Geoarchaeology and Archaeomineralogy (Eds. R. I. Kostov, B. Gaydarska, M. Gurova). 2008.

Proceedings of the International Conference, 29-30 October 2008 Sofia, Publishing House St. Ivan Rilski, Sofia, 211-215.

SPECIAL STONES IN PREHISTORIC PRACTICES: CASES FROM BULGARIA

Maya Avramova
Centre of Thracology Prof. Alexander Fol, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1000 Sofia
ABSTRACT. The flint and other stone artefacts are among the most numerous finds excavated during the investigation of prehistoric sites
settlements, necropolis, sanctuaries and others. Their typology, technology of manufacture and functional application has been a topic of special
studies which reveal significant parts of the production, economy and organization of the prehistoric society. Part of this material is presented in
complexes, related to the faith and customs of the ancient agrarians and shepherds. To the flint and other stone tools one must add stones as raw
material, which are also part of the sacred set of objects used in specific rituals and deposited in burials, as well as in the bases of houses, furnaces
and sanctuaries from the Neolithic to the Late Antiquity. The special application of simple flint and other stones, as well as raw stone material has
been traced in several aspects: as amulets, votives, insignia and ornaments; as attribute (inventory) in the funeral rite; as object of sacrifice.

Every small stone can be the primary rock,

if one can believe it
Alexander Fol Orphica Magica I, 77

shining polished surface and without traces of utilization

(Ivanov, Avramova, 1997, 31, 41; Kostov, Pelevina, 2006, 27).
In the settlements and necropolis from the Bronze Age stone
adze-hammers without traces of utilization and zoomorphic
scepters were found, owned by the notables the social
structure such are the Early Bronze Age zoomorphic
scepters found at Drama (Yambol District) and in a grave near
the village of Kyulevcha (Shumen District), as well as the stone
adze-scepters from the Late Bronze Age from Pliska and the
village of Lyulin.

The flint and other stone artefacts are among the most
numerous finds excavated during the investigation of
prehistoric sites settlements, necropolis, sanctuaries and
others. Their typology, technology of manufacture and
functional application has been a topic of special studies which
reveal significant parts of the production, economy and
organization of the prehistoric society.
To the flint and other stone tools one must add stones as raw
material (most often boulders), which are also part of the
sacred set of objects used in specific rituals and deposited in
burials, as well as in the bases of houses, furnaces and
sanctuaries from the Neolithic to the Late Antiquity.

Unique is the hoard, found either in the context of a

settlement or necropolis in the area Zhelyuskova Koriya
(village Elhovo, Stara Zagora District). The artefacts were
found in a small lump of earth with pieces of red ochre. Among
the artefacts is a mace from white well polished marble, a
miniature carnelian axe and an amber bead. A groove has
been made on the mace probably as a place for the axe which
has been fixed by some kind of plant resin. The craftsmanship
of the objects from rare and hard for cutting materials as well
as the lack of traces for their utilization gives the right to
suggest their function as insignia, which have been buried in
the ground and covered by red ochre as signs for the sacred
character of the action of their hiding (Avramova, 2002, 1722).

The special application of simple flint and other stones, as

well as raw stone material has been traced in several aspects:
as amulets, votives, insignia and jewellery; as attribute
(inventory) in the funeral rite; as object of sacrifice.
The first group consists of miniature adzes and zoomorphic
amulets, made of nephrite and other minerals or rocks, and
found mainly in settlements from the Neolithic, as well as of
maces and adzes-scepters. The stone adze-scepter is
preserved as a ruler (king) insignia through millennia, despite
the appearance of copper and bronze tools. There are
numerous examples, but just some of the most important can
be mentioned. In two of the richest burials of the Varna
Chalcolithic necropolis stone adzes were found as part of
scepters whose wooden handles have been covered by gold
sheets. The adze from grave N43 (male burial) was made of a
white limy sandstone and has no functional value, and the
stone adze (volcanic tuff) from the symbolic grave N4 (with
inventory typical for male burials) is precisely modeled, with

The numerous ornaments beads, bracelets, pendants and

amulets made from marble, carnelian, quartz, serpentinite,
jasper and other minerals or rocks, which have been found in
rich burials mark the high social status of the deceased (men,
women and children) but they also carry certain views of life
because of the place of their finding (water basins, caves,
stone quarries) and their colour symbolism, related to the main
deities of this period the great Mother Goddess and her son
the Sun.
211

by a flint. While making a contact, the priests killed the

sacrificial pig with a flint (Eliade, 1995, 101-102).

