Moses Hess 1843

The Philosophy of the Act

Source: Socialist Thought. A documentary History,
edited by Albert Fried and Ronald Sanders, Aldine
Publishing Company, Chicago, 1964;
Transcribed: by Andy Blunden.

Only the first word of the Cartesian philosophy is true; it

was not really possible for Descartes to say cogito ergo sum, but
only cogito. The first (and last) thing that I perceive is my own
act of spirit, myself perceiving. The spirit, which is life woken
into self-consciousness, discovered its likeness to itself, or
identity, through the act of thinking about thinking. All further
perception is only an explication of this idea, which is
the idea par excellence. I know that I think, that I am spiritually
active, or, since there is no other kind of activity that I am
active, but I do not know that I am. Not being, but the act, is the
first and last.
If we go on to an explication of this act, we find it to be
threefold: the thinking, the thought-about, and the identity of
these two, the I. I think means: the I places itself (or sets
itself) before itself as another, but passes through this reflection
back to itself, in the same way that the discovery of ones own
life in a mirror is something that comes from the outside. It
perceives that the image in the mirror is its own.
The awakening of life to self-consciousness is a
complicated act. The simple saying of I does not constitute an
identity. Whoever says, I am I, or, I know that I am, knows
nothing, believes only in a mathematical point, is looking only

into blackness and seeing only what is not real is seeing, that
is, the difference between the thinking and the thought about,
between the subject and the object, and is not seeing their
identity. The simple I, the thinking in distinction from the
thought-about, is empty, has no content; there are no rational
grounds for this saying of I; it is hollow, not at all a moi
raisonn, a something thought about, but only a something
believed. Only the I think amounts to anything, that is, the
likeness to itself of the one in the other. What the I"-sayer
believes, the I, the identity, here becomes the imminent
content of the act against which the mathematical point, the
black nothingness that calls itself Being, manifests itself in the
middle of the activity as the fixed and frozen act of selfconsciousness. The act thus becomes only half-realized, the
thinking becomes arrested in the process of differentiation from
the thought-about, which is really itself, so that the spirit runs
its head against the wall, against the barrier that it has created
and not broken through; it runs itself into a dead end. The act
becomes frozen. The bridge, the steep passageway from the
thinking to the thought-about, is broken away, the artery that
carries life itself is choked off. Living Becoming is turned into
dead Being, and self-consciousness into theological
consciousness, which now must lie its way out of black
nothingness into pallid Being.
The reign of shadows begins. All of the thought-about
remains a mere shadow, which shrivels up into a dark point
beyond the realm of the thinking. Now that the thinking and the
thought-about have been torn asunder, real life, the living I,
the self-conscious identity, makes its appearance outside of
both; it is the unperceived, though believed or guessed at. This
life that has been placed at a remove is an empty reflection of
the empty I, the shadow of a shadow, the theological God, the
Eternal Being, the Absolute Spirit, and so on.
The self-conscious I, from which all philosophy must
proceed, because the I think, which has been elevated above

all proof and is impossible to prove (in this case, even doubting
is an act of thinking), this moi raisonn of Descartes, is thus in
no way a proof of abstract Being, but only a proof of thinking, of
the act of the spirit. The I think has presented itself to us as
the act, which is comprised of three moments that together
constitute the I; but even this latter is not Being, and is
neither the thinking nor the thought-about, but is rather the
realization of an act: the movement of life imposing itself upon
itself as another, or distinguishing itself from itself, but in either
case perceiving its likeness to itself.
The I within is not something that stands still or is
quiescent, as the I"-sayer thinks it is, but is rather something
that is changing, is in constant motion, just as life, before it has
been awakened to self-consciousness, is likewise constantly
changing. Man is just like the worlds body, like everything
that we see growing and moving, and this is true not only of the
sensible part of his experience, but also of the spiritual part, his
self-consciousness, which is constantly changing, is engaged in
a constant activity of altering itself. The only thing that remains
constant is this activity itself, or life. This constant altering of
the I is necessary, because there is an I only so long as it
goes on becoming another, in other words, only so long as it
defines itself, limits itself, and perceives, in this act of the self
becoming another, or limiting itself, its likeness to itself or free
self-determination. Without this act there is no real I, no
identity, but rather either its act is unconscious (innocent,
natural life), or it has split itself in two, and is a broken thread
of life, a disrupted line, a black nothingness.
Reflection is like the Fates, cutting through the
continuous thread of life with the shears of the understanding,
disrupting all movement and choking off the breath. The I is
an act of the spirit, an idea, which can comprehend itself only in
change. The only thing that stands above change is the law that
is involved in movement itself. The spirit perceives this law
through the perception of its own life. In perceiving itself and its

