TOPIC 25

EL PROCESO DE ENSEANZA Y APRENDIZAJE EN LA LENGUA EXTRANJERA CENTRADO EN EL

ALUMNO: FUNDAMENTOS Y APLICACIONES. LA IDENTIFICACION DE LAS MOTIVACIONES Y
ACTITUDES ANTE LA LENGUA INGLESA. APLICACIONES PRACTICAS.
THE LEARNER-CENTERED FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING: FOUNDATIONS
AND USES. IDENTIFICATION OF MOTIVATIONS AND ATTITUDES TOWARDS ENGLISH: ITS
APPLICATIONS.
0. INTRODUCTION
1. LEARNER-CENTRED FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING:
1.1. Advantages.
1.2. Theoretical bases.
1.3. Methodology in a learner-centred curriculum
1.4. Materials in a learner-centred curriculum.
- Authenticity
- Learning how to learn
- Hetereogeneity
1.5. Assessment and evaluation in a learner-centred curriculum.
1.6. The roles of the teacher.
1.7. Potential problems.
- Learner resistance.
- External restraints.
- Demands on the teacher.
2. IDENTIFICATION OF MOTIVATIONS AND ATTITUDES TOWARDS ENGLISH: ITS APPLICATIONS.
2.1. Techniques for identification of motivations and attitudes: needs analysis and descriptions of
pupils.
2.2. Applications.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brewster, J.; Ellis, G. and Girard, D. The Primary English Teacher's Guide. Penguin. London 1992.
Brumfit, C.J., and Johnson K. (eds) The Communicative Approach to Language Learning. OUP. 1979.
Campbell, C. and Kryszewska, H. Learner-Based Teaching. OUP. Oxford, 1992.
Harmer, J. The Practice of English Language Teaching. Lon-man. London, 1983.
Halliwell, S. Teaching English iii the Primary Classroom. Longman. London, 1992.
Littlewood, W. Communicative Language Teaching. CUP. Cambridge, 1981.
Nunan, D. The Learner-Centred Curriculum. CUP. Cambridge, 1988.
Richards, J.C., and Rodgers, T.S. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. CUP. 1986.
Savignon, S. Communicative Competence: Theory and Classroom Practice. Addison-Wesley. Reading, Mass. , 1983.
Widowson, H.G. Teaching Language as Communication. OUP. Oxford, 1978.

TOPIC 25
EL PROCESO DE ENSEANZA Y APRENDIZAJE EN LA LENGUA EXTRANJERA CENTRADO EN EL
ALUMNO: FUNDAMENTOS Y APLICACIONES. LA IDENTIFICACION DE LAS MOTIVACIONES Y
ACTITUDES ANTE LA LENGUA INGLESA. APLICACIONES PRACTICAS.
THE LEARNER-CENTERED FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING: FOUNDATIONS
AND USES. IDENTIFICATION OF MOTIVATIONS AND ATTITUDES TOWARDS ENGLISH: ITS
APPLICATIONS.
0. INTRODUCTION.
Campbell (1992) has stated that the main principle in learner-centred teaching is that all class activities
can be done using information that the learners themselves bring to the class. It is true that humanistic
approaches1 also accept active pupil involvement in learning methodology, but learner-centred teaching
is more radical because it believes that every single one activity can be based on the knowledge,
experience, and expertise of our pupils.
Learner-centred teaching can be used in different ways in the English classroom. It can be any of the
following:
- the only method used in the classroom
- a complement of other materials, providing topicality and practising language not covered by other
materials
- a set of remedial procedures to use in unpredicted situations such as poor attendance
1. LEARNER-CENTRED FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING:
We next study tile most important aspects of a learner-centred curriculum:
- advantages
- methodology
- materials
- assessment
- the role of the teacher
- problems
1.1. Advantages.
Campbell (1992) mentions nine advantages of using learner-centred teaching:
- the potential of the learner
- constant needs analysis
- topicality
- previous learning experience
- learners as authors
- pace
- the element of surprise
- peer teaching and correction
- group solidarity
The potential of the learner. Our pupils bring a lot with them into the classroom. They have their own
ideas, beliefs, attitudes and interests. These things are very important for them, so, if they can see them
reflected in the way they learn English and the activities within the classroom they will be more motivated
to use language for effective communication.