The un-worked stones, placed in burial features as part of

the inventory are more or less an exception in the burial ritual
and definitely mark a special attitude to the deceased, in the
graves of which they are found. During the Neolithic only 3
such cases are known: in a female grave from Tsiganova
Mogila (village Dositeevo) 2 sharp stones were placed along
both sides of the body; a red stone was placed in the right
hand of a 5-6 years old child in the complex settlement of
Kurdjali; while in the multilayer settlement of Kovachevo, 10-12
months old child is placed on a big stone (Bachvarov, 2003,
110-111).

Hoards of flint and other stone artefacts as sacrificial gifts

can be differentiated in two groups: 1 found out of the context
of settlements and necropolis; 2 found in settlements and
dwelling places. To the first group a hoard of stone tools from
the Lovech District can be ascribed, which are not precisely
dated, but near the finding place the following prehistoric sites
are known (Petrov, 1950, 213):
the village of Leshnitsa 200 m NE of the village at a single
place around hundred flint artefacts have been found identified
as arrowheads or spearheads, knives and scrapers all of
them made of pale yellow flint (Historical Museum, Lovech,
N1188-1204). At 3 km from this place flint cores were found,
thus the find can be interpreted as sacrifice made near the flint
quarry.
the village of Smochan in the area Kasa Popanets
spearheads, arrows and knives made of white flint were found
(Historical Museum, Lovech, N72, 132, 136, 137);
Lovech at about 5 km to the West of the town, near the
fountain Gyurevets arrow points and knives, made of dark grey
and pale yellowish flint have been found (Historical Museum,
Lovech, N141, 142, 175);
the village of Bulgarene in the area Orlova Glava, at about
7 km SW of the village, a hoard of knives placed in a vessel
was found, unfortunately not brought to a museum and only a
single flint blade 10 cm long with a pale yellowish colour has
been preserved;
the village of Svoboda, near Chirpan a hoard of stone
adzes is discovered by chance in 1935 in the area Darakchiite
at 0.30 cm depth. The adzes are 29 in number, piled together,
well polished, with a length from 2.5 to 25 cm and only few of
them have marks of utilization (28 are in the Archaeological
Museum in Plovdiv, and 1 sample in the National
Archaeological Institute and Museum in Sofia; they are
supposed to be Late Neolithic, from the end of the VI mill. BC;
Tsonchev, 1946, 209).

