Photography

Professional Photography Explained

Techniques, Development and Application
By David Miller

Copyright 2015 by David Miller

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Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION: CAPTURING AND PRESENTING IMAGERY
Origins and Development
Historical Perspectives
CHAPTER I: THE INVENTION OF PHOTOGRAPHY
1.1 Early Foundations
1.2 Technological Overtures and Innovations
1.3 Experimentation and Testing
1.4 Popularization and Mass Distribution
1.5 Digitization and Clarity
CHAPTER II: DIFFERENT TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
2.1 Black and White
2.2 Color Photography
2.3 Digital Photography
2.4 Synthesis Photography
CHAPTER III: EVOLUTION OF THE CAMERA
3.1 Studio Camera
3.2 Point and Shoot Box Camera
3.3 Compact Kodak Folding Camera
3.4 The Leica-II Camera
3.5 The Contax S Camera
3.6 The Smartphone Camera
CHAPTER IV: TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY
4.1 Camera Controls and their Functionality
4.2 Image Capture Processes and Implications
4.3 Alternative Forms of Photographic Production
CHAPTER V: MODES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PRODUCTION
5.1 Amateur and Commercial
5.2 Artistic Photography
5.3 Science and Forensics
5.4 Social Cultural Dimensions of Photography

CONCLUSION: PHOTOGRAPHY AS A PRACTICAL TECHNOLOGY

REFERENCES

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INTRODUCTION:
Capturing and Presenting Imagery
Most lay people see the results of photography, but are not conversant with the process
through which the images are created. Note from the outset that photography is a
multidisciplinary endeavor that could be qualified as both an art and a science. The
technical definition is the practice of creating, developing, and presenting durable images
through recording electromagnetic radiation and light (Newhall, 2009). Photography can
be done using electronic means by way of an image sensor. Alternatively, it can be
achieved through chemical means by way of a light-sensitive material. This material is
photograph film in industry parlance. The photographer may use a pair of lens to focus the
light naturally emitted by objectives. These are then placed onto a real image, which sits
on the light-sensitive material. That surface typically sits within a camera. Photography
requires a fixed time exposure under controlled conditions. There is an alternative of using
electronic image sensors. These will produce an electrical charge hosted on each pixel.
Using modern equipment, it is possible to process and store that information on a digital
image file.

Photography has been noted for its ability to store and preserve memories fixed within a
set of images of varying quality. After the first stage of photography, there is a stored data
set on a photographic emulsion. This is in an invisible latent image. This image is then
developed, using chemical means so it becomes visible. The industry designates the image
as being positive or negative. This classification depends upon the purpose for which the
photographic material will be used, as well as the method of processing used. Typically, a
negative image on film is used to create a positive image on a paper base. This is a print. It
can be achieved by using contact printing or a designated enlarger. Applying photography,
today, remains wide because of the need to preserve memories. You are likely to find
photographers working in manufacturing, photolithography, forensics, medicine, research,
business, and entertainment. It is the principle from which emanates the subfields of video

production, filming, modern art, and other forms of mass communication. The
democratization of photography through the standard camera has meant virtually
everybody can have access to it.

Origins and Development

The word, photography combines the Greek root phtos () and the genitive
version of phs (). The word also includes the Greek word for light. It ends in the
word graph (), which refers to the act of drawing lines. The composite of the word
photography is, therefore, drawing with light (Corner, 2007). By 1834, the word was in
use even before the process had been fully developed. For example, the French Painter,
Hercules Florence, referred to it in his writing. Moreover, the German astrologer, Johann
von Maedler, published an article in 1839 referring to photography. Sir John Herschel also
used the term in his correspondence at the Royal Society. This shows that as far back as
the beginning of the 18th Century, there were references to this process. Our modern
conceptualization of photographs are those grainy images that attempted to capture
cameos of Victorian life. The world was understandably fascinated by something that
seems capable of storing memories in a tangible form. Gradually, the still images became
unsatisfactory, so further development in videography was a consequence of the worlds
awareness of photography. Apparently, the etymology of photography indicates that
people had an early notion of the possibilities of the art and science of photography.
However, it was only in the 1830s that they started to actively find ways of making this
conceptualization a reality in a tangible product that could be marketed.

Historical Perspectives
There have been many technical developments since the original discovery of
photography. It seems the discipline is continuing to evolve to satisfy the needs of a
demanding consumer. The other interesting historical perspective is the multi-disciplinary
nature of the photographic tradition. Many techniques from the arts and sciences have
been amalgamated successfully to create photography. Perhaps, one of the earliest
references is Euclid and Aristotle, Greek mathematicians in the 4th and 5th centuries. The
Chinese philosopher, Mo Di, also described basic forms of photography. Anthemius of
Tralles in Byzantine used camera obscura (literally meaning dark chamber) in his

experiments around the 6th Century CE. It was Ibn al-Haytham who studied the pinhole
and obscura cameras between 1000 and 1040 AD. Albertus Magnus, who died in 1280,
had also studied the silver nitrate. Georg Fabricius (1516-1571) discovered silver chloride.
All these elements combined to create photography as we know it. The Book of Optics
describes producing primitive photography with nothing more than very basic materials
found in the medieval world.

The hints at the possibilities of photography continued with Daniele Barbaro, who wrote
about diaphragms in 1566. By 1694, Wilhelm Homberg was describing the way light
could darken certain chemicals to produce what we now know as the photochemical
effect. Giphantie was a fiction book that came out in 1760. Its author was the Frenchman,
Tiphaigne de la Roche. In it, he described the constituent elements of photography,
although it seemed like a fantastic dream. It appears the discovery of the camera obscura
went as far back as the earliest times of the Chinese empire. Therefore, people, like
Leonardo da Vinci, came rather late to the game. He wrote about a natural camerae
obscurae, which occurs at the edges of a sunlit valley within dark caves. The holes in the
cave are the modern pinhole camera we speak of today. The image that comes out is
reversed in lateral terms and appears as an upside down image if projected onto a piece of
paper. Ultimately, the camera was born out of the need to preserve and control the imagery
derived from camera obscura. The painters of the renaissance age fully embraced the
potential of the camera obscura to gain optical rendering, which incorporates color. This
became the predominant norm in Western art.

Summary of Introduction
This introductory chapter has shown photography is both an art and science. It is an
amalgamation of different disciplines and discoveries encapsulated in a concept that can,
ultimately, capture and store memories. The chapter has shown that the conceptualization
of photography preceded the invention of the basic camera by a long time. This is because,
from ancient times, people had the notion that imagery could be captured, manipulated,
and presented in another form. The introduction is the perfect precursor to this book,
which attempts to explain the meaning and application of photography. It requires an
understanding of the history associated with the discipline so its constituent elements can

develop even more advanced tools of utility. The first chapter will focus on the invention
of photography and the implications of that process over the years.

CHAPTER I:
The Invention of Photography
In 1825, the earliest known heliographic engraving was presented to the world. It was a
print from a metal plate accredited to Nicphore Nipce. Reports show this plate had been
exposed under an ordinary engraving. What was most interesting from a photographic
point of view was how it had been copied. This marked the first step in taking a permanent
photograph, using what we would today recognize as a camera. There had been earlier
attempts to achieve this feat. For example, Thomas Wedgwood had tried to capture an
image in camera obscure around 1800. When he was using a light-sensitive substance
made of white leather exposed to silver nitrate. That first attempt led to a capture of the
shadows of an objective placed on a surface in direct sunlight. The objects were made into
copies, although critics argued the resultant imagery was too faint. This made it difficult to
create the process within a reasonable time. Eventually, the entire plate was darkened,
obscuring the images. This attempt had unknowingly uncovered some secrets of
photography on which we rely today, without even thinking about them.

Nicphore Nipce
Despite these setbacks, the first permanent photo etching was introduced to the world in
1822. Once again, Nicphore Nipce propelled the action. That etching was destroyed as
he attempted to make copies. A second attempt, in 1825, was much more successful.
Consequently, between 1826 and 1827, the earliest photographer made a piece, titled
View from the Window at Le Gras. This has been acknowledged as the earliest surviving
photograph of nature (Nickel, 2001). It was an image of a live real world scene, formed by
a lens using the camera obscura. The camera used for that first image required a long
exposure, which ranged from eight hours to a few days. Practically, this bitumen process

could not be employed for commercial production or any large scale operation without
considerable expense. Therefore, Nipce entered a partnership with Louis Daguerre to
improve the post-exposure processing methods and the clarity of the image finally
produced. For this purpose, bitumen had to be replaced with a material that was more
light-sensitive. They opted for resin. Despite this improvement, a long period of exposure
was still required. The partners hoped their invention would lead to commercial success,
so they opted to keep their work secret for fear of piracy and disruption.

Louis Daguerre
Unfortunately, Nipce passed away in 1833, leaving Daguerre to continue with the
experimental work. He tried silver halides, which was even more sensitive than resin.
Nipce had already tried the material earlier, but it came to nothing, because the captured
images were not light-fast enough and were never permanent. Following extensive and
painstaking work, the daguerreotype process of photography was developed. All its
constituent parts were ready for presentation by 1837. One of the major improvements
was the exposure time had been reduced to minutes, instead of hours or days on end. In
1838, Daguerre took the earliest known photograph of a human being. It had taken ten
minutes of exposure to capture elements of the busy street. Following the successful
launch, the details of the Daguerre process were released to the world on the 7th of January
1839. It was an international sensation. The French government offered Daguerre a
pension for the right to present this invention as a French gift to the world. The complete
instructions were then released on the 19th of August in the same year. Others were also
making headway on the photographic side of things. For example, William Fox Talbot
photographed the Latticed Window within the Lacock Abby in 1835. That work has been
widely acknowledged as the oldest extant photographic negative (made in camera) in the
world.

Hercules Florence and William Talbot

Hercules Florence had also started work on a silver-salt paper process in 1832. He was in
Brazil . Later, he named his work Photographie. This was around the time that Talbot,
the English inventor, was making crude light-fast silver images. These earlier pioneers of
photography had no way of coordinating their efforts, since by necessity, they worked in
complete secrecy. However, Talbot read about Daguerre in 1939, so he published his own
methodology, which he could later improve as more knowledge came to light. Once again,
Talbot faced the problem of long exposure. By 1840, he had come up with the calotype
process, which closely mirrored the daguerreotype reducing the requisite exposure time
considerably. However, unlike Daguerre, Talbot created a translucent negative, which
could be used to generate multiple positive copies of the image. This is the foundation of
the chemical photography we use today. The Daguerreotypes could only be replicated by
re-photographing them, using a camera.

John Herschel and Frederick Archer

One of the biggest contributors to the development of photography is John Herschel. He is
famous for inventing the cyanotype process, which is very similar to what we refer to as
the blueprint today. Herschel was also important in developing the vocabulary of
photography, including the terms positive and negative. He had undertaken several
experiments, which led to the discovery of sodium thiosulphate, which is a solvent of
silver halides. By 1839, he had informed Talbot about the discovery and how it benefitted
when trying to fix the silver-halide photographs, which had, so far, been unsatisfactory.
The same year, he made the first glass negative. A counterpart to these discoveries was
Frederick Scott Archer. He was a chemist by profession and, in 1851, published his own
process, based on wet plate collodion. This became a widespread option in the industry to
the 1870s, when gelatin dry plate came onto the market. Three major subsets of the
collodion process included:
I.