Humanistic approaches consider the following principles important: the development of human values; growth in
self-awareness and in the understanding of others; sensitivity to human feelings and emotions; active pupil
involvement in learning. See unit 13 for further information.

It is easier for a pupil to talk freely about a topic he himself has chosen, and therefore, he can draw on his
knowledge to talk about, than about a topic which may be totally irrelevant. The way to fluency is more
direct this way.
It is also important not to forget that a great part of the knowledge our pupils bring with them into the
classroom is their mother language and culture. Learner-centred teaching encourages them to incorporate
this into their target language competence.
Constant needs analisis. In learner-centred teaching, analysis is a continually developing process.
Activities are chosen to met the current needs of its members. As our pupils carry out an activity, we spot
the problems they have and introduce suitable practice activities in subsequent lessons. As we can see,
the analysis never stops.
Topicality. Learner-centred teaching allows us to introduce those issues our pupils are interested in into
the classroom. This may be used to supplement or replace unsuitable coursebooks topics.
Previous learning experience. A learner-centred approach offers an open-ended experience to our pupils.
We give them a basic framework that they must complete according to their interests and needs. This way,
the same framework can evolve in completely different ways with different groups. Even if we repeat the
same activity it may be different if the members of the group are different.
Learners as authors. Language practice is doubled in learner-centred learning because our pupils are
involved not only in using the materials but also in preparing them as well. They will be interested in
seeing how other people will use the materials they have prepared so they have a real -life reason to pay
attention in the feed-back stage.
Pace. Preparation work is longer in learner-centred activities. However, as the activity progresses, the
pace increases. Also, the involvement of our pupils is total from the very beginning.
The element of surprise. The fact that pupils in a learner-centre teaching situation do not have the
materials in advance, adds a strong element of surprise to the lesson. Not only do our pupils not know
what is coming before the lesson starts, but they are often unable to predict how the lesson will d elop,
and how the material they have produced will be used.
Peer teaching and correction. Learner-centred teaching encourages pupils to work together and learn
from each other, thus increasing their level of socialization. Activities are structured in such a way that
our pupils have to pay attention to what their colleagues are saying. They can teach and correct each
other. This working together means that the class can pool whatever individual linguistic resources they
have.
Group solidarity. The fact that our pupil's work together in activities which are based in their interests
and needs will tend to create a spirit of group solidarity. Learners are working with one another, not in
competition with one another and therefore the atmosphere of the classroom is one of really purposeful
commitment to learning English.
1.2. Theoretical bases.
The basic principle of permanent education in the General Law of Spanish Educational System (LOGSE)
can only be achieved if the instructional programmes are centred around learners' needs. Only in this
way should education develop in our pupils the capacity to control their own destiny. Therefore, the
learner should be seen as being at the centre of the educational process. Bearing this in mind, the
following principles of learner-centred curricula can be identified:
pupils who value their own experience as a resource for further learning or whose experience is valued
by others are better learners
pupils learn best when the learning objectives are congruent with their current self-concept
pupils react to experience as they perceive it, not as we present it
pupils do not learn when they are over-stimulated or stressed

