The usefulness of continuous hemodynamic monitoring

Karolinska Institutet, Department of Medicine

Cardiology Unit, Karolinska University Hospital
Stockholm, Sweden

The usefulness of continuous

hemodynamic monitoring to
guide therapy in patients with
cardiopulmonary disease

Barbro Kjellstrm

Stockholm 2007
1

The usefulness of continuous hemodynamic monitoring to

The
usefulness
hemodynamic
monitoring
guide
therapy of
in continuous
patients with
cardiopulmonary
diseaseto
guide therapy in patients
with
cardiopulmonary disease
by Barbro
Kjellstrm
byReproPrint
Barbro Kjellstrm
Printed at
AB, Stockholm
Printed
at
ReproPrint
AB, Stockholm
ISBN 978-91-7357-225-5
ISBN 978-91-7357-225-5
2

Published and
2 printed by
2007

Grdsvgen 4, 169 70 Solna

The usefulness of continuous hemodynamic monitoring

A single day is enough to make us a little larger or,

another time, a little smaller
Paul Klee

Pygmies on the shoulders of giants see further than the

giants themselves
Stella Didacus

Barbro Kjellstrm

The usefulness of continuous hemodynamic monitoring

Contents
Abstract
6
List of original papers
7
Abbreviations
8
Introduction
9
Hemodynamics a history
9
Hemodynamics the present
10
Hemodynamic Measurements what is normal?
11
Heart failure
13
Pulmonary arterial hypertension
15
End stage renal disease
16
Volume management a challenge
16
Ambulatory hemodynamic monitoring - past, present and future
17
Aims of the study
20
Material and Methods
21
Technical components - sensors
21
Technical components - devices
22
Study I
24
Study II
27
Study III
27
Study IV
28
Study V
29
Study VI
29
Statistical methods
29
Results
31
OxyElite, long term follow-up of an implantable mixed venous oxygen sensor (Study I)
31
Components of continuous 24-hour pressures that correlate to supine resting conditions and
acute right heart catheterization (Study II)
31
Trans-telephonic monitoring of continuous haemodynamic measurements (Study III)
32
Hemodynamic observations during exercise measured by implantable pressure and oxygen sensors (Study IV)
33
Hemodynamic observations in patients with pulmonary hypertension treated with inhaled
iloprost (Study V)
34
Hemodynamic observations in patients with end stage renal failure treated with hemo dialysis (Study VI)
34
General discussion
36
Mixed venous oxygen saturation - what does it mean?
36
Making sense of continuous hemodynamic data
37
Alternative hemodynamic monitoring possibilities
39
Telemonitoring a future perspective in patient care
39
Continuous hemodynamic monitoring a cardiovascular disease management tool
40
Summary
46
Conclusions
47
Tacknowledgements
48
References
50

Barbro Kjellstrm

Abstract
Introduction: Cardiovascular disease, whether secondary to myocardial injury, pulmonary
hypertension or renal failure, have high morbidity and mortality. New treatments have improved
quality of life and survival, but hospitalization rates remain high. Continuous hemodynamic
monitoring allows for a new perspective in cardiovascular disease management allowing for
treatment strategies based on measurements performed while the patient tends to normal daily
activities.
Feasibility: Hemodynamic monitoring by the means of an implanted pressure sensor has been
shown earlier to be accurate in pressure measurement, safe to implant and stable in measurements
over long-term. This thesis looked at acute and long-term stability of an oxygen sensor measuring
mixed venous oxygen saturation from the right ventricle (Study I). The oxygen sensor was implanted
in nine patients with a conventional pacemaker indication and showed a good correlation compared
WRLQYDVLYHPHWKRGVRYHUWKHUVW\HDUDQGDVWDEOHUHVSRQVHWRQRQLQYDVLYHVXEPD[LPDOH[HUFLVH
levels over six years. Study II established that one data point, the night-time minimum, from
the 24-hour hemodynamic trend replicated hemodynamic values collected during a controlled
UHVWLQWKHFOLQLFLDQVRIFH7KLVYDOXHLVXVHGDVDTXLFNORRNYDOXHWRORRNIRUKHPRG\QDPLF
changes over time. In addition to the fully implanted lead and memory device, the hemodynamic
monitoring system includes remote monitoring, e.g. sending the data stored in the implantable
hemodynamic monitor to a secured website for review by the treating clinician. Study III described
this telemonitoring system and demonstrated that the transmission rate was acceptable and
apparently independent of age and disease stage.
Applicability: In patients with heart failure, peak VO2 has been shown to be a good predictor
of outcome. However, maximal exercise tests are cumbersome to perform and involve risk for
the patients. Submaximal tests, e.g. 6-minute walk tests are routinely used to evaluate patient
status in the hospital clinic. Study IV compared hemodynamic response during maximal and
submaximal exercise in 30 patients with heart failure. During submaximal exercise the pressures
increased 70-80% and heart rate 90% of the change achieved during maximal exercise. Thus,
submaximal exercise hemodynamic response could be a tool in patient assessment in patients
ZLWKKHDUWIDLOXUH6WXG\9ORRNHGDWYHSDWLHQWVZLWKSXOPRQDU\K\SHUWHQVLRQWUHDWHGZLWKDQ
inhaled prostacyclin analog, iloprost. The effect of the drug lasted shorter when the patients used
the treatment at home than under supervision in the hospital. The treatment effect in both setting
was shorter than previously demonstrated in other studies. The most probable explanation for this
is that hemodynamic measurements occurred during normal, daily activities in Study V, while
earlier measurements have been performed in stationary patients during invasive studies. Study VI
found progressively increasing cardiac pressures between hemodialysis treatments in 16 patients
with end stage renal disease. The pressure increase, especially after a weekend when hemodialysis
treatment was withheld for an extra day, was in the same magnitude as seen in patients with
heart failure before a volume overload event leading to hospitalization. These recurrent changes in
cardiac pressures might result in myocardial damage. More frequent dialysis treatment might be
EHQHFLDODQGPLJKWSURORQJWKHWLPHWRGHYHORSHDUHGXFHGYHQWULFXODUIXQFWLRQ
Conclusion: The hemodynamic monitoring system and its components are feasible and mixed
venous oxygen might add value to the system. One single data point could be extracted from the
FRQWLQXRXVKRXUPHDVXUHPHQWVWKDWPLPLFDFRQWUROOHGUHVWDOORZLQJIRUDTXLFNORRNWKDWFDQ
advise the clinician of possible changes in the hemodynamic trends. This thesis supports the use
of implantable hemodynamic monitoring in patients with cardiovascular disease of different origin
associated with compromised hemodynamics. These observations may help to evaluate disease
progress and to make therapeutic decisions.
6

The usefulness of continuous hemodynamic monitoring

List of original papers

I

Kjellstrom B, Linde C, Bennett T, Ohlsson , Ryden L. Six years follow-up of an

implanted SvO2 sensor in the right ventricle. Eur J Heart Fail 2004; 6:627-34

II

Adamson PB, Kjellstrom B, Braunschweig F, Magalski A, Linde C, Kolodiezj A,

Cremers B, Bennett T. Ambulatory hemodynamic monitoring from an implanted
device: components of continuous 24-hour pressures that correlate to supine resting
conditions and acute right heart catheterization. Congest Heart Fail 2006;12:14-19

III

Kjellstrom B, Igel D, Abraham J, Bennett T, Bourge R. Trans-telephonic monitoring of

continuous heamodynamic measurements in heart failure patients. J Telemed Telecare
2005; 11:240-44

IV

Ohlsson A, Steinhaus D, Kjellstrom B, Ryden L, Bennett T. Central hemodynamic

responses during serial exercise tests in heart failure patients using implantable
hemodynamic monitors. Eur J Heart Fail 2003; 5:253-59

Fruhwald FM, Kjellstrom B, Perthold W, Watzinger N, Maier R, Grandjean PA, Klein W.

Continuous hemodynamic monitoring in pulmonary hypertensive patients treated with
inhaled iloprost. Chest 2003; 124:351-59

VI

Kjellstrom B, Braunschweig F, Lfberg E, Fux T, Grandjean P, Linde C. Progressive

increments in right ventricular pressures between hemodialysis sessions recorded by an
implantable hemodynamic monitor. Submitted Nephrol Dial Transplant 2007

Barbro Kjellstrm

Abbreviations
ESC

European Society of Cardiology

AHA

American Heart Association

ESCAPE

Evaluation Study of Congestive Heart Failure and Pulmonary Artery

Catheterization Effectiveness

NYHA

New York Heart Association

+,9 

+XPDQ,PPXQRGHFLHQF\9LUXV

USA

United States of America

ADHERE

Acute Decompensated Heart Failure National Registry

IHM

Implantable Hemodynamic Monitor

COMPASS-HF

Chronicle Offers Management to Patients with Advanced Signs and

Symptoms of Heart Failure

FDA

Food and Drug Administration

,&' 

,PSODQWDEOH&DUGLRYHUWHU'HEULOODWRU

REDUCE-HF

Reducing Decompensation Events Utilizing Intracardiac Pressures in

Patients with Chronic Heart Failure

RVSP

Right Ventricular Systolic Pressure

RVDP

Right Ventricular Diastolic Pressure

ePAD

estimated Pulmonary Artery Diastolic Pressure

EPR

External Pressure Reference

IRM

Interactive Remote Monitor

ISP

Internet Service Provider

LVEF

Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction

USRD registry

United States Renal Disease Registry

The usefulness of continuous hemodynamic monitoring

Introduction
Hemodynamics a history
The movement of blood, hemodynamics (hemo
= blood, dynamics = movement) has intrigued
people for centuries. In the early teachings (1)
it was believed that the ingested food supported
the formation of blood in the liver and from
there it was transported through the body.
The main function of the right ventricle was
thought to be the cleaning of the blood so that

human catheterization was performed by Werner

Forssmann (1904-1979) who published his
results in 1929 (3,4). He introduced a urologic
catheter in a vein in his left arm about 30 cm,
walked to the x-ray lab and there advanced the
catheter all the way to the right ventricle. This
achievement led to a dismissal from his hospital
position (5) and that he received the Nobel Prize
in Medicine 30 years later (1956). The Nobel

The thick septum of the heart is not perforated and does not have visible pores as some
people thought or invisible pores as Galen thought. The blood from the right chamber must
RZWKURXJKWKHYHQRXVDUWHU\WRWKHOXQJVVSUHDGWKURXJKLWVVXEVWDQFHVEHPLQJOHGWKHUH
ZLWKDLUSDVVWKURXJKWKHDUWHULDOYHLQWRUHDFKWKHOHIWFKDPEHURIWKHKHDUWDQGWKHUHIRUP
the vital spirit
LEQDO1DVFD
in cases of shockit may be desirable to deliver medications directly to the heart in a less
dangerous fashion, namely the catheterization of the right heart from the venous system.
([SHULPHQWVRQFDGDYHUZHUHSURGXFWLYH,ZDVDEOHWRFDWKHWHUL]HDQ\YHLQLQWKHDQWLFXELWDO
IRVVDDQGUHDFKWKHULJKWYHQWULFOH,QH[WXQGHUWRRNH[SHULPHQWVRQDOLYLQJVXEMHFWQDPHO\
myself
Werner Forssmann
1RYHOWLHVVKRXOGQRWEHUHMHFWHGSUHFLSLWRXVO\GLVVHQWVKRXOGEHWHQWDWLYHUDWKHUWKDWXQ\ielding
Andre Cournand

impurities could be disposed of by the lungs

during exhalation. The cleaned blood was then
moved from the right to the left by pores in the
wall separating the ventricles. Variations of this
belief lasted well into the 16th and 17th centuries
and it was William Harvey (1578-1657) in
the 17th century that realized that the venous
valves directed the blood in only one direction.
Thereby, the cardiopulmonary system was
GHQHGDVDRQHGLUHFWHGFORVHGFLUFXLWZKHUH
the right heart pumped the blood to the lungs
and the left heart to the rest of the body (2).
The development of the cardiac catheterization
techniques, as used today, was started in the mid
19th century with animal studies, initially using
glass tubes that were inserted in the vessels and
DGYDQFHGWRWKHKHDUW7KHUVWGRFXPHQWHG
9

prize was shared with Andre Cournand (18951988) and Dickinson Richards (1895-1973).
They utilized right heart and pulmonary artery
catheterization in patient care and worked to
achieve a better understanding of the cardiac
function. Their pioneering work was followed
E\ IXUWKHU UHQHPHQWV RI WKH WHFKQLTXHV DQG
in the 1950s, Sven-Ivar Seldinger (1921-1998)
developed the percutaneous approach for the
introduction of cardiac catheters, a technique
widely used today (6). Almost 20 years later (7),
Harold James Swan (1922-2005) developed the
balloon-tipped catheter for easier advancement
into the heart and pulmonary artery and William
Ganz (1919- ) incorporated the thermodilution
method of measuring cardiac output. Their work
resulted in the Swan-Ganz catheter, still used in
millions of catheterizations every year.

Barbro Kjellstrm

Hemodynamics the present

Today, invasive hemodynamic measurements,
such as right heart or pulmonary artery
catheterizations, are mostly used in the intensive
care setting, peri- and post-operatively and in
the management of pulmonary hypertension
and candidates for heart transplant. However
the number of catheterizations performed every
year is declining (8). Non-invasive methods such
DV(FKR'RSSOHUFDUGLRJUDSK\KDYHVLPSOLHG
hemodynamic measurements and provide noninvasive information, similar enough to be used
in the routine care. Also, several non-invasive
WHFKQLTXHVWRPHDVXUHRZYROXPHRUFDUGLDF
output have been developed and are used to
evaluate patients in the clinical setting. Taking
into account a higher cost for the health care
system and increased risks for the patient that
invasive measurements might incur, the decline
of use is not surprising.

treatment is generally prescribed based on

symptoms and that most clinical trials did not
use hemodynamics as end points. However, the
AHA guidelines continue with Nevertheless,
invasive hemodynamic measurements may
assist in determination of volume status and in
distinguishing heart failure from other disorders
that may cause circulatory instability, such as
pulmonary diseases and sepsis.