Ambrotype: This had a positive image on glass.

II.

Ferrotype or Tintype: This had a positive image on metal.

III.

Glass Negative: This was used to make positive prints on salted paper or albumen.

The rest of the 19th century saw a significant increase in the inventions and developments
that propelled photography to popular status. For example, Gabriel Lippmann started work
on a process for producing natural color in photography as early as 1891. He based his
work on an optical phenomenon that was witnessed when there was interference in the
light waves. Although the invention was very interesting from a scientific point of view, it
was way too impractical to be produced on a commercial scale. It was due to this
invention that Lippmann was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1908. From the late
1850s, glass plates became the preferred medium for camera photography. However, by
the mid-1890s, the flexible plastic films we know today had been introduced to the
market. Early films were associated with amateur photography. However, they produced
low optical quality images and were expensive to use. Therefore, glass plate maintained its
hold. The use of glass plates continued well into the 1990s as a reflection of their stability,
particularly in scientific contexts, such as in astrophotography. It is still being used in laser
holography, demonstrating its durability for over a century since its invention.

1.1 Early Foundations

The earliest surviving piece of photography we have dates to between 1826 and 1827.
Titled the Window at Le Gras, this is the grandfather of all the flick photos we use
today. However, the notion behind this piece went as far back as antiquity, when it was the
principle of camera obscura, which prevailed. It was based on the notion that some
substances could alter in very visible ways, once exposed to sunlight. The journey towards
the final encapsulation of a photograph took many centuries, countless stops/starts, and
many gaps between. It even appeared that the inventors were not clear about what they
wanted or expected from their experiments. Thomas Wedgwood was one of those early
unsuccessful attempts, but Nicphore Nipce hit the bullseye in the late 1820s. The early
processes were very crude and produced results that would be unacceptable today.
However, credit must be given to the inventors who took up the mantle and resisted the
inertia of failure to deliver the photographs we so love today.

It bears considering some of these processes are fundamental principles, which will
continue to underpin the progression of photography. For example, the metal-based

process dubbed the daguerreotype after its inventor, is a well-known technique that
revisionists want to incorporate into making contemporary pieces. Likewise, Talbots salt
print processes are arousing the curiosity of those photography buffs, who want to hack
back to a glorious past. One of the greatest achievements of early photography was the
significant reduction in the exposure time required to produce images of a respectable
optical quality. Over time, these techniques have been gradually refined, so today, it is
possible to produce digital photography remarkably close to the real thing. The overriding
objective of new inventions in photography is to produce items and techniques that are
fast, affordable, and convenient. This applies to both commercial and private practice.
Eventually, we moved from black and white to color photos, which greatly enriched our
access to the most cherished visual images.
The digital age took hold in the 1990s, and it represented a systemic shift in the way of
producing and consuming photography. For a start, the speed was extraordinary and the
clarity of the final images was better than anything we had ever experienced in humanity.
Following the trend for digitization, the traditional photochemical methods were
increasingly put on the margins. The availability of relatively cheap digital cameras also
expanded the market, considerably, with many amateurs taking up the mantle. As a
consequence, photography remains a highly democratized pastime today, although there
are many who do it as a profession.

1.2 Technological Overtures and Innovations

It would be very difficult to detail all the important developments in the technology of
photography. There are far too many, hence the need to select a few highlights, which
demonstrate how far the art and science of photography has come since its inception. We
begin our journey with the invention of the camera in 1837 by Daguerre. This was
followed by developing the wet plate process in 1851, thanks to the groundbreaking work
of Archer. Abbe and Schott developed the optical crown and flint glass in the 1880s. The
next major development was the anti-reflective coatings, courtesy of Smakula in 1935.
However, as far back as the 1880s, Eastman was busy inventing the photographic film. In
1896, Tayler had invented the Cooke Triplet Lens. More recently, in 1973, the ImageForming CCD chip was created and the Fairchild Semiconductor. This would herald the
upcoming digital age. The mathematical formulas currently used to calculate lens design
went as far back as 1840, with the initial musings of Petzval. This firmly placed
photography within the scientific sphere.

In 1902, Korn presented Photo Telegraphy, which allowed for the transmission of photos
by wire. This was an important invention, because it allowed them to see world events in
the pre-television era. Photo journalists have been using this technology for many years
since then. Barnack helped develop the 35mm photo camera for the sprocketed movie
film, in 1914, at the height of WWI. Edgerton used strobe lighting for photography for the
first time in 1923. In the contemporary world, we all recognize the importance of good
lighting to get the best photography. Voigtlander used the first zoom lens in 1959. The
Photoshop craze widely used for memes and other satirical purposes was invented in
1990. Minolta acquired the Autofocus product rights from Honeywell in dubious
circumstances around 1985. The artistic world was outraged at the perceived piracy, but
photography benefitted from yet another advancement. The Exakta SLR camera had
already been with us since 1936. Canon developed the concept of image stabilization in
1976 and promptly patented the technology. Meanwhile, another close competitor, Kodak,
had already been in the game as far back as 1936, when it created multi-layer color film
for photographic purposes. Nikon has had many successes in the photography genre and
remains one of the most recognizable brands in the industry. In 1959, they developed the
F-SLR. This was a precursor to the Kodak CDS-100 SLR. Canon soon followed with the
Digital Rebel in 2003. All these developments have shaped our understanding and
experience of photography today.

1.3 Experimentation and Testing

Reading the history of photography in its proper context, one notices there are multiple
strands of development. This involved a lot of experimentation, which eventually,
produced certain results. For example, Frederick Langenheim was an American
photographer, who produced so many wonderful works, using the earliest silver chloride,
known as sensitive paper (Wells, 2009). The calotype process was just one of many
experiments that have graded this fueled. It is a counterpart to the Daguerre process and
underpins the chemical process, which preceded digital cameras. There was always a fear
of piracy and testing in an era when inventions were coming onto the market and someone
could not be sure about the potential for claiming credit. Even entire nations, like France,
used their machinery to take credit for the marvelous developments taking place in the
industry. That trajectory tells us the story of photography is not yet told. For example, it

seemed incredible that in the late 1990s, we had not thought about a smartphone, let alone
the things it could do for us. People continued living and dying without access to some of
the latest photography technology, which appears to be simple.

1.4 Popularization and Mass Distribution

There is a paradox in developing photography as a discipline. On one hand, it is a
standalone field, worthy of its own praise. On the other, it relies on the good will, tastes,
and preferences of consumers to spread far and wide. That has been the story of the
commercialization process of photography. The purists immersed themselves in the
technical aspects of the discipline and largely propelled it into the public consciousness.
Meanwhile, the thousands upon thousands of amateurish enthusiasts ensured the legend of
photography continued to live today. All the developments the industry has seen are partly
due to the need to satisfy the needs of the general public. The famous American
photographer Mathew Brady, was one of the pioneers of commercialization. He gave his
name to the Brady Stand in the mid-19th Century. This kept the portrait models still during
the exposure process. In these times, one needs no such equipment, because the
photographs can be produced in an instant or even not produced, but transmitted using the
latest electronic means.

The story was not always smooth. For example, in the 1850s, the satirical portrayal of the
photographic process was the in-thing. People were amused by the daguerreotypes, which
required demanded total stillness during exposure, or else the final photographs would be
blurred, dark, and with no red color. These musings spurred the inventors to make
photography even better. Despite their many challenges, these early techniques were all
aimed at making taking a photograph relatively easy, so the lay person could also get
involved. That is the bedrock of commercialization for any product. The middle classes
loved portraiture, because it opened a world, which had been exclusive to royalty and
landed gentry. During the Industrial Revolution, oil paintings tried to give images that
were realistic . However, this was a tedious and expensive process, which could not
adequately meet the demand by the newly wealthy. Therefore, photography did that job
well and earned the participants a very good living.

Levitsky, Fenton and Delamotte

Count Sergei Lvovich Levitsky designed a bellows camera in 1847. It was noted for
improving focusing. The basic design was adopted and retained for decades. The
professionals still use this basic setup today, although you will not find it in many ordinary
homes. Levitsky was also noted for introducing interchangeable decorative backgrounds
in the photos. This had not been possible using the earlier techniques, so it was yet another
indicator the industry was moving in the right direction. It also gave the consumer the
choice they always craved. Using Levitskys techniques, it was possible to retouch the
negatives to remove any technical deficiencies. This touching up process is of the essence
to celebrities, today, who look for glossy magazine shoots that rarely reflect the actual
appearance of the person . Using his newly acquired technical proficiency, Levitsky could
portray people in different poses with different clothes, adding to the variety of options
that photography could bring to the general public.

Then came the groundbreaking work of Phillip Henry Delamotte and Roger Fenton. These
two entrepreneurs popularized recording historical events. Fenton plied his work during
the Crimean War, while Delamotte recorded the break down and reconstruction of the
Crystal Palace. Here was an opportunity for Victorians to record for prosperity what they
had been experiencing. This was much more precise than the lithography and engraving
used before. They could record architectural plans and landscapes with ease. Robert
Macpherson, for example, could make stunning photographs of the interior of the Vatican

and the Rome metropolitan area. His work provided the inspiration for many travelers
who could share their adventures with photographic evidence to back them up.

Exhibitions and Displays

Photography was nothing if it could not be shown to the public. Long before the world
ever thought of paparazzi, the value of a good photo was recognized in Victorian times.
For example, in 1849, Levitskys images of a mission to the Caucasus were part of
Chevaliers exhibition at the Paris Exposition of the Second Republic (Vanvolsem, 2005).
This was a clever marketing trick, because the famous optician also used the occasion to
advertise his lenses. For the first time, a photograph was awarded the Gold Medal at the
exhibition, reflecting the public fascination with photography. Running on the heels of that
success, Levitsky proposed the subjects of photography could be lighted up artificially in
the studio to enhance the final image that came out of the process. The simplicity and
practicality of the scheme belied its influence on photography right up to this very minute.
No longer would photographers must rely on the vagaries of the sun to get light for their
images. They could use light to set moods and change the general perspectives of the
portrayals. It was really a wonderful, but novel, idea .

Typically, the rest of the industry was cashing in on the developments. For example,
August Washington was a renowned American daguerreotypist, who in 1851, advertised
his work for anything from half a dollar to ten dollars. The problem was the
daguerreotypes remained very fragile. It was also tedious to copy them for commercial
purposes. The commercial photographers, therefore, aggressively encouraged chemists to
come up with new refined processes that would allow for cheaply made replicas. This
pressure led to the development of the Talbot process.
The first twenty years of photography were marked by intense activity, most of it, ground
breaking and innovative. Both the public and the inventors were primed for all the new

developments and could not wait to sample them. George Eastman, who lived in New
York, replaced the photographic plate with gel on paper in 1884. This meant the
photographer was no longer required to carry large boxes of toxic chemicals with him or
her as they plied their wares. Eastman also created the first Kodak camera, which
promised wonderful images at the press of a button. This meant individuals were now free
to take any photographs they liked. The complex processing elements would be left to the
professionals still experimenting with the new technology. By 1901, photography was well
into the mass markets, particularly introducing popular products, like the Kodak Brownie.

