning session.

Three other audio recorded* toning sessions performed by Melodi on her other
clients.
Client Hz

Pitch

261, C4,
393 G4
390 G4

Vocable

oo

Volume
p = 50-70dB
mp = 71-89
dB
mp/ Medium
Soft
p/ Soft

Duration Background CD
Pitch

13 sec

Indiscernible

oo
16 sec
C Major
Ah
C
260, C4,
Wooshing p/ Soft
14 sec
No key/note
348 F4
oo
center
*because these were audio recorded there is no indication of which chakra was
being worked on with which pitch. In addition, these were massage and
craniosacral therapy sessions with toning added, but not sessions for toning
alone.
B

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soft
soft
soft
soft

Intuitive pitch selection while toning supports the arguments of many

sources that each person has their own individual frequencies (DAngelo 2005:
111-112, Hunt 1996: 65-66, Keyes 2008: 55, Leadbeater 1927: 97, Melodi
2012: Interview, Tiller 1971: 58). For example, not every patients Muladhara
(first chakra) will resonate with the frequency of 261. 63 Hz (C4). These
sources emphasize that since we are all unique vibratory beings our organs
and chakras will resonant at different frequencies. In addition, the resonance of
our chakras can change in response to different physical, emotional, and
mental activities (Goldman 2008: 99).

Out of the five toning CDs (See

Appendix 8) that I analyzed, many different pitches and key centers were used
although no CDs advertised using specific pitches for specific chakras. Albeit
this is a very small sample, it would seem to indicate that pitch selection is not
stagnate for each chakra, further supporting my argument that toning to realign
chakras allows one to develop connected knowing specific to their own body,
emotions, and mind. For example, the same pitch may not affect everyones
Muladhara chakra. Therefore, a patient must learn to listen to their own body.
All toning sources I researched agreed that the lowest pitches should
resonate with the Muladhara (first chakra) and continue to higher pitches as one
continues up to Sahaswara (chakra seven) (Goldman 2005: 99, Rippentrop
2009: 233). Author and toning practitioner Jonathan Goldman says that using
the C major scale to tone up the chakras is probably common in the U.S.
because it is culturally familiar and easy to play on a keyboard. However, he
endorses using any notes or scale that works (Goldman 2005: 49, 90). I

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contend that the sonic landscape of ones culture or environment influences not
just pitch selection, but more importantly, the intervals between pitches. For
example, Joious Melodi (quoted above) tends to use pitches most closely
related to the Ionion and Lydian modes beginning with the Western pitch C4
when toning specifically for chakras. She is a classically trained musician at the
university level in America where Ionian mode is hegemonic. I have not had the
opportunity to analyze any toning sessions by non-Americans. But I theorize
that their intervals will align with the soundscape to which they have been
culturally exposed to the most.

VOCABLES
There are several vocable variants used in toning: seed vowel sounds
(see Table 5), OM (Ruiter 2005: 42), AH (Goldman 2005: 54), sighing,
humming, moaning, and articulated exhalations (Melodi 2012: Interview, Rigby
1998: 131). The seed vowel sounds (see Example 4) are derived from the
Sanskrit letter that is depicted on the center of the lotus flower for each chakra
(see Appendix 9). These seed vowel sounds are also used in Bija chanting to
realign chakras (Avalon 1974: 83-84). However, in toning the vowels are
elongated to sustain a desired pitch to resonate unbalanced chakras (Keyes
2008: 56).

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Table 5 Seed Vowel Sounds

Chakras
Goldman Rippentrop Mercier DAngelo
East
Muladhara
Uh
Lang
Larm
Lam
Swadhisthana Oo
Vang
Varm
Vam
Manipura
Oh
Rang
Rarm
Ram
Anahata
Ah
Yang
Yarm
Yam
Vishuddha
Eye
Hang
Harm
Ham
Ajna
Ay
Om
Om
Om
Sahasrara
Ee
Nng/silence Om
Mm

DAngelo
West
Lum
Voom
Raum
Yam
Haim
Sim
Keem

Some toning practitioners encourage using the seed vowel sound

associated with each chakra (DAngelo 2005: 115, Goldman 2008: 98, Mercier
2007: 81, Rippentrop 2009: 231). However, many practitioners feel the main
goal during toning is to listen to ones body (body, mind, and emotion) and try to
produce whatever sounds one feels are needed (Melodi 2013: Interview). By
allowing ones mind, body, and emotions to be heard audibly balance is
restored between each of these aspects of self.
Other toning practitioners use the OM vocable in its extended form. The
vocable OM originates from its Sanskrit symbol sri yantra, and is often used as
a mantra for concentration and meditation. OM is represented by five distinct
sounds: A O U M N. To tone using OM one begins with the A vowel and
proceeds through to O U M N blending all vowels and consonants into one long
sustained pitch (Mercier 2007: 78, Ruiter 2005: 42-59).
Toning can be performed alone or in a group. Often in group toning the
vowel AH is used. For instance, a co-meditation technique of Tibetan
Buddhism uses corporate chanting of the AH sound so that the group can
resonate with each other. It seems that the heartbeat, respiration, and brain
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waves of two or more people entrain through breathing or sounding AH

together (Goldman 2005: 54). AH is also the seed vowel sound for the fourth
(heart) chakra (See Example 4). I find myself toning the syllable AH most of the
time. AH is a sound Americans make often when we see something cute,
when we see something amazing we say, Awesome. Ah is perhaps the best
syllable with which to begin toning because it is already so engrained in our life
experiences.
Other vocables that may be used while toning include humming, sighing,
moaning, whining and exhalations with consonant beginnings. For instance
when toning at home by myself I often find that groaning and moaning seems to
release any tension or stress I might be feeling so that I can focus on my body
and listen to it. During my field experience with toning practitioner Joious
Melodi she often used exhalations with consonant beginnings as a way to clear
out energy blockages. For example, she was drawn to work with my third
chakra (solar plexus) and made 20 exhalations and hand-waves during the one
hour session as if she was moving away bad or blocked energy from my third
chakra. Similarly, when I tone at home by myself I often feel a lot of heat and
pressure in my third (solar plexus) and fourth (heart) chakras. I make a lot of
exhalations, as if releasing tension and it does ease the heat in those areas.