The evidence from nonrandomized studies

regarding the value of tailoring therapy by right
heart or pulmonary catheterizations to predict
ORQJ WHUP EHQHWV IRU KHDUW IDLOXUH SDWLHQWV
LV FRQLFWLQJ  2QO\ RQH UDQGRPL]HG
study, the ESCAPE trial, has evaluated the
usefulness of catheterizations in patients
admitted to a hospital with acute heart failure
(19). In this study 433 patients with acute
heart failure were assigned to receive therapy
guided by clinical assessment plus right atrial
7KLVFKDQJHLVDOVRUHHFWHGLQWKHFXUUHQWKHDUW and pulmonary capillary wedge pressure or to
failure guidelines. The ESC guidelines (9) for therapy guided by clinical signs alone. In the
treatment of chronic heart failure suggest that pulmonary catheter group, the target was a
Routine right heart catheterizations should not SXOPRQDU\FDSLOODU\ZHGJHSUHVVXUHPP+J
be used to tailor chronic therapy. The AHA DQG DQ DWULDO SUHVVXUH RI  PP+J 'XULQJ
heart failure guidelines (10) are also stringent in WKH KRVSLWDOL]DWLRQ VLJQLFDQW LPSURYHPHQW
the use of hemodynamic measurements. They in signs and symptoms of volume overload
write There has been no established role for was achieved in both groups. In the 6-months
periodic invasive or noninvasive hemodynamic following discharge there was no additional
measurements in the management of heart PRUWDOLW\RUPRUELGLW\EHQHWIURPSXOPRQDU\
failure. This comment relates to that drug artery catheterizations.

Figure 1. Illustrates the relation between intermittent right heart catheterizations and continuous hemodynamic monitoring. The graph shows a one year trend of continuous right ventricular systolic pressure. The solid black line
represents the daily medians and the gray lines are the daily range (6th and 94th percentile of daily value). The black
squares shows values from a Swan Ganz catheter and the gray diamonds from the implantable hemodynamic monitor, both measured simultaneously during a right heart catheterization. The dotted line shows the trend according to
WKHVSRWFKHFNVSHUIRUPHGZLWKLQYDVLYHWHVWV
10

The usefulness of continuous hemodynamic monitoring

Figure 2. The cardiovascular system, see text for more details.

Although acute hemodynamic data does not

seem to predict clinical outcome, long term
hemodynamic data over months or years might
positively impact patient care or prognosis
(20). The difference may lie in the relationship
between acute and chronic hemodynamic
patterns (Figure 1). Multiple variables such
as discomfort from the invasive procedure,
drug compliance, diet, exercise or changes in
V\PSDWKHWLFWRQHPD\XQGXO\LQXHQFHVLQJOH
acute measurements. Long-term non-invasive
measurements on the other hand may remove
inaccuracies found in acute determinations.

Hemodynamic Measurements what is

normal?
The cardiovascular system is a closed circuit
with the heart as a central pump that moves the
blood into the pulmonary and systemic vascular
beds (Figure 2). Included in the cardiovascular
system, in addition to the heart and the blood,
DUHWKHDUWHULHVWKDWUHJXODWHWKHEORRGRZDQG
deliver oxygenated blood to individual organs
dependent on metabolic need. It also includes
the capillaries, where the exchange of nutrients,
respiratory gases and metabolites takes place
and the veins that return the deoxygenated

Table 1. General hemodynamic premises and normal pressure values (21)

Variable

Pressure (normals at rest)

&935$359'3
59633$63
/9'3/$33&:3
/963$63
PCWP related with PADP

0-8 mmHg
15-25 mmHg
4-12 mmHg
110-130 mmHg
8-15 mmHg

ASP = aortic systolic pressure, CVP=central venous pressure, LAP=left atrial pressure, LVDP=left ventricular
end diastolic pressure, LVSP=left ventricular systolic pressure, PADP=pulmonary artery diastolic pressure,
PASP=pulmonary artery systolic pressure, PCWP=pulmonary capillary wedge pressure, RAP=right atrial pressure,
RVDP=right ventricular end diastolic pressure, RVSP=right ventricular systolic pressure.
11

Barbro Kjellstrm

blood to the heart. The veins also function

as a reservoir and during resting conditions,
approximately 70% of the blood volume
resides there. Redistribution of blood volume to
other parts of the vascular system is achieved
by venoconstriction upon need and can occur
instantly or over hours or days.
Normal cardiac pressure values at rest and
the general premise of their relationship are
presented in Table 1.
&DUGLDF RXWSXW GHQHV WKH DPRXQW RI EORRG
leaving the heart during one minute. It is
calculated as the product of stroke volume and
heart rate. In a healthy heart the resting cardiac
output is 4-6 L/min, thus at a heart rate of 70
bpm, the stroke volume is 55-80 ml. However,
the total volume in the left ventricle is 120-140
ml which means that only 50-75% is ejected
with each beat. This is measured as the ejection
fraction. The blood remaining in the ventricle is
the reserve volume that can be utilized during
LQFUHDVHGRZGHPDQG

Stroke volume is determined by the preload

VWUHWFKRIWKHP\RFDUGLDOEHUVP\RF\WHVWKH
afterload (vascular resistance), the contractility
(volume and contractile force) and the synchrony
of the ventricles. This is illustrated by the Frank
Starling law that shows the relationship between
WKH YHQWULFXODU HQGGLDVWROLF P\RFDUGLDO EHU
length and the ventricular performance. As these
measurements are not available outside the
H[SHULPHQWDO ODE WKH P\RFDUGLDO EHUV OHQJWK
is measured as the ventricular end-diastolic
pressure and the performance as the stroke
volume (Figure 3A). According to the Frank
Starling law, an increase in venous return will
increase the ventricular end-diastolic pressure
and thereby stretch the cardiac myocytes
prior to contraction (Figure 3C). The stretch
increases the sarcomere length, which results in
an increased generation of force. This enables
the heart to eject the additional venous return
and thereby increase the stroke volume. One
can think of it as a slingshot, the harder you pull
B

Normal

Impaired

Increased
Venous return

Stroke volume

Enhanced

Venous return and Stroke volume

Ventricular end-diastolic pressure

Atrial pressure

Enhanced

Normal
b

Impaired

Normal

Normal

Increased

Atrial and Ventricular end-diastolic pressure

Figure 3. Panel A illustrates the Frank Starling Law, the

relation between ventricular end diastolic pressure and
the stroke volume. The solid line is the normal curve, the
dotted line shows an enhanced function and the dashed
line a reduced function. Panel B illustrates the relation
between the ventricular end diastolic pressure and the venous return. Again, the solid line is the normal curve and
the dotted line shows an increased venous return. Panel
C show the relation between the ventricular end diastolic
pressure, the stroke volume and the venous return. In a
healthy heart, an increase in venous return during exercise will lead to an increase in stroke volume and a slight
increase in ventricular end diastolic pressure (a). If the
pump function is impaired, an increase in venous return
will increase the ventricular end diastolic pressure signiFDQWO\EXWZLOORQO\UHVXOWLQDVPDOOLQFUHDVHLQVWURNH
volume (b).
12

The usefulness of continuous hemodynamic monitoring

the rubber band, the more force is accumulated several, however, the Fick principle is believed
to be the most exact method, often referred to
and the longer the shot will be.
DVWKHJROGVWDQGDUG7KHSULQFLSOHVWDWHVWKDW
During exercise the cardiac output can increase
the total uptake of a substance by an organ is the
3-4 times compared to rest. However, the
SURGXFWRIWKHEORRGRZWKURXJKWKDWRUJDQDQG
stroke volume can only increase 40-60%,
the arteriovenous difference of the substance.
thus the ability to increase heart rate is of key
In other words, cardiac output is measured as
LPSRUWDQFH WR LQFUHDVH EORRG RZ WR PHHW
the relation between the oxygen consumption
the metabolic demand during exercise. At
(difference in oxygen content in inspired vs
low levels of exercise the increase in heart
expired air) and the arteriovenous difference
rate and contractility are mostly a result of a
(difference in oxygen content in the arterial vs
reduction in vagal tone while at higher levels
venous blood):
of exercise, after the anaerobic threshold has
Oxygen consumption
been reached, the sympathetic nervous system
becomes dominant. This results in activation of Cardiac output =
Arteriovenous oxygen difference
catecholamines, that increases the heart rate and
cardiac contractility. Catecholamines will also
cause vasoconstriction and increased systemic
This method needs access to venous and arterial
vascular resistance and thus an elevation in
blood sampling and analysis of the blood gases
arterial blood pressure.
(oxygen content) as well as collection and
Another important factor in the regulation analysis of the respiration gases. As this requires
RI FDUGLDF SUHVVXUHV DQG RZ LV WKH UHQLQ advanced equipment and results are not readily
angiotensin-aldestorone system. Renin is available, other, simpler techniques have been
produced mainly in the kidneys in response developed. Additional invasive techniques
to decreased kidney perfusion and plays an include thermodilution and dye dilution.
important role in the production of angiotensin Non-invasive techniques such as DopplerII and aldestorone release. Angiotensin II is ultrasonography, thoracic bioimpedance, pulse
a potent vasoconstrictor while aldestorone contour and helium re-breathing are readily
enhances sodium and water reabsorption and available, though in general less accurate.
reduces potassium reabsorption. The renin- Moreover, it is most often in the presence of
angiotensin-aldestorone system is activated by low cardiac output that these methods are less
changes in volume, like blood loss or decreased reliable than the Fick principle. Hence the Fick
cardiac output. This will trigger vasoconstriction principle is the preferred method in low cardiac
in peripheral vessels aimed to preserve the output, especially in clinical research.
perfusion pressure to vital organs.
Measurements of intra-cardiac pressures are
PRVW FRPPRQO\ PHDVXUHG ZLWK XLG OOHG
catheter techniques on the low pressure, right
side of the heart. The catheter is introduced
through a vein (femoral, brachial or subclavian
dependent of clinicians preference) and
advanced through the right atrium to the right
ventricle and then commonly into a small
branch of the pulmonary artery. By occluding
WKHDUWHU\ZLWKDQLQDWHGEDOORRQDWWKHWLSRI
the catheter, the pulmonary vascular system in
front of the catheter will function as an extension
of the catheter lumen. This will give an estimate
RIWKHOHIWDWULDOSUHVVXUHOHIWYHQWULFXODUHQG
diastolic pressure).
The techniques to monitor cardiac output are
13

Heart failure
+HDUW IDLOXUH KDV EHHQ GHQHG DV D FOLQLFDO
syndrome caused by an abnormality of the
heart and recognized by a characteristic pattern
of hemodynamic, renal, neural and hormonal
UHVSRQVHV,WKDVDOVREHHQGHVFULEHGDVD
clinical syndrome in which the heart is incapable
of maintaining a cardiac output adequate to
accommodate metabolic requirement of the
ERG\  %RWK GHQLWLRQV DUH WWLQJ IRU
this thesis that has a focus on hemodynamics.
However, it is important to keep in mind that
a change in hemodynamic measurements is
only one of several aspects used to diagnose
heart failure. According to the ESC guidelines

Barbro Kjellstrm

for treatment of chronic heart failure (9) the

clinical diagnosis of heart failure therefore
requires all three of the following criteria to be
met: 1) symptoms of heart failure (dyspnea and
fatigue) at rest or during exercise, 2) evidence
of cardiac dysfunction and 3) response to heart
failure treatment.

at rest. Though, during exercise or at increased

metabolic demand, the contractile force will not
LQFUHDVHHQRXJKWRPDLQWDLQDVXIFLHQWFDUGLDF
output (Frank Starling law, Figure 3 A och B).
Symptoms in mild to medium systolic heart
failure are therefore often connected to fatigue
and dyspnea at light to moderate exercise
The prevalence of heart failure in Europe (forward failure). If impaired contractile
is approx 1-2% of the population (24). It is G\VIXQFWLRQDIIHFWLQJWKHOOLQJRIWKHYHQWULFOH
associated with frequent hospital admissions LVSUHGRPLQDQWWKHSUHVVXUHZLOOEDFNXSLQ
(25) and constitutes approximately 5% of all the lungs and pulmonary congestion or edema
acute medical admissions (26) every year. might occur (backward failure).
In Sweden it is the most common discharge Diastolic heart failure is characterized by
diagnosis within internal medicine and the LPSDLUHG OOLQJ RI WKH YHQWULFOH GXH WR D
prevalence of heart failure has been estimated thickening of the heart muscle. The ejection
to 220 000 persons or 2.5% of the Swedish fraction is often normal or even increased,
population (27). Despite improved treatments, though the stroke volume might be decreased
the 5-year survival-rate is less than 50% and even at rest due to the decreased ventricular
IRUZKHQWKHSKOHJPGHVFHQGVFROGWRWKHOXQJVDQGKHDUWWKHEORRGLVFKLOOHGDQGWKHYHLQV
being forcibly chilled, beat against the lungs and heart, and the heart palpitates, so that under
WKLVFRPSXOVLRQGLIFXOW\RIEUHDWKLQJDQGRUWKRSQRHDUHVXOW
>7KHSDWLHQW@DSSHDUV\HOORZWKHZKROHERG\LVHGHPDWRXVWKHIDFHLVUHGWKHPRXWKGU\
KHLVWKLUVW\DQGZKHQKHHDWVUHVSLUDWRU\TXLFNHQV,QWKHVDPHGD\DWVRPHWLPHVKHPD\
DSSHDUEHWWHUZKLOHDWRWKHUVKHLVVXIIHULQJDFXWHO\DQGVHHPVRQWKHYHUJHRIG\LQJ
Hippocrates

in patients with severe heart failure, mortality volume. Symptoms are similar to that of systolic
approaches 50% annually (28,29).
dysfunction but dominated by dyspnea and
The most common type of heart failure is pulmonary congestion.
impaired left ventricular function due to
ischemia, myocardial infarction or hypertension
leading to systolic or diastolic heart failure, or
a combination of both. Right ventricular failure
occurs more often secondary to left ventricular
failure but also due to precapillary pulmonary
vascular damage, right ventricular ischemia/
infarction or congenital heart disease.