Growth of Color Photography

Thomas Sutton created the first color photograph in 1861. There had been others before,
but they were not durable enough to be recorded for posterity. Right from the outset of the
industry, there was a desire to capture life in as real a situation as possible. Color was very
much a part of this process. Several unsuccessful experiments had been undertaken,
including the 1848 effort by Edmond Becquerel. Once again, the problem was the
requirement for long exposure and the colors were so sensitive they could only be viewed
for short periods in dim light. Clearly, this was not what had been envisaged as the heyday
of photography. The first durable color photograph required a very tedious process to be
produced. It comprised three black and white photographs, taken through red, green, and
blue color filters. This was then super imposed using at least three projectors with similar
filters. The method had first been proposed in 1855 by James Clerk Maxwell, a Scottish
physicist.

At the beginning of the 20th century, it was Sergei Prokudin-Gorskii who could promote
the Maxwell method to the wider public. However, Herman Wilhelm Vogel had already
done considerable work in 1873 to make the emulsions very sensitive to the entire
spectrum. This became an important aspect of commercial photography in the 1880s.
Another remarkable coincidence that propelled the use of color photography was the work
of Louis Ducos du Hauron and Charles Cros. Although unknown to one another these two
had been working on the same ideas in the 1860s. On a fateful day in 1869, they both
revealed their ideas, which were the replica of one another. The main element of their
discovery was the ability to view three color filtered black and white photographs without
having to put them on a projector. These could then be used for full color prints on paper.

Autochrome Plates and Kodachrome Film

The Autochrome plate was the first widely available and commercially viable color
photography model. It made its official debut in 1907 and relied heavily on Haurons
ideas. The process required the photographer to take one picture through a mosaic of color
filters, overlaid with emulsion. The results could then be seen via an identical mosaic.
Depending on how small the individual filter elements were, it was possible to blend the
three primary colors in the eye of the viewer. This would produce the same additive color
synthesis as had been the case during the three separate photographs, which had been
subjected to filtered projection.

The Autochrome plates comprised an integral mosaic filter layer. This was constructed
from millions of dyed potato starch grains. Using reversal processing, it was possible to
develop each plate onto a transparent positive. This could then be seen directly or viewed
with a standard projector. It is notable that the mosaic filter layer could absorb about 90%
of the light passing through. This meant a long exposure and bright projection and viewing
light. The discovery inspired competitors to produce alternatives, which culminated in
film-based version. The recurring theme was the expense involved in this color
photography. Even by the 1930s, none were fast enough to support hand-held snapshots.
Only the most affluent and dedicated enthusiasts could engage in this type of photography.
The introduction of the Kodachrome film was a decisive factor in developing widely
available and commercialized color photography. It was provided for 16mm home movies
by 1935 (Szarkowski, 1989). The next year, 35mm slides were added. This new product
enabled the photographer to capture blue, green, and red in three layers of emulsion. The
processing operation was still remarkably complex. However, it could produce the
complementary colors of magenta, cyan, and yellow in the same layers. The end product
was a subtractive color image. Despite this apparent improvement, Maxwells ideas and
concepts continued to be in use until the 1950s. This was about serving special purposes
that Kodachrome film could not execute. An instant slide film, called the Polachrome, was
later introduced and remained on the market until 2003. The multilayer emulsion approach
is still on the market today.

1.5 Digitization and Clarity

Digital photography is the latest manifestation of an industry that has undergone
significant seismic changes since its inception. Digitization promises a level of clarity and
convenience that was hitherto unheard of. Moreover, it can significantly reduce the costs
of photography, so it becomes a fully democratized process open to virtually anybody.

Russell Kirsch was one of the pioneers of this subset when, in 1957, he led an
investigation team at the National Institute of Standards and Technology. Together, they
developed a binary digital version, based on the technology in existence . This was the
Wirephoto drum scanner. It enabled the transfer of photographs, characters, graphics, and
alphanumeric elements onto a digital computer memory. Kirsch tried the method by
scanning a photograph of his son, Walden. The resolution was a relatively humble
176x176 pixels, which meant there was only one bit per pixel. It turned out to be a stark
black and white image, which had no intermediate gray tones. However, through
combining different threshold settings, it was possible to acquire grayscale information,
particularly after repeated scanning.

In 1969, Willard Boyle and George Smith, of the AT&T Bell Lab, presented the Charge
Coupled Device or CCD. This was an image-capturing optoelectronic component, which
became a key component of the earliest digital cameras. This memory device set the
foundation for the storage of images, which has become commonplace, since introducing
the smartphone. The team had been working on some Picturephone and the introduction of
a semiconductor bubble memory device. These two innovations were, subsequently,
merged into the Charge Bubble Devices. Essentially, they were known for transferring a
charge along the semiconductor surface. Michael Tompsett, of the Bell Labs, went a step
further by showing the CCD could be us as an imaging sensor. Today, the CCD has been
replaced by the Active Pixel Sensor or APS, particularly for cell phone-based cameras.

By 1973, the first Fairchild Semiconductor had been released. It was recognized as the
pioneer image-capturing CCD chip. It had 100 rows and 100 columns to boot. In 1975,
Bryce Bayer of Kodak developed the Bayer Filter Mosaic Pattern. This became the
preferred pattern for CCD color image sensors. In 1986, a group of Kodak scientists
developed the megapixel sensor. Ever since the internet dominated the entertainment
industry, it has become commonplace to store and share photos, using some of this digital
technology. In 1992, Tim Berners-Lee published the first online photo of Les Horribles
Cernettes, a CERN House band. That heralded the work that PhotoBucket, Instagram,
Flickr, Picasa and others have been doing in disseminating digital imagery.

Summary of First Chapter

This chapter has created a foundational understanding of modern photography by looking
back to the history of this practice. It has shown, far from being a complete package,
photography turned out to be a series of painstakingly slow developments. Inventors faced
so many challenges, but they persisted. The struggle to bring new meaning and
dimensions to photography continues. For example, the chapter has briefly talked about
introducing color and digital photography as the current top end of the spectrum of
technological advancements that underpin photography. The next chapter will then delve
into the different photography and photographic techniques known to the market today.

CHAPTER II:
Different Types of Photography
Many types of photography are a spinoff from the main ideas that underpin this industry.
The first is film photography or photographic film. It has become the bedrock of the
entertainment industry and continues to undergo several changes, designed to make it even
more user friendly. The pioneering work was undertaken by Driffield and Hurter, who in
1876, experimented with light sensitivity, using different photographic emulsions. This
made it possible to devise the first quantitative measure of film speed, a critical element of
production, particularly on a commercial scale. George Eastman marketed the first flexible
photographic roll film in 1885. It was a coating on a paper base and basic in its
functionality. The image-bearing layer was stripped from the paper during the processing,
so it could be transferred onto a hardened gelatin support. By 1899, the first transparent
plastic roll film had come onto the market (Marien, 2010). This new product was made
from flammable nitrocellulose, which we call celluloid or nitrate film.

In 1908, Kodak introduced the first cellulose acetate or safety film. It was limited to a few
special applications, but was noted for a much better safety record than the hazardous
nitrate film, which photographers had to carry with them in their work (Nickel, 2001). It
had the advantage of being more transparent, touchier, and cheaper to use. It was only in
1933 the changeover was completed for X-Ray films. The safety film remained in use for
the 16mm and 8mm home movies. Meanwhile, the nitrate film continued to dominate the
standard 35mm film, typically, used for motion pictures. By 1951, it had been taken out of
circulation due to concerns about its safety record and its practicability. Films became an
important product of photography to the early part of the 21st Century. It was only then the

digital format took over. Enthusiasts and professional photographers still retain an
affection for film, which they use for their niche projects. It is interesting to note, images
produced by film have a distinctive look, which digital imagery can never quite capture.
This is primarily a consequence of the differences in tonal-spectral sensitivity, as is the
case with the S-Shaped Density-to-Exposure H&D Curve, which contrasts with the linear
response curve for digital CCD sensors. The second factor is the difference in resolution,
while the final factor is that of continuity of tone.

2.1 Black and White

During the early times of this fascinating journey, all photography was in black and white.
This monochrome ceased to be satisfactory after some time, because it inherently placed a
limit on the extent to which the images could reflect reality. As is the case in most things
with passing time, the connoisseurs are hacking back to the old black and white times.
One of the advantages of monochrome was the lower cost of production. Additionally, this
tended to hide the imperfections in the complexion of people and things. The contrasts
between dark and light were clearer and more aesthetically appealing. The processing
chain could lead to several hues well beyond the black, white, and grey we normally
associate with monochrome. A case in point is the cyanotype process, which can produce
images with a range of blue tones. With the albumen process, it could lead to a range of
brownish tones. Remember that these developments happened over 150 years ago, so even
then, there was more complexity in the production process.

Even today many professional photographers select monochrome images over the modern
color versions. For a start a well-established archival permanence is associated with those
photos processed using the silver-halide materials of yore. The color photographs require a
wide range of expensive materials and techniques. Even the digital age has not forgotten
the power of monochrome. There are digital cameras that are exclusively monochrome in

their productivity. Sometimes, the use of monochrome techniques can rescue those
photographs produced in color but have certain defects which distract the aesthetic
experience. Here the option is to present them as fully fledged black and white photos or
to use the single color tone for better appearance. The artistic value of monochrome
cannot be underestimated even in modern times. That is why digital cameras are
configured in such a way as to selectively edit to discard certain RGB color channels. This
leads to the production of a monochrome image even if the original shot was in color.

2.2 Color Photography

Despite all the values of monochrome, the public still likes the option of having color
photography because it is really a good reflection of the reality as they see it. Color
photography was possible well before the age of the Kodachrome (Marion, 2010). A 1903
photograph of Sarah Angelina shows that even then it was possible to take a half decent
color photograph and store it for posterity. The problem was that the early process was
unduly cumbersome and would require complex equipment to accomplish. That is why it
remained a rare commodity for the exclusive use of those whose wealth allowed them to
access the niche. As far back as 1840s, the inventors were experimenting with color
photography with mixed results. One of the recurring themes was the long exposure
requirement. Moreover, it was very difficult to fix the photograph to prevent the color
from fading once the image was exposed to white light.

Despite these challenges, the first permanent color photograph was taken in 1861. It was
created using a three color separation technique, which had been the brainchild of
Maxwell in 1855. The three channels were a prerequisite for creating a basic color image.
Hauron also used a subtractive version in the 1860s. Prokudin-Gorskii put the technique
on display to very spectacular effect. For this, a special camera was required to expose the
different parts onto an oblong plate. The lack of simultaneous projection meant these early
efforts at color photography were marred by fringes and brightly colored ghosts. It was a
long way from the sleek HD images we expect today. The limited sensitivity of the early
photographic materials limited the growth of color photography. These materials were
mainly sensitive to blue with light sensitivity to green. In effect, they were virtually
insensitive to red. The combination of these colors was necessary to create recognizable
color photographs. That is why the work of Herman Vogel, in 1873, was very important.

The photochemist discovered a technique for dye sensitization, so it was possible to add
red, yellow, and green to the spectrum of color possibilities. With time, improved color
sensitizers were added to the mix. These new emulsions ensured the high cost of exposure
times was reduced, making it possible for the general public to enjoy color photography.