pupils learn best when the content is relevant to past experience or present concerns and the learning
process is relevant to life experiences
pupils who have learnt how to learn are the most productive learners
pupils learn best when new information is presented through a variety of sensory modes
We next study how these principles are reflected in all aspects of pupil-centred teaching.
1.3. Methodology in a learner-centred curriculum.
Traditional approaches to language teaching have tended to separate considerations of syllabus design
from methodology. Syllabuses specify the "what" of teaching whereas methodology specifies the "how".
In recent times, the shortcomings of this lack of integration have become apparent, and there have been
calls for a more integrated approach. In learner-centred models, all the elements are in interaction and
each may influence the other. This change in perspective has been prompted more by the development
of communicative language teaching than anything else: for communicative language teaching to
become a reality, there was a need for methodologies to reflect curriculum goals.
A communicative curriculum uses pedagogic tasks which must be linked in principled ways to the
real-world tasks pupils might be required to engage in outside the classroom. Learnercentred
approaches draw on these activities and in studies on classroom acquisition which may provide
psycholinguistically motivated learning tasks. But this is not enough because so far the language learner,
who is the centre of our methodology, has been neglected. What happens if our pupils do not see as
helping him learn activities which we consider to be communicative and psycholinguistically justified?
If we want to adopt both a communicative and a pupil-centred approach we may find ourselves in a big
problem. Some pupils favour more traditional learning activities rather than communicative type
activities. An analysis of pupils data reveals that there may be four types of learners:
- concrete learners: they prefer learning by games, pictures, 'Video, talking in pairs, learning through the
use of the cassette ...
- analytical learners: they prefer studying grammar, studying English books, studying alone, finding their
own mistakes, having problems to work on ...
- communicative learners: they enjoy learning by observing and listening to native speakers, talking to
friends in English, watching TV in English ...
- authority-oriented learner: they like the teacher to explain everything, writing everything in a notebook,
having their own textbook, learning to read ...
As we can see it is very difficult to use a communicative approach with analytical andauthority-oriented
learners if, at the same time, we want to follow the principles of learner centred teaching. These pupils
may say things like "I don't want to clap and sing. I want to lean English. " These differences must be
taken into consideration and a process of negotiating learning activities should begin.
If our pupils do not believe in the learning value of communicative activities we can begin by setting
traditional learning activities, and gradually try and move our pupils towards acceptance of more
communicative activities. The danger here is that our pupils get used to these traditional activities and do
not want to change into communicative ones later on. For this reason some teachers prefer to make quite
clear their expectations from the beginning. Whatever choice is made we must provide the maximum
amount of information to learners, and set up mechanisms to facilitate negotiation and consultation.
1.4. Materials in a learner-centred curriculum.
Pupil-centred teaching materials are by definition limited to those produced by the learners in class.
Therefore paper and pen are usually all that is needed though the use of more sophisticated equipment
such as photocopiers, audio or video recorders and so on may be motivating.

The focus will be on assisting our pupils to do in class what they will be able to do outside, the materials
should reflect the outside world. To do this, they should have a degree of authenticity. The materials
should also foster independent learning (learning how to learn) and, as all our classes have mixed ability
groups of learners, materials should be designed so that they are capable of being used in a variety of
ways and also at different proficiency levels.
We now study these characteristics in detail.
1.4.1. Authenticity.
Nunan (1988) describes authenticity as follows:
"Authentic materials are usually defined as those which have been produced for purposes other than to
teach language. They can be culled from many different sources: video clips, recordings of authentic
interactions, extracts from television, radio and newspapers, signs, maps and charts, photographs and
pictures, timetables and schedules. "
Despite the difficulties associated with the use of authentic materials, they are easily justified on the
grounds that specially scripted texts are artificial. Comprehending and manipulating this type of texts does
not mean that our pupils will comprehend and manipulate language in real communicative situations and
this is one of the principles of communicative language teaching that we have adopted.
While authenticity is generally thought of in terms of the materials used in a given teaching activity, there
are other factors which may be equally important. Candlin and Edelhoff (1982) suggest that there are at
least four types of authenticity which are important in our classrooms:
- authenticity of goal
- authenticity of environment
- authenticity of text
- authenticity of task
Nunan (1988) thinks that the most important type of authenticity is what he called "learner authenticity".
By this he means "the realisation and acceptance by the learner of the authenticity of a given text, task, set of
materials or learning activity". If we want our pupils to think that the materials we use are authentic they
must fulfil two conditions:
1. They must be recognised by learners as having a legitimate place in the language classroom.
2. They must engage the interests of our pupils by relating to their interests, background knowledge and
experience, and through these, stimulate genuine communication.
It is important to make our pupils realise that they are learning something. This is especially easy with
traditional activities, such as drills or translations, but new, communicative activities may seem to them a
waste of time. In some activities we can have, as Gavin Bolton said of drama, a unique pedagogic
situation, where a teacher sees himself as teaching, but our pupils do not see themselves as learning.
The second condition is easily fulfilled if we take into account our pupils characteristics and needs.
The problem is that these two conditions can be mutually exclusive. Television can be an engaging
experience for our pupils, at home, but they may not legitimate its presence in the classroom. In this
case we must found a process of negotiation, through which our pupils are gradually sensitised to the
new element.
Those who take a hard line on authenticity insist that these should not be edited in any way. However,
especially with our pupils, who are beginners, it may be necessary to edit authentic materials in a way.
Edited materials can be classified into simulated authentic and artificial.
1.4.2. Learning how to learn.
Learning to learn approaches take into account that different pupils have different ways of learning (as
we have seen when discussing learners' types). This means that they also have different preferences
regarding learning materials. Therefore, the materials we use must aim to develop self-awareness and
gradually lead pupils to a conscious development of their own learning strategies, so that they become
more effective and independent learners. This entails using materials that enable our pupils to acquire
the following strategies:

1. Metacognitive strategies, such as planning for learning, hypothesizing, self-assessment and reflection
on the learning process.
2. Cognitive strategies, such as sorting, classifying, matching, predicting, using dictionaries, repeating ...
3. Social mediation strategies, such a's collaborating and peer-correction, which may be developed by
means of materials designed for pair or group work.
4. Communication strategies, that is, using phrases to enable them to participate and maintain
communication in English, e.g., Can you say that again, please?
Acquiring learning to learn processes develops our pupils' curiosity and fosters a positive attitude
towards foreign language learning. This is extremely important with our pupils as one of the main aims of
Primary foreign languages education is to familiarize our pupils with English. This will prepare them for
more formal and exam-oriented courses in secondary school.
1.4.3. Heterogeneity.
Heterogeneous materials can be used at different levels of proficiency. As all classes are composed of
mixed-ability groups, homogeneous materials cannot provide effective practice for all our pupils; they
may be too difficult for the weak pupils and may lack in volume or challenge for the stronger. The use of
heterogeneous exercises not only ensure that a higher proportion of our pupils get learning value out of
the practice, it also has a positive effect on our pupils' attitude as responses at different levels may be
right.
The previous characteristics should be present in learner-centred materials.
1.5. Assessment and evaluation in a learner-centred curriculum.
No model would be complete without an evaluation component. We normally use the terms evaluation
and assessment interchangeably, but they may mean different things for theoreticians. Assessment is
taken to refer to the set of processes by which we judge pupil learning. Evaluation, on the other hand, is
wider term, entailing assessment but also some additional processes which are designed to assist us in
interpreting and acting on the results of our assessment.
In any pupil-centred system, localised evaluation processes involving both teachers and pupils need to be
developed. Our pupils should learn how to assess their own progress, and also evaluate, from their own
perspectives, other elements within the curriculum including, materials, activities, and learning
arrangements. Such pupil-centred evaluation will assist in the development of a critical self-consciousness
by learners of their own role as active agents during the learning process. This is one of the main goals of
a pupil-centred approach.
Self-assessment at basic level should not take a complex form. Our pupils' learner diary typical sheet may
take the following form:
PUPIL'S DIARY
Completa una hoja cada semana.
1. Esta semana lie estudiado ....
2. Esta semana he aprendido ...
3. Esta semana he usado el ingls en ...
4. Esta semana he hablado con ...
5. Esta semana he visto los siguientes programas en in 16s ...
6. Esta semana he cometido estos errores ...
7. Mis dificultades han sido ...
8. Me eustaria saber ..
9. La semana que viene voy a aprender ...