Despite the different presentation of structural

changes in the ventricle both systolic and
diastolic heart failure are characterized by
LQFUHDVHGOOLQJSUHVVXUH7KHP\RFDUGLDOVWUDLQ
will cause increased levels of catecholamines
even at rest or low levels of stress. Therefore,
during exercise the increase in catecholamine
levels might be smaller than in a healthy heart
and compensatory factors like increased heart
rate and blood pressure might be dimished. The
exercise capacity will be limited primarily by
symptoms of dyspnea and fatigue and exercise
may be terminated early, even before the
anaerobic threshold is reached.

In systolic heart failure, an increased ventricular

volume leads to a stretch of the myocardial
EHUV P\RF\WHV DQG WKHUHE\ FRQWUDFWLOH
dysfunction and impaired emptying of the
ventricle. Initially, despite the reduced ejection
fraction, the increased ventricular volume might
maintain a normal stroke volume or at least Hemodynamically, medical heart failure
VXIFLHQW WR VDWLVI\ WKH ERG\V PHWDEROLF QHHG treatment aims to normalize the Frank Starling
14

The usefulness of continuous hemodynamic monitoring

Table 2.&RPSDULVRQRIKHPRG\QDPLFYDOXHVQLJKWWLPHPLQLPXPDVGHQHGLQ6WXG\,,PHDVXUHGE\WKHLPSODQWDEOH

hemodynamic monitor in three different patient populations.

Heart failure

End stage renal

disease

(Study II, n=30)

Pulmonary artery
hypertension
(ref 34, n=22)

(Study VI, n=16)

4115

7324

297

106

137

55

217

2910

156

Right ventricular systolic

pressure (mmHg)
Right ventricular diastolic
pressure (mmHg)
Pulmonary artery diastolic
pressure* (mmHg)

*ePAD, see description of the implantable hemodynamic monitor for details (page 21).

FXUYH E\ FKDQJLQJ WKH HQGGLDVWROLF OOLQJ

pressure and stroke volume relationship, e.g. by
moving the curve up and to the left. Diuretics
and venous vasodilators decrease the ventricular
OOLQJ EXW GR QRW FKDQJH WKH VWURNH YROXPH
On the other hand, arterial vasodilators and
inotropes cause an increase in stroke volume but
ZLWKRQO\DVPDOOHIIHFWRQWKHYHQWULFXODUOOLQJ
pressures. Treatment is therefore often designed
to give a combination of these effects. The ESC
and AHA heart failure guidelines recommend
diuretics, angiotensin converting enzyme
inhibitors, beta-blockers and aldestorone
antagonists or angiotensin receptor blockers
in patients with NYHA II-III heart failure and
symptoms of volume overload (9,10).

Pulmonary arterial hypertension

3XOPRQDU\ DUWHULDO K\SHUWHQVLRQ LV GHQHG DV
DPHDQSXOPRQDU\DUWHU\SUHVVXUHPP+J
ZLWK D FDSLOODU\ ZHGJH SUHVVXUH  PP+J
measured at rest by right-heart catheterization
 7KH FODVVLFDWLRQ RI SXOPRQDU\ DUWHULDO
hypertension include idiopathic pulmonary
arterial hypertension (previous called primary
pulmonary hypertension; cause unknown),
familial pulmonary hypertension (an inherited
genetic disorder) and pulmonary hypertension
associated with other diseases or conditions,
such as collagen vascular disease, congenital
left-to-right shunt, portal hypertension, HIV
infection, drugs and toxins. It is unclear
whether the various types of pulmonary arterial
hypertension share one common pathogenesis,
but mechanisms such as impaired production
of vasodilators (nitric oxide and prostacyclin)
15

along with overexpression of vasoconstrictors

such as endothelin-1 are generally affected (30).
Treatment has therefore been focused on these
pharmacologic targets to improve symptoms
and slow the disease progress for patients with
pulmonary arterial hypertension.
As the name implies, the disease affects the
pulmonary arteries, and in particular the
small arteries. It is characterized by vascular
remodeling that result in a progressive increase
in pulmonary vascular resistance. To move the
blood through the non-compliant pulmonary
circulation, the force of the right ventricular
ejection has to be increased which results in
increment of the right ventricular systolic
pressure (Table 2). The pulmonary artery
diastolic pressure is also increased due to the
UHVLVWDQFH WR WKH GLDVWROLF EORRG RZ 7KH
increased workload of the right ventricle will
lead to changes in the right ventricle such as
hypertrophy and/or dilatation and ultimately
to right ventricular failure. On the other hand,
the left ventricular end diastolic pressure will
not be increased as the post capillary vessels,
the pulmonary veins, are not affected by the
disease.
The prevalence of pulmonary arterial
hypertension is low and the patient population
in Europe and USA has been estimated to
130 000 (31). The mortality is high, median
survival without treatment has been reported as
low as 2.8 years after diagnosis (32). However,
new treatments have improved these numbers
and a recent report on long term treatment with
an endothelin receptor antagonist (bosentan)
showed survival rates of 85 and 70% after 12
and 24 months respectively (33).

Barbro Kjellstrm

In a literature search performed by McLaughlin

and colleagues (30) it was shown that a
worsening hemodynamic status is correlated to
an increased mortality in patients with idiopathic
pulmonary arterial hypertension, independent of
therapy. The hemodynamic variables that best
predicted survival were right atrial pressure,
mixed venous oxygen saturation and cardiac
output/cardiac index. Arterial oxygen saturation,
mean pulmonary pressures, heart rate and cuff
systolic pressure did not predict survival in a
consistent fashion in these patients.

In Sweden, approximately 6800 patients are

on chronic hemodialysis treatment (37) and
around 1200 new patients are added every
year. Cardiovascular disease is a common
complication to end stage renal disease and
accounts for 40-50% of the deaths (38).
Progressive increase in systemic vascular
resistance due to vascular stiffening and loss of
compliance is seen in patients on hemodialysis
treatment (39). This contributes to ventricular
failure and thereby volume overload and
LQFUHDVHGOOLQJSUHVVXUH&RPRUELGLWLHVVXFK
as hypertension, diabetes mellitus and anemia
also add to the risk (37). In Europe the 5-year
survival among hemodialysis patients is 50-60%
End stage renal disease
(39,40) and in USA it is 30% (38). The reason
(QGVWDJHUHQDOGLVHDVHLVGHQHGDVFRPSOHWHRU
for the lower survival rates in USA than Europe
near complete failure of the kidney function to
is not clear, though it has been speculated that
excrete wastes, concentrate urine, and regulate shorter dialysis time (41), frequency and timing
electrolytes. This usually occurs as chronic of dialysis e.g. night and weekend dialysis (42),
renal failure progresses and the function of the cultural/race dependence, less involvement of
kidney is below 10% of normal. At this stage nephrologists in the USA dialysis clinics (43)
the kidneys are no longer able to maintain a and less compliant patients (44) might increase
functional level necessary for day-to-day life the mortality.
and dialysis or transplant is necessary to sustain
life.
The kidneys main functions are 1) regulation Volume management a challenge
of volume, 2) extraction of waste products,
3) regulation of the acid-base balance and 4)
regulation of the electrolyte balance. They
also play an important role in production and
secretion of hormones such as renin, aldestorone
and erythropoietin. These functions all aim to
regulate the volume and composition of the
ERG\ XLGV GHVSLWH KXJH XFWXDWLRQV FUHDWHG
E\YDULDWLRQVLQXLGDQGIRRGLQWDNH

Dialysis means transfer of solute (dissolved

solids) across a semi permeable membrane and
KHPRGLDO\VLVPHDQVFOHDQLQJWKHEORRG,QD
VLPSOLHG H[SODQDWLRQ WKH EORRG LV FLUFXODWHG
WKURXJK D GLDO\]HU DUWLFLDO NLGQH\ ZLWK
two spaces separated by a thin membrane.
Blood passes on one side of the membrane
DQG GLDO\VLV XLG SDVVHV RQ WKH RWKHU :DVWH
SURGXFWV DQG H[FHVV XLG SDVV IURP WKH EORRG
WKURXJK WKH PHPEUDQH LQWR WKH GLDO\VLV XLG
that is discarded. The cleaned blood is then
returned to the vascular system. A hemodialysis
SURFHGXUH QRUPDOO\ WDNHV IRXU WR YH KRXUV
and commonly three treatments per week are
prescribed (35,36).

In the ADHERE registry including 65 000

patients in the USA hospitalized for acute
decompensated heart failure (45), symptoms
of volume overload was the major reason for
heart failure hospitalizations. Interestingly,
50% of the patients had preserved left
ventricular ejection fraction. Similar data
was reported in the EuroHeart Failure Survey
(46). Despite effective volume management
during the hospitalization, as indicated by
VLJQLFDQWZHLJKWORVVGHFUHDVHLQHGHPDDQG
jugular venous pressure (19), about 20% were
readmitted for heart failure within 3 months
(45,46) and a fourth of those were readmitted
DOUHDG\ ZLWKLQ WKH UVW ZHHN DIWHU GLVFKDUJH
(46). One possible explanation is premature
hospital discharge, in fact 30% of heart failure
patients still have symptoms of heart failure at
the time of discharge (45). Furthermore, a study
from a heart failure program (47) found that the
PDMRULW\RIWKHPHGLFDWLRQFKDQJHVLQWKHUVW
3 months after discharge were adjustments of
diuretics, indicating that the patients were not
in a stable optivolumic state when they left the
hospital.

16

The usefulness of continuous hemodynamic monitoring

Physical signs of congestion such as pulmonary

rales, jugular venous distension or a third
heart sound correlate only moderately with
measurements of ventricular function (48,49).
Therefore, early stages of volume overload might
be missed during a routine clinical examination.
For the patient at home, measuring changes
in body weight by a scale is a simple method
for volume monitoring and often the only one
available. Patients are generally recommended to
call their clinic when their weight has increased
more than 2-3 kg over 2-3 days (9). However,
few data exists to support these weight criteria
and two recent studies even question its validity,
either as an indication of clinical deterioration
(50) or to prevent hospitalizations (51).
Patient compliance is another factor that
impacts hospitalizations and when to seek care.
In a literature study (52) it was shown that on
average only 40% of the patients reported that
they weighed themselves regularly (range 1275%). The same review also reported on the
GHOD\ LQ VHHNLQJ FDUH IURP WKH UVW DZDUHQHVV
of symptoms. Dyspnea warranted contact after
a median duration of 3 days while symptoms
of edema, cough and fatigue was tolerated for
a median of 7 days (52). Volume management
in patients with ventricular dysfunction thus
remains a challenge. Patient symptoms and
clinical signs are inconclusive and additional
WRROVDUHWKHUHIRUHGHVLUHGWRDVVHVVXLGVWDWXV
and validate accurate treatment response.
Ambulatory hemodynamic monitoring - past,
present and future
Past
Ambulatory,
continuous
hemodynamic
PRQLWRULQJ ZDV UVW DWWHPSWHG E\ XVLQJ XLG
OOHGRUPLFURPDQRPHWHUWLSSHGFDWKHWHUV
connected to a Holter recorder (54-57). These
recordings where performed with the patient
in the hospital but allowed the patient to move
freely within that environment. The length of
the reported recordings varied from hours up
to 4 days. The results from these studies were
WKHUVWWRGHVFULEHFDUGLDFSUHVVXUHOHYHOVDQG
diurnal variations in an ambulatory heart failure
patient. In a study of eight patients with chronic
17

heart failure (54) the mean daytime pulmonary

artery systolic pressure was 305 mmHg and
pulmonary artery diastolic pressure was 146
mmHg, indicating a mild to moderate heart
failure. At night the pulmonary artery systolic
pressure increased an additional 53 mmHg
and the pulmonary artery diastolic pressure 42
mmHg. These early studies laid the foundation
for todays fully implantable systems that
measure cardiac pressures and gave an early
insight to what continuous cardiac pressure
monitoring might reveal.
Present
A series of studies have been performed to
verify the feasibility of continuous implantable
hemodynamic monitoring (IHM) in patients with
heart failure and devices for remote transfer and
XVHRIWKHGDWD7KHUVWDFXWHVWXGLHVVXSSRUWHG
the ability to reliably estimate pulmonary artery
diastolic pressures from the right ventricular
pressure signal (58-60). This was followed
by studies of permanently implanted pressure
sensors aimed to show accuracy in right
ventricle pressure measurements and that the
performance was stable over time (Figure
4). The results of these studies support the
technical feasibility and the long-term accuracy
and stability of these systems (61-65). More
over, in 32 patients implanted with an IHM,
changes in right ventricular pressures preceded
patient symptoms in mild decompensation
(not hospitalized) with at least 24 hours and
in severe decompensation (hospitalized) with
42 days (66). The authors concluded that if
the changes had been detected at an early stage
and medication regiments changed, periods of
decompensation and subsequent hospitalization
might have been avoided.
In addition to the feasibility studies, several small
research studies have been performed (67-69)
UHHFWLQJWKHXWLOLW\RIWKH,+0DVDUHVHDUFKWRRO
Also, the enthusiasm to show how the IHM can
be used to provide informed care in individual
patients led to a number of case studies being
published (70-74). However, these studies were
based on retrospective analysis of the IHM data
and it become clear that an important part of the
ambulatory hemodynamic monitoring concept
was easy and instant access to the information

Barbro Kjellstrm

Figure 4. Photo from a cath lab examination in the IHM-1 study. The aim of the IHM-1 study was to study accuracy
and long term (1 year) stability of a pressure and an oxygen sensor permanently implanted in the right ventricle. The
patients underwent catheterizations at the day of implant and 1, 3 and 12 month after implant. The picture shows the
patient to the left and all the equipment that was needed to test sensor accuracy surrounding him.

on a regular basis. The Chronicle information

network (Carelink) is a web based system that
allows the patient to send data stored in the IHM
via a regular telephone line to the internet. The
clinician has access the hemodynamic data from
any computer or similar device with an internet
connection and can thereby detect changes in
the hemodynamic trends without the patient
having to visit the clinic.