The role of various chrome versions

We have to credit Autochrome for being the first color process to be commercially viable.
The Lumire brothers brought it to the market in 1907. It was noted for incorporating a
mosaic color filter layer (Gernsheim & Gernsheim, 1969). This was made of dyed grains,
which were extracted from potato starch. Between 1890 and 1950, their additive process
was widely marketed within the photography industry. Kodachrome came later and was
the first modern integral tripack color film. It hit the market in 1935. Here, a multi-layer
emulsion could capture the three requisite components. A complex processing procedure
added other secondary colors. Of special interest was the Agfa process, brought to the
market in 1936 by Agfacolor Neu. The layers here were incorporated during
manufacturing, and that made the processing procedure relatively simple. Color films,
today, use a technique very similar to the Agfa structure. In 1963, the Instant Color Film,
which could yield a color print after only two minutes, was introduced by Polaroid.

Many applications for color photography include the creation of transparencies that can be
projected for further examination. It also leads to the production of color negatives, which
can create positive color enlargements. For this, you need specially coated paper. This
technique is the most common for film/non-digital color production. Introducing
automated photo printing equipment also speeded up the processes considerably. The
transition period between 1995 and 2005 played an important role in relegating color
photography to the niches. It was replaced by multi-megapixel digital cameras that could
produce similar images, using a much simpler process. However, some producers still
prefer film, because it has a distinctive look that is aesthetically pleasing.

2.3 Digital Photography

Today, we assume digital photography usually, but it is barely a decade since this became
the norm. Sony unveiled its first consumer camera, the Mavica, in 1981. This was noted
for being the first to use a charge-coupled device for imaging. The camera eliminated the
need for the physical film that had been the practice before. With the Mavica, one could
save images to a disk. These images could then be displayed on a television set. However,
the camera was not yet fully digital. Kodak unveiled the DCS 100 in 1991, ten years later

after Sonys efforts. This was the first commercially available digital single lens reflex
camera. It was an important milestone for photography. The downside was the cost was
prohibitive; therefore, the camera was only used by the most dedicated photo journalists
and connoisseurs. However, the DCS100 heralded the birth of commercial photography,
which has become a mainstay for the celebrity-obsessed entertainment industry.

Another development was the use of digital imaging, which works with a sensor to record
an image as a set of electronic data, rather than as chemical changes on film. The one
important difference is that chemical photography could resist manipulation because of
paper. Digital imaging remains a very manipulative medium. It is possible to do a lot of
post-processing, which enhances the range of purposes for which the camera can be used.
The power of digital photography is the ability to engage in very complex communicative
processes and the diversification of the potential applications available to the
photographer. For the best part of the 21st Century, digital photography will probably
dominate, until there is yet another development. Over 99% of all photographs taken
across the globe are through the digital route (Benovsky, 2014). The smartphone is
becoming a very important medium for this this.

2.4 Synthesis Photography

Countless sub niches make photography interesting. A case in point is the synthesis
method, which has become a corollary of Computer Generated Imagery or CGI. The
shooting process is modeled on real photography to capture the essence of the aesthetic.
CGI allows for the creation of the real universe and the processes that go into developing
that world (Nickel, 2001). This is one of the better applications of digital and analog
photography within a digital space. The paradox of photography is that the more things
change, the more people want them to remain the same. This is expressed in the nostalgia
for the past basic techniques, believed to produce images, which are far more aesthetically
pleasing than the digitally enhanced copies of the modern world. The hunger for real
photography is, therefore, a commercial reality for many entrepreneurs. However, at the
same time, the public expects a product supposed to bypass some of the more tedious
processes associated with the old techniques. So far, the evidence is that the industry will
continue to innovate, until it can deliver to the expectations of the public and the
photographers.

Summary of Second Chapter

This chapter has provided an insight into the niches of photography that developed,
alongside the innovations that have marked this industry. It is not a long chapter and that is
deliberate, because a lot of the material also comes in during the historical phase of the
industry covered in the first chapter. Once again, apparently, photography is a very
complex discipline with many methods one can adopt to make the best of it. The next
stage is to consider some tools of photography we have seen coming onto the market over
the years. This is the subject of Chapter III.

CHAPTER III:
Evolution of the Camera
The camera remains the principle instrument of photography. That means that you cannot
have photography without a camera. It is, therefore, a topic of interest not only to the
general public, but also to the people who really care about this industry. The timeline of
cameras is much longer and more complex than most people would imagine. Leonardo Da
Vinci gave the first detailed description of what a camera obscura is, but it was only in the
15th century this was concretized into a real concept of an object that could serve a
specific purpose. Essentially, the earliest notions of a camera comprised a dark box with a
pinhole on one end and a glass screen on the other. When light shines through the pinhole,
an image appears on the glass screen. It all sounds simple, but it was the beginning of
what we know, today, as the ubiquitous camera. In his 1558 book, titled Natural Magic,
Giovanni Battista della Porta described a process by which a lens would be used, instead
of a pinhole. This would make the images sharper. Even today, artists will use the
principles of the camera obscura to sharpen the perspective of their work.

The experiments of Nicphore Nipce, in 1826, yielded several pewter plates treated with
bitumen. This material is part of the asphalt family. It changes color when exposed to
light. The material was then used to record the image presented by the camera obscura.
His Le Gras piece was treated, using the plates subjected to post-exposure oil of lavender.
The process required eight hours of exposure and that made it nearly impossible to
recreate it in a commercial context. Charles Chevalier constructed the folding camera in
1840. This had the advantage of a sleek design and was less cumbersome than the camera
obscura. The typical side panels could be easily unhinged from the body, so they were
folded flat. History shows this was a daguerreotype camera. That meant it housed the film
process. It produced images using a highly polished silver-plated copper sheet, carefully
treated with silver-iodide, a light sensitive material.

Post Obscura Age

The wet collodion film process was introduced to the industry in 1851. It changed the

camera design. The camera had to be fitted with draining channels for the negative
materials, because the film needed to stay moist throughout the exposure process. Around
that time, Bellowed Cameras joined the fray. They were noted for their easier movement
and general flexibility. Earlier rigid designs had been very cumbersome and difficult to
move around. Constructing the bellows also allowed for lenses with greater focal length,
so it was possible to enjoy close-up photography. The bellows added some distance to the
camera. Thomas Sutton of the University of London designed the first single lens reflex or
SLR in 1860. It involved the use of mirrors inside the camera so the photographer could
have a very accurate image of what was likely to come out at the end.

There were significant developments between 1880 and 1900. Specifically, the
construction of film evolved to bring practicality and affordability to the forefront. For
example, there was the introduction of the roll film and dry plate versions of the earlier
SLR camera. In terms of law enforcement, the market saw detective cameras, which were
designed to fit rather awkwardly in hags, books, watches, and a range of other seemingly
discreet places. The photos produced were of such poor quality and were so temporary
that the fad soon fell out of fashion. Thomas had constructed one of the earliest twin lens
reflex cameras in 1881. One of the lenses would be used for the viewfinder, and the other
would take the photograph. This camera was very similar to the SLR as it uses mirrors for
both lenses. The Eastman Company created the Kodak in 1888. This camera was the first
to have an in-built film box. It was a landmark for modern photography. Moreover, the
camera was light and relatively easy to use when compared to what had come before.

The Early 20th Century

Oskar Barnack invented the UR- Leica in 1913. It turned out to be the first 35mm Leica
camera and was one of the earliest of its kind to produce 24x36mm standard image sizes.
That year, the George Eastman Company produced the first autographic roll-film camera.
It had two layers. The front was for recording the image, while the back was for writing
information about the specific photograph. The photographer could write on the back of
the film by opening a small door placed at the back of the camera. Hence, began the
photographic data collection that would herald websites, like Flickr, Twitter and
Facebook, nearly a century later. By 1925, the Leica Z had been put on the market. This
was the first 35mm camera to succeed on a commercial scale. The reasons for that success

stemmed from its portability, great construction, and a lens quality of an advanced level.
In 1930, Johannes Ostermeier patented the first commercial flashbulb, which he called the
Vacublitz. General Electric also released its version, called the Sashalite.

Kine introduced the Exakta to the market in 1936. This turned out to be the worlds first
35mm SLR. The design succeeded so they did not change it until 1949. Edwin Land
developed a Polaroid camera, in 1947, which became the first to deliver instant results.
The positive image would come out in sixty seconds. By 1959, the Nikon F had been
introduced to join the contingent of 35mm SLR cameras. This was considered the first real
professional product in the line and, consequently, has found popularity amongst
photojournalists. In 1963, Kodak announced it was releasing the Instamatic. This was a
fully automated product with the simple requirement for the user to load film cartridges.
The mass production of the Instamatic proved to be a runaway success. The government
had already been using photography for its own purposes, but in 1981, Sony introduced
the Mavica as the first commercially available electronic still camera. This product
eliminated the need for film; instead, it used a minidisk, which could be linked to a
computer to view the images. Technically, the Mavica was not a digital camera, but it used
the technology we now understand to be digital .

Post Digital Revolution Era

The digital revolution transformed photography. It had started as far back as the early
1980s, although the technology was not as advanced as it is today. For example, in 1985,
Konica Minolta released the Maxxum 700 AF SLR. This was the first of its kind with a
real autofocus, hence its longevity up to date. Fuji developed the Quicksnap in 1986. This
was the first disposable camera and came in a box shape. It could take about 20 pictures
on a 35mm film. Canon EOS joined the game in 1987. This camera had complete
electronic control, which even covered the lens mount. Kodak also made its first digital
camera in 1991. This was an updated Nikon F-3. The camera had a 1.3 megapixel image
sensor. However, this product was meant for photojournalists as opposed to the general
public. It was only when the Apple QuickTake 100 was produced, in 1994, that a digital
camera for the general consumer came into being. A serial cable had to connect the
camera to a computer. The current digital cameras come with a range of features meant to
increase the ease of taking high quality pictures. These include point-and-shoot facilities,
big pixel measurements, and portability. Notable examples include the Hasselblad H3D11-

50, Sony DSCW300 Cyber-shot, and the Nikon D-40.

3.1 Studio Camera

Canon started the era of modern digital television cameras, introducing the DIGI SUPER
86II xs lens. This novelty piece was given its outing during a bandy match between GAIS
and Hammarby in Elitserien. The video camera is a professional gadget. It is no longer
appropriate to simply refer to it as a television camera, because the realms of its influence
expand far beyond that. It is notable for creating moving electronic images. This enables it
to create direct-to-video movies, music projects, educational materials, corporate
information, and event records. From 2010, the convention must be to use professional
video cameras, which are a digital camera. At the beginning of the 2000s, the industry
added digital video capture to its arsenal. This meant there was virtually no distinction
between movie cameras and professional video cameras. They both used the same
intermittent mechanism to achieve their objectives. At the moment, mid-range cameras
dominate the market for television projects, but not movies, which require the more
sophisticated professional video camera.