As non-regular objects can be interpreted also the two

millstones in Early Neolithic graves one from Tsiganova
Mogila and one in a grave from Kurdjali, which also display a
special attitude towards the deceased (Bachvarov, 2003, 136).
The published cases of Chalcolithic grave features with unworked stones are also a few: in the necropolis near the Tell
Golyamo Delchevo, the bottom of the pit of grave N3 (male,
18-20 years old) was covered with many small, rounded
quartz pebbles (Todorova, 1975, 59); in the necropolis near
the Tell Vinitsa (Shumen District) un-worked stones as part of
the inventory were found at a place for sacrifice, in two
symbolic graves and in a child burial (Raduncheva, 1976, 7781). At the prehistoric necropolis near the Tell Golyam Ostrov
(near village Durankulak, Dobrich District) 1200 graves are
investigated, but only in 11 of them un-worked stones are
found, placed under or around the body of the deceased. Two
of the graves are symbolic, 3 are female graves, and 6 male
graves. The grave goods display a relatively high status of the
deceased and the stones point out to a more specific attitude
of the living towards the buried individuals (Avramova, 2008,
220-221).
Flint artefacts, placed on the body or near the head are found
only in 4 Early Neolithic burial places: Kurdjali, Ezero, Rakitovo
and Slatina (Bachvarov, 2003, 109). The number of flint
artefacts, placed as part of the burial inventory (in cases as
single grave goods) significantly increases during the Late
Neolithic and during the entire Chalcolithic period. For
example, only from the necropolis near the Tell Golyam Ostrov
(near village Durankulak) there are 187 artefacts, found in 135
graves from the Late Neolithic (Hamanjia I-II and III culture)
and the Chalcolithic (Hamanjia IV and Varna culture). The
technological and typological analyses of the artefacts can
point to the sources and production centres of raw material. A
conclusion has been drawn in this respect that arrowheads are
found only in male graves (Gurova, 2002, 247-260; Sirakov,
2002, 213-246). Flint artefacts from burials can not be related
to a possible function as tools or gifts beyond this world, and
they ought to be semantically interpreted as divine symbols of
the supreme deity of the prehistory period the Sun. The
thunder is the weapon of the God of Heaven in all religions and
the place, which he strikes with the lightning, becomes sacred,
and the stricken people become initiated. It was believed that
the so called thunder stones, most of which are nothing else
but prehistorical flints, are the arrow points of the lightning and
they have been honoured and preserved with reverence
(Eliade, 1995, 77). This idea is vividly illustrated in the Roman
faith and ritual: The oak tree has been dedicated to ZeusJupiter, because the lightning strikes most often this tree. The
oak at the Capitolian Hill belonged to Jupiter Feretrei, who
strikes, who slaggers, called as well Jupiter Lapis, represented

The hoards of flint tools found in settlements and dwelling

places are numerous. Of importance is their exact place in the
corresponding structure, which gives opportunity for
interpretations.
Tell Russe. During the first stage of the excavations in 19491953 several hoards of flint artefacts have been registered,
found at different depths. One of them, composed of 15 well
preserved curved flint knives was found at 2.20 m (made of
pale yellow flint and traces of use). A second hoard is from
3.70 m depth and is composed of 24 pale yellow flint knives
which have not been used. The third hoard is from house N2 at
a depth of 4.70 m, composed of 30 flint knives and scrapers,
made of flint of different colour, and on most of the artefacts
there are no traces of use (it is suggested that they have been
buried later at such depth). Other 16 flint knives and scrapers
were found nearby which probably belong to the same hoard
(Georgiev, Angelov, 1952, 124-127). These hoards can
probably be determined as building sacrifice during the initial
building stage of the new settlement. In the period 1986-1990 a
two store temple from the IV horizon (beginning of the Late
Chalcolithic) has been investigated, in which a modeled image
of the Great Goddess Mother and three vessels have been

212

ornaments, quartz model of a human leg and a small pale

pinkish stone were found in the vessel. The structure is located
at a significant distance from the discovered settlement. The
finds are dated to the Late Chalcolithic (second half of the V
mill. BC) and are interpreted as a symbolic burial (Petkov,
1961, 67-68). It can be suggested that this structure is a
sacrificial place in a pit made near a rock massif with two
caves and a probable rock sanctuary;
Tell Omurtag. In an undisturbed by fire horizon of the
settlement (first half of the Late Chalcolithic, 4500-4300 cal
BC) a hoard in a vessel was found including 11 fragments of
Spondylus bracelets, 8 small Spondylus fragments, a Cardium
shell, broken perforated bone pendant, one polished stone
bead, two bone plates, three pig incisors, two flint proximal
blade segments, a piece of pumice (imported), one trapezoidal
miniature polished stone axe and two quartzite polishing
pebbles (smoothers) (Gaydarska et al., 2006, 9-62);
Lyubimetz. In the pit sanctuary Dana Bunar 2 pits from the
Late Neolithic (culture Karanovo III-IV and Karanovo IV) are
studied where numerous flint artefacts, millstones, hammerstones, quartz balls and grindstones were found together with
fragmented pottery, charcoal, ash and animal bones (Nikolov
et al., 2007; 2008, 57-60; Nikolov, 2008, 32, 33);
the village of Tatul, Momchilgrad Region. Sherds, flint
debitage, animal bones and stones of different sizes are
arranged in the base and the fill of ritual furnaces at a
sanctuary from the Bronze Age (Ovcharov et al., 2008, 544546).