the data were un-blinded for all patients. The

study showed a 38% reduction in the relative
risk of HF hospitalization between control and
treatment groups. However, the study turned
out to have over-estimated the primary endpoint
event rate and was underpowered to achieve
VWDWLVWLFDOVLJQLFDQFH,WZDVDOVRUHSRUWHGWKDW
the hospitalization event rate remained low in
the treatment group in the 6-months following
$UDQGRPL]HGVWXG\WRHVWDEOLVKWKHHIFDF\RI the un-blinding, and that the control groups HF
Chronicle Guided Care in heart failure patients hospitalization event rate decreased to match
has been conducted (COMPASS-HF) and the rate achieved in treatment group.
the results were presented at an FDA review
meeting March 1, 2007. The trial enrolled 274 Future
NYHA class III-IV patients who were followed
for 6-months (75). All patients received an Ongoing research is directed towards
IHM and were randomized to either a treatment simplifying the use of the IHM system, to
group where clinicians had continuous, remote combine the IHM with other device therapies and
access to the IHM data or a control group to better understand disease pathophysiology and
where clinicians were blinded to the IHM the discrimination of underlying co-morbidities
data. After the 6-month randomization period, in patients implanted with an IHM.
18

The usefulness of continuous hemodynamic monitoring

Today the review of the IHM trends is done

by the clinical staff on a regular basis. This is
time consuming and in addition, identifying
meaningful changes requires training and
experience. To provide easy access to the data,
improved techniques such as wireless telemetry
and automated detection of hemodynamic
changes (76) have been reported. The latter
could provide early warning of potential
cardiac decompensation and assist data reviews.
Future algorithms might include, among other,
estimation of cardiac output by pulse contour
analysis (77,78) and detection and discrimination
of ventricular arrhythmias (79).
The possible combination with other technologies
and devices includes impedance measurements
(80), cardiac pacing (in particular cardiac
resynchronization therapy) and automatic drug
delivery systems. A combination device, the
Chronicle-ICD is currently being implanted in
the REDUCE-HF trial. The IHM part of the
device utilizes the same technology as previously

19

described and is not used for ICD arrhythmia

detection. Similar to COMPASS-HF, all patients
receive an IHM and are randomized to either a
treatment arm where clinicians have access to the
IHM data or a control arm where clinicians are
blinded to the IHM data. The primary endpoints
are safety and a 30% reduction of all HF related
events in the treatment group compared to the
control group (81).
Dr Pickering, a pioneer in ambulatory blood
SUHVVXUH PRQLWRULQJ ZURWH $PEXODWRU\
monitoring provides a unique opportunity for
studying the temporal relationships between
lifestyle factors and blood pressure. These
include physical activity, mental activity,
environmental stressors substances ingested for
pleasure such as smoking, alcohol and caffeine,
DQG QXWULWLRQ  7KRXJK KLV FRPPHQW ZDV
meant for cuff blood pressure monitoring,
LW LV GHQLWHO\ DSSOLFDEOH IRU LPSODQWDEOH
hemodynamic monitoring too and there is still
much to be learned.

Barbro Kjellstrm

Aims of the study

The general aim of this thesis was to show the feasibility and applicability of continuous
hemodynamic monitoring in patients with overt or imminent heart failure.
6SHFLFDLPVZHUHWR
I

demonstrate accuracy and long term stability of an implanted venous oxygen sensor

II

identify which components of 24-hour data from an implantable hemodynamic monitor

best estimate resting conditions

III

demonstrate feasibility and usability of a trans-telephonic system with internet based

display of continuous hemodynamic data

IV

study right ventricular hemodynamics, including mixed venous oxygen, during different
types of exercise and levels of exertion

assess applicability of continuous hemodynamic monitoring in patients with pulmonary

hypertension and if optimization of therapy (inhaled iloprost) was feasible

VI

assess applicability of continuous hemodynamic monitoring between dialysis sessions in

patients with end stage renal disease

20

The usefulness of continuous hemodynamic monitoring

Material and Methods

Technical components - sensors

Medtronic, Inc., Minneapolis, USA) was

a unipolar, 58cm lead with polyurethane
insulation. The pressure sensor capsule was
placed 3 cm proximal to the tip and had a
maximum diameter of 3.7 mm. It used tines
IRUSDVVLYH[DWLRQ$QLFNHODOOR\ZDVXWLOL]HG
as conductor while the sensor capsule was
constructed of titanium and titanium alloys,
which were covered in polyurethane and
medical adhesive. The pressure sensor capsule
(Figure 6) was hermetically sealed and included
D GHHFWDEOH WLWDQLXP GLDSKUDJP 0RWLRQ RI
the diaphragm changed the capacitance and
WKHUHE\ UHHFWHG SUHVVXUH FKDQJH 'LJLWDO
sampling was used to construct continuous
pressure waveforms for storing hemodynamic
information. From each cardiac cycle, right
ventricular systolic (RVSP) and diastolic
(RVDP) pressure, maximum positive and
negative change in pressure over time (dP/
dt), pre-ejection and systolic time interval,
central venous temperature and heart rate were
measured. Pulmonary artery diastolic pressure
(ePAD) was estimated as the right ventricular
pressure at the time of dP/dtmax (Figure 7, 5860).

The oxygen sensing lead (Model 4327A,

Medtronic, Inc., Minneapolis, USA) was a
polyurethane permanent pacing lead with a
porous platinum steroid tip carrying an oxygen
sensor. The oxygen sensor (Figure 5) consisted
of a sealed capsule containing red and infrared
emitting diodes, a photo detector and an
integrated circuit, located 2.8 cm from the lead
WLS ,W XVHG WLQHV IRU SDVVLYH [DWLRQ 2[\JHQ
saturation was detected as a ratio of red/infrared
UHHFWLRQDVWKHVHQVRUHPLWWHGUHGDQGLQIUDUHG
OLJKWLQWRWKHEORRG7KHUHHFWDQFHRIWKHUHG
light depended on the proportion of oxygenated
KHPRJORELQ ZKLFK DOVR LQGLFDWHG FKDQJHV
LQ WKH FRORU RI WKH EORRG HJ DUWHULDO EORRG
with high oxygen saturation = light red; venous
blood with low oxygen saturation = dark red).
7KH UHHFWLRQ RI LQIUDUHG OLJKW ZDV UHODWLYHO\
independent of oxygenated hemoglobin and
therefore served as a reference. A photodiode
GHWHFWHG WKH UHHFWHG OLJKW DQG PHDVXUHG WKH
WLPHUHTXLUHGIRU[HGDPRXQWRIOLJKWHQHUJ\
to be collected. That time related to the oxygen
saturation level. An electrical signal was
transmitted to the pulse generator using the
outer coil connector of the lead.
It has been suggested that with the sensor placed
The pressure sensing lead (Model 4328A, in the apex, there might be an increased risk of

Figure 5. Mixed venous oxygen sensor Oxygen saturaWLRQZDVGHWHFWHGDVDUDWLRRIUHGLQIUDUHGUHHFWLRQDV

the sensor emitted red and infra-red light into the blood.
Red light was dependent on the proportion of oxygenated
hemoglobin while the infrared light was independent and
VHUYHGDVDUHIHUHQFH$SKRWRGLRGHGHWHFWHGWKHUHHFWHGOLJKWDQGPHDVXUHGWKHWLPHXQWLOD[HGDPRXQWRI
light energy has been collected. That time correlated to
the oxygen saturation level.
21

Figure 6. Pressure sensor Motion of the titanium diaphragm in response to the cardiac contraction changed
WKHFDSDFLWDQFHDQGWKHUHE\UHHFWHGFKDQJHVLQFDUGLDF
pressure. Digital sampling was used to construct continuous pressure waveforms for storing hemodynamic information. The diaphragm was connected to the internal
circuitry that transmitted the pressure data up the lead to
the IHM for measurement and storage.

Barbro Kjellstrm

EGM

PA

RV

RV
dp/dt

Figure 7. Schematic illustration of how the hemodynamic variables are derived from the intracardiac signal and the
pressure waveform. The pulmonary artery diastolic pressure (ePAD) is derived from the right ventricular pressure
waveform at the time of maximum dP/dt when the pulmonary valve opens and the pressure in the right ventricle (RV)
and the pulmonary artery (PA) are assumed to be equal. Right ventricular diastolic pressure (RVDP) is measured at
the time of R-wave detection and the right ventricular systolic pressure (RVSP) is measured as the maximal pressure
in a 500 ms window, starting at time of r-wave detection. Pre ejection interval (PEI), systolic time interval (STI) and
heart rate (RR-interval) is also measured.

tissue overgrowth (62, 64). Therefore, the tip

of the lead was placed in the right ventricular
RXWRZ WUDFW RU KLJK RQ WKH ULJKW YHQWULFXODU
septum in the belief that a placement in areas of
KLJKRZZRXOGUHGXFHWLVVXHHQFDSVXODWLRQ
Technical components - devices
The OxyElite (Model 8007, Medtronic, Inc.,
Minneapolis, USA) was a dual chamber,
unipolar, rate response pacemaker. Rateresponse was provided by an activity sensor,
a piezoelectric crystal mounted on the inside
of the pacemaker can. The algorithms for
the activity sensor as well as the pacemaker

functions were the same as in the Elite (Model

7075, Medtronic, Inc., Minneapolis, USA)
pacemaker. Pacemaker parameters and mixed
venous oxygen saturation histograms stored
in the device memory were interrogated by
use of the pacemaker programmer (Model
9760, Medtronic, Inc., Minneapolis, USA).
The oxygen saturation histogram feature in the
OxyElite continuously measured and stored
mixed venous oxygen saturation in 4-second
intervals during ambulatory conditions and
sorted the measurements into eight histogram
bins ranging from <49% up to >77% in steps of
4%. When the programmer telemetry head was
placed over the pacemaker, real time mixed
22

The usefulness of continuous hemodynamic monitoring

Figure 8.7KHLQWHUDFWLYHUHPRWHPRQLWRUZLWKWKHDWUDGLRIUHTXHQF\DQWHQQDLVVKRZQEHKLQGWKHLPSODQWDEOHKHmodynamic monitoring system consisting of the Chronicle IHM and pressure sensor lead to the left and the external
pressure reference to the right.

venous oxygen saturation could be read on the

programmer screen and/or stored on a diskette
for future analysis.
The implantable hemodynamic monitor
(IHM; Models 10440; IHM-1 and 9520;
Chronicle, Medtronic, Inc., Minneapolis,
USA) was a memory device that stored values
from a sensor or sensors placed in the right
ventricle. The IHM-1 was equipped with
two sensor leads, one oxygen sensor and one
pressure sensor while the Chronicle only had
the pressure sensor (Figure 8). The other major
difference between the two devices was the
memory capacity. The IHM-1 had a 32 kilobytes
random access memory and the Chronicle 128
kilobytes. This affected the resolution of the
stored data and allowed the Chronicle to store
values at a higher resolution for longer periods
than the IMH-1. In most other aspects both
IHMs were similar. Beat-by-beat values from
the pressure sensor were stored as the median
23

and range (6th and 94th percentiles) over each

storage interval. The IHM-1 also stored mixed
venous oxygen saturation. The storage interval
was programmable, ranging from 3 hours to 3
PRQWKVDQGFRXOGEHDGMXVWHGWRWWKHSDWLHQWV
follow-up schedule. With a storage interval of 3
hours one data point represents 2 seconds. This
storage interval was used when the patient was in
the clinic for an acute test such as catheterization,
exercise test or drug intervention. A longer storage
interval was used when the patient was at home.
In the early studies, longer storage intervals (1-3
months) were used as the patient had to come to
the clinic for data retrieval. After the Chronicle
information network (see next paragraph) was
introduced, a storage interval of 1-2 weeks where
each data point represents 4-8 minutes became the
standard.
The right ventricular pressure sensor measured
absolute pressure, requiring correction for
continuously varying ambient atmospheric
pressures by a time-synchronized external pres-

Barbro Kjellstrm

look screen displayed a summary table of

night time rest values (midnight to 04:00,
at zero activity counts) during the last datacollection period alongside data from any one
previous data-collection period. Differences
between the periods were shown as actual
The interactive remote monitor (IRM; Model values (real change) and as percentage change
9521, Medtronic, Inc., Minneapolis, USA) was (Figure 10). Based on individualized, expected
used to send the data stored in the IHM from ranges for each variable, out of range data
any remote site having a standard phone line, and/or changes in individual variables were
e.g. the patients home, to a central server. The highlighted. Data were also displayed as trends
,50KDGDDWUDGLRIUHTXHQF\DQWHQQDZKLFK of all hemodynamic variables, with resolution
was placed over the implanted device and the depending on the length of the displayed period
patients EPR was placed in a separate slot (Figure 11). Separate trends were also provided
in the IRM for transmission of the collected of the last 6 months of night time rest data. A
barometric pressure (Figure 8). The IRM was list of triggered events with the option to review
operated by a one-button maneuver that started events in high resolution and samples of pressure
the download of the IHM and EPR data and the waveforms were also available. Additionally,
transmission by a built in modem that dialed an the user could enter notes describing changes
Internet Service Provider (ISP) to transfer the in treatment, interventions, hospitalizations or
data to the central server. Patients followed other information.
the transmission procedure by observing
The distribution of the technical components in
indicator lights on the IRM. When the process
Study I-VI can be found in Table 3.
was completed the IRM modem automatically
GLVFRQQHFWHG IURP WKH ,63 ,I D OH WUDQVIHU
failed, an email message was sent to the treating Study I
clinic requesting that the clinic staff contact the
OxyElite, long term follow-up of an
SDWLHQWWRUHTXHVWDUHSHDWOHWUDQVIHU
implantable Sv02 sensor
The Chronicle information network (Figure
9) provided the health care staff with easy access Nine consecutive patients with an indication
to the patients hemodynamic information. The for a DDD pacemaker were implanted with an
user logged on to a Web site using a personal 2[\(OLWHDGXDOFKDPEHUSDFHPDNHUPRGLHG
ID and password to gain access to data from to utilize a right ventricular oxygen saturation
patients registered at their clinic. A quick- lead.
sure reference (EPR) device (Figure 8). Through
the use of custom software, the absolute
sensor data was then corrected for changes
in barometric pressure. Activity counts were
determined by a piezoelectric crystal mounted
inside the monitor can.