Initially, the first video cameras were, in effect, mechanical flying-spot scanners. This
came into fashion between 1920 and 1940. This was the era of mechanical television.
After a period of improvements within the creation of video camera tubes, the industry
moved on to electronic television. The first cameras were exceptionally large and divided
into two major sections. The first was a camera section, which would house the lens,
electronics, and tube pre-amps. It was connected using a large diameter multicore cable, so
it could reach the other camera electronics. Customarily, these were mounted on a rack.
Typically, the rack was in a separate room or even a track in a remote location. At that
point, the camera head was incapable of generating a video picture signal without
assistance. Instead, the rack unit would release the video signal to the rest of the studio, so
it could be switched and transmitted. The 1950s saw the miniaturization of some of these
parts so there were monochrome cameras that could operate on a standalone basis.
Sometimes, it was even possible to hold them in the hand giving the user greater
flexibility in their use. The studio configuration remained a part of the setup. A large cable
would still transmit signals to the Camera Control Unit or the CCU. This CCU served the
important purpose of aligning and operating the camera functionality. These would

include exposure, timing, black levels, and video.

Color Cameras join the Fray

The first cameras were bulky and cumbersome. A case in point is the RCA TK-41C, which
came on the market in 1954 and weighed a shocking 310lbs. It is notable that between
1950 and 1965, the first color cameras were hitting the USA and Europe. Two relatively
complex models came out with the RCA TK-40/41 series. They had between three and
four pickup tubes, but their weight was really not practical for those who took moving
photography or had to work in a range of locations. It was only in the 1970s that people
started to use handheld color cameras. The first generation would be split into a head unit,
which housed the body of the camera, lens, and pickup tubes. It was held on the shoulder
or body brace, so it was directly in front of the operator. A cable bundle would then
connect it to the backpack CCU. A typical example is the Ikegami HL-33 ENG, which
came on the market in 1973. Others were the Thomson Microcam and RCA TK45. These
were constructed from a two-piece framework. When undertaking fieldwork, the
photographer still had to use a separate VTR to record the video output.

For that, they would use a portable reel VTR that measured about 1. Alternatively, they
could look to use the 3/4 U-matic VCR, which was still portable. The camera operator
would carry the two units. They would be accompanied by a tape operator, who would
carry the portable recorder. In 1976, the RCA TK76 came onto the market. This product
was notable in as far as it allowed the camera operators to carry the one-piece camera on
their shoulder. It would contain all the electronics necessary to output to a broadcast
quality composite video signal. A separate videotape recording unit was still required. The
entrance of Electronic News Gathering (ENG) meant the 16mm film cameras of the past
became obsolete in the television industry. This happened around 1970, when a concerted
effort cut down the cost of shooting on film. A cheaper alternative was to make use of
reusable tape, but some people still found it unsatisfactory.

Towards a Faster Turnaround

As had always been the case in photography, the aim was to ensure better utility. For
example, the portable video tape production system helped to reduce the turnaround time,
so stories could be completed quickly. Chemical processes would have been impractical in

a constantly moving news cycle . Those that produced weekly or monthly periodicals were
happy to use 16mm film cameras well into the 1990s. Eventually, they had to adapt to the
insatiable hunger for instant and disposable news. Initially, most cameras used tube-based
sensors. Eventually, that turned to CCD around the 1980s. The additional benefits were
not only associated with the cheaper processing of color photos, but also the flexibility to
expand the use of the eventual material produced. The images were stable, and there was
limited risk of image burn or lag. There was no need for calibration in CCD. The
downside is it did not quite reproduce the aesthetic quality of the tube sensors.

Other changes were necessary, including the replacement of thick multi-core cables with
triax connections from the CCU to the head. This new, slender video cable could carry
multiple channels, including control units and intercom audio. It had a range of up to a
mile. The innards no longer significantly influenced the outer design of the camera. The
only reminder of the old times was a box shape, which had to carry large studio lenses,
electronic view finders, (EVF) and Teleprompters. Some additional paraphernalia would
come into play when doing sports and studio production. For example, Electronic Field
Production cameras could be seen mounted inside a cage in configurations that reflected
the priorities of the studio. The cage would then hold all the other accessories needed for
the project.
The end of the 1990s saw the introduction of HDTV broadcasting. These new cameras
were very efficient for adjusting to the latest news formats. However, the HDTV cameras
were also used for other general purposes, based on their practicality and efficacy. Their
images were of a much better quality, even though they continued to use Standard
Definition Processors, like their older counterparts. The new cameras went hand in hand
with new methods for recording. The video tape was replaced by tapeless cameras, for
example. In 1996, Ikegami and Avid introduced the EditCam. This was based on
interchangeable hard drives. P2 Cameras were also introduced by Panasonic in the same
year. They could record a DVCPro signal using an interchangeable flash memory media
bit. These developments were also accompanied by introducing a range of data storage
devices for recording. Some notable examples include the XDCAM, which Sony brought
onto the market. They also brought in the SxS flash memory, compliant with the Sony and
Sandisk ExpressCard. It was, therefore, not surprising when flash storage, eventually,
supplanted all the other forms of recording media.

Focusing on Image Storage Devices

Several other data storage device recording systems were introduced, notably XDCAM
from Sony. Sony also introduced SxS (S-by-S), a flash memory standard compliant to the
Sony and Sandisk-created ExpressCard standard. Eventually, flash storage largely
supplanted other forms of recording media. By the early 2000s, the major players in the
photography industry had introduced digital professional cameras. The leaders included
Philips and Sony. Constructing these cameras included CCD sensors, as well recorded
video digitally stored on flash devices. Eventually, that gave way to HDTV cameras. The
Digital Television Transition era also brought new technological developments that,
ultimately, benefitted the industry. Between 1926 and 1933, the cameras had been nothing
more than flying spot scanners, which worked using a mechanical disk. By 1936, that had
given way to the RCA iconoscope camera. A decade later, the RCA TK-10 studio camera
started using a 3 IO Image Orthicon Tube, complemented by a 4-lens turret.
The RCA TK-30 camera, which came on the market in 1946 was the dominant Field
camera of the day. Some argued the TK-30 was nothing more than a portable TK-10. The
camera control unit had simply been brought closer to the head piece, but the mechanisms
were essentially the same. An Image Orthicon Camera was introduced to the market in
1948. It was called the Dumont Marconi MK IV. The brand had already shown its first
camera in 1938, but this was an updated version, supposed to appeal to a discerning and
discriminative market. The 1960S saw the wide use of EMI cameras in the UK and USA.
A case in point is the EMI 203/4. By the end of the 1960s, both the EMI 2001 and 2000
had been successfully launched. Earlier, in 1950, the Vidicon camera tube had created the
perfect conditions for smaller cameras to hit the market. For example, in 1952, the WalkieLookie portable cameras came into being. Not until the arrival of the Plumbicon did
Orthicon tubes begin to lose their sway. Most experts agree the RCA TK-40 was the first
color television camera used in broadcasts. It came on the market in 1953. From that
moment, RCA led the way in the premium segments of the market until 1978, when it
produced the TK-47, the last of the high-end tube cameras from the RCA group.

Quantifiable and Movable Imagery

The RCA TK-11 studio camera had come onto the market in 1954. It used a 3 IO Tube.
The problem was there was demand for photography that was no longer static. The aim
was to have a device that would allow the user to take images anywhere in any way they
saw fit. The RCA TK-31 of 1934 was used as a field camera, but it also had its limits.
Portability remained a big problem until 1962, when Ikegami introduced what is
considered the first portable hand-held TV camera. Philips was another one of those
brands that understood the needs of the market and, therefore, tried to respond to them.
Their range of Norelco cameras was widely popular. Some models, like the PC-60 of
1965, became cult classics in the industry. In 1967, they introduced the PC-70, quickly
followed by the PCP-90 the following year. By 1982, the Philips/BTS-Broadcast
Television Systems had come up with the LDK line camera to close off the high end tube
camera with the LDK 6. The brand is credited with inventing the Plumbicon pick up video
camera in 1965. That product could create clean pictures.

It is important not to ignore some of the other pioneer brands that contributed to the
transitions in the photography industry. For example, BTS introduced a hand held camera
with CCD device in 1987. This was the LDK90. Bosch Fernseh also came up with a series
of high end cameras, which included the KCK, KCN, KCU, and KCK. The last of that line
was the KCK-40, which came on the market in 1978. Image Transform, based in
California, brought new insights into the image production process. It used a specially
modified 24 frame KCK-40 to create the famous Image Vision System. The characteristics
of this product included a 10 MHz bandwidth, which came with twice the NTSC
resolution. This was known as the custom pre HDTV video system. Classic examples of
this system in action is the Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl, which came out in
1982 to great photographic acclaim. Thus was born the long line of HD analog wideband
videotape-to-film production systems.

Use of Optical Prism

Most professional photographers and video makers now use elements of optical prism in
their work. This is a block that sits behind the lens. It is a trichroic assembly that
incorporates two dichroic prisms and is used to separate the image into three primary
colors (blue, green and red). Each is then re-directed into a separate CCD or an Active
Pixel Sensor (CMOS). They are both mounted to face each prism. There are high end
consumer cameras that can achieve this feat to increase the image resolution and improve
the color fidelity. All that is required is a single video pickup, and the processing will do
the adjustments. Both the triple and single sensor designs rely on a weak signal, amplified
before being encoded into analog signals. The viewfinder then picks them, before they are
encoded into digital signals for recording and transmission. The analog outputs are
normally a composite video signal, which combines luminance and color into a single
output. You can also use an R-Y B-Y Y component video output. This passes through
three differentiated connectors. Here, the digital outputs are in an HDMI connection.

The Studio Camera in Action

The studio camera with a teleprompter is a relatively recent addition, but one which has
grown out of the necessity for live broadcasts. Most television studio cameras are resting
on the floor. The height is adjusted, using hydraulic and pneumatic mechanisms, known as
pedestals. Others are on wheels for easy movement to capture the action as it happens. The

CCU helps to coordinate a multi-camera setup. With the gunlock, they make up the
Production Control Room or PCR. This is actually the gallery of the television studio. In
outside broadcasting or B, the setup is not within a studio. Therefore, tripods are used for
support. Some have wheels, while others are fixed. Most analogue cameras in the studio
have been replaced with their digital versions. The industry has tried to come up with
studio cameras that are portable enough to be removed from the pedestal. The lenses have
been reduced in size, so they can fit into a multi-camera shoulder. It is possible to mount
the cameras on a dolly or crane to make them more versatile. This facility was not
available to early photographers, who required absolute stillness from the subjects of the
photography so the satirists made cartoons that lampooned this practice. Modern studio
cameras will have a tally light, which is used to indicate when the camera is live. Here, the
signal will be used for the main program of the event.

This is an age of ENG, so news is fast and requires constant reconfiguration to satisfy the
public that is almost always looking for updates and angles. Photography has played an
important role in changing the slant of any news item. ENG video cameras were originally
conceived as a tool only used by camera operator. However, they gradually slipped into
commercial and private use. The nearest equivalent is the camcorder, which has become
an essential household item. The differences are significant enough, though, particularly
for those who are in the know. First, ENG cameras are heavier and larger to dampen the
small movements that happen. They are usually supported by a shoulder. is the operator
needs to take the weight off their hands, although individuals come up with positions that
seem comfortable for them . This frees them up to operate the zoom control as required.
Once the camera is mounted on the tripods, the fluid heads are fixed and the additional
supports contain a quick release plate. The practice is to use 3 CCDs or CMOS active
pixel sensors. Each is allocated a primary color. The lenses are interchangeable.