found. In one of the vessels a hoard of flints was found (Popov,

1993, 21).
Tell Hotnitsa. In house N5 of the horizon a hoard of 24 nonretouched flint slices from one core were found, probably
placed in a pouch as a building sacrifice (Chohadjiev, Elenski,
2002, 15-16).
Tell Smyadovo. On the floor of a destroyed house there was
a hoard of 59 artefacts ranging in size 14-17 cm adzes,
scrapers, knives and bladelets without traces of utilization
(Macht, Herrschaft und Gold ,1988, 211).
Tell Golyamiya Ostrov (the village of Durankulak). In 1998 in
the SE part of the settlement from the VII horizon a building
was investigated, in the base of which numerous flint debitage
pieces with miniature sizes (personal observation) were found.
Tell Cjakmaka (near Isperikh). The settlement is situated
near one of the large flint deposits in the region. At a distance
of 500-1000 m from the mound pits with large dimensions
(diameter 5-8 m, depth 1.5-1.8 m) were investigated, that were
filled with cores, flakes and debitage from the flint production
the pits have been interpreted as parts of a workshop (Skakun,
2006, 62). In is more likely that they have a ritual character and
these deposits are a sacrifice to the Great Goddess Mother,
in order to give birth again to flint of a good quality. A similar
idea is suggested for the ore pits at Mechi Kladenets (Stara
Zagora), where after the exhaustion of the ore the shafts have
been intentionally filled up.

The tradition of placing stone objects or flint flakes in burial

structures was preserved even in the Antiquity period. Two
cases can be mentioned:
mound N13, Sboryanovo in the lower part of the mound at
a single place 46 flint artefacts were found. From them only 13
have been used as tools and the rest are semi-handiworked
articles and debitage. The use wear analysis and the
typological analysis of the flints identifies them as prehistoric
objects, but they have been re-deposited during the
construction of the tomb and its mound. Flint objects of similar
characteristics have been found also in burial from the
catacomb culture on the Don River (Gergova, 1996, 23;
Skakun, 1996, 216-222);
mound N12, Sboryanovo at a level of stones in the tomb a
fragment of a stone vessel and a stone mortar with traces of
red pigment were found (Gergova, 1996, 31, 41).

Flint artefacts are known also from hoards and structures of

closed complexes with different objects. Several cases can be
listed:
the village of Samovodene (Veliko Turnovo Region). In the
sacred space of the Early Neolithic settlement a cult shaft is
found, where periodic sacrifices have taken place the layers
comprised burned sherds, animal bones, plant wood residues
as well as numerous river pebbles (Elemski, 2003, 194);
Tell Golyamiya Ostrov the (village of Durankulak). In the
necropolis situated on the West bank of the lake, 62 of the
Chalcolithic grave sets have artefacts placed in a vessel (the
set including flint blades, smoother, a lump of red ochre, bone
awl, mussel shell and a bone or copper hair needle). The
vessels are miniature models of the large vessel-depots,
known from the settlement. The largest number of sets is found
in female graves 32, followed by the male graves, the
symbolic graves, and rarely in child graves. In all the cases,
the graves have a very rich inventory. The set of objects
placed in the vessel obviously is related to certain magic rituals
for the fulfillment of victory over the illness or death and/or new
birth after the transition to the outer world. The obligatory
presence of flint (male solar) and smoother (female
chthonic) mark the most important presence that ensure new
life (Avramova, 2008, 223-224);
the village of Peklyuk (Sofia District). In the area Gornite
Ushi, on a low terrace near the rock massif Krivsha a structure
composed of 6 stones arranged in a circle of 1 m in diameter is
investigated. In the NW part of the circle other three stones
form an inner circle that is 0.50 m diameter. In the outer circle
a vessel with cover was found, while in the inner circle there
was a broken plate, animal bones, charcoal and charred
wheat. Burned daub, burned wheat, 6 flint knives, 2 bone