1.6. The role of the teacher.

Whithin a pupil-centred system, the teacher has a central role to play in all aspects of the
curriculum. Accordina to Nunan, in traditional curricular systems, the teacher is reduced to
the role of servant to a centralised curriculum process in which decisions about what will be
taught, how it will be taught and how it. will be assessed are made by an authority remote
from the point of lesson delivery.
In a pupil-centred system such a control is undesirable. Our curriculum sets a group of
shared minimum contents which may well be differentiated in terms of topics, themes,
materials, learning tasks according to the particular teaching situation we are in. The main
role of the teacher in a learner-centred approach will be that of curriculum developer. He
must adapt the curriculum to his pupils' characteristics (third level of concreteness). He must
adapt the planned curriculum, which is set down in curriculum documents, to his teaching
situation, implemented curriculum. Finally, he will assess what the pupils actually learn
(assessed curriculum).
Derived from this main role of curriculum developer, we may find others such as:
- participant
- resource
- monitor or assessor
As active participants we contribute ideas and opinions or relate personal experiences, helping to bridge
the traditional gap between pupil and teacher. In learner-based teaching, the teaching and learning are
taking place on both sides.
We are also a resource, answering our pupils questions on vocabulary, grammar of activity procedures.
By providing what our pupils ask for, rather than what we think they need, we can facilitate more effective
learning.
At other times we will be assessors or monitors, checking what learners have produced. This assessing
could be overt or covert. In communicative activities it is not very convenient to interrupt our pupils.
1.7. Potential problems.
Campbell finds three main problems:
- learner resistance
- external restraints
- demands on the teacher
1.7.1. Learner resistance.
Learner resistance arise with groups of learners who have specific preconceptions about the learning
process. This will not normally happen with our youngest pupils as it is the first time they are learning
English, but it may well happen if they have had a different teacher during the second and third cycles of
primary education. Some learners will feel that they are only learning when doing the type of activities
they are used to. A gradual introduction of learner-centred activities may convince our pupils of their
value.
1.7.2. External~restraints.
Even if you are required to follow a syllabus which, despite having been approved by .iie School Board
and the teaching staff, you do not quite like, you may find that it is still possible to cover parts of the
syllabus using pupil-centred teaching activities.
1.7.3. Demands on the teacher.
If we follow a pupil-centred approach we are faced with the responsibility for the sequence
of events in ;he classroom, a role which was normally left to the coursebook in conventional
teaching. It is therefore essential to keep a record of all work done. We can make this in a
pupil-centred way as well if the pupils collaborate in the production of a regular class
newsletter, which serves as a summary of all that has been achieved over a period of time,
and reassures all concerned that progress is being made.

2. IDENTIFICATION OF MOTIVATIONS AND ATTITUDES TOWARDS ENGLISH: ITS

APPLICATIONS.
We have already studied the main features of a learner-centred curriculum. We now know
that the contents of a learner-centred course should be justified in terms of relevance and
motivational potential for our pupils. We must now analyze procedure which have the
potential for generating different curricula for learners with different motivations and
attitudes towards Enalish. The starting point is generally the collection of various types of
biographical data.
This description of our pupils is obviously the same one we need in order to select and
design materials for them:
DESCRIPTION OF PUPILS
1. Age:
2.Number- of boys and girls:
3.Familiar background:
4.Parents' occupation:
5.Motivation/attitude:
6.Knowledge of the world:
7.Knowledge of English:
8.Interests:
9.Pupils with special needs:
10.Pupils with discipline problems:
11.Based on the above, what conclusions can we draw about the kind of materials that would be
suitable for our pupils?
Once we know our pupils we can begin a needs analysis procedure to get to know their motivations and
attitudes towards English.
Needs-analysis made its appearance during the 1970s in language planning. It serves
three main purposes:
- obtaining wider input into the content, design and implementation of a language programme
- developing goals, objectives and content
- providing data for reviewing and evaluating existing programmes
Initially needs assessment was linked to accountability and relevance in political terms rather than to
educational aims. Nowadays, however, taking account of our pupils' needs when designing the cours of
instruction is well established.
Our pupils' need can be divided into two groups:
- objective
- subjective
Objective needs are those which can be diagnosed by teachers on the basis of the analysis of personal
data about learners along with information about their language proficiency and patterns of language use.
Subjective needs, which are the motivations, attitudes, expectations towards English we are more
interested in, are more difficult to diagnose, even by our pupils themselves.
Objective needs analysis results in content specifications derived from an analysis of the communicative
situations our pupils are likely to find themselves. As they are derived from the language situation, they
can be carried out in the absence of our pupils. On the other hand, subjective needs are derived from the
learners themselves. While there is a tendency to equate objective needs with the specification of content,
and subjective needs with the specification of methodology, the two need not be seen as synonymous. In
learner-centred approaches techniques for subjective needs analysis will therefore figure as prominently
as techniques for objective needs analysis.