own activity, it is perceiving all activity, all life, with the same
certainty. Life is activity. But activity is the recovery of an
identity through the establishment and transcendence of its
opposite, the producing of its likeness, its likeness to itself,
through the breaking of the barrier within which the I is notI. Activity is, in a word, self-creation, the law of which is
perceived by the spirit through its own act of self-creation.
Change, the differentiating of life, cannot be taken to be a
change of the law of activity, an objective differentiating of life,
but can be considered only a differentiating of selfconsciousness. Reflection, which remains entirely within the
head, turns things upside down and says: Objective life is
differentiated, but the I remains constant. It seizes upon what
is really the change of the I, of self-consciousness, and views it
as a change in the other, in the representation made by the I
(which is really itself). All its representations are looked upon as
objective life, which is seen, naturally, as differentiating itself, as
becoming something else at every moment, because the I itself
is becoming something else at every moment, because the selfconsciousness is a continuous chain of representations, because
the idea, the one act of the spirit, is not fixed, but is movement,
excitation, a constant rising and falling between the lowest form
of self-consciousness (not in the usual meaning of this word)
and its highest and most lucid form. The different states or
excitations of the self-consciousness, which manifest themselves
through time as different moments, stages, phases, and
episodes, and in space as different examples or settings, are
really the product of one and the same activity, which the selfconsciousness recognizes in the end as its own. But reflection,
the activity that can never arrive at likeness to itself, sees the
opposite of reality everywhere. Objective life therefore seems to
it to be differentiated, and the I (about which
it knows nothing, but only believes) seems to be the constant,
the immortal!

From every particular idea that is formed, from every

stage of the self-consciousness, its opposite, its likeness as
another, necessarily emerges, and indeed remains long enough
for the particular idea to be able to explain itself. In other
words, every essence duplicates itself until it has actually been
created; it is active long enough, creative long enough, it lives
long enough, to become reality. At that point, the duration of
the particular idea, of this particular I, comes to an end. No,
says reflection, it is only then really beginning to live! The
spirit, which was nowhere able to find itself in life, which,
whenever it saw its image in the mirror of life, was like the child
who looked behind the mirror to see what was there and
naturally never found anything but empty, black nothingness
this spirit, which, after it had produced, reflected and explicated
itself, did not believe that it was seeing itself in the other, but
thought that it was seeing something quite different from itself,
at last looked again behind the mirror of life, to seek there what
it ought to have found within itself. The poor devil who is
constantly denying, but who never arrives, through the negation
of the negation, at the breaking of limits, who has a retina that
stands everything on its head, but no optic nerve to put it back
on its feet again, tears with his careless hands the root, the
hidden foundation of the tree of life, from the earth, and holds it
up to the air, while pushing the treetop into the earth and thus
preserving its rottenness. After removing his act from the spirit
and making it into body, into a lifeless corpse, he wants to make
this body eternal. He represents eternity to himself as the
continuance through time of an unchanging body. He
represents the particular I, the temporal, as eternal, and the
Eternal, the law, as a limited, particular, temporal I. The
essence of reflection is to turn thought into an absurdity.
The explication of a particular idea or act of the spirit, the
working out of a particular stage of the self-consciousness, or of
life, of humanity, one might say, is its transformation into
reality, its individualization. The individual is the particular
idea become other than itself, through which this idea becomes

realized, establishes its identity. The individual is only the

reality of the idea; it is generally only through the individual
that life can arrive at self-consciousness, since no identity, no
I, is conceivable outside the act, as we have said earlier. The
universal is intrinsically unreal, and is only an abstraction of the
individual, which the idea reflects, and which is related to the
idea, but takes shape not as the reality of it but as its reflection.
The idea of life in general, the eternal law, Absolute Spirit,
World-Spirit, God, or by whatever names the Universal and
the Eternal are either appropriately or inappropriately
designated, is really only a thing that is changing, a thing
becoming something else in the variety of things, in the
individual, or, more correctly, in the endless succession of
individuals, in the endless activity of things becoming
something else or of things creating themselves. In other words,
the universal comes out of the individual into its selfconsciousness, and man, who perceives the idea of life, the
universal, as his own life, is its highest or most thoroughly
fulfilled reality.
All this, of course, is nothing new, and can be found in the
works of all philosophers, especially the moderns. No new
truths are being expounded here; rather, old ones are simply
being repeated, because what is to follow has these old truths
for its fundamental principles, and they cannot be repeated
often enough in an attempt to exorcise the theological
consciousness, which has become arrested in the dead end of
reflection. The theological consciousness is the great lie, the
principle of all slavery (and domination), to which our species
remains subject for as long as the idea of life goes on being alien
to us, for as long as we have no perception of the self-conscious
act. At the present time, as the idea of life begins to break a path
for itself, the theological consciousness is binding itself up with
the existing material powers, with the institutions that it
originally called into being, so as to have their help in its fight
against the free act of the spirit a most natural alliance, an