Table 3. Use of the technical components in the studies included in this thesis
Study I
(n=9)

Study II*
(n=32)

Study III*
(n=134)

Study IV
(n=21)

Chronicle IHM

Interactive remote monitor

Chronicle information network

Oxygen sensing lead

Pressure sensing lead

OxyElite

Study V
(n=5)

Study VI
(n=16)

IHM-1

*The patients in Study II who received an IHM in USA and were still being in follow-up when remote monitoring was
introduced are also included in Study III. Except for these studies there was no overlap in study populations between
the studies.
24

The usefulness of continuous hemodynamic monitoring

In the clinic
At home

Programmer

Interactive remote monitor

Telephone line

Diskette

Personal
computer

Internet connection

Central server

Chronicle Information Network

Computer with internet access

Figure 9. Chronicle information network architecture. Stored hemodynamic data is transmitted from the implantable
hemodynamic monitor via an interactive remote monitor or a programmer/personal computer to a central server. Data
can be viewed from any web-enabled computer.

The average age was 6914 years, two patients

were in NYHA class I and seven in NYHA
class II. The indications for a pacemaker were;
AV-block II-III (n=5), AV-block I with syncope
(n=1), bradycardia (n=2) and sick sinus
syndrome (n=1). Six patients had a history of
ischemic heart disease. All patients except one
were treated with aspirin during the course of
the study.
Invasive studies comparing the mixed venous
oxygen saturation from the implanted sensor to
reference (Opticath, Oximetrix system, Abbot
Laboratories, Chicago, USA) was performed at
0, 3 and 9 months. Symptom limited, bicycle
exercise tests were performed 1-7 days, 3.5 and
9.5 months post-implant. Metabolic assessment
25

(CPX, MedGraphics, St Paul, USA), venous

oxygen saturation from the implanted sensor and
arterial oxygen saturation (Ohmeda, Louisville,
USA) measurements during the exercise test
allowed for cardiac output calculations using
the Fick principle.
Sub-maximal bicycle exercise tests (5 minutes
at 60% of the previously determined maximal
workload) were performed every 2-4 weeks
GXULQJWKHUVW\HDURIIROORZXSDQGVXEVHTXHQWO\
every 6 months. After 3-3.5 years of follow up,
the bike test was replaced by an uncontrolled
exercise that included mixed venous oxygen
saturation measurements at supine rest and
after 30-60 seconds of light exercise. This
walk-in-place test was performed at each 6-

Barbro Kjellstrm

Figure 10. An example from the quick look screen used on the Chronicle information network. The screen shows the
night time minimum values from the last transmission (column to the left), a previous transmission (column in the
middle) and changes between the two selected transmissions (column to the right).

Figure 11. An example from the Chronicle information network showing a 1-month, continuous hemodynamic trend.
Each data point represents a 2 hour median.
26

The usefulness of continuous hemodynamic monitoring

month follow-up visit for the remaining time

of follow-up. Mixed venous oxygen saturation
was recorded at supine rest before exercise,
at peak exercise and following recovery after
exercise.
Study II
Components of continuous 24-hour pressures
that correlate to supine resting conditions
and acute right heart catheterization
Thirty-two patients diagnosed with chronic
heart failure received an IHM. The average age
was 5910 years, one patient was in NYHA
class I, 14 in NYHA class II and 17 in NYHA
class III. Nineteen patients had heart failure of
ischemic origin, and the average LVEF was
2911%. All patients except one were treated
with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors
or angiotensin-II receptor blockers while betablockers were used in 78% and diuretics in 88%.
At time of implant the average right ventricular
systolic pressure was 48.3 16.2 mmHg, right
ventricular diastolic pressure 9.4 5.3 mmHg,
estimated pulmonary artery diastolic pressure
23.3 8.9 mmHg and heart rate 76.5 15.1
bpm.

hour recording (Figure 12) and compared to the

controlled rest values.
All patients also underwent right heart
catheterizations at the time of IHM implant
and at 3, 6 and 12 months after IHM implant
to verify system performance. This included
independent measures of pulmonary artery and
ULJKW YHQWULFXODU SUHVVXUHV XVLQJ XLG OOHG
catheters. The method found to be the best
estimate of controlled rest was compared to
acute invasive catheterization values.
Study III
Trans-telephonic monitoring of continuous
hemodynamic measurements

Over a 3-year period, from September 1998

through October 2001, 148 patients had an IHM
implanted worldwide. The mean age was 5613
years, 89 were male and average LVEF was
2814. The distribution in NYHA classes was
1, 22, 70 and 7 patients for class I, II, III and IV
respectively. Mean follow-up time was 2314
months (range 0.5-53). Of the total implants, 12
were done in Europe and 4 in Canada where
the patients did not have IRM access. Thus 134
'XULQJWKHUVW\HDUDIWHULPSODQWWKHSDWLHQWV patients were included in the study.
participated in monthly clinic visits for the Transtelephonic transfer of hemodynamic data
UVW  PRQWKV DQG ELPRQWKO\ WKHUHDIWHU $W from the IHMs to the Chronicle information
each clinic visit the IHM data was collected in network was analyzed on a monthly and yearly
a high- resolution mode (storage interval of 2 basis from August 2000 to November 2003.
seconds) during a controlled, supine rest period Success rate of data transfer, reason for transfer
of at least 5 minutes. Data from the last minute failure and amount of data lost due to transfer
RIWKHUHVWLQJSHULRGZHUHDYHUDJHGDQGGHQHG failure were analyzed and reported upon.
DV FRQWUROOHG UHVW %HWZHHQ FOLQLF YLVLWV WKH
IHM was programmed to continuously store In addition, a usability study concerning the
hemodynamic values and heart rate. Data patients ability to transmit IHM data was
were stored as medians and the 6th and 94th SHUIRUPHGLQWKHUVWSDWLHQWVSURYLGHGZLWK
percentiles for each storage interval. The an IRM. The mean age of these 20 patients was
recommended follow-up interval programming 5913 years (range 20-75) and 8 were male.
was 1 month (storage interval 24 minutes) %HIRUH XVLQJ WKH ,50 IRU WKH UVW WLPH WKH
IRU WKH UVW  PRQWKV DQG  PRQWKV VWRUDJH patients underwent a training session including
interval 48 minutes) thereafter, although other DYLGHROPDQGDKDQGVRQGHPRQVWUDWLRQRQ
resolutions were allowed depending on the how to setup and use the IRM in their homes. The
patients or the investigators schedules. Values patients were then asked to call the Medtronic
from the week before and the week after each 3DWLHQW 6HUYLFHV GLUHFWO\ WKH WKUHH UVW WLPHV
clinic visit were averaged and represent the they used the IRM in their homes. The Patient
ambulatory data. The ambulatory hemodynamic Services asked standardized questions about
values were divided into 7 components of a 24- the usability of the system.
27

Barbro Kjellstrm

Figure 12. Seven different derived estimates from the chronic ambulatory data that seemed the most likely estimators
RIWKHFRQWUROOHGVXSLQHUHVWYDOXHVZHUHLGHQWLHG$VLQJOHYDOXHZDVFDOFXODWHGIURPWKHKRXUDPEXODWRU\GDWD
IRUHDFKRIWKHPHWKRGVOLVWHGLQWKHJXUH

Study IV

hemodynamic stress.

Hemodynamic observations during exercise

measured by implantable pressure and
oxygen saturation sensors

Three types of exercise was performed; 1) a

maximal, symptom limited bicycle exercise
test, 2) a submaximal bicycle exercise test,
using 30-40% of the patients maximal load
during the baseline symptom limited exercise
test and 3) a six-minute walk test. The symptom
limited bicycle exercise test was performed just
after implant and repeated after two, six and
12 months of follow-up while the submaximal
tests on bike or walking was performed
approximately every four to six weeks after
implant. During all three types of exercise tests,
hemodynamic data from the IHM system were
stored in the high resolution setting (beat-bybeat measurements averaged over 2-8 second
data storage intervals).

Twenty-one patients at three centers had an IHM

implanted. The mean age was 61 years (range
26-79), 17 were males and the mean LVEF was
24% (range 10-40). Six patients were in NYHA
Class II and the remaining 15 in NYHA class
III. Fifteen patients had ischemic origin to their
heart failure. The patients were followed for a
mean of 2514 (range: 1-39) months.
Standardized, serial exercise tests were
performed to evaluate the right ventricular
and pulmonary pressures and the mixed
venous oxygen saturation responses during

28

The usefulness of continuous hemodynamic monitoring

Study V

Study VI

Hemodynamic observations in patients

with pulmonary hypertension treated with
inhaled Iloprost

Hemodynamic observations in patients

with end stage renal failure treated with
hemodialysis

Five female patients with pulmonary

hypertension received an IHM. Four patients
were diagnosed with pulmonary artery
hypertension and one with pulmonary venous
hypertension. The mean age was 4516
years, the average right ventricular systolic
pressure was 6813 mmHg. All patients were
treated chronically with aerosolized iloprost,
a prostacyclin aimed to reduce pulmonary
vascular resistance and thereby increase cardiac
output and reduce right ventricular pressures.

Sixteen patients with end-stage renal disease and

on chronic hemodialysis were implanted with
an IHM. The mean age was 689 years, LVEF
459% and LVEDD 497 mm. All patients
underwent hemodialysis 3 times per week.
Two patients had normal urine production.
All patients had a peripheral arteriovenous
VWXOD +HPRG\QDPLF PHDVXUHPHQWV IURP
12 consecutive weeks of observations were
analyzed. One value representative of the
daytime period, when the patient was assumed
to be active, was calculated as an average of all
stored median values between 8:00 and 20:00.
A value representing rest was analyzed as the
night-time minimum (see study II, Figure 12).
Averages of the hemodynamic data from the
day of dialysis (1st day), the day after dialysis
(2nd day) and the day after a weekend (extra
GD\DQGGDWDIURPUVWVHFRQGDQGWKLUGQLJKW
after dialysis were calculated.

A 20% reduction in pulmonary artery systolic

pressure after inhalation is considered a positive
response (83) and is expected to last 60-120
minutes (84) before returning to pre inhalation
levels. This necessitates repeated inhalations
six to nine times a day to obtain a sustained
FOLQLFDOEHQHW
The effect of iloprost inhalation was studied in
DVXSHUYLVHGVKRUWDQGLQDQRQVXSHUYLVHG
ORQJWHUPSURWRFRO7KHVXSHUYLVHGSURWRFRO
included high resolution hemodynamic data
collection (storage interval 2 seconds) for
20 minutes before the start of inhalation, 2
inhalations and 30 minutes after the second
inhalation while the patient was at the clinic.
This allowed analysis of one full inhalationcycle (four hours) for analysis. The supervised
protocol was performed one day after IHM
implantation and after one, two, and three
months during regular outpatient check-ups.

Before and after each dialysis session

routine body weight and blood pressure (cuff
manometer) was measured at the dialysis ward
and symptoms such as leg cramps, headache
and nausea during the dialysis were noted.
Statistical methods

The hemodynamic monitor stored all measured

data as a median together with the 6th and 94th
percentile over a certain, programmable, time
The non-supervised protocol documented the period. Conventional statistical methods were
pulmonary artery systolic pressure (=right used for calculations of means and standard
ventricular systolic pressure) response of inhaled deviation. For paired comparisons between
iloprost in an ambulatory setting with the IHM measurements a two sided Students t-test was
programmed to a storage interval of 52 seconds. used (Study I, II, IV and VI). Analysis of variance
This allowed for four to six inhalations in a 24- (ANOVA) was used to verify hemodynamic
hour period. The non-supervised protocol was changes during exercise in study IV. Statistical
GLIIHUHQFHV ZHUH FRQVLGHUHG VLJQLFDQW LI
performed one day after the IHM implantation
p<0.05. Descriptive statistics were used in Study
DQGDIWHUWZRDQGYHPRQWKVLQFRRUGLQDWLRQ
III and V. Changes in hemodynamics (Study IV
with regular outpatient check-ups.
and VI) are presented as percent change for all
The effective period of inhaled iloprost was variables except RVDP where actual values
GHQHG DV WKH WLPH XQWLO D  ORVV RI WKH were used. Small changes of RVDP might
initial, acute pulmonary artery systolic pressure be proportionally large if expressed as percent
response.
change. In Study I the correlations between
29

Barbro Kjellstrm

mixed venous oxygen values obtained with

different methods were evaluated according to
a simple linear regression model. The resting
hemodynamic data in Study II and IV was
calculated from the last 60 seconds of the resting
period. Peak exercise values (Study IV) was
calculated from the last 15-30 seconds before
the exercise was terminated. The ambulatory
hemodynamic values in Study II were averaged
over 7 days before and/or 7 days after the
controlled rest. Ambulatory values in Study
VI was measured as mean of a daytime (8:00
20:00) medians or a night-time minimum (0:00
4:00) value from the day/night before each
dialysis treatment.

Ethical consideration
The study protocol was approved by local the
ethics committees at the Karolinska Institute
(Study I, II, III, IV, VI) and the University of
Graz (Study V). All patients gave their informed
consent to participate after receiving verbal and
written information.