VOLUME
In all my field experiences and toning sessions at home I found that I
never feel the need to be very loud. Even producing the quietest sound still

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allows the frequency to resonate. In the four toning sessions conducted by

Joious Melodi all sounds were below 80 dB (measured with a SL-814 digital
sound level meter) indicated as a mp (medium soft) on the toning reduction
charts (Table 4) . Laurel Elizabeth Keyes (toning instructor and practitioner)
says, There is no need to be loud because toning heals from the inside out
(Keyes 2008: 59). The audible sound produced while toning may be
pleasurable or not, but it is the vibrations from the sounds that entrain the
chakras to re-balance. The emphasis is not on performance, but on healing and
focusing on ones body as the community and reception. Technically, one
could produce the vibration without making the audible sound by just vibrating
their energy. This will be discussed further in the performance of toning
section.

DURATION & SILENCE

In my toning session performed by Joious Melodi, she held vowel sounds
a median of 15 seconds. Toning pitches (frequencies) are maintained for an
extended time allowing a particular chakra or organ to resonate for a sustained
time; it is this length of time which allows for healing to take place (Rigby
1998: 142). In addition to the duration of sound, perhaps even more important,
is the duration of silence between sounds. In my toning session Melodi paused
in between vocalizations anywhere from ten seconds to five minutes. Author
and toning practitioner Jonathan Goldman says,
Silence allows the sound to penetrate the physical body, making
shifts and changes on molecular levels, affecting our cells, our
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DNA everything that is physical. Silence also enables the

frequency shifts in our subtle body, creating the space for the
sound to permeate our chakras, aura, and all our subtle bodies.
(Goldman 2005: 57)

In my field experience, it was during the silence that I sensed emotions

and statements emanating from my body. For example, during my session
when Joious Melodi taught me how to tone myself, as I focused on my heart
pumping blood I sensed how tired it was from working so hard all the time. This
mirrored how I felt emotionally drained. In response I toned some comforting
loving sounds to myself focusing on my heart chakra. I used the AH seed
vowel sound and produced several sounds between 348 Hz and 392 Hz
(approximately F4 and G4). In addition, I sensed that my kidneys were tired of
me being angry with them. My lupus (an autoimmune disease) has damaged
my kidneys resulting in degenerative kidney disease. During those moments of
intense concentration focused on my body I realized how angry I was that they
have betrayed me by not working properly. I had been aiming all that anger at
my own body. Instead, I realized my kidneys are doing the best they can, and
the energy I was using to be angry with their performance could be used in a
more positive manner, even perhaps to heal them.

TIMBRE
In my toning session with Joious Melodi, she used two types of timbres.
When she used sustained vowel sounds they were clear and piercing, but also
delicate. These timbres evoked an image of pinpoint accurate laser surgery, a

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non-painful piercing of an outer shell. When she used exhalations, timbres

varied in range from ethereal and gentle to percussive and heavy. Many of
these exhalations were accompanied by hand waves (as if fanning away
smoke). They evoked an image of release, clearing, and peacefulness. When I
tone by myself I often use moans and groans with a guttural, gravely timbre to
release irritation and anger. I use exhalations with a hissing, feathery timbre to
release pain and heat. I use seed vowel sounds ah, oh, and oo with a clear,
vibrant timbre to resonate with my third through seventh chakras. Differing
timbres provide a way for us to understand our body more because they inspire
mental imagery. Mental imagery helps a patient focus their intentions for
healing towards a more concrete goal. Instead of just wanting to feel better, a
patient can visualize walking with a bounce in their step or completing their daily
tasks with plenty of energy.

BACKGROUND MUSIC/SOUNDS
The last element of music that was present in in my toning session with
Melodi was background music played on a CD (Sleeping Angels by Jenny
James 2004). The CD consisted of two tracks. The first track was thirty-five
minutes, and consisted of synthesized strings and voices. The frequencies
sustained for most of the piece were 130. 81 Hz, 261.63 Hz, 523.25 Hz (C 3, C4,
C5), 196 Hz, 392 Hz, and 783.99 Hz (G3, G4, G5). These pitches are important
because I believe they influence which pitches Melodi produced during her
sessions. A clear bell-like female voice sang a frequency of 161.63 Hz (C4) with

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the vocable Aum over the accompaniment. The second track was eighteen
minutes and began with a synthesized guitar playing frequencies 293.66,
369.99, and 440 Hz (a D major arpeggio in Western music) and very soft
synthesized strings playing sustained chords (D major as well) in the
background. The same female voice sang Om on a frequency of 293.66 Hz
(D4) over the instrumentals. My toning session lasted an hour. Melodi toned
frequencies that fit into the Ionian and Lydian modes beginning on C for most of
the session. She started this CD 15 minutes into the session. Therefore, about
the time the second track began (centered around the Western pitch D) Melodi
shifted her tone center to D as well. This may explain why Melodi tends to tone
in Ionian or Lydian mode beginning with C (Melodi 2012: Interview). This
supports my hypothesis that the choice of scale, mode, or pitch is not as
important as the intention of the patient and/or healer during toning. It seems
only natural that patients will tone using familiar sounds from their environment.

PERFORMANCE

Connectivity and balance manifest within the performance of toning as a

conversation between the physical body, thought processes, emotions, and
subtle body where the chakras reside. One can tone anywhere anytime.
However, finding a safe quiet place will help one shut out any stimuli not coming
from ones own body, mind, or emotions. I attended a toning session with
Joious Melodi to learn how to tone myself. She used a system developed by

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David Sawyer (licensed psychotherapist and founder of the Integrative Aquatic

Therapies) to help guide me through a toning session. This model takes
patients through different levels of consciousness by asking them to focus on
individual body systems (see Table 6). She asked me to begin by being aware
of my breathing and to find a relaxed seated position in a chair in the corner of
the toning room with soft light. This is the thinking self level of consciousness
where one can control their nervous system and feel relaxed and awake. While
focusing on my nervous system and breathing, she asked me to make any
sounds I felt rising up. I had none at this point.