alliance of father and son, both defending their house; a family

alliance that should not be taken lightly!
So far, this family alliance has not had the attention that it
warrants from all sides. Either the son is forgotten in exclusive
attention to the father, or the father is overlooked in the zeal to
watch out for the son. The theological consciousness, religion,
the father, is becoming known in this country in all its
mendacity, but people here bother and alarm themselves very
little over politics, the son. In Germany, people have almost
forgotten politics in their concern over the religious dualism,
and they have shown in recent times, now that they are
beginning to trouble themselves about politics, that they, as one
might expect, know scarcely anything about the modern social
movement. They begin their republic at the Year One, and
consider it an heroic deed to bring into Germany the slightest
report about what seem to be the latest doings in the politicalsocial movement, no matter how abstract or narrow-minded is
the point of view expressed.
In France, on the other hand, where they have unmasked
the son, the political dualism, people have remained at a
standstill in religious matters right down to the present day.
Proudhon, the most able leader that the contemporary social
movement has produced, speaks quite unctuously of God, of
the Father, and his Children, mankind, who are all
Brothers; he believes that he has done as much as possible by
dispensing with the Priests, just the way the good old
Germans think they have set the political order aright by
polemicizing against the king. But Proudhon does not allow
himself to imagine, as a logical consequence of his position, that
the kings and priests should be allowed to retain their old
rights, or to recover them at will. Yet, the vague fantasies of God
the Father and His little children are precisely what are
exploited by the kings and priests, and used by them as a means
of achieving domination. For the little children must have
guardians, and among the sons of the father there can be only

one first-born; thus there are unequal brothers, and nothing is

more natural than that human society, when its relationship
with its own essence comes to be conceived as that of a child in
a family, should also want to be dominated by authority, and led
along by the venerable reins of faith.
Who, then, has told our French philosopher, who protests
so vigorously against all domination from without, that we have
a father over us or outside us, that we are the children of
another? His spirit, which feels or guesses at the identity, the
unity, with its own essence, but does not clearly perceive it,
represents this unity in the form of reflection, which stands
before itself as another, outside of it. He takes this dichotomy to
be real. But if it were real, it would mean that all men are in
reality cut off from one another, rather than bound together,
that they are different, not alike, opposed to one another, not
united and that, if they were to try to apply themselves, with
their so very religious conceptions, to the problem of doing
away with private property, they would turn out to be, in spite of
all of Proudhons protestations, opposed to crude material
communism, and in favor, rather, of the most crude abstract
communism, the monkish or Christian kind, in favor of the
annihilation of all independence for the individual, in favor of
the destruction of life or freedom. For they would have reached
the point where they would either have to renounce or destroy
the universal, which they represent as a heavenly power outside
of themselves, a personality opposed to their own, or else would
have to submit to it completely. Such submission would be an
unbearable state of slavery which, when pursued to its logical
extreme, would produce an impossible situation resembling
that of the Middle Ages, the era of the juste-milieu, during
which earthly free will was called into being and allowed to
reign alongside the heavenly tyranny, so that a constant battle
was fought between the representatives of the inauthentic
individuals and the unreal universal, between earthly and
heavenly interests.