30

The usefulness of continuous hemodynamic monitoring

Results
Study I
OxyElite, long term follow-up of an
implantable mixed venous oxygen sensor
A total of 24 serial invasive tests were performed
LQ WKH QLQH SDWLHQWV GXULQJ WKH UVW \HDU RI
follow-up. Mixed venous oxygen saturation
measured by the implanted oxygen sensor
showed high correlations to blood samples
and Opticath values collected simultaneously
in the pulmonary artery (Figure 13). During
the same period, the patients performed 23
cardiopulmonary exercise tests with breathto-breath cardiac output measurements. The
oxygen sensor as well as the cardiac output
measurements at rest were stable over time
and showed a reproducible response to posture
changes and exercise.

saturation values were stable over the six years

of follow-up (NS vs. the 1 year follow-up) and
the response to the exercise showed a good
reproducibility.
Study II
Components of continuous 24-hour pressures
that correlate to supine resting conditions
and acute right heart catheterization

Resting hemodynamic values was available

in 30 patients from a total of 145 clinic visits.
Ambulatory data from the week before and after
the visit was used as comparison. The average
right ventricular and pulmonary artery pressures
at rest were elevated. All hemodynamic methods
derived from the 24 hour IHM data, except
Long-term follow-up of the oxygen sensor the night-time minimum with zero activity
performance was evaluated by the sub-maximal method, overestimated resting values of right
H[HUFLVH WHVWV DQG ZDONLQJLQSODFH WHVWV ventricular systolic and diastolic pressures and
Eighty-eight submaximal bicycle tests and 23 ePAD (estimated pulmonary artery diastolic
walking-in-place tests were performed during pressure). There was no difference between
the study. The resting mixed venous oxygen resting pressure values and the night-time

Figure 13. Panel A: the correlation between SvO2 measurements by the implanted SvO2 sensor and pulmonary artery
blood SvO2. Panel B: the correlation between SvO2 measurements by the implanted SvO2 sensor and the SwanGanz opticath. Values are from rest and exercise performed at implant (only rest), 3 and 9 months after implant. Both
methods demonstrate a good correlation, although a greater variability was observed during exercise (lower SvO2
values).
31

Barbro Kjellstrm

Figure 14. Number of patients that sent data via the interactive remote monitor to the Chronicle information network
DQGWRWDOQXPEHURIWUDQVPLWWHGOHVDUHVKRZQRQDTXDUWHUO\EDVLV7KHEDUVDUHGLYLGHGLQWRVXFFHVVIXODQGQRQ
successful transmissions.

minimum pressure values (<0.05 mmHg, NS).

Therefore, the night-time minimum pressure
was chosen as the component of the 24-hour
continuous hemodynamic recording that best
approximated rest. Resting heart rate was
VLJQLFDQWO\ GLIIHUHQW IURP DOO RI WKH VHYHQ
methods applied on the ambulatory data and
interestingly, the night-time minimum heart
rate was the poorest estimate.

Study III
Trans-telephonic monitoring of continuous
haemodynamic measurements

During the study period, 7791 data transmissions

were performed and of those 6778 were
successfully transmitted. Ten percent had to
be retransmitted at least once and 1.5% at least
twice. Success rate was stable over time and
LQGHSHQGHQW RI QXPEHU RI WUDQVPLWWHG OHV RU
The values from the right heart catheter (right number of active patients (Figure 14). One year
ventricular systolic pressure 4517 mmHg, DIWHU WKH UVW WUDQVPLVVLRQ DQ DYHUDJH RI 
right ventricular diastolic pressure 126 mmHg, OHVZDVWUDQVPLWWHGHDFKPRQWKZLWKDPHDQ
estimated pulmonary artery diastolic pressure frequency of 6.5 days between transmissions.
248 mmHg) were higher than the night- 9DULDWLRQV LQ WKH QXPEHU RI OH WUDQVPLVVLRQV
time minimum, although for right ventricular UHODWHG WR XFWXDWLRQV LQ QXPEHU RI DFWLYH
diastolic pressure the difference was not patients and upgrades to the technology seen
VWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQLFDQW1RQHRIWKHRWKHU,+0 over the course of the study. Failed transfers
parameters from the 7 methods in this study were most commonly related to interrupted
consistently approximated values derived from telephone transmission or errors related to the
right heart catheterizations.
external pressure reference.
32

The usefulness of continuous hemodynamic monitoring

Figure 15. Continuous, high resolution (2 second) hemodynamic data collected and stored by the implantable hemodynamic monitor during three different types of exercise (maximal exercise test, 6 minute walk test and submaximal
bike test). All three trends are from the same patient. The trends show heart rate (HR), mixed venous oxygen saturation (SvO2) measured in the right ventricle, right ventricular systolic and diastolic pressure (RVSP, RVDP) and estimated pulmonary artery diastolic pressure (ePAD).

Patients included in the usability study

performed 109 successful data transmissions
ZLWKLQ WKH UVW  GD\V DIWHU UHFHLYLQJ
the IRM. In reply to the usability questions,
SDWLHQWVUDQNHGWKH,50DVYHU\HDV\WRXVH
RIWKHWLPHDQGDVVRPHZKDWHDV\WRXVH
for the rest. Age or gender did not appear to
make a difference in the responses. Nine calls
from six patients requested technical support.
Four calls were due to an incorrect password in
the IRM. Reconnecting the telephone plug or
repositioning the external pressure reference in
LWVVORWVROYHGWKHUHPDLQLQJYHSUREOHPV
Study IV
Hemodynamic observations during exercise
measured by implantable pressure and
oxygen saturation sensors
During the course of follow-up the patients
performed 70 maximal exercise tests on bike,
196 submaximal bike tests and 172 6-min
walk tests. Hemodynamic values at rest were
33

similar for all tests, heart rate 7815 bpm,

mixed venous oxygen saturation 659%, right
ventricular systolic pressure 4113 mmHg, right
ventricular diastolic pressure 64 mmHg and
estimated pulmonary artery diastolic pressure
206 mmHg. During the maximal exercise
test heart rate increased by 5219 bpm while
mixed venous oxygen saturation decreased by
3510 saturation units (%). Right ventricular
systolic and diastolic pressure increased 2911
and 116 mmHg, respectively, while estimated
pulmonary artery diastolic pressure increased
218 mmHg (Figure 15).
Compared to the hemodynamic response during
maximal exercise test, submaximal bike and
walk tests resulted in mixed venous oxygen
saturation changes of 80 and 91% of the maximal
test values, while changes in right ventricular
and pulmonary artery pressures ranged from
70 to 79% of maximal test responses. This
indicates that the hemodynamic response during
VXEPD[LPDO H[HUFLVH WHVWV UHHFWV FKDQJHV
achieved during maximal exercise in patients
with heart failure.

Barbro Kjellstrm

Figure 16. Right ventricular systolic pressure tracing during 20-hours in a patient with pulmonary hypertension, treated with inhaled iloprost. The arrows mark the beginning of each iloprost inhalation.

Study V
Hemodynamic observations in patients
with pulmonary hypertension treated with
inhaled iloprost
Patients included in the study had various
degrees of pulmonary hypertension as indicated
from their right ventricular systolic pressure
measured before starting the inhalation. The
average pressure was 6813 mmHg, varying
from mild (45mmHg) to severe (119mmHg)
LQWKHYHSDWLHQWV$OOSDWLHQWVKDGDSRVLWLYH
acute response to inhaled iloprost, expressed
as a reduction of pulmonary artery systolic
pressure of 20% or more. In the supervised
protocol, the inhalations were performed in the
hospital under a clinicians supervision. The
time at effective pressure response levels was
rather short, varying from 29 to 80 minutes per
inhalation. Average time for all patients was
498 minutes.
In the non-supervised protocol, performed
while the patients were at home, the pulmonary
artery systolic pressure levels before inhalations
as well as the maximal response to inhalations
(Figure 16) were comparable to the values in
the short-term protocol. However, the time at
the lower pressure levels were 19 minutes in
the long-term protocol compared to 31 minutes
in the short-term protocol. As a consequence
of this, the total effective treatment time was

shorter in the non-supervised protocol (333

minutes) than in the supervised protocol. During
the total recorded time, 265 hours, the time at
effective vasodilatation lasted only 13% of the
whole time span.
Study VI
Hemodynamic observations in patients
with end stage renal failure treated with
hemodialysis
Fifteen patients had continuous hemodynamic
recordings for 12 weeks after the IHM implant.
One patient had only 5 weeks of hemodynamic
data recorded. During the study period a total of
555 hemodialysis treatments were performed in
these 16 patients (Figure 17).
Progressive increments in daytime cardiac
pressures were observed in all patients when
the 1st day was compared to the 2nd and the
extra day. On the 2nd day the right ventricular
systolic pressure and estimated pulmonary
artery diastolic pressures had increased 8-9%.
On the extra day, the pressures had increased
an additional 5-7% compared to the 1st day.
6LJQLFDQWO\ KLJKHU ULJKW YHQWULFXODU DQG
pulmonary pressures were reached on the extra
night after dialysis in 14 of 16 patients. Two
patients with preserved diuresis did not show
any change in cardiac pressures.
34

The usefulness of continuous hemodynamic monitoring

Figure 17. Patient example illustrating an eight day trend with right ventricular systolic (RVSP) and diastolic (RVDP)
pressures, estimated pulmonary artery pressure (ePAD) and heart rate. Hemodialysis procedures (HD) are indicated at
the top of the graph. Activity count shows the time spent physically active. The solid line shows the median value and
the shaded areas are the range (6 and 94 percentile).

The patients weight increased 2.31.1 kg before

the second and third dialysis in the week. After
a weekend, the patients weight had increased
NJ7KHUHZDVQRVLJQLFDQWGLIIHUHQFH
in cuff blood pressure before and after dialysis
or between dialysis sessions.

35

Barbro Kjellstrm

General discussion
The implantable hemodynamic monitor
provides an opportunity to observe continuous
heart rate and right ventricular and pulmonary
artery pressures in the ambulant patient. This
information can be a valuable complement to
traditional patient assessment and support the
clinician in establishing an optimal range of
hemodynamic values in the individual patient.
The result may be better quality of life and a
reduced need for in-hospital care.

Long term stability of the oxygen sensor

The oxygen sensor used in Studies I and IV was

initially developed for rate adaptive pacing but
long term stability in oxygen measurements
could not be proven (85-87) and the sensor
was abandoned for this purpose. After changes
in sensor design had been made to improve
function, the oxygen sensor was implanted for
monitoring purposes, attached to a pacemaker
lead in Study I and as a sensor lead in an IHM
7KH WKUHH UVW SDSHUV LQ WKLV WKHVLV DLP WR system (64, Study IV). The oxygen sensor in
establish a platform showing that implantable Study I demonstrated a reliable long term
biosensors and the technology surrounding performance over six years. This was in contrast
them are feasible and how to handle the huge to Study IV where 40% of the oxygen sensors
amount of data that is collected and stored by the showed intermittent responses or stopped
implantable hemodynamic monitor 24-hours, UHVSRQGLQJ ZLWKLQ WKH UVW \HDU  ZLWKRXW
any apparent technical explanation. Tissue
every day and all year long. The three latter
overgrowth might have been augmented due
papers aim to demonstrate clinical usefulness
to the presence of two sensors in the ventricle,
of the implantable hemodynamic monitor
but this hypothesis was never proven and the
in cardiovascular diseases associated with
real cause remains unknown. As a consequence
compromised hemodynamics. The commonality
the oxygen sensor was removed from the
between the papers is that clinically relevant next generation IHM system, the Chronicle.
hemodynamic values can be measured from the However, the research to develop an oxygen
right ventricle and that these observations may sensor with improved long-term stability has
help make therapeutic decisions and evaluate continued and could possibly be reintegrated in
disease progression.
a future IHM system.
Mixed venous oxygen saturation - what does
it mean?
The importance of mixed venous oxygen
saturation is not always recognized. Cardiac
output alone or together with other diagnostic
information e.g. cardiac or systemic pressures,
heart rate and arterial oxygen saturation does not
UHHFW WKH WLVVXHV PHWDEROLF GHPDQG RU LI WKLV
demand is met. To assess this, values from both
oxygenated (arterial) as well as deoxygenated
(venous) blood is needed. While arterial oxygen
saturation can be accurately measured with
non-invasive methods (63,64), measurement
of mixed venous oxygen saturation require
invasive techniques, or with an implantable
VHQVRU D VHPLLQYDVLYH WHFKQLTXH 6WXG\ ,
and IV).

Utility of continuous mixed venous oxygen

saturation
When the patients in Study I received the
pacemaker with mixed venous oxygen
measurement capabilities, they either had no
or only mild symptoms of heart failure (NYHA
class I-II). However, during the follow-up
period of more than 6 years some patients
developed symptoms of other cardiovascular
diseases. The ambulatory oxygen saturations
showed interesting changes in the trend
patterns that were consistent with changes
in the patients medical conditions. As this
was a pilot study, this observation will need
WREHFRQUPHGLQDODUJHUSDWLHQWJURXS7KH
QGLQJVKRZHYHUDUHWRVRPHH[WHQWVXSSRUWHG
in Study IV where patients with symptomatic
heart failure and an IHM with both pressure
and oxygen saturation sensors were studied.
36

The usefulness of continuous hemodynamic monitoring

During exercise, even at low levels of exertion

such as moving from supine to sitting, a rapid
decrease in mixed venous oxygen saturation
was observed (Figure 15). This indicates that
during daily life activities, one could expect
to see more time spent at lower mixed venous
oxygen saturation in patients with a more severe
disease status.
Due to the need for invasive procedure, the
use of mixed venous oxygen saturation is
underutilized. Nevertheless, if this measurement
could be integrated in the IHM it would have
potential to alert the clinician on early changes
in the patients condition and to support
diagnostic and therapeutic decisions in patients
receiving an IHM.