TABLE 6: Potency-A Developmental Model by David Sawyer, LPC

Consciousness
Thinking Self
Empowered Self
Emotional Self
Soul
Spirit

Physical Body
Nervous System
Muscle Potency
Fluid & Organ Potency
Cellular Breathing
Cellular Consciousness

Awareness
Relaxed & Awake
Energetic Support
Sensual
Expansion
Vibration

Body Rhythm
Breathe
CRI Tide
Fluid Tide
Ground Swell
Active Stillness

To help draw me into a deeper concentration on my body, Melodi led me

through the next level of consciousness in this model,the empowered self.
This level asks one to focus on muscles by moving slightly or contracting and
releasing muscles one group at a time starting with the toes. As I did this,
Melodi asked me to make any sounds that happen to come to mind. I noticed
that from my third chakra (solar plexus) and up I felt heat inside my body. I
often have this feeling; I usually attribute it to lupus inflammation, which causes
heat. So I toned several exhalations, ha, kah, ah, and oh for 10 to 15 seconds
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each with about 5 to 7 seconds of silence in between. Afterwards, there was no

more sensation of heat, I just felt very relaxed.
The emotional self is the next level of consciousness in this model.
Melodi asked me to focus on the fluids in my body. This is when I had an
experience with my heart and kidneys. I felt that my heart was tired of working
so hard, much like I felt emotionally exhausted. I made some cooing and Ah
(the seed vowel sound for the fourth (heart) chakra) sounds just as if to pay
tribute to or recognize these feelings physically and emotionally. I had a
conversation with Melodi about how it sometimes feels like my kidneys hurt, but
the doctors tell me that kidneys do not have nerve endings and cannot hurt. As
I reviewed my field video footage I repeated kidneys cannot feel hurt four
times and then felt my kidneys say, Hey! We do hurt because you have been
angry with us for a long time. When I realized I had been using energy to be
angry with my kidneys, I made some sustained vowel sounds on oh (the seed
vowel sound for third chakra) with frequencies 150 Hz, 147 Hz, and 131 Hz
(close to the Western pitches E-flat3, D3 and C3) with the intent of nurturing my
kidneys instead of being angry at them.
The next two consciousness levels are soul and spirit when one
focuses on expanded ones soul or spirit beyond ones space and cellular
vibration. One way to transition to cellular vibration is to sustain a pitch several
times and feel where in your body it resonates. Melodi had me do this several
times until I could feel that resonance in my body without creating the audible

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pitch. C.W. Leadbeater, a Theosophist and author of The Chakras says that in
laya yoga (a form that uses chakras as a form of meditation)
The yogi tries to pass inward from the sound as known to us and
uttered by us, to the inner quality and power of that sound, and
thus it is an aid to the passage of his consciousness from plane to
planewe are exhorted to listen to the song of life, and to try to
catch its hidden or higher tones. (Leadbeater 1927: 105)
The performance of toning helps one not only understand themselves
more fully, but also allows recognition of our interaction with all things
through the production of vibrations, whether they produce audible sound
or not.

CONTEXT

The context of toning differs greatly due to changes in our mood, health,
thought processes, and environment. Connectivity and balance manifest within
the context of toning as individuality and malleability. Since the human energy
field transacts with many other energy fields, our etheric body is always
changing just like our physical body, thoughts, and emotions. Hence, the
musical elements of toning (pitch, vocable, volume, duration, and timbre) that
help to realign my chakras on Monday may not be the same combination as the
musical elements I use to balance my chakras on Tuesday. Resonance of
vibratory objects can and do shift depending on any number of elements,
including our physical, emotional, and mental activities before and after toning
(Goldman 2005: 84-85). For example, I usually make a sustained AH sound

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between frequencies 220 329.63 Hz (A3 and E4) when toning my fourth
(heart) chakra. However, I noticed that when I am particularly sad or upset I
make a sustained oo vowel sound between 392-523.25 Hz (G4 and C5)
instead. This probably emanates from the tension in my body when I am upset.
Focused intent is perhaps the most important element of any therapeutic
music activity. Our thoughts, visualizations, and feelings travel with the sounds
we make and is perceived energetically by the people receiving (hearing) the
sound, whether that be another person or just ourselves (Goldman 2005: 37,
Mercier 2007: 80, Parkhurst 1998: 67). Our positive thoughts actually exert
power for healing change to take place.
Quantum physics can help explain how our conscious intent creates
space for healing. On the subatomic level of the particle, mass is
immeasurable and appears as energy without dense form, until it is observed;
at which point it becomes a particle or a wave depending on how it is observed
(Hunt 1996: 41). The observer, by mere consciousness alone, becomes part of
the field of interaction. Therefore, our thoughts have an effect on the human
energy field and can catch a ride so-to-speak on the vibration of the sounds
we make while toning.
A kinesiology study by Dr. John Diamond (medical doctor &
psychologist) and Dr. David Hawkins (psychiatrist) (Goldman 2005: 39-40)
provides an example of focused conscious intent embedded within recorded
sounds. They created an experiment using recorded ocean sounds. The time
of day and place of the recordings were all the same. However, the first was

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recorded while a group of people sat together on the beach and consciously
focused their thoughts on positive affirmations. The second recording was
made while a group of people sat together on the beach and consciously
focused their thoughts on negative things. The third recording was made with
no one on the beach at all.
Applied kinesiology is a method for testing the strength of human
muscles that respond to an external input in such a way that those stimuli
which are beneficial to us (anything from food to music) cause muscles to
become strong (Goldman 2008: 33-34). Dr. John Diamond M.D. specializing in
psychological medicine and Dr. David Hawkins psychiatrist and physician
conducted a kinesiology experiment. They had test subjects extend their arm
horizontal to the ground. Diamond and Hawkins pushed down the test subjects
arms and measured the amount of resistance to establish a baseline. The test
was then repeated while each of the three ocean recordings was played. It was
a double blind study, neither the doctors nor the test subjects knew which
version of the recording was played.
The results of this experiment showed that when the third recording was
played (no people on the beach at all) text subjects strength remained the
same as the baseline or slightly stronger. However, when the second recording
played (the one with negative thoughts) test subjects strength response was
weaker. When the first recording was played (positive thoughts) the tests
subjects strength was stronger. It appears that conscious focused intent can
not only catch a ride on live sounds, but be embedded within recordings of

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those sounds as well. From these scientific studies and publications I surmise
that intent of the patient and practitioner is of paramount importance in order to
implement toning to realign chakras as viable therapy.