2.1. Techniques for identification of motivation and attitudes.

Techniques for data collection and course planning can be ranged on a continuum from formal to
informal. Formal techniques include standardised interviews and proficiency assessments, while informal
techniques include such things as classroom observation and self-rating scales for use by learners in
evaluating learning activities.
At the initial data-collecting stage, we will probably not need all the data listed in the following survey. It
may be interesting, however, to see the wealth of information we can get from our pupils referring to their
subjective needs (motivations, attitudes and expectations). This survey is a practical application of the
learner-centred approach theory in relation to the identification of our pupils' motivations and attitudes
towards English.
2.2. Applications.
The following questionnaires have been adapted from Brindley [Hunan, (1988:187)]:
A. Dime si el siguiente use del ingls es importante para ti. (Mucho, regular, nada)
1. Tell people about yourself ...
2. Tell people about your family ...
2. Tell people about your interests ...
3. Use buses/trains/ferries ...
4. Find new places in the city ..
5. Receive telephone calls ...
6. Make telephone calls ...
7. Join hobby or interest groups ...
8. Watch TV ...
9. Listen to the radio ...
10. Read newspapers/books/magazines ...
11. Give/accept/refuse invitations ...
Elige los cinco usos que quieras aprender en primer lugar.
1
2
3
4
5
B. Cmo to gusta aprender? Contesta SI/NO
1. In class do you like learning
a. individually?
b. in pairs?
c. in small groups?
d. in one large group?
2. Do you like learning
a. by memory?
b. by problem solving?
c. by getting information for yourself?
d. by listening?
e. by reading?
f. by copying from the board?
g. by listening and taking notes?
h. by reading and making notes?
i. by repeating what you hear?
3. When you speak do you want to he corrected
a. immediately, in front of everyone?
or ...
b. later, at the end of the activity, in front of everyone?
c. later, in private?
4.Do you mind if other pupils sometimes correct your written work?

Do you mind if the teacher sometimes asks you to correct your own work?
Do you mind if the teacher asks you to correct some other pupils' work?
5. Do you like learning from
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

television/video films'?
radio?
tapes/cassettes? (e. g. language lab, language masters, cassette players)
written material?
the blackboard?
pictures/posters?

6. Do you find these activities useful?

Role play
Language games
Songs
Talking with and listening to other students
Memorising conversations/dialogues
Getting information from guest speakers
Getting information from planned visits
7. How do you like to find out how much your English is improving?
By .....

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

written tasks set by the teacher?

oral language samples taken and assessed by the teacher?
checking you own progress by making tapes, listening to the critically and comparing them?
devising your own written tasks for completion by yourself and other students?
seeing if you can use the language you have learnt in real-life situations?

8. Do you get a sense of satisfaction from:

a. having your work graded?
b. being told that you have made progress?
c. feeling more confident in situations that you found difficult before?
In this way we can get practical information about our pupils' motivations and attitudes, enabling us to use
the principles of learner-centred teaching in our classroom so that we could make the most of its
advantages. For example we can use the following learnercentred activity in order to practise the simple
present and physical description vocabulary.
First, we draw a circle on the board. Secondly, we tell our pupils they are going to build this into a
character deciding previously whether it is a man or a woman. Next, we continue to ask questions to build
up the physical representation on the board, e.g. Does he have a moustache?, Is he fat? ...
We continue to ask questions about where he lives, his job, interests, family and so on. We point out
contradictions e.g. he is 16 and father of three. As our pupils come with suggestions the pace increases and our
pupils will point out contradictions and suggests alternatives by themselves.
3. BIBLIOGRAPHY.