VKRW RI WKH FKDQJHV JRLQJ RQ LQ WKH SDWLHQWV

hemodynamic trend over time (Figure 10). The
method applied to the ambulatory data that
was found to best mimic a controlled, supine
rest value was the lowest value collected by
the IHM between midnight and 4 am when the
patient was at rest as indicated by zero activity
counts. This method is referred to as the nighttime minimum value. Changes in the night time
PLQLPXP YDOXHV ZLOO OLNHO\ UHHFW FKDQJHV LQ
volume status and provide an easy mean for the
user to decide when to look in more detail at the
full hemodynamic trends or not.
Median and range values

The Chronicle information network (Study

III) is the web based application where the
IHM data is displayed and it utilizes the night
Making sense of continuous hemodynamic WLPHPLQLPXPIURP6WXG\,,RQLWVUVWSDJH
data
:LWKWKLVTXLFNORRNWKHXVHUFDQJHWDUVW
7KHEHVWWKLQJZLWKWKH,+0LVWKDWLWJLYHVXVD impression if changes have occurred since the
lot of data. The worst thing with the IHM is that last transmission of hemodynamic data. Next,
LWJLYHVXVDORWRIGDWD7KLVTXRWHIURP the hemodynamic trend data are displayed with
a clinician who has been working with the IHM four different time scales (Figure 18). All trends
for many years, is very true. The IHM measures show median, maximum and minimum values.
every waveform and stores a median value of The one year view shows daily medians and
those measurements every 4-8 minutes. With an ranges (daily maximum and minimum) that
expected battery life of 3.5-4 years, this means SURYLGH DQ LPDJH UHHFWLQJ ORQJWHUP GLVHDVH
250000 ~ 500000 values from each variable are progress or treatment effects. This type of
collected during the IHMs lifetime. All these general hemodynamic changes might be hard
values have to be processed and displayed in to visualize in trends covering a shorter time
a manner that makes it possible for the user period. However, one-month or one-week
to interpret the data and then act accurately trends, showing 2-hour median and range
to the gained information. In other words, it values, allow for more detailed observations of
LV LPSRUWDQW WR QG WKH YDULDEOH RU YDUDLEOHV short term hemodynamic changes in association
that together with the best analysis method with acute hyper or hypovolemia, response to
can provide the most relevant data for clinical drug interventions or arrhythmias. The detailed
management in individual patients, with a trends over one-day (6-minute median and
variety of diagnoses and with different clinical range), together with a description of symptoms
questions to be answered. The discussion below RU DFWLYLWLHV FDQ VXSSRUW QGLQJV DVVRFLDWHG
will focus on analysis methods and presentation with alternations in the circadian patterns (89).
For example, sudden pressure changes during
of data.
night might indicate sleep apnea (90) or if they
occur in the morning hours they could be effects
Night time minimum values
linked to medication intake (89).
The analysis performed in Study II was an
DWWHPSWWRQGRQHGDWDSRLQWIURPWKHKRXU Today, when evaluating a patients hemodynamic
FRQWLQXRXVKHPRG\QDPLFGDWDWKDWZRXOGUHHFW trend on the Chronicle information network all
measurements typically acquired during supine the aspects above have to be taken into account.
UHVW LQ WKH FOLQLFLDQV RIFH 7KLV YDOXH ZRXOG Though this is less time consuming than it might
WKHQ EH XVHG WR JHW D TXLFN ORRN RU D VQDS sound, it is very much dependent on the users
37

Barbro Kjellstrm

Figure 18. Illustration of the four timescales used on the Chronicle information network to display continuous hemodynamic trends. All trends show a median value (black line) and 94th and 6th percentiles (gray lines).

experience, knowledge and skills. To manage

the patients in the daily care, algorithms that
automatically detect changes from the patient
LQGLYLGXDO RSWLPDO DUH D QHFHVVLW\ 6XFK
methods have been reported (76) and could be
implemented in future generations of the IHM
system.

High resolution values

The IHM can also store hemodynamic data in a
2 second resolution for 3 hours. Using an IHM
designated programmer, high resolution data
can be printed for immediate review or saved to
disc for later processing. Thus, this resolution
38

The usefulness of continuous hemodynamic monitoring

is restricted to use in the clinic and the

most common use today is hemodynamic
observations during exercise testing (Study IV)
or drug interventions (Study V). However, it
might be speculated that broader uses of this
high resolution data could be helpful in remote
monitoring. Standardized home exercise could
be followed closely and improvements or
declines in patient status might be detected
early. Drug titrations could be performed with
a greater base of knowledge of hemodynamic
effects. Acute treatments could be given at the
patients local hospital or clinic and supervised
by the primary treating center (or a specialist
treating center) located somewhere else. The
list of possibilities is endless.
In summary, each of the hemodynamic trends
and resolutions has the potential to add value in
its own way. The high resolution display of the
data offers new insights and better understanding
of the underlying pathophysiology and comorbidities of diseases while averaging and
calculations of medians give an opportunity to
observe long-term changes of the disease state.
Various resolutions may all affect the patient
treatment and might be essential to provide a
better care of patients with cardiopulmonary
disease.

from the continuous trend was intended to

give the user guidance for further exploration
of the stored hemodynamic trends. Ongoing
DQGIXWXUHVWXGLHVZLOOVKRZLIWKHVQDSVKRW
approach, when measured recurrently and
in the ambulatory setting, provides enough
information to improve the patients quality of
life and outcome or if more comprehensive data
that includes ambulatory information will add
LQFUHPHQWDOEHQHWV
Telemonitoring a future perspective in
patient care
Telemonitoring, the use of information
technology to remotely monitor health status,
WVZHOOZLWKPRGHUQGHPDQGVIRUSDWLHQWFDUH
Improved communication systems allow for
rapid and safe transfer of information from one
location to another. Today a broad spectrum of
applications e.g. weight, ECG, arterial oximetry,
blood pressure, heart rate and symptoms can be
transferred from patients via telephone lines,
cell phones or internet to their clinicians (9193). Most studies have shown high levels of
acceptance by the users and good compliance
with these systems.

The Chronicle information network has been

available since the autumn of 2000. Study
Alternative
hemodynamic
monitoring ,,, GHVFULEHV WKH HDUO\ SKDVHV DQG WKH UVW
versions of the system. Since then hundreds
possibilities
of additional patients in USA and Europe
Development
of
implantable
pressure
have transmitted IHM data to the Chronicle
monitoring systems is also being attempted by
LQIRUPDWLRQQHWZRUN7KHQGLQJVLQ6WXG\,,,
others. Examples of these systems include the
demonstrated that patients, independent of age
use of pressure sensors placed in the pulmonary
artery (HeartSensor; CardioMEMs and and disease severity, seemed to be able to handle
Remon Implant; Remon Technologies), in the the technology in a satisfying way. Results
left atrium (HeartPod; Savacor, St Jude) from the COMPASS-HF trial (75) that included
or in the left ventricle (LVP-1000; Transoma 274 patients diagnosed with heart failure in a
Medical). These sensors are positioned by wide range of ages and with some patients in
means of invasive techniques but do not have a severe disease stage (NYHA class III-IV, age
a permanently implanted transvenous lead or range 21 to 91 years) showed 99% transmission
memory device. Thus, the sensors provide only compliance to the Chronicle information
VQDSVKRW RQGHPDQG UHDGLQJV UHWULHYHG network. These results support the conclusion
with an external activation source held outside in Study III, that use of telemonitoring for the
the body. In Study II we showed that cardiac IHM system is feasible. And, it should only get
pressures measured with the IHM at rest either easier as future technology implementations like
in the patients home environment (night, no wireless transmissions (94) make the technical
activity) or during a clinic visit were very similar VNLOOVRIWKHXVHUVXSHUXRXV
WRHDFKRWKHU7KLVVQDSVKRWYDOXHH[WUDFWHG Todays modern society is working in an environ39

Barbro Kjellstrm

ment were technology is becoming an integrated

part of daily life. Next generations of patients
will probably require less travel, less time off
from work or activities and lower costs for
health care. At the same time they will also
expect the quality and accessibility of care to
be higher than today. Telemonitoring could
provide the patient easy access and feedback
of information that might help self-adjusting
of medications and support drug and diet
compliance. In addition, the feeling of security
patients might sense by being monitored should
not be underestimated.
From the care givers perspective it is important
that the telemonitoring system can be integrated
in the clinic setting. This will necessitate
reorganization of the outpatient clinic to
accommodate interpretation of new data and to
be able give proper patient advice based on the
received information. Also, it is important that
the new technology contributes to the sentiment
of giving satisfactory care without increasing
the economic or time burden for the staff at
the clinic. After reviewing the literature about
available telemonitoring systems, interestingly,
no systematic evaluation of the staffs
satisfaction with telemonitoring was found. To
make telemonitoring an integrated part of the
health care system all aspects should be taken
LQWR FRQVLGHUDWLRQ DQG VWXGLHV LQ WKLV HOG DUH
warranted.
Continuous hemodynamic monitoring a
cardiovascular disease management tool

by the use of the hemodynamic information

provided by an IHM might homogenize
therapy response and thereby further improve
the patients quality of life during daily living.
Dietary and drug compliance are other important
factors in the patient care and the IHM can also
be used to educate the patient by showing what
salty snacks (Figure 20) or skipping diuretics
(Figure 21) do to their cardiac pressures.
Heart Failure
Peak VO2, reached during maximal exercise is
considered a good predictor of mortality (96-98)
and is commonly used as an endpoint in heart
failure trials and in the evaluation of patients
for heart transplantation. However, submaximal
tests are generally easier to perform and more
convenient for the patient. Six-minute walk
tests are highly reproducible (99,100) and have
become the standard in large, multi center trials
to show improvement and serve as an indicator
of disease progress.
Study IV evaluated the hemodynamic response
to maximal and submaximal levels of exercise.
Two types of submaximal exercise were
performed, a 6-minute walk test and a 6-minute
upright bike test where the patients peddled at a
steady rate of 40% of their maximal workload.
There was no difference in pressure or heart rate
response between the two submaximal tests.
Those changes, achieved during submaximal
exercise were 70-90% of the responses reached
at the peak of the maximal exercise tests.

Another study (101) in a similar heart failure

Access to continuous hemodynamic trends population (Study III population) investigated
means that administration of treatments the correlation of submaximal exercise response
aimed to improve cardiovascular function can to daily hemodynamic ranges. The results
be made based on an improved platform of showed that the peak pressure values reached
knowledge. Treatment choice and drug dosage during a 6-minute walk test were 80-90% of
can be founded on individual patient response those during the daily measurements (Figure
at the present stage of the disease. Figure 19 22). Therefore we believe that the hemodynamic
LOOXVWUDWHV GLIFXOWLHV LQ QGLQJ WKH FRUUHFW UHVSRQVHWRH[HUFLVHUHHFWVWKHKHPRG\QDPLF
dosage of beta-blockers in a patient with heart response in daily activities in heart failure
failure (95). Recommendations for treatments patients. Submaximal exercise tests could thus
and target dosage are usually based on large replace maximal test in the assessment of the
study materials. Over and/or under treatment is heart failure patients functional status during
probably more common than currently known daily activities.
and might lead to inadequate response as well Moreover, patients with an IHM could perform
as intolerance or unnecessary side effects. VFKHGXOHG SUHGHQHG DFWLYLWLHV RQ D UHJX
Optimizing and individualizing treatments lar basis at home, mimicking those carried out
40

The usefulness of continuous hemodynamic monitoring

Figure 19. Sixty-two year old man with ischemic cardiomyopathy, NYHA class III. The trends show the daily median (black line) and the daily ranges (gray lines). At the IHM implant in February 1999 the patient had just started
treatment with carvedilol and uptitration to 25 and 50 mg/day (note 1 and 2) continued. In May, 1999 the patient had
gained 8 kg over the last month and was admitted to the hospital (note 3). I.v. diuretics were started and the patient
GLXUHVHGNJLQKRXUV$IWHUYHPRUHGD\VRQLYGLXUHWLFVQRIXUWKHUZHLJKWORVVZDVDFKLHYHG&DUYHGLOROZDV
then lowered to 38 mg/day (note 4) and the patient lost another 4 kg within the next 2 days and could be discharged to
home. One year later carvedilol was increased to 50 mg/day (note 5) without any further consequences.

during daily life such as walking around the

block, up and down stairs or carrying grocery
bags or a load of laundry. The hemodynamic
response would be available for the clinician to
41

review on the Chronicle information network

and might at occasions be able to replace the
clinical assessment at the hospital. The response
to this type of exercises would give a good

Barbro Kjellstrm

Figure 20. Sixty-two year old woman diagnosed with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in 2002. At time of implant in December 2004 the patient is in NYHA class III. The trends show the daily median (black line) and the daily ranges (gray
lines) over one month when the patient was non-compliant to dietary restrictions and ate salted popcorns. Note 1 - an
increase in right ventricular systolic pressure is noted and the patient was contacted by phone. The patient stated she
was feeling OK. Note 2 - reinitiated phone contact with the patient who continued to be dietary non-compliant. The
patients weight increased 4 kg and metolazone 2.5 mg/day was initiated. Note 3 - the patients weight have decreased
and the patient considered optivolumic. Carvedilol 6.25 mg/day was initiated.

estimate on how heavy daily activity in fact

is for a patient and comparisons over time
could serve as an indicator on deterioration or
improvement.
$Q DGGLWLRQDO QGLQJ LQ 6WXG\ ,9 ZDV WKDW

mixed venous oxygen saturation decreased more

during the 6-minute walk test than during the 6minute bike test. One explanation might be that
the 6-minute walk test exposes patients to a higher
workload compared with the limited bicycle test.
42

The usefulness of continuous hemodynamic monitoring

Figure 21. Seventy-eight year old man with dilated cardiomyopathy, NYHA class II who developed general eczema
and was admitted to the dermatology department (note 1). Due to suspected drug allergy, carvedilol was terminated
and bisoprolol started before hospital discharge (note 2). Three weeks later the patient was seen at the ER for hypoglycemia and by mistake, diuretic treatment was stopped (note 3). The mistake was discovered the next time the patient
sent IHM data to the IN website and after phone contact, diuretic treatment was restarted. Due to deteriorating health
the patient was non-compliant with drug intake and in June and July the patient was admitted 3 times to the cardiology
clinic for volume overload and treatment with i.v. diuretics. During each hospitalization the cardiac pressures decreased but immediately increased when the patient returned home (notes 4-6). In August, 2006 the patient moved to
an assisted living facility and with support from the staff, drug compliance improved and cardiac pressures decreased.
The trends show the daily median (black line) and the daily ranges (gray lines).
43

Barbro Kjellstrm

Figure 22. Hemodynamic ranges during a 6 min walk tests (striped bars) and during ambulatory measurements (solid
gray bar). The bottom of the bar is the resting value, e.g. for the exercise tests it is the rest before exercise and for
ambulatory data it is the daily minimum. The top of the solid bar is the maximum value, e.g. for the exercise tests it is
the peak values of the test and for ambulatory data it is the daily maximum. The error bars are the SD of the ranges.