SUMMARY

The chakra system stemming from Hindu yogic philosophy provides a

model for patients to develop connected knowing within their own body by
helping them become internally conscious of and attend to bodily functions,
thoughts, and emotions through sound, and thus treat the core problem of
detachment and discrepancies that causes disvalued states. In this sense the
community becomes the person, and the individual members become the
different aspects of a person: body, mind, and emotions. Focusing on ones
chakras and participating in a physical activity, such as toning, allows the
patient to make an association between physical action and emotional or
mental health.
Toning to realign chakras focuses on directing energy into and through
the individual much like Indian tantric yoga philosophy. Scientists have also
incorporated explanations such as Einsteins unified field theory and quantum
physics to explain how toning helps realign chakras and treat disvalued states
(Brennan 1988: 22-24, Hunt 1996: 41-44, Parkhurst 1998: 52). Toning seeks to
harness or direct the energies within the human body towards each individual
chakra to realign or balance those chakras so that energy can flow freely. By

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allowing energy to flow freely into and through the chakras, one transitions from
a disvalued state to a physically, mentally, and emotionally healthy state
(Goldman 2008: 97, Parkhurst 1998: 34, Rippentrop 2009: 228). However,
because intent plays a large role in the effectiveness of toning, one must
acquiesce to the idea of energy healing within the context of their worldview or
personal beliefs (Goldman 2005: 12-13, Rigby 1998: 153). Toning to realign
chakras can help patients listen more attentively to their bodies and thus treat
symptoms like tension, high blood pressure, and exhaustion before they trigger
more serious disvalued states. Toning can also help patients release pent-up
emotions, which often lead to physical disvalued states.
Toning to realign chakras offers a model for music therapists that will
help their patients learn new ways to recognize and respond to physical,
mental, and emotional problems. Based on the scientific explanations of
vibration, frequencies, resonance, human energy field, and field interaction
toning can re-balance or realign chakras that are blocked. Chakras become
blocked because of physical, mental, or emotional problems that are either
being ignored or have not been dealt with addressing the root cause. Toning
can give the patients a way to release pent up thoughts and emotions.
Releasing these emotions and thoughts free the physical body to function more
properly because energy from the etheric body can now flow freely through the
chakras. By learning how to tune-up ones own body, the patient not only
develops connected knowing, but can take back their own power to affect
change in their lives.

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Toning refers to any sound the human body can make with the intention
of restoration or healing. The cultural values of connectivity and balance
manifest within the structure, performance, and context of toning as a reflection
of connected knowing, a mental awareness and realization of ones whole self including body, mind, and emotions, and the relationship between these parts. I
focused on how frequency, resonance, and conscious intent can help patients
understand how their emotions and thought processes affect their physical and
mental well-being by pinpointing areas of division and disproportion within
themselves. Toning can help patients lower their blood pressure, pulse, and
pain perception; alleviate negative feelings associated with anxiety disorders,
depression, and grief; and perhaps even change their cellular matter.

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CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
The practices of Native American flute, West African drumming, and
toning to realign chakras facilitate processes of individual and/or group
transformations from a disvalued state to a holistically healthy state. Despite
the specific socio-cultural practices of these three case studies, certain
principles and process transcend their cultural boundaries, namely the
principles of connectivity and balance (Koen 2009: 6). All three case studies
stress the importance of connectivity to the environment, the community, and
ones self. For instance, playing Native flute and African-type drums allows one
to interface with the environment through physical senses of touch, smell, and
hearing particularly when these instruments are made from wood and animal
skin.
Intent is another process that transcends cultural and philosophical
boundaries, therefore contributing greatly to healing music practices. Whatever
intention a person holds in their thoughts or speaks aloud will either add to or
take away from their music healing experience. While intent was not discussed
in the context of Native American flute music and West African drumming, the
explanations and examples of intention within the context of toning to realign
chakras can be applied to any music healing activity.
According to Einsteins unified field theory, all objects with matter also
have an energy field that extends beyond their visible form, and all energy fields
can transact with each other (exert force and/or change upon each other).
Further, quantum physics purports that ones consciousness (thought activity)
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exerts a creative force upon that which one focuses (Hunt 1996: 46-47 & 49,
Koen 2009: 33-34). As a result of these scientific theories, some scientists,
psychologists, and music healing practitioners believe that ones thoughts can
carry and/or project energy. The projected energy can then transact with any
aforementioned energy field (Goldman 2005: 38, Goldman 2008: 31-34, Hunt
1996: 93, Koen 2009: 35, Mercier 2007: 80). Whatever intention the patient
holds in their minds will affect the results of their music therapy, whether it be
Native American flute, West African drumming, or toning to realign chakras.
Therefore, by harnessing the power of ones thoughts (focused intent
upon the task at hand); one can effectively alter the outcome of a music healing
session (see example of kinesiology experiment in chapter 4). In this manner,
positive thinking is much more than an attitude adjustment. Conscious focused
intent during any music healing activity can boost the positive physical, mental,
and emotional benefits one receives.
Another aspect of intent is the goal of music healing practices. In
Western music therapy within the U.S. the most common goals are preventing
disvalued states and treating symptoms of disvalued states (Leeds 2010: 136).
In contrast, because of the underlying cultural values of connectivity and
balance, the practice of Native American flute, West African drumming, and
chakra toning aims not only to address symptoms of disvalued states, but also
attempts to treat the root cause a disconnect or imbalance between the
patient and their environment, community, and/or their own aspects of self
(Bittman 2001: 45-46, Jones 2010: 41, Leeds 2010: 162, Portman 2006: 458,

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Neher 1962: 187-188, Nez 2005: 13-14, Wiand 2001: 2). Therefore, by
addressing issues of connectivity and balance at the root of the patients
problems, Western music therapy can improve the quality and outcomes of any
music therapy practice used.
Cognitive flexibility - changes within the brain and mind (thought
processes and/or consciousness) which result in a changed perception of and
reaction to the environment, community, and self is another process that
transcends cultural and philosophical boundaries (Koen 2009: 19-21). The
patients ability to adapt thinking patterns can help improve his overall state of
health. Consequently, the music therapist must find a way to help the patient
change his pattern of thinking and reaction to stressful stimulus in the patients
life.
Participation in flute and drum circles have become increasingly popular
in the last two decades and can help patients change their pattern of thinking
and reacting through individual expression and group identity. No physician
referral is needed to participate in most flute and drum circles. For example, a
patient living in Oklahoma can take advantages of the community flute and
drum circles. There are at least four Native American flute circles that meet on
a regular basis in Edmond, Norman, Tahlequah, and Lawton (Goss 2012:
flutopedia.com). There are seven drum circles that meet regularly in Oklahoma
City, Tulsa, and Tahlequah (Ratigan 2013: drumcircles.net). Neither playing the
Native American flute nor participating in drum circles requires an adherence to
Native American and/or West African worldviews or philosophical beliefs.