Focusing the Lens and other Adjustments

It is customary for the lens to be focused directly and manually. There are no intermediate
servo controls. That is why professional photography requires training. It is not something
into which you just fall. To help the amateurs to get in on the act, some manufacturers
have reconfigured their products in such a way it is possible to operate the lens zoom
using a remote control. The television studio configuration is operated by the CCU. There
is also a filter wheel, located behind the lens and rotates. Here, you can select an 85A and

neutral density filter as required. The controls you need to access quickly are operated
using hard physical switches. However, they are placed near one another on the camera, so
you do not get confused as you work. The industry practice is to standardize this part of
the design. So, you are likely to encounter the white/black balance, Gain Select, and Color
Bar in the same place, regardless of the camera you are using.
Although many of the modern cameras have some level of automation, you can still adjust
everything, using manual controls. That includes white balance focus and the iris. Some
professionals prefer to disable all the automatics, because they feel they are in better
control (Szarkowski, 1989). You will find professional BNC connectors, used for genlock
in and video output. This is a complement to the electronic viewfinder and external CRT
version. The standard professional package includes, at the very least, two XLR input
connectors, which are supposed to handle the audio content. You get a direct slot-in for the
portable wireless microphones. It is possible to adjust the audio, manually, using the
physical knobs. Generally, the ergonomics of the modern studio camera are very good.
With just a few practice runs, you should be able to handle it easily. The operator is given
a complete time code section. This means you can arrange for timed presets. It is also the
best way of doing multiple camera setups with nothing more than a code-synchronized or
jam synced mechanism and a master clock.
The in-camera facilities include a bar and tone with SMPTE color bars, according to the
Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers. The reference signal helps you to do
the monitor calibration easily. You simply have to set the levels when you want to
duplicate or transmit the picture. With this modern equipment, you can easily record to a
professional medium, including Direct-to-Disk, DVCPRO, or even Betacam. Those who
prefer can use flash memory linked to computers. For professional devices the data rates
are much higher and the video compression lower when compared to their consumer-ready
counterparts. In this environment, the Electronic Field Production cameras have
flourished. Although they are very basic, compared to the standard studio camera, they
came with a few extra features. For a start, they can work with multiple camera switched
configurations and can be set for outside operations, such as concerts. Their portability is
very versatile. You can carry them on the shoulder or place them on a pedestal. However,
they have no recording ability of their own. Instead, the signals are sent using a fiber optic
or a triax. Rarely do they use the multicore cable, effectively rendered obsolete by the
advancement of technology.

Other Modern Camera Configurations

There is a fascination with cameras, which goes beyond their role as instruments of
photography. For example, remote cameras have been used for clandestine operations in
both a legal and illegitimate context. Remote cameras are small, so they can be discreet,
but their performance is as good as the EFP and ENG types. Another configuration is that
of the block camera. Here, the camera is actually smaller than the lens. Some are selfcontained, while others link to accessories that enhance their functionality. For example,
versions are on the market, which only have a sensor block and the attendant pre-amps.
You will need a connection to a separate CCU to gain full functionality. The advantage is
that all the main functions of the camera can be controlled from a distance, critical for
clandestine or covert missions. The camera is mounted on a pan with its tilt heads. Others

are stationary on a pole or tower. Some prefer to place them in a corner as part of a
broadcast booth or even behind a basketball hoop.

There are also configurations where these cameras are placed on robotic dollies near the
end of the camera booms and cranes. Some filming productions allow them to be flown in,
using a supported harness, particularly when looking for particular angles or perspectives.
The Lipstick cameras are yet another configuration. Although their name makes them
sound rather silly, they serve important functions. It is called a lipstick camera, because
the sensor and lens are combined in a container that looks like a lipstick roll. You can
mount them in a small location, such as a vehicle at the end of a zoom pole. The lens and
sensor block are separated from the other parts through a multi-conductor cable which is
rather long. A box allows you to manipulate all the camera settings. The lenses are set
once the camera has been mounted in its proper place.

3.2 Point and Shoot Box Camera

Introducing point and shoot cameras marked yet another seismic change in the
photography industry. These are fully automated cameras, meant for the easiest of use,
because the operator has no concern about the settings. They are equally applicable to
digital and film cameras in terms of the basic principle. Kodak has been credited with
starting the craze after it coined the slogan, You Press the Button, We Do the Rest. In
some ways, this was a clear recognition of the fact there are very many amateur
photographers who take an interest in the industry, but are not as well trained as the
professionals. A camera that gives them the opportunity to engage in a pastime they love
would always be a winner. Some professionals object to the removal of manual controls,
because they feel they take away from the uniqueness and aesthetic value of the
photographs taken. It almost seems as if the camera is now the operator, and the human
input becomes redundant. There is nothing to say that a person cannot make use of one of

these automated cameras that make life so much simpler in the long run.
Besides the removal of cumbersome manual controls, there was a need for portability by
the essence if amateur photographers would not have to carry around large expensive
equipment. When we consider the direction in which the smartphones are going, then it
becomes very clear that smaller is better in this new age. Between 1970 and 1990, the
compact point and shoot market expanded. Lay people could now take quality images and
enjoy great photography, which had been the exclusive right of wealthy enthusiasts and
the professionals. This development of amateur technique with decent photographs led to
the growth of the Paparazzi industry, where predatory photographs of celebrities were
taken and sold for large sums of money. Some of the iconic cameras of that era include the
Sure Shot Range from Canon and the mju/Stylus range, marketed by Olympus. It is
notable that most of the modern point and shoot cameras make use of autofocus. This first
came into being with the Konica C35AF, released in 1977. There are still exceptions that
use wide angle lens with a fixed focus. On the market, you will find they are labelled as
being focus-free. They use a small aperture to extend the depth of the field. This allows for
eliminating the need to alter the focus.

3.3 Compact Kodak Folding Camera

One of the most iconic cameras ever is the Kodak Retina. Many types in the category
included the Type 117, sold between 1934 and 1935, Type 010 released in 1948, and the
Type II, which came on the market in 1949. In 1957, the Retina IIIC was released. It
reigned for three years. Eventually, Retina was universally known as the brand identity for
a long running cameras of German origin, marked by the 35mm configuration. Eventually,
the era spanned the years from 1934 to 1969. The Kodak AG Factory in Stuttgart
produced them. Kodak had acquired it from Nagel Kamerawerk in 1931. This brand
produced both the folding and non-folding cameras. Consumers could get the Retina
Reflex Single Lens Camera. One of the best selling point for these cameras was their high
quality production and relatively small size. Consequently, they brought in much lower
costs than the alternatives. Even today, collectors and professionals remember the cameras
with fondness. A vintage piece can fetch a decent sum on the open market.

3.4 The Leica-II Camera

The Leica II was a 35mm system camera that first came on the market in 1932. It was a
very important piece for the brand, not least, because it seems to promise a new age for
photography and would put the company the heart of that revolution. The camera was
noted for its rangefinder, which was a new feature . It also had interchangeable lenses. The
user had a range of lens choices, from 35 to 135. Some commentators wanted to contrast
the Leica II with the Contax I, but the latter did not really measure up, because of its
unreliable shutter. Throughout the 1960s, Leica continue to do upgrades in the factory in
response to the feedback they got from consumers. The camera was also noted for its
shutter speeds that run from 1/20th to 1/500th. That is why the professionals consider this
to be the first real system camera, a fact that puts it at the heart of the history of
photography (Vanvolsem, 2005). It had a very tough vulcanite covering, although it could
become brittle with time and break. That a rangefinder could be found in a small camera

caused a sensation in the industry. Oscar Barnack insisted the size should not be increased
to expand the technical capabilities of the camera. This always put Leica at an advantage
when compared with Contax, which had altered the size to increase the technical
capabilities of their cameras.

3.5 The Contax S Camera

The East German VEB Zeiss Ikon brought the Contax S camera on the market in 1949. It
was a 35mm product, whose plans had already existed as far back as the 1930s. The
camera was noted for developing the eyelevel viewfinder and using a pentaprism. The
camera might have come earlier onto the market had it not been for the war, which caused
a lot of disruption in the manufacturing process. Even the post-war Dresden-based factor
took up the mantle. Wilhelm Winzenburg directed the new process and came up with a
very innovative camera with the potential to transform photography. The camera was
noted for showing the image correctly, getting rid of the distortions that had marred the
efforts of the alternatives. Under the new design, it was possible to use a simple cloth focal
plane shutter. The camera had 42mm screw lens mounts. The attendant Praktiflex could be
used on any industry standard. The problem with the Contax S was its construction could
not stand up to the full rigors of professional use. It turned out to be a rather delicate and
unwieldy camera.

3.6 The Smartphone Camera

The wonderful professional cameras, described above, have been rendered somewhat oldfashioned and obsolete by introducing the smartphone camera. Essentially, the portability
of a phone was enjoyed with some decent photography. This has been the latest guise of
the democratization process that has opened the photography process to many more
people than the early professionals, who started it. Products, like the Apple iPhone 5s, had
all the equipment, but all held within housing that was a matter of a few centimeters.
There was an advanced operating system, effectively used to process the photograph and
share it online. There has been a quite debate in the industry whether the smartphone is not
inadvertently destroying the industry by removing the need for technique during the image
production process. It all depends on how and why you want to take photographs. The
wonderful thing about smartphone cameras is they virtually cost nothing when you

already have the phone. They are easy to operate and can hold images for eternity. At the
same time, their presence on the market does not prevent the photography buffs from
looking for the niche products that once held a lot of sway in the industry.

Summary of Third Chapter

This chapter has summarized some of the important developments the camera has
undergone as one of the principle instruments of photography. What is most striking about
the content of this chapter is the range of cameras available on the market. The classics
came into being before the war and are still part of the collection of the aficionados for
whom photography is a lot more than a pastime. The cameras described are of varying
quality, and that reflects the fragmentation the industry has gone through over the years.
The great thing is the choices and variety available can turn us all into photographers of
some kind. The next and penultimate chapter discusses some of the technical aspects of
photography as a discipline.

CHAPTER IV:
Technical Aspects of Photography
As an image-forming device, the camera requires technical capabilities of the handler.
That means there are things you need to know if you are going to do photography
professionally. Even with all the relatively simple gadgets on the market today, you really
have to understand how it all works before you can produce durable and aesthetically
pleasing imagery. The basic structure of the camera has not changed, despite all the
configurations and reconfigurations. It comprises a photographic plate, film and a silicon
electronic image sensor. These make the capture medium. The recording medium can
either be the film or a separate digital magnetic/electronic memory. The manual cameras
are more involved in handling than their digital counterparts, but some also note that some
modern cameras have so many buttons they put off the prospective amateur
photographers. Knowing the basics goes a long way in helping you to adapt to any camera
put before you.