Either social freedom is based upon spiritual freedom, or

it is without foundation, and is thereby bound to become
transformed into its opposite, no matter how revolutionary its
opposition to the existing conditions that have come down to us
from the era of the juste-milieu. Out of the foundations of a
Christian communism would emerge a Christian Middle Ages, if
it were thinkable that history, once having reached the end of a
line of development, could revert to an earlier phase.
Clearly, the fighters for freedom are isolated on either
side, and are therefore not strong enough to stand up against
their opponents, who are united.
The lies of religion and politics must be unmasked
relentlessly and with a single blow; the entrenchments, the
enemys secret biding places, the bridges of asses and of devils
must be burned down and annihilated. We fully realize that
there are lame and timid philosophers who, because the anger
of the act has been lost to them, poke about with their Diogenes
lanterns through the heaps of dirt that are the lies of religion
and politics, to see if they might possibly ferret out yet another
useful object. But it does no good to toil away picking shreds out
of the rubbish-heap of the past and throwing them into the
paper-mill of the dialectic so as to metamorphose them into
currency, when one must acknowledge all the while that it is
still the old familiar material in another form. The form is the
essence; the spirit must itself create its own products at all
times, and the Philistine, in order to be able to lay his hands
sooner upon the merchandise demanded of him, considers the
matter at an end, even if the product be out of his old lumber
room, and looks upon it as something brand new that he will
sell at as fair a price as the old. The support that props up the
gaping masses can now once again be saved; the Philistines
shyly recoil before every original act of the spirit as they do
before an appearance of the Devil, until they gradually begin to
have some idea of it, and befriend it. What, then, is true in
religion and politics? Indeed, truth slumbers inside them. But

the slumber, rather than the truth, is the part that properly
belongs to religion and politics. If truth were to awaken from its
slumber, it would stop appearing in the form of the dualism of
religion and politics.
Religion
and
politics
are
passageways
from
unconsciousness to the self-consciousness of the spirit. The
religious dualism, the heavenly politics, is a product of
reflection, of dichotomy, of misfortune as is the political
dualism, the earthly religion. Although reflection has no idea
that it is the pons asinorum of the spirit, it nevertheless divines
this fact, and this divination manifests itself in the form of
reveries about a lost Golden Age, and later on in the form of
prophecies about a better era to come, in which all fighting,
antagonism and sin will come to an end. The Bible itself, this
venerable document of the origin of our religion and politics
that guides us with the most extreme navet into a theological
dead end, allows Adam to hear the voice of a higher essence
outside himself only after the fall. In its last section it
prophesies a time of realization, in which all creatures will come
together, no longer divided from one another and from their
God. Christ is simply an anticipation of this time of realization.
It is precisely for this reason that His role comes to an end at the
moment when prophecy is no longer valid, because it has been
fulfilled.
The state, like the Church, is the anticipation of the unity
of social life. It is precisely because religion and politics hint at a
future condition that they would never concede this condition to
be in the present, because they would then do away with
themselves. Yes, they must constantly postpone the presence of
this future, because their role consists in hinting at a condition
which, if realized, would bring this role to an end. In order that
their lies not be browbeaten or denied by the truth, they must
deny truth itself and turn it into falsehood. That is the greatest
advantage won by religion and politics, although this is not their
entire essence.

The essence of religion and politics consists, as has been

said above, in allowing the real life, the life of the real
individual, to become absorbed by an abstraction, by the
universal, which is nowhere real, and which is outside the
individual himself. That idea sums up the history of these lofty
twin sisters. Moloch is their prototype human sacrifices
everywhere establish the keynote of religious ritual and state
ceremony. The Absolute Spirit, which celebrates its reality in
the State, is a reproduction of the Christian God, who let His
first-born Son be crucified, who was satisfied to build his
Church out of martyrdom and upon a martyr, upon this rock.
The Christian God is a reproduction of the Jewish MolochJehovah, to whom the first-born was sacrificed in order to be
atoned for, and who was appeased with money during the era
of the juste-milieu of Judaism, when the first-born was
redeemed, and cattle were sacrificed instead of men. The
original battle sacrifice everywhere was man, and when he later
sought to be given grace again, or to be redeemed, he got
what he wanted only in the figurative sense. This is still the case
today, and will be as long as religion and politics remain in
control of him.
Religion and politics stood as a counterpoise to the crude
materialism of the individuals, who, before they began to strive
for self-consciousness, struggled against one another; religion
and politics entered into life and established representatives of
the general interest, who stepped in as the unreal truth of the
untrue reality and opposed particular interests. The priests gave
themselves over to the service of God, and kings, aristocrats,
and other sorts of selfish and ambitious men, as well as fools
and frauds, gave themselves over to service of the state, as the
representatives of the general interest, drew out the sweat and
blood of their underlings, and raised the cry that self-sacrifice is
the highest act of virtue.
It is not necessary to repeat over and over again that the
fine history of all religions and states was a necessity. As long as