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However, my observations show that participating in flute or drum circles allows

one to experience a sense of community and belonging, and creates a space
where each individual can offer a meaningful musical and verbal contribution.
In addition, the symbolism of the circle itself promotes equality and balance. If
these values of equality and balance are consciously implemented, the patients
will be able to address issues of individuality and group affinity.
While toning to realign chakras also promotes connectivity and balance,
these values manifest as relationships between each individual persons body,
mind (thoughts), and emotions. In this sense, the entire being is the community
and the different aspects of that being are its individual members (McQuaid
2012: Interview). Therefore, to sustain a healthy being each individual aspect
of that being (body, mind, and emotions) must be expressed without
overpowering any other aspects. Practicing yoga and/or toning on a regular
basis can provide patients with a reliable source of therapy without physician
referral.
Through observations of myself in these case studies I discovered that
my body and emotions rarely if ever speak through my voice because I do not
allow my mind to let them. Toning helped me learn to listen to my body and
emotions, and allowed those aspects of my being to be heard through my voice
without restrictions from my mind. Toning can help patients develop connected
knowing by teaching them to listen to each aspect of their being and allowing
those aspects to be heard. Connected knowing helps the patient function in
balance and harmony.

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IMPLEMENTATION SUGGESTIONS
NATIVE AMERICAN FLUTE
Native American flute can be implemented in three ways: playing alone,
playing for others, and playing with others. First and foremost, Native American
flute can be used by an individual for personal therapy. Most flutes are
relatively easy to transport and one can easily pause during the day to play a
flute when needed. In addition, Native flutes are user-friendly for beginners. All
a patient needs is a flute and the ability to breathe to produce a pleasing sound.
I suggest that patients who suffer from stress, anxiety, or high blood pressure
should keep a flute near them for ready access. For instance, if a patient is
having a particularly difficult day at work, they can easily go to their car or any
other free space during a break and play their flute for a few minutes. I have
shown through my 30 day self-study that just ten minutes of playing Native flute
each day can lower blood pressure and pulse, and calm those with anxiety
related disorders.
Tlingit-Haidi flutist Morgan Fawcett provides a good example of personal
therapy implementation. He often played Native flute during his lunch period
which helped calm him and re-focus his mind for the afternoon classes
(Harrison 2012: 13). Taking five to ten minutes out of a stressful day can
rejuvenate and re-shape ones attitude for the next tasks at hand. Some
psychologists and music therapists use this implementation with their patients
not only for stress relief, but also to combat anxiety related disorders,

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depression, and grief (DeMaria 2001: 25, Kaminski 2013: Finger Lakes
website).
Second, Native American flute can be played for others, live or recorded.
Native American flute is well suited for implementation in hospitals. Most other
music therapies produce music that is too loud for most hospital environments.
However, most Native American flutes are not loud, and most have a soothing,
calm, and gentle timber.12 Flute music can be played for hospitals, hospice
care, and nursing home patients (Crawford 2001: 165, Metzger 2006: 144).
People can also be exposed to the Native flutes healing properties through
workshops and/ or concerts. For example, although Tlingit-Haidi flutist Morgan
Fawcetts main goal in workshops is to raise awareness for FAS/FASD and
promote Native culture, he does so by using the flute and explaining how it has
had a healing effect in his life (NOFAS 2012).
Playing the Native American flute with others offers a third method of
implementation for music therapy practices. While flute circles are very
popular, only some are advertised as therapy groups. However, the flute circle
represents an ideal therapy situation. Based on my experience in the Norman,
Oklahoma flute circle, I have observed that all members sit in a circle
representing equality. Although we often have a guest or member present
something specific about Native flutes, all members and guests present are
allowed to speak and play their flutes through a process of taking turns around
For a hospital setting one should not use a Native American flute that is very short
(small). The smaller the flute the higher frequencies it will play. It is probably best to use
a Native flute that is pitched at F-sharp or lower. This means that when all the tone
holes are covered the flute produces the Western pitch F-sharp. These flutes are usually
about 3 feet long.
12

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the circle. Appreciation and respect was shown to everyone through attentive
listening and encouraging words.
The flute circle model, with the incorporation of a trained facilitator, would
provide an excellent procedure for implementation of Native American flute in
Western music therapy. I suggest a group of 10-15 patients with one trained
music therapist to serve as facilitator. Tying a leather strip that covers the third
tone hole down from the mouthpiece on six-holed flutes creates a five-tone
pentatonic scale that makes it easy to improvise. The facilitator should allow
the patients to all play on their flutes at the same time for a few minutes so they
can get familiar with the sounds the flutes make. The first way to structure the
playing session involves each patient playing by themselves one at a time, with
everyone else clapping for them at the end. The facilitator should emphasize
that the goal of the session is to freely express whatever the patients are
feeling, i.e. there are no wrong notes. The pentatonic scale has no leading
tone, so there is no aural push to find a correct note to land on. Another way
to structure the playing session involves all patients playing continuous long
tones on their flutes with all the tone holes covered, while they each take a turn
improvising. Woodwind specialist John Vames book and CD The Native
American Flute: Understanding the Gift (2003) is an excellent guide to further
explore the Native flute.
In addition to flute circles, Native American flute is beginning to emerge
in the elementary classroom. While most of these programs are not focused on
using Native flute for healing purposes that does not mean that healing cannot

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occur. Classroom settings provide a slightly different model for implementation

of Native flute in therapy, particularly if the therapist is working with a younger
age group.13 Therapists should watch for changes in flute participants pulse
and blood pressure, as well as mood changes. If properly implemented
patients should lower their pulse and blood pressure, and lower their stress
level.

WEST AFRICAN DRUMMING

Drumming circles are quite common throughout the U.S. within and
outside of Western music therapy. However, for those who do not have
experience drumming or facilitating drumming circles, some of the following
suggested implementations may help facilitate better physical responses such
as lowered pulse, blood pressure, and pain perception. In addition, patients
participating in a well facilitated drum circle should experience personal
expression and group affinity. First of all, not all drumming circles are West
African drumming circles. West African drumming is a culturally specific genre,
style, and practice. However, the underlying cultural values of collective
participation and equality illustrated within West African drumming circles in this
study can be incorporated into any drumming circle no matter what kind of
drums or rhythms are played.
While drumming alone may provide positive therapeutic effects and
changes in consciousness through repetitive low-frequencies, I argue that the