The photographer is expected to have full control of the lens and the camera, so they are
properly exposed to the light recording material in just the right amounts. This will form a
latent image on a film or plate. A RAW file is formed for digital cameras. A processing
stage then follows before you can have a durable and fully usable image. For those using
digital cameras, an electronic image sensor is based on light sensitive electronics. One of
the common examples is the charge coupled device and the complementary metal-oxide
semiconductor (CMOS). The technology involved is still undergoing a period of
transition, so the things you see on the market are not the final presentation of the journey
that photography has gone through over the years. Most images in original photography
are reproduced on paper, but others are increasingly stored and shared electronically using
the internet.

4.1 Camera Controls and their Functionality

Several controls are required to get the image you want. However, there are some highly
specialized cameras that have the right settings, so the actions of the operator are relatively
limited. In classical photography, the operator develops sharp, clear, accurate, and well-

illuminated images. This was not an automatic process, but one that required the clever
manipulation of both the controls and the environment within which the photograph was
taken. Of particular importance were these controls:
FOCUS: This control was used to ensure the positioning of the image was as the
photographer intended. It was important to get the right focus to get clear images.
The principle still works in modern cameras, including the ones attached to the
smartphone. An optical device is used to make the adjustments.
APERTURE: This helps to adjust the lens in terms of their opening rate and
speed. The resultant measure was calibrated in a f-number. The idea is to control
light passing through the lens. It causes the depth of the field to change
accordingly as well as the diffraction. A high f-number means there is a smaller
opening and less light coming through. That increases the diffraction blur and the
depth of the field. If you want to get the effective aperture diameter, then you
divide the focal length with the f-number.
SHUTTER: The shutter speed adjustment is one of the most important indicators
for the quality and characteristics of a camera. It is expressed in fractions or
seconds. It can be expressed as an angle when dealing with mechanical shutters.
The shutter controls the time in which the medium is exposed to light for each
exposure. Essentially, it is light that may strike the image. Faster shutter speeds
reduce light and blurring of the motion picture. The slower shutter speeds allow
for long exposure periods. This works well in images taken when there is very
limited light. A case in point is images taken of the sky during the night.
WHITE BALANCE: This is normally a control found on digital cameras. The
electronic compensation for the color temperature arises out of the specific
conditions in which you are photographing. The white light is registered on the
imaging chip to ensure the resultant images are natural . Mechanical film-based
cameras may also have it so the operator can select a film stock or trigger the
color correction filters. Others use the white light for aesthetic purposes. For
example, they could use the white to balance a blue object to generate a warm
color temperature.
METERING: This measures the exposure with specific reference to shadows and
highlights. The photographer can manipulate these, according to their wishes. The
modern cameras set the exposure so it is automatic, because it requires a lot of
experience and knowledge to know the exact settings that will bring out the best
image. The meter must adjust for the sensitivity of the sensor or film to the light,
so the light can be converted into usable aperture with the known shutter speed.
You can do this by setting the film speed or the ISO sensitivity on the meter.
FILM SPEED: This control has been part of photography almost since its
inception. It is used to direct the camera in the actual speed of the movement or
the desired movement. In the digital cameras, it shows how much gain is arrived
from the light and the numerical output of the camera. This can be used to control
the automatic exposure system in some configurations. The ISO system is used to
measure the film speed. A high speed increases the film sensitivity to light. By

adjusting the aperture, speed, and shutter speeds correctly, you can get an image
that is neither too dark nor too light. This ensures it is correctly exposed by the
centered meter.
AUTOFOCUS POINT: In some cameras, you must select a point on which the
camera will focus on the landscape. That feature is even available for the latest
smartphone cameras. Most SLRs have multi autofocus points, which can be
accessed by the viewfinder. This affects not only the quality of the image, but also
where the focus is in the overall balance.
There are very many controls on the latest cameras, so it becomes relatively easy to get
confused. That is why it is very important to study the manual that comes with the device,
even if you are an experienced professional. The information you will find will help you
to get the best images out of the camera.

4.2 Image Capture Processes and Implications

The quality of the image capture will directly depend on how well you have combined the
aperture, shutter speed, and the film or sensor speed. You need experience to understand
the full implications of the selections you have made. That is why some people still prefer
the automated cameras, even if they may make you feel as if you no longer control the
processes. The beauty of modern photography is that if you have the right knowledge,
then you can take a good photograph in virtually any conditions. You can control the
sensor speed and the lighting, so the distractions that might have distorted the final image
no longer hold sway. It is also possible to select the exact desired depth you are looking
for. Poor decisions on the controls will mean the image you get is neither a true reflection
of the original scene, nor an aesthetically pleasing piece, whose inaccuracies can be
written off as artistic license. For these reasons, some people invest in a course on
photography in order to fully understand how they need to produce photos. The initial
instructions are mere guidelines. You can change them to gain more from a particular
process. For example, if you use a wide aperture for lower light and lower aperture for
more light, you get interesting artistic effects. When the subject is running, then you may
need to increase the shutter speed. Your use of the tripod must be comfortable and fluent
to capture the full glory of the scene.

We can look at a few examples to explore the range of options that photography offers to
you even with the simplest of cameras. A case in point is how an f/8 at 8ms (1/125 of a
second) and f/5.6 at 4ms (1/250 of a second) give you the same light. Here, the focal
length and aperture will help you determine the depth of field, which is the distance
between the focus and the lens. If you use a long lens for a wide aperture, then you will
get a shallow depth field so only a small segment of the image will enjoy a sharp focus.
This is not necessarily a back thing, because it can help you isolate the subject from the
background. It is a very desirable trait for macro photography and portraiture. If you use a
short lens and a small aperture, then the largest part of the image will be in focus. Such a
situation would work well when photographing a large group of people or a landscape.
Continue making adjustment, even as you photograph, because a combination that was
perfect a few moments ago could become terrible in a matter of seconds.

From Capture to Processing

Taking a photograph is just the beginning of a long process, because you have to process
it. This is where a lot of errors are made, some of which are fatal to the longevity of the
image. You should bear in mind that no matter how well you are placed, if you cannot
process the image, then it will not be viewable or transmittable. If you are using a slide
film, then you will need to mount it for projection. In cases of a print film process, you
will need to develop a negative then imprinted onto photographic paper or a transparency.
Previously, the celluloid photographic negatives had to be mounted on an enlarger, but the
entrance of the laser/inkjet printers rendered that aspect obsolete. Under the old systems
the image would be placed on a light sensitive paper for a given period, which was
normally no longer than a second. It would then be soaked in a chemical bath of the
developer material. This process would be abruptly stopped, so the progression of
development would be neutralized. A stop bath would be used . Normally, this was done
in a room, where there was no natural light, so the exposure could be controlled. The final
paper was then hung out to dry until it was safe to handle without smudging. Digital
cameras have bypassed all these processes. Instead, the focus is on altering, storing, and
sharing the image. Below is a list of the basic processes normally associated with film
development, but are now obsolete in the digital era.
Duration of print exposure

Printing aperture
Contrast
Dodging
Burning in
Paper texture
Paper type
Paper size
Exposure Shape
Toners

4.3 Alternative Forms of Photographic Production

Photography is diverse. There are so many versions of the production process, which
allow the photographer to literary choose how they will work. This is a good thing,
because it reinforces the diversity of the industry and its ability to capture a range of living
scenes. Go through some of the main ones on the market today:
a)

Stereoscopic Photography: This is known as the art of stereoscopy. It works on

both color and monochrome photos. The images are captured and displayed side
by side to mirror what happens when using human stereoscopic vision. It is useful
when capturing images in motion. Colloquially, this has been 3-D Photography,
even though that term is confusing because of how the system really works. The
cameras that can achieve this effect have been traditionally used when realizing
film. They are also part of the digital electronic methodology, which includes
smartphones and other types of cellphone cameras.

b)

Full Spectrum Photography: This is the photography that incorporates infrared

and ultraviolet light. The most famous application is the image of Saturn for
astrological study. Since the 1960s, this photography has been available and
applied in a range of fields that are not necessarily related to astrology. The most
important impact is on the aesthetic and could be used to enhance the artistic
credentials of the finished piece. The modified digital cameras can detect
ultraviolet light. They are sensitive from 350nm to 1000nm, figures that were
virtually impossible to conceive in the early stages of photography. This
photography is likely to find a home in forensics, geology, law enforcement, fine
art, and anthropology (Benovsky, 2014).

c)

Light Field Photography: This field has come about because of the image
capture and display processes associated with digital photography. It is synthetic
aperture photography to reflect the actual process it goes through to develop
usable images. In this photography, you can select many depths before capturing
your image. Michael Faraday explained the light field, in 1846, as a five
dimensional construction with different points that are 3-D spaces. The attributes
of two or more angles will then determine the direction of the rays that pass
through the point. Micro lenses are used to capture these vector attributes. It

focuses on each pixel point within a 2-D image sensor. Every single pixel of the
final image is selected from a sub-array under the microlens. This works by a
post-image capture focus algorithm.
It is not only the camera that can successfully capture images. For example, the scanning
electron microscope was use to capture the Trichome of Arabidopsis thaliana. Here, the
image was edited through adding colors. This helped to make the structure much clearer
and incorporated a new aesthetic effect. We know of xerography and photocopy, which
forms permanent images by a static electrical charge, which is transferred, instead of
relying on the photographic medium. This is why we speak of electrophotography to
distinguish the niche. There is yet another niche in photograms, which are produced by
shadows. The object casts these shadows on photographic paper with no standard camera.
These objects can then be placed directly on the image scanner glass to produce digital
pictures.

Summary of Fourth Chapter

In this chapter, we have explored a few technical issues you have to know as a budding
photographer to maximize what you gain from the process. Each is quite a detailed
process that can consist a course unit on its own. The key point is to increase your
awareness of how images are produced, so you can continuously improve the quality of
your work. This applies to both the amateurs and the professionals. The final chapter is
concerned with the ins and outs of photographic production modes.

CHAPTER V:
Modes of Photographic Production
The modes of production in photography result directly from the changing consumer
patterns. This is very responsive to trends, more so in the current times when everything is
disposable. From the outset, the main concern about the production process was that it
should first create a realistic and accurate presentation of life . Later, there was a quest for
perfection in the product so digital photography enabled us to change reality for the better.
The artistic demands of the field also brought with them certain demands. For example, a
picture perfect in every way could be discarded as having no artistic value, precisely
because it added nothing to what the reality had presented initially. A third dimension of
the production process was the accessibility to the tools and benefits of photography. The
general public was assumed to be largely ignorant about how professional photography
was done. The first efforts proved this point much better than any book could do.
However, with time, there was a need to ensure the joys of photography were shared by
the many people, who would buy the related accessories including cameras. Therefore,
photographic production is a multi-dimensional undertaking, which cannot adequately be
addressed by just looking at one process. In this chapter, we chart some of the important
levels at which the production process has taken place.

5.1 Amateur and Commercial

One of the more commercially attractive production modes for photography is the amateur
sector. People have cameras in their homes to record those important events that
distinguish one day from the next. If the manufacturers of cameras could somehow bring
the item to the attention of these consumers, then they would be in for a windfall. In the
event, that is exactly what happened. There are millions of people, who are happily
enjoying the pastime that is photography. They may not have the technical skills of the
masters, but at least, they continue to buy cameras and record life. The eclectic nature of
their work adds to the rich mosaic of pieces the industry has put on the market. Some have
become so adept at their hobby their work is near the quality levels we would normally

expect from professionals.