The role and the symbolism of the rocks and the special
stones in the Antiquity period of the Balkans and Asia Minor is
discussed in the monograph Rock Topoi of Faith in the Eastern
Mediterranean and in Asia Minor during the Antiquity (Fol,
2007). An outstanding example for the application of stone in
the misterial ritual can be cited here: A strong indirect prove
for the Mycenaean rock antiquity of Eleusina is the priest, who
wears a stone (Fol, 2007, 56).
In the traditional Bulgarian rituals and customs, the faith in
the magic power of stones is still preserved: According to the
folklore tradition in the fight between the hala (mythological
female monster or dragon) and other village dragons the
dragon throws fire arrows and stones, which result in lightning
and thunder. A popular idea is that St. Iliya makes the arrows
and gives them to the dragons to fight the hala. These arrows
penetrate 40 arshins (1 arshin=28 inches= 68.75 cm) deep in
213

which moved when the sorcerer was foretelling the future in

ecstasy).

the earth and they appear on its surface only after 40 days.
The arrows are called bozha strela (Gods arrow), treshten
kamak (thunder stone), grom padina (something that fell after
thunder), strela (arrow), grumnato kamuche (small thunder
stone) and it is believed that they can cure, bring luck and
protect from treshtavane, and also that, evil can not enter a
house with such a stone. The stones are tied to children to
ensure health and to cure epilepsy (Georgieva, 1983, 84).

References
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Avramova, . 2008. Non-regular practices in the funeral rites
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The treskavitsa (thunder) according to the folklore tradition

is an arrow of fire with a sharp flint edge. When it thunders and
there are lightings, St. Iliya trows these arrows with his bow
targeting those men, who have many sins and do not want to
take any penitence. The fallen arrows intrude deep into the
earth. If someone finds such arrow, this is good luck, because
such an arrow is very curative and protects the house
(Marinov, 1981, 63-65).
The sorcerers and witch doctors also often use river pebbles,
which they transform in magic objects and with which they cure
different illnesses for example a dead bone, wart and
different swellings (Todorova-Pirgova, 2003, 268, 337, 345,
382).
One interesting ritual has been preserved for a long time in
the Rhodopes. In the night before the New Year (when the Sun
is born and is the weakest) boys go to the river to collect
smooth stones. In the morning they carry these stones to each
house and place them on the chest of the owner or buhali on
the floor with good wishes. The number and the size of the
stones brought in one house served as indication for the
respect of the house and generosity of its owners. The
gathered river pebbles at Surva (New Year) have been called
papune and they have been placed in the base of new
buildings or used for strengthening of old stone fences and
gardens, so that the brought solemn words should stay at the
house (Raichevski, 1998, 12).
A similar ritual, but organized at Eniovden (at the Summer
solstice) has been observed in Sozopol. The owners of each
house bring from the Sea one round or oval stone, throwing
before that an old Sea stone, so that everything bad can go
with it. The woman of the house shows the exact place of the
stone in the house (usually behind the front door), so that the
stone should protect the house and should accumulate every
evil. Similar ritual has been kept in most of the towns along the
Southern Black Sea coast (Porozhanov, 2004, 133).
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which Zeus has killed the people from the Copper Age,
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backs, and those thrown by Daucalion became males, and
those by Pyrrha females. This is the etymology for people
las from the word las stone (Book 1, 7, 2). Hermes
wanted from Apollo for the syrinx, created by him, to be
teached to the sorcery art. Thus Apollo took the syrinx and in
his return teaches Hermes to foretell by small stones (Book 3,
10, 2 and note N396 these stones have been called thriai
and have been related to three sisters, which bred Apollo on
Parnas; stones were placed on a tripod in the Delphis temple,

214

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