For more information about implementing Native American flute based on a

classroom setting see Appendix 10.
13

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most effective way to implement African drumming into Western music therapy
is within a group context such as community, corporate/workplace, classrooms,
and therapy circles. An excellent source with multiple models of
implementation is a book by renowned percussionist and drum circle facilitator
Arthur Hull entitled Drum Circle Spirit: Facilitating Human Potential through
Rhythm (1998).14 His models of implementation are based on community
rhythm circles open to anyone who want to participate (Hull 1998: 12). While
this can be applicable in a music therapy situation, I propose that music
therapists may want to divide drum circles into different groups according to the
patients needs. While one of the goals of drum circle therapy is for everyone to
express themselves individually and experience belonging, it may be difficult for
some patients to do this in a widely varied group of people. Hull includes a
chapter about facilitating drum circles in specific populations such as kids,
challenged persons, and the elderly (Hull 1998: 95-122).
The facilitators most important job is to convey the cultural values of
collective participation and equality. That means the facilitator should not
dominate the circle with talking or playing. A few of Hulls rules of etiquette for
drum circles convey these principles of connectivity and balance:

14

Sit in the circle so you can see everybody, and so that you are not
blocking anyones view.
Ask permission before playing someone elses drum.
Listen to what is going on in the circle musically.
Support the fundamental groove or beat.
Leave rhythmical space for other people in the circle to express
themselves. (Hull 1998: 30)

See Appendix 11 for other resources related to drumming circle implementations.

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The patients develop a sense of community through the drum circle by listening
and finding the fundamental groove or beat. Then they are able to express their
individuality by playing their own rhythm within the overall beat. Leaving space
for others to play their rhythms allows all the patients room to find their own
voice through drumming. In addition, patients should experience many positive
physical results. The repetitive low-frequency sounds of the drums will reduce
patients pain perception. The extended playing sessions (at least 20 minutes)
will help increase focus and attention span. The transactional communication
experienced through group music making will trigger serotonin and endorphin
releases, which result in lowered stress response.

TONING TO REALIGN CHAKRAS

Toning to realign chakras can be implemented in three ways: toning
alone, toning for others, and toning with others. There are three ways to learn
how to tone: read toning literature, listen to toning CDs, and/or learn from a
toning practitioner. I used all three of these approaches by reading and
listening to several toning sources (Appendix 8), and by studying with an energy
healer and toning practitioner, Joious Melodi. While everyone may not have
access to energy healers or toning practitioners, toning literature and websites
are very accessible (Appendix 12).
Toning for others does not require a license or certification, but if one
plans to charge for their services some type of training is recommended. My
toning practitioner, Joious Melodi discovered toning while attending the Barbara

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Brennan School of Healing (for more information see website listed in Appendix
12). Melodi found that during her practice of energy healing, she often felt an
urge to make sounds. Melodi then researched toning and learned most of her
information from well-known author, teacher, and toning practitioner Jonathan
Goldmans texts (listed in bibliography) (Melodi 2012: Personal Interview).
From my experience the best way for a patient to learn to tone is to read
the literature and listen to the accompanying CDs. While speaking and working
with toning practitioners in person was helpful to my experience, it is not
necessary if a patient wishes to tone by themselves. There are many variables
of toning available to a patient. However, I recommend that if a patient wants to
learn to tone alone, they should begin by finding a quiet place where they can
focus on their body, thoughts, and emotions. Then, when they are comfortable,
patients should make a sound, and do so as naturally as possible. However, if
this is too unfamiliar for some patients, they can tone along with CDs until they
feel comfortable enough to tone by themselves.
Toning can also be performed with others. Jonathan and Andi
Goldmans book, Chakra Frequencies: Tantra of Sound (2005) focuses on
group toning with couples, families, and other types of groups. This particular
model is well equipped to fit into existing music therapy contexts which are
often conducted in small groups. To have two patients tone together, they
should sit or stand in a comfortable position facing each other. One of the
patients can begin making sounds. Eventually these sounds will focus on the

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same frequency and vowel sound, and then when one patient is ready they will
change their frequency and vowel sound.
Malabika Shaw (toning practitioner) conducts many group toning
sessions at her business Vision Holistic in Newton, Massachusetts, and she
says that,
Without any instruction groups of 15 or more people will end up
toning (making sounds) that produce a beautiful harmony. But it
moves in waves, the group will make a beautiful harmony than
everyone will go their own way and its cacophonous for a while,
and then the harmony returns again. Ive never had to tell a class
it was time to stop toning, they just all quiet down about the right
time, because their body is righted and balanced for the time
being. (Shaw 2013: Interview)
Her experience with group toning indicates a transactional communication
between participants. Making sounds (music) together creates a group intuition
or consciousness that needs no verbal directions.
Native American flute, West African drumming, and toning to realign
chakras provide practical models for Western music therapists to implement
within their practices. The cultural values of connectivity and balance
manifested within the structure, performance, and context of these indigenous
therapies address the root cause of disvalued states. When disconnect and
imbalance between the patient and his community, environment and self (root
cause) are addressed through these indigenous therapies, the patients
disvalued states will transform into a healthy and balanced state. Therefore, it
is through the expression of these cultural values of connectivity and balance
that Native American flute, West African drumming, and toning to realign
chakras can lower blood pressure and pulse; change blood and brain chemistry
137

which boosts the immune system; and alleviate negative feelings that contribute
to stress, anxiety-disorders, depression, and grief.
Indigenous therapies such as Native American flute, West African
drumming, and toning to realign chakras treat the root cause of disvalued states
working towards cures and prevention. Western music therapy, which tends
to treat symptoms of disvalued states, stands to benefit from incorporating
indigenous therapies. Not only do these case studies address disconnect and
imbalance - the root cause of disvalued states, they provide quantifiable
evidence of their efficacy. Even more important, these indigenous therapies are
readily available to patients without physician referral. Patients can take control
of their health care choices.