the peoples and individuals had not yet begun to strive for
morality or self-realization, they had to be satisfied with
allowing themselves to be treated like the good old cow; as long
as they did not know how to govern themselves, they were
governed by powers outside of themselves. That is clear. But it
is also clear that religion and politics are the products of a
situation appropriate only for cows, and that they themselves or
their representatives are only the other side of the materialism
that is dominating individuals and peoples. The priests and
rulers cannot use the excuse that the peoples had made them
necessary, any more than the individuals and peoples can
somehow excuse their condition of slavery by pointing to their
priests and rulers. Slavery and tyranny, abstract materialism
and spiritualism, make their peace with one another, and the
only deplorable people are those who do not perceive that there
is no way out of this closed circle of servitude except a radical
break with the past. This break the French and Germans have
now achieved, the former by calling forth anarchy in politics,
the latter by bringing about the same anarchy in religion. The
main task now is to find the common ground from which this
power of negation emerged on both sides. Without this common
ground, all efforts are merely fragmentary and run themselves
into their own opposition, as has actually been the case up until
now in Germany and France.
Slavery has its own enclosed system; it has set up a wellordered structure of lies that works as a block upon the still
unborn freedom, a theoretical and practical block that is
effective so long as freedom does not rise up and oppose it with
the consequences of truth. Freedom becomes the surrounded
phalanx of slavery, against which it will always be at a
disadvantage so long as it does not carry out its own principles
to their furthest consequences, as slavery had done with its
principles. As long as dualism has not been overcome
everywhere, in the spirit as in social life, freedom has not yet
been victorious. The dualistic world-view necessarily bad to
come forth in history. But lies are none the less lies because of

this. All of our history until now has been a necessary lie, so to
speak. The Christ, in order to become a reality, had to appear as
an individual among others, and thus above all in opposition to
himself. The spirit evolves in opposition to itself.
History, which is nothing but this evolution of the spirit,
could also not possibly have been anything in itself but the
appearance of this opposition, and it should therefore not be
surprising that, until now, only this opposition, the struggle of
the individual with himself and with the universal, has come to
the fore. The true individual the self-conscious spirit, the free
man, the true universal had not taken shape as yet. The
universal did not yet have any inner reality, since it is not real
outside the individual. The individual appeared, in opposition to
its essence, the universal, as the particular; the universal
appeared, in opposition to reality, as abstraction God,
Priesthood, Pope, Church, State, Monarch, etc. And so a
dichotomy came upon us, with the abstract universal on one
side, and the material individual in opposition to it on the other,
a dichotomy that is in itself nothing but an illusion created by
falsehood, since the universal has no life without reality, and the
particular has no spirit without truth. This dichotomy of the
spirit has manifested itself, as I have said, in all history up until
now. It achieved its highest peak in Christianity, the most fully
realized religion, and in monarchy, the highest form of
realization of the state. This is quite correct to say: Christianity
is the true religion, and monarchy is the summit of all the forms
of the state. In other words, the absolute religion and the
absolute state are themselves nothing but the absolutism of the
heavenly and earthly tyrants over slaves.
Domination and its opposite, subordination, are the
essence of religion and politics, and the degree of perfection
with which this essence manifests itself is the degree of
perfection of religion and politics. In absolute religion and
politics, the Lord is a lord of all. Universality manifests itself
here as the negation of all individuality. All separate existences

vanish before God and the monarch. God and the monarch are
not themselves real individuals; they are exalted above all
reality, are sacred persons, which is to say that they are not
persons at all. The monarch, like God, is unthinkable majesty.
Do not think about it, do not ask just fall upon your knees!
Abstraction can be pushed no further, and dualism, brought to
these heights, can no longer maintain itself. It capsizes, and
revolution and criticism begin.
The abstract universal must give way to the abstract
individual; this, however, is no longer the natural individual, as
was the case at the beginning of history, but the spiritual
subject. From now on, not individual free will, but subjective
freedom comes to the fore, not natural equality or the equal
rights of individuals struggling in immediate opposition with
one another, but the abstract rights of man or the equal right of
the abstract personality, the reflected I, the mathematical
point. The majesty and sovereignty of the one has transformed
itself into the majesty and sovereignty of everyone. Whereas
previously the abstract universal ruled in the form of the one
over the particular, and oppressed the individual, now the
abstract individual rules in the form of the many over the
universal, and oppresses the unity. In place of hierarchy and
class structure, in place of fettered individuals, representation
and the competition of individuals come forth.
Through the medium of this revolution an essentially new
history emerges. The individual again begins with himself,
history again begins at the Year One, and surges forward in fits
and starts, in pendulum-swings of the spirit, along the path that
leads from the anarchy of abstract freedom through slavery to
the final point, where the striving for real freedom begins, as the
law of negation begins to take shape along with the common
ground from which this power of negation arose, to manifest
itself on the one side as the subjective, and on the other as the
objective, act of the spirit.