During the walk test, patients were asked

to walk as fast as they could while during
WKH ELNHWHVW WKH\ SDGGOHG DW D [HG UDWH DQG
workload which might be less strenuous for
some patients. Also, walking does engage the
whole body which might increase the total
tissue oxygen demand compared to biking
which at least at submaximal levels engages
mostly the lower body. This type of information
might impact daily living recommendations
or help deciding type of exercise and level of
workload in exercise programs for patients with
cardiovascular disease.
Pulmonary hypertension
Medical therapy for patients diagnosed with
pulmonary arterial hypertension is targeted
directly towards the increased pulmonary
vascular resistance and elevated pulmonary
artery pressures. Prostacyclins, receptor

antagonists and phosphodiesterase inhibitors

are treatments available today, most of them
approved for use in this patient population in
the last decade. The optimal dose of the drug
is determined by close monitoring of symptom
relief and of hemodynamics where an optimal
WUHDWPHQW UHVSRQVH LV D VLJQLFDQW GHFUHDVH LQ
pulmonary vascular resistance without lowering
the systemic pressure to a symptomatic level.
This is typically measured as an increase in
cardiac output and decrease of pulmonary artery
pressures.
Study V looked at hemodynamic response to
LQKDOHGLORSURVWLQYHSDWLHQWVZLWKSXOPRQDU\
hypertension. All patients were already on
chronic iloprost treatment at the time of IHM
implantation. Therefore the hemodynamic
treatment effect over time was not evaluated.
The protocols included supervised iloprost
inhalations during a hospital visit followed by
44

The usefulness of continuous hemodynamic monitoring

a one day period at home with non-supervised

inhalations. The same drug dosage and the
same nebulizer were used in both settings. The
acute effect of iloprost inhalation was a rapid
decrease in pulmonary pressures (Figure 16).
When the patient was supervised, the time at
the low pressure level lasted longer then after
a non-supervised inhalation. In contrast, the
time to a 50% return of pre-inhalation pressures
was similar between the two protocols. So what
could have made the difference in the treatment
response? Hemodynamic data collection
was performed with the IHM programmed
to different resolutions (median of 2 vs. 52
seconds) in the two protocols. Although the
lower resolution (52 seconds), used when the
SDWLHQWV ZHUH DW KRPH OWHUHG RXW WKH ORZHVW
and highest values during the data collection
period this would only have impacted a few
minutes of the data collection and is unlikely to
have caused the difference. Therefore, the most
plausible cause is compliance with inhalation
techniques and the environment. In the clinic,
the patients were observed during the inhalation
which implies higher compliance with inhalation
recommendations. While at home, the patient
might make the inhalation shorter rather than
longer and be more prone to return to daily
activities immediately when the inhalation is
QLVKHG0RUHRYHUWKHHIIHFWLYHWUHDWPHQWWLPH
varied between patients. Thus, the IHM might
support decisions about inhalation frequency in
individual patients and if and when additional
treatment is required.

the right ventricle, appears as a promising and

exciting new tool in these patients and might
support therapy decisions in the setting where
multiple drug treatment is common.
Renal failure
In Study VI, patients with end stage renal disease
on hemodialysis treatment and with an IHM
implanted were investigated. The study focused
on evaluation of hemodynamic trends between
the dialysis sessions and put extra emphasis on
the extended time without dialysis that occur
after the weekend, on a Monday or Tuesday.
The study population as a whole had cardiac
pressure values in the normal to upper ranges of
normal values (Table 2). The recurring volume
overloads seen in patients on hemodialysis
treatment are in the same magnitude that might
cause symptoms and even hospitalization in
patients with heart failure (66). In heart failure
patients, increased cardiac pressures were seen
over a week before the hospitalizations, though
about half of the pressure increase tended to
occur during the last 24-hours before the event
(66).

It could be hypothesized that the recurrent

DOWHUQDWLRQV LQ OOLQJ SUHVVXUHV UHODWHG WR
XLG VWDWXV LQ SDWLHQWV RQ GLDO\VLV WUHDWPHQW
might incur activation of neurohormones and
the sympathetic nervous systems resulting in
myocardial damage. This might be the start of a
viscous cycle where a worsening of the ability
of the cardiovascular system to compensate for
changes in volume load leads to acceleration
Treatment of patients with pulmonary arterial in the development of left ventricular
hypertension has used symptom relief as a sign dysfunction (103,104). Though, this might
of decreased pulmonary vascular resistance not be preventable in the long term, improved
and increased cardiac output. However, treatment strategies may prolong the time to
more recently improved right ventricular symptomatic ventricular dysfunction in patients
and pulmonary artery pressures have been on hemodialysis treatment. The results in Study
suggested as a treatment goal that might lead VI suggests that three dialysis treatments a
to improved survival (30). While pressures at week might not be optimal for these patients
rest might show improvement to treatment (34), and that more frequent dialysis sessions may
even a small amount of exertion will increase decrease the burden of pulmonary congestion
WKH ULJKW VLGHG FDUGLDF SUHVVXUHV VLJQLFDQWO\ and possibly the development of alterations in
(68,102) due to the non-compliant pulmonary cardiac function.
arteries seen in these patients. These increased In dialysis patients venous access is essential
pressures might cause additional damage to the and there might be hesitations to implanting a
vasculature if not reversed (30) and thereby purely monitoring device. Retrospective studies
accelerate the progression to right heart failure. from the USRD registry of patients on dialysis
The IHM, with the pressure sensor placed in treatment receiving an ICD for secondary
45

Barbro Kjellstrm

prophylaxis of malignant arrhythmia showed

an improved survival (105). Although the
effectiveness of primary prophylactic ICDs has
not been addressed in the dialysis population it
is conceivable that this treatment may be helpful
to improve survival since sudden cardiac death
is the single largest cause of mortality in end
stage renal failure. Therefore, the combination
of an ICD with hemodynamic monitoring
capabilities would probably be more accepted
by clinicians for use in this patient population.

are underway and will provide improvements

in the effectiveness of future systems.

At present, the incorporation of IHM data

into routine patient care requires the user to
obtain necessary knowledge and allocate the
time needed for data review. An appealing
future application would be if an integration of
ambulatory hemodynamic information into the
diagnostic assessment of patients was possible.
The IHM data could be pooled into a database
with other clinical information from the same
patient. Advanced algorithms would then
perform a cross-analysis and provide accurate,
Summary
reliable status reports and treatment suggestions.
Hemodynamic data from the IHM is valuable While this is not available yet, continuous
when data is 1) acquired reliably, 2) readily hemodynamic monitoring, as evidenced in this
interpreted and 3) integrated effectively into thesis, has great potential for guiding therapy
patient care.
and observation of disease progress in patients
The IHM systems reported here were either with cardiovascular diseases associated with
LQYHVWLJDWLRQDO GHYLFHV RU UVW JHQHUDWLRQ compromised hemodynamics.
systems and previous work (64,65), including Lessons learned from my research. Despite
these systems and Study I in this thesis, have DOODGYDQFHVLQWHFKQRORJ\DQGWKHEHQHWWKH\
shown that hemodynamic data can be acquired can give in the care of a patient, technology will
accurately by biosensors both acutely and not be able to replace the human factor. The
over long term. To support interpretation of patients will always need that we take the time
continuous hemodynamic data, developments of to listen to them. Technology is wonderful, it is
effective methods for information management the future and we will be there with it.

46

The usefulness of continuous hemodynamic monitoring

Conclusions

Accuracy and long term stability of an implanted venous oxygen sensor was
demonstrated

II

1LJKWWLPHPLQLPXPDFFXUDWHO\UHHFWHGKHPRG\QDPLFPHDVXUHPHQWVGXULQJFRQWUROOHG
supine rest

III

Access to patient hemodynamic data trans-telephonically and via the internet was
feasible and usable, independent of patient age and disease severity

IV

Hemodynamic response during submaximal exercise tests in heart failure patients was
similar to that during maximal exercise

Continuous right ventricular and pulmonary artery pressures provided information on

treatment response to inhaled iloprost in patients with pulmonary hypertension

VI

Progressive right ventricular and pulmonary artery pressure increments, related to volume
load, was seen between dialysis sessions

47

Barbro Kjellstrm

Tacknowledgements
Professor Cecilia Linde my principal supervisor and very good friend. A brilliant mind and
meticulous in details, what more can you ask from a supervisor. Add on easy to laugh with, the love
of good food and wine and it makes a wonderful base for friendship. It was possible to combine the
two, thank you for being just the person you are!
Distinguished Scientist Tom Bennett my co-supervisor and my current boss who is an excellent
teacher and have taught me more about hemodynamics and measuring techniques than anyone else.
Also thanks for helping me to adapt to a new culture when I moved to Minneapolis, and it must have
worked, the description of being blunt has disappeared from my yearly reviews.
Associate professor Frieder Braunschweig my co-supervisor and IHM discussion partner. We
have shared many interesting cases and argued about confusing hemodynamic trends, learning more
every time. The time difference between Stockholm and Minneapolis was never an issue, lets keep
it that way.
Professor Lars Rydn my mentor throughout most of my work carrier. You gave me options to
take new paths and always believed that I could do it even when I did not think I had the capacity
or go. Thanks Lars, I would not be where I am today without you!
David ErsgrdWKHWDOOVNnQLQJZKRMRLQHGWKH&KURQLFOHWHDPDFRXSOHRI\HDUVDJR,WKDVEHHQ
a pleasure to learn to know you. Thanks both for all your help in the IHM studies and for doing the
layout of this thesis and not screaming at me when I made another change and another and another
DQGWKHQ\HWRQHPRUH$OVRWKHUHLVVRPHWKLQJDERXWVNnQVNDWKDWKDVDUHOD[LQJHIIHFWRQPH,
think you are the only person who can call me at 7 in the morning and not make me feel stressed.
Eva Wallgren and your kids... Josef brought me to Stockholm and 6RD got me into the IHM
project! You are the family who made me take some big turns in my life and I do not regret any one
of them. Thanks for being such a good friend and wonderful listener. I am forever grateful for Asterix
DQG2EHOL[ZKRPDGHXVQGFRPPRQJURXQG
Grna baracken endless support and friendship concludes the folks in the Green Barrack! You
are a great group and I miss you all so much! You always make me feel welcome back and that I am
still one in the crowd. Keep on laughing it makes the world go around. Anita Fredenson we go
far back, sharing a small room with three persons, computers and printers. I thought it was warm and
RSHQHGWKHZLQGRZDQG\RXZRXOGIUHH]H7KHWKRXJKWRIWKDWRIFHZLOOVWLOOFUDFNPHXSRQDUDLQ\
day. Kerstin Hglund always a smile and laughter and the only one who understood the horror
RIKDYLQJDGDWHVHWIRUP\GLVVHUWDWLRQ\RXUWHUULHGORRNLQJRRRKKKKKWKDWLVYHU\VRRQZDVD
relief in all the congratulations. Thanks for understanding me without words!
Berith Haavik och Helena Kagger - thanks for helping me with all the obstacles and bureaucratic
paperwork a PhD student have to go through to get ready. And thanks for always making me feel
ZHOFRPHLQ6WRFNKROPDQGLQWR\RXURIFHV
Thanks to all the co-authors for fruitful cooperation and valuable discussions. ke Ohlsson was
there for the pioneering work of implantable hemodynamic monitoring that laid the ground for this
thesis. It was a lot of hard work but we did it. Phil Adamson thank you for many fun and creative
discussions about the IHM and its use in research and clinical care. I think there are some new
restaurants in Minneapolis with organic food, foreign wines and no cell phones ready for another
try? Fredrich Fruhwald introduced me to the combination of pulmonary hypertension and the
,+0,WKDVDOZD\VEHHQDSOHDVXUHZRUNLQJZLWK\RXDQG\RXUFUHDWLYLW\IRXUSDSHUVIURPDYH
patient study, it will always be a goal to reach.
48

The usefulness of continuous hemodynamic monitoring

Mor & Far thanks for always supporting me in everything I have done. I dont think I ever heard
a no to any of my ideas. Though, I did get around it a few times by not telling you what I was up
to until afterwards. I wish mum could have been here today, she would have enjoyed sharing this
day with us.
Siblings Bertil, Jrgen and Kerstin, you paved my way and prepared me for life. Being the
youngest has its advantages, after you guys had done it all, nothing I did could be a surprise to a
parent! In addition I think you trained me in stubbornness and creativity, all useful tasks in research
and it probably brought me where I am today. Thanks for being there for me both as siblings and
as friends.
Kerstin Bergmark you are almost like a sibling to me, you have always been there. Your
friendship, your advice about life and the endless support when I doubt myself has been invaluable.
I look forward to share many new adventures with you in the future.
Eva & Anton Fredljung my generous hosts whenever I appear in Stockholm. Without your
friendship and hospitality I could not have made it neither living abroad nor write this thesis.
Words can not express how happy and proud I am to call you my friends and what your support
has meant to me. Oh, Champagne might have played a role too
Bosse Trnberg my friend since forever. Thanks for always being there when I need you and
for traveling the world around to visit me!! I think you are one of the few persons who have seen
all of the 10 apartments I have had since I moved to Skara.
Fadderbarn Jennie Strid och Emil Jansson you are the stars on my horizon, keep on shining!!
Ebba Tiden who patiently have answered the phone when I tried to reach my supervisor and
many times made me laugh and forget about work for a while.
Lena Borgstrm who took the photo on the cover of this book. The combination of hard and
soft and the wonders of nature you have caught in that picture are wonderful. Thanks for sharing
your gift with me.
My extended family and friends all over the world, you make the globe a better place to be, every
day I wake up grateful that you are a part of my life.
And above all, the patients who willingly participated in the studies.

49

Barbro Kjellstrm

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McMullen ET. Anatomy of a physiological

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Fonarow GC, Stevenson LW, Walden JA, Livingston

NA, Steimle AE, Hamilton MA, Moriguchi J,
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Packer M. Vasodilator and inotropic drugs for the

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