138

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147

APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1: IRB Approval Letter

148

IRB Final Report Inactivation Letter

149

APPENDIX 2 :
Medicine Wheel
(Dub 2007: 107)

APPENDIX 3:
Sakoieta Widrick Web Page Information (Gives frequencies related to body
organs, planets, etc)
Mother Earth's heartbeat frequency is F# or 378.5 hz
Notes and Frequencies of the Body Organs
Organ
Blood
Adrenals
Kidney
Liver

Frequency/ Note
321.9/ E
492.8/ B
319.88/ Eb
317.83/ Eb

Bladder
Intestines
Lungs
Colon

352/ F
281/ C#
220/ A
176/ F

Gall Bladder
Pancreas
Stomach
Brain

164.3/ E
117.3/ C#
110/ A
315.8/ Eb

Fat Cells
Muscles
Bone

295.8/ C#
324/ E
418.3/ Ab

150

Orbits and Spins of Our Planets

Planet
Earth Note
Sun Note
Moon Note
Mars Note
Mercury Note
Jupiter Note
Venus Note
Saturn Note
Uranus Note
Neptune Note
Pluto Note

Orbit
272.2 (C#)
332.8 (E)
421.3 (Ab)
289.4 (D)
282.4 (D)
367.2 (F#)
442 (A)
295.7 (D#)
414.7 (G)
422.8 (Ab)
280.5 (C#)

Spin
378.5 (F#)
497.1 (B)
None
389.4 (G)
421.3 (A)
473.9 (Bb)
409.1 (G#)
455.4 (A#)
430.8 (Ab)
310.7 (Eb)
486.2 (B)

Chakra Energy Centers of Our Bodies

Chakra

Frequency/ Note

Transpersonal
Crown
Unknown
Third Eye
Psychic Center
Unknown
Unknown
Throat
Thymus
Heart
Solar Plexus
Diaphragm
Polarity
Root

273 (1:15) C# (Earth Orbit 272)

480 (15:1) B
445 (1:9) Bb (Venus Orbit 442)
448 (14:1) A
416 (13:1) Ab (Uranus Orbit 415)
410 (1:10) Ab ( Venus Spin 409)
372 (1:11) G# (Earth Spin 378)
384 (12:1) G
352 (11:1) F#
341 (1:12) F
320 (10:1) Eb
315 (1:13) D#
288 (14:1) D (Mars Orbit 289)
256 (1:1) C

Comparison of Parts of the Body Based on the Speed of Sound

Through Each Organ to the Above Chart (1996)
Function of the Body

Note

Frequency

Lungs
Stomach
Bone
Spleen
Adrenals,Thyroid, Parathyroid
Personality
Circulation, Sex
Small Intestines

A
A
Ab
B
B
C+
C#
C#

220*
110*
418.3
492
492.8*
264
586
281.6*

151

Pancreas
Fat Cells
Kidney
Liver
Blood
Muscles
Gall Bladder
Bladder
Colon

C#
C#
Eb
Eb
Eb
E
E
F#
F#

117.3
295.8
319.88*
317.83*
321.9
324
164.3*
352*
176*

Kahonrotern:ni The Mohawk Flute. http://www.mohawkflute.com/itoolkit.

asp?pg=Healing_Ability_of_the_Flute, accessed November 26, 2011.

APPENDIX 4:
Native American Flute CDs and songs analyzed for tempo/rhythm
#
1

CD
Desert Dance

Desert Dance

Understanding the
Gift
4 Understanding the
Gift
5 Understanding the
Gift
6 Understanding the
Gift
7 Understanding the
Gift
8 Understanding the
Gift
9 Understanding the
Gift
10 Understanding the
Gift
11 Understanding the
Gift
12 Earth Spirit
13 Earth Spirit
14 Native American
Flute
15 Native American

Song
Mountain Blue Bird
Calling
Yellow EagleFeather Dance
Lakota Courting
Song
Zuni Sunrise
Kiowa Love Song
Sioux Chant
Medicine Song
Lonesome Flute
song
Prayer
Kokos Lament
Childs Play
Lakota Wedding
Song
Star Chant
Big Lake Song
Water Relatives
152

Artist
R. Carlos
Nakai
R. Carlos
Nakai
John
Vames
John
Vames
John
Vames
John
Vames
John
Vames
John
Vames
John
Vames
John
Vames
John
Vames
R. Carlos
Nakai
R. Carlos
Nakai
Jody T.
Gaskin
Jody T.

Tempo/Rhythm
66
63
104
76
52
66
88
72
60
58
76
71
66
69
No definite

16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23

Flute
Native American
Flute
Native American
Flute
Native American
Flute
Native American
Flute
Native American
Flute
Native American
Flute
Native American
Flute
Changes Vol. 1

Northern Lights
Thunder Beings
My Love Across the
Lake
Summer Sky
Winter Cloud
The First Blade of
Grass
Blue Sky
10/18/82

24 Changes Vol. 1

11/11/82

25 Changes Vol. 1

11/20/82

26 Changes Vol. 1

12/13/82

27 Changes Vol. 1

12/13/82

28 Changes Vol. 1

12/20/82

29 Ancestral
Memories
30 Ancestral
Memories
31 Ancestral
Memories
32 Ancestral
Memories
33 Ancestral
Memories
34 Ancestral
Memories
35 Ancestral
Memories
36 Ancestral
Memories
37 Ancestral
Memories
38 Ancestral

Winter Sleep
Memories
Raven
Mendenhall Ice
Light By Fire
Gooch (Wolf)
Grandfathers
Pride
Woodpecker
Home
153

Gaskin
Jody T.
Gaskin
Jody T.
Gaskin
Jody T.
Gaskin
Jody T.
Gaskin
Jody T.
Gaskin
Jody T.
Gaskin
Jody T.
Gaskin
R. Carlos
Nakai
R. Carlos
Nakai
R. Carlos
Nakai
R. Carlos
Nakai
R. Carlos
Nakai
R. Carlos
Nakai
Morgan
Fawcett
Morgan
Fawcett
Morgan
Fawcett
Morgan
Fawcett
Morgan
Fawcett
Morgan
Fawcett
Morgan
Fawcett
Morgan
Fawcett
Morgan
Fawcett
Morgan

tempo
No definite
tempo
72
No definite
tempo
76
No definite
tempo
112
70
66
90
80
72
72
80
66
63
60
66
72
70
60
66
72
63

39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50

Memories
Ancestral
Memories
Ancestral
Memories
Ancestral
Memories
Ancestral
Memories
Ancestral
Memories
Ancestral
Memories
Tears of Our
Fathers
Tears of Our
Fathers
Tears of Our
Fathers
Tears of Our
Fathers
Tears of Our
Fathers
Tears of Our
Fathers

Savannah Song
At YatxI (Children)
Sunrise
Sunset
Stumbling
Zion
Children Dance
Memories
Tent Town
Ancient Ones
Passage
Story Tellers Melody

154

Fawcett
Morgan
Fawcett
Morgan
Fawcett
Morgan
Fawcett
Morgan
Fawcett
Morgan
Fawcett
Morgan
Fawcett
Morgan
Fawcett
Morgan
Fawcett
Morgan
Fawcett
Morgan
Fawcett
Morgan
Fawcett
Morgan
Fawcett