We can thank the popularization of the hand-held camera for the beginning of amateur
photography. Now, the selfie has ensured people want even faster processing times. The
photograph and many of its kind can be produced on the move. It has become a tool of
social media and social interaction. This just shows how the production of photography
sets the agenda for a generation. The only problem with amateurish efforts is they are
unregulated and, therefore, open to abuse. For example, we have seen how inopportune
photography can be used by online trolls to make others uncomfortable. The use of
smartphone cameras by the younger generation has often highlighted the abuse of power
by US law enforcement agents. The public is no longer willing to leave photography to the
professionals, but are instead, willing to make use of this device in ways that are most
beneficial to them in their lives.

Commercial Photography in Practice

In terms of definition and understanding, commercial photography exceeds its amateur
counterpart. Here, the photographer is paid wages for their work and has to produce pieces
of a sufficiently high standard to justify those wages. The payment comes not only from
the subject of the painting (say, during portraits), but also third parties, who may be
interested in using that photograph in their own project. Unfortunately, there is no
particular profession, known as photography and that has led to the rise of unscrupulous
elements who abuse the process. A case in point is the Paparazzi, who take unauthorized
photographs of celebrities to make money. Perhaps, one of the most shocking scandals
was the role the Paparazzi played in the death of Diana, Princess of Wales in 1997 at
which point there was widespread disquiet about the lack of professional standards in the
field. There are many sub-categories that have continued to earn people a living including:

Advertising Photography: These are taken to illustrate a product to sell it to the

general public. Some clear examples include packshots, which are done through
an advertising agency. One could use a design firm or an in-house team with the
right technical skills.

Fashion and Glamour Photography: Here, professional or semiprofessional

models are used to sell a product or service. It is a subset of advertising
photography in some countries. However, in the UK, this photography has,
sometimes, been associated with the seedier side of selling, including sexual
exploitation. Another aspect of it is Fashion photography, which not only
showcases the models, but also the clothes or apparel they are wearing. A case in
point is the range of work included in Harpers Bazaar. The difference is that
fashion emphasizes the product, while glamor emphasizes the body/model.
Therefore, some glamour models, sometimes, work in the nude.

Crime Scene Photography: The advances in forensic applicability include crime

scene photographs used as evidence. Therefore, professionals are hired to take
detailed images after a scene of a crime has occurred. This may include anything
ranging from a small robbery to a serious murder. Using a black and white
camera or its infrared counterpart can help to capture very specific details about
what happened, so they can be used in the investigation or the subsequent

prosecution.

Still Life Photography: This is a category in which images are taken of an

inanimate subject. This could be a commonplace object or a man-made item. The
photography also covers natural landscapes. This is a much broader
understanding of food and natural photography. The resultant images can be used
for advertising or any other promotion as required.

Food Photography: This work focuses on probably one of the most important
aspects of our lives. It is normally used by food outlets and other professionals to
promote specific products or recipes. Often, a high end chef will commission
some for their promotion or CV. Although this photography can broadly be
categorized as being still life photography, it requires certain specialist skills to
execute correctly. Hence, the practice is to give it a separate denomination.

Editorial Photography: Here, the photographs are used to illustrate ideas or

narratives. It is one of the most popular alternatives for magazines. The work
encompasses both glamour and fashion photography. It is directly linked to the
needs of the person who has commissioned the work, thus the wide range of
output types.

Photojournalism: This is a kind of editorial photography, but one that focuses on

journalistic narratives. The consumption of news today often requires visual
evidence to demonstrate particular circumstances. A case in point are the images
of war, hunger, or genocide, which can communicate messages much better than
any words. They also cut across language and cultural barriers. The photographer
works under trying circumstances and is intimately acquainted with their subject
in an almost anthropological perspective.

Portrait and Wedding Photography: This has become one of the most lucrative
niches, because people like to capture their likeness and the great events that
happen in their lives. The customers are often uninitiated into the high end types
of photography and, therefore, totally rely on the photographer to tell them what
to do. Some say a poor job can ruin what should be the happiest moments for
anyone.

Pet Photography: This niche is very similar to traditional studio portraits, except
that in this case, the focus is on household pets. The people who commission the
photographs like their pets, so they expect the highest standards in all the work
done. You can do it using natural lighting or do the project within a studio. Other
clients prefer the photographer to visit their home to capture the subject.

The market for photographic services has grown over the years. This has led to an
aphorism, which is more often true than not that a picture is worth a thousand words.
Newspapers, magazines, individuals, corporations, and state agencies pay for photographs,
because they can capture and retain reality for eternity. The people who do this work are
employed directly as part of a team or they work on a freelance basis. Others present stock
images used on demand, depending on what the client is looking for. Some of the stock
giants include Corbis, Getty Images, Microstock, Fotolia, Web Market Places, and
Cutcaster.

5.2 Artistic Photography

The differences in the appreciation of the aesthetic has meant artistic photography is
gaining in credence across the globe. Here, the capabilities of the camera and the changes
in the landscape are used to create a specific interpretation of reality with artistic
credentials. The English speaking world accepted this form of art as far back as the 19th
Century. The luminaries of that art include Alfred Stieglitz, Edward Steichen, John
Szarkowski, Holland Day, and Edward Weston. These people showed, in their own way,
photography could become an art form if undertaken under ideal standards and to the
highest quality possible. The first photographers tried imitating the mannerisms of fine art,
until they could forge a unique identity as a separate category. The movement, known as
Pictorialism, tried to imitate the painting styles of the masters. Often, the final product
would have a soft focus look meant to create a feeling of dreamy romance. Ansel Adams
and Weston counter reacted to this trend by forming the Group f/64, whose main purpose
was to advocate for what they considered Straight Photography. This was not an
imitation of style, but one capable of standing on its own merits. Here, the photograph was
sharply in focus, based on the belief that its reality had aesthetic qualities that required no
embellishment.

There is no consensus on the aesthetics of photography. Something that one finds vulgar
and distasteful may be seen as being artistic in another context. Some artists have rejected
the admission of photography into the profession, based on the notion that photography is
a largely mechanical reproduction process, which is never authentic. They argue that the
admission of photography would require a redefinition of what art is. However, that is
precisely what is happening to the artistic niche, where people can now describe art in
very specific terms linked to their own background and prejudices. Clive Bell wrote a
seminal essay, which argued that only a significant form can be art. Generally, no piece is
without worth, because each image stirs us in different ways. For example, on the 14th of
February in 2004, the Sothebys outlet in London sold the 99 Cent II Diptychon
photograph for over $3.3 million. This was the highest price ever for a photograph .

5.3 Science and Forensics

One of the applications of photography that will continue to attract interest is forensics.

From the times of the Fox-Talbot method to Daguerre, photography has been associated
with the practice of recording history and other real phenomena. This has importance for
scientific exploration, because it provides another level of validation. Most people are
unlikely to question a theory if it is backed up by real photographic evidence. Some
people are so used to photographs they will believe nothing until they have seen it
portrayed by a real photograph. When human beings are taking an interest in extinct or
endangered specifies, photography plays an important role in capturing those realities for
future generations. The camera has also been used successfully for forensic purposes or
merely to record accidents, a case in point being the collapse of the Wootton Bridge,
which occurred in 1861. The courts are increasingly accepting photographs as evidence of
crimes or innocence.
Likewise, the public is using amateur photography to record and reporting wrongdoing for
a public audience. For example, in the USA, accusation of abuse of public office or
prejudice were often denied by the official record. Since there were no counter arguments,
the instinct of the public was to accept the official story. Now that everyone can take a
picture on their smartphone, the tables have turned. Individuals can accuse officials of
misdeeds and back up their accusations with photographs. In the wake of a spate of police
racism and violence in the USA, some jurisdictions have enacted bylaws, which
specifically allow for police officers to be photographed as they go about their duties.
Some believe this reduces the effectiveness of the officials, since they always feel they are
under scrutiny on a candid camera.

5.4 Social Cultural Dimensions of Photography

There is a tendency to move away from a type of photography that captures reality to one
that creates its own reality. Some have argued photography, today, is actually a distortion
of the truth in some ways (Benovsky, 2014). The distortions are not always for malevolent
purposes. For example, an image can be enhanced to bring out certain artistic truths. There
is always the danger that our over-reliance on photographs reduces our ability to
objectively assess their role in our lives. Photography has greatly enhanced our cultural
life. For example, the Muse de llyse, which was founded in 1985, is a pioneer
photography museum in Europe. Susan Sontag questioned the objectivity of photography
in her 1977 seminal piece titled, On Photography. Those concerns are still relevant
today, where the industry is increasingly fragmented with very limited control over the
players. Photography is going the way of mainstream media, where the public is becoming
somewhat skeptical about its objectivity. Doctoring or Photoshop alterations have captured
the public imagination and led to a lot of skepticism. In particular, there is concern the
industry is becoming more and more unethical, which could eventually erode public trust
in it.

Summary of Fifth Chapter

This final chapter has highlighted some modes of production, associated with
photography. It is a fitting conclusion to a book that has discussed a range of applications
and theories that underpin a practice part of our daily lives. The chapter has noted there
are ethical concerns about the practice and use of photography in public and private light.
This has led to skepticism about the objectivity of the industry and whether it will

continue to have community sanction, let alone achieving professional status. The chapter
also notes that photography continues to have many practical and artistic applications in
our contemporary lives.

CONCLUSION:
Photography as a Practical Technology
This book has taken you through the journey of photography in the world. It has discussed
the first concepts that underpin the practice and how those have changed over the years.
One of the recurring streams in the entire book is that photography is not an exclusive
profession, limited to those in the know. Rather, it is open to anyone who takes an interest.
The barriers that once kept it hidden have been largely removed by innovation. Hence, we
now have amateur photographers who can get engage in any way they feel appropriate. I
hope you have enjoyed this book, and it will inspire you to start your own photography. If
you wish to become a professional, then it is always better to learn the right way, rather
than to make mistakes that are going to cost you eventually. Of course, you need not
become a professional. Amateurs continue to enjoy and share photography at the highest
level.
END

References
Benovsky, J. (2014). The Limits of Photography. International Journal of Philosophical
Studies, 22(5), 716-733.
Corner, J. (2007). Documentary expression and the physicality of the referent:
observations on writing, painting and photography. Studies in Documentary Film, 1(1),
5-19.
Gernsheim, A., & Gernsheim, H. (1969). The History of Photography from the Camera
Obscura to the Beginning of the Modern Era. New York: McGraw-Hil.
Marien, M. W. (2010). Photography: A Cultural History. London: Lawrence King.
Marion, J. S. (2010). Photography as Ethnographic Passport. Visual Anthropology Review,
26(1), 25-31.
Newhall, B. (2009). The History of Photography: From 1839 to the Present. New York:
Museum of Modern Art.
Nickel, D. R. (2001). History of Photography: the State of Research. Art Bulletin, 83(3),
548-558.
Szarkowski, J. (1989). Photography Until Now. New York: Museum of Modern Art.
Vanvolsem, M. (2005). Hinting at an experience of time in still photography. Journal of
Visual Art Practice, 4(1), 49-56.
Wells, L. (2009). Photography: A Critical Introduction (4th ed.). Abingdon (VT):
Routledge.

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