60
69
72
72
No definite
tempo
No definite
tempo
144
58
62
63
94
66

APPENDIX 5: Drums used in African Drumming Class

Djembe with csing csing

Kriti (log drum)

Djun djun Family

Sangba

Djun djun

155

Kenkeni

APPENDIX 6:
Yoga Asanas (poses) related to each chakra (there are many poses applicable
for each chakra that I practiced in my session with Martha McQuaid)
Muladhara First Chakra
Tadasana Mountain Pose

Svadhisthana Second Chakra

Eka Pada Kapotasana Pidgeon
Pose (modified as seated)

Anahata Fourth Chakra and

Visuddha Fifth Chakra
Backbends modified with blanket

Manipura Third Chakra

Ardha Navsana Half-boat

Modified backbend with blocks

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Anja Sixth Chakra and Sahaasra Seventh Chakra

Sasanga Rabbit Pose

APPENDIX 7:
Kirlian photography of metal key

From Kirlian Photography website: http://mujige.com/812

APPENDIX 8: Toning CDs

CD Title
Artist/Compiler
Sleeping Angels
Peaceful Journey
Sounds Llike Om
The Creative and
Healing Power of the
Voice
Tantra of Sound

Jenny James
Jonathan
Goldman
Dick D. Ruiter

Release
Date
2004
2005

Key/Note Center

2005

C Major & D Major

B-flat Major

Laurel Elizabeth
Keyes

2008

Varying keys
Major and Minor
No key/note center

Jonathan
Goldman

2008

No key/note center

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APPENDIX 9: Chakra Lotus with Seed Vowel Sounds

MULADHARA (FIRST CHAKRA)
CHAKRA)
Seed Sound: Lang

SWATHISTANA (SECOND

MANIPURA (THRID CHAKRA)

Seed Sound: Rang

ANAHATA (FOURTH CHAKRA

Seed Sound: Yang

VISHUDDA
(FIFTH CHAKRA)
Seed Sound: Hang

Seed Sound: Vang

AJNA
(SIXTH CHAKRA)
Seed Sound: OM

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SAHASRARA
(SEVENTH CHAKRA)
Seed Sound: Mm or Nn

APPENDIX 10 - Native American Flute Therapy Resources

Access Music Therapy Ojibwe Music with a Purpose
http://musictherapyinduluthsuperior.wordpress.com/
Cancer survivors group flute circle
http://beaconnews.suntimes.com/lifestyles/10352153-423/nativeamerican-flute-circle-breath-of-fresh-air-to-community.html
Chris Ti Coom Flutes http://www.christicoom.com/
Encinitas Educational Foundation: Native American Flutes Program
http://www.encinitaseducationalfoundation.org/school-programs/schoolprograms-2/indian-flutes
Flute Haven Native Flute School http://www.flutehaven.com/
Flutopedia Encyclopedia for the Native American Flute
http://www.flutopedia.com/index.htm
Native Flute School http://zioncanyonnativefluteschool.com/about.htm
One Heart Creations Website (Morgan Fawcett)
http://morganfawcett.vpweb.com/?prefix=www
Voices and Visions: Michael B. Demaria
http://voicesandvisions.skybleedsscorpio.com/html/dr__demaria.html
Voice of the Wind: Native American Flute Songs by Bryan Burton and
Maria Pondish Kreiter (World Music Press Danbury, CT: 1998) is a
guide for music educators to present a unit on Native American flute
music in the music or general education classes.
Dub dissertation 2007 (see bibliography) presents a way to implement
Native American flute curriculum for indigenous students in an
indigenous school
APPENDIX 11 Drumming Circle Therapy Resources
Afrobeat: The Science of Drumming
http://afrobeat.com.au/The_Science_of_Drumming.php
Arthur Hulls website Village Music Circles http://drumcircle.com/
Benefits of Traditional Drumming in Music Therapy
http://musictherapydrumming.com/benefits-of-traditional-drumming-inmusic-therapy/
Drum Therapy: Creative Education and rehabilitation
http://drumtherapy.co.uk/sitemap
Drumming Therapy
http://www.alternativedepressiontherapy.com/drumming-therapy.html
Jahruba drum teacher located in Norman, OK http://www.jahruba.com/
USA & Global Drum Circle Finder http://drumcircles.net/#circles
APPENDIX 12 Toning Therapy Resources
Barbara Brennan School of Healing http://www.barbarabrennan.com/
Chakra Balancing and Toning Class
http://www.facebook.com/events/443660245660618/

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Healing & Abundance: Sound Healing for Health

http://marguerita.com.au/sound-healing/toning/
Innerstillness http://www.innerstillness.com/5.html
Joious Melodi (Joyce Eels) Massage and Energy Bodywork
http://heartcenteredbodywork.com/
Jonathan Goldman: Healing Sounds http://www.healingsounds.com/
Nirvana Wellness Center http://www.nirvanawellnessnj.com/chakraresonance-and-toning.html
Socrates Healing http://socrateshealing.com/my-personal-blog/vocaltoning-the-chakras.html
Sophia Songhealer http://www.songhealer.net/workshop.htm
Sound Healing Sessions for Animals
http://www.soundhealingangelcoaching.com/AnimalCommunicationSoun
dHealing.html
Through a Dogs Ear http://throughadogsear.com/why-do-dogs-howlinterview-with-joshua-leeds/
Using Vocal Toning to Open and Balance Chakras http://www.theenergy-healing-site.com/chakra-tones.html

APPENDIX 13 - Music Therapy Websites

American Medical Student Association ICAM (Integrative,
Complementary, and Alternative Medicine)
http://www.amsa.org/AMSA/Homepage/About/Committees/StudentLife/I
CAM.aspx
American Music Therapy Association http://www.musictherapy.org/
Complementary and Alternative Medicine Meetings & Conferences
http://www.researchraven.com/conferences/category/complementaryand-alternative-medicine.aspx
Music Therapy in Oklahoma http://www.facebook.com/pages/MusicTherapy-in-Oklahoma/101259253280357
Music Therapy, Vibrational Medicine, Sound Therapy, Meditation Music,
and Entrainment
http://www.peacefulmind.com/music_therapy.htm#Entrainment
National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine
http://www.nccam.nih.gov/
National Standards Board for Therapeutic Musicians
http://www.therapeuticmusician.com/
The Certification Board for Music Therapists http://www.cbmt.org/
The Music for Healing and Transition Program Inc.(How to Become a
Certified Music Practitioner) http://www.mhtp.org/

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