The revolution allowed the dualism to remain; the

spiritual revolution, like the social (that is, the German
revolution, like the French), really allowed everything to remain
as it had been, at least so it would seem to any observer.
Everything was restored to the way it bad been; such had been
the historical situation, and history is always right. What did the
revolution achieve after all? Its freedom and equality, its
abstract rights of man, turned out to be just another form of
slavery. The other side of the scheme of opposition, the abstract
individual, achieved domination, but the scheme itself, the
opposition between domination and slavery, had not been
overcome and discarded at all. The impersonal domination of
justice, the self-domination of the spirit, which is like itself, had
not done away with the domination of the one over the other.
The tyrants have only replaced one another, and tyranny has
remained. The people, Proudhon says, were only the monkey of
the kings. The kings were motivated in the making of their laws
by the notion: For such is our pleasure [Car tel est notre
plaisir].
But the people also wanted to have their pleasure for
once, and to make laws. For fifty years now they have been
making thousands of laws, and they still seem to get endless
pleasure out of it. And we are paying extra for it the people
were only the monkey of the priest, Robespierre, who decreed
the existence of a highest essence, and stumbled into the role
of a Pontifex Maximus. Our Burschenschaften students are
good Christians, and they would like to be the means of
anointing a pious Kaiser, another sort of Pope. SaintSimonianism was simply an aping of hierarchy. The Brahmans
of logic wanted to make their master into a second Christ, and
they celebrated in him the Second Coming of the Lord, or the
Paraclete. The pious demagogues are incessantly carrying on
their mischief in Germany and France, and one of them has
ascended the throne. All possible freedoms are laid claim to on
his behalf: freedom of trade and industry, of education and
conscience. To what end? For the benefit of private interests

and private opinions, which intend to strangle overlordship to

death through the free competition of truth and justice! What
is this democracy but the domination of the individual will
under the name of subjective or personal freedom? How
does it really differ from the domination of one person?
To be sure, the revolution is different from the ancien
regime. A turning point in history has arrived, an even more
important one than that time when the self-consciousness gave
the first sign of life, and rose up to present itself as the
universal, as distinguished from the particular when the
domination of kings and priests, the domination of Moloch,
began. In other words, the individual is again laying claim to his
rights, but now above all as the particular, not as the true
universal. For now the opposition with itself in which the spirit
finds itself is by nature intolerable; since it is no longer the
unconscious, natural individual, but the conscious, spiritual
subject, that finds itself in opposition to its own essence. It
perceives the falsity of regarding itself as something separate,
without being fully conscious of this perception; it knows that it
is standing in a false distinction from the universal, but wishes
to maintain this distinction all the same, because it still fears the
human putty of the ancien regime, which it only barely
negated and did not overcome. The specter of absolutism still
keeps the individual from recovering consciousness. He
embraces freedom in a delirious frenzy, and smothers it. Out of
pure fear of falling back into the condition of human putty, he
makes himself into a stone, and throws himself with all his
might against his opposite, the abstract universal, without
realizing that he is thus keeping alive his mortal enemy, who is
lying there close to death. The abstract universal has no more
power, and is too senile to be able to oppress the individual or
absorb the particular. But the particular willingly throws itself
to the lions, and Moloch goes on swallowing it, like a sick man
sucking up through a funnel the nourishment that someone is
giving him in an effort to keep him alive a little longer.

Oppositions are the form in which the idea of life appears

in the order of nature, so that there is no life where no
opposition presents itself. But the life of nature does not consist
in the realizing of freedom, and as long as the spirit is still
joined to nature, there can be no talk of freedom. But the spirit
and its proper world, the social life, man and mankind, finally
arrive at the point of existing in likeness to themselves, the
point where all the forms within which activity had previously
been confined, and which had established themselves as habit
and second nature, are scattered, and do not remain as
redundant activity where the whole of determined nature
transforms itself into free self-determination. German
philosophy had long perceived this destination of the spirit
entirely with respect to thought, and although the Philistines,
seeing the whole stock of embodied ideas of which they finally
had achieved some small grasp going up in smoke, raised the
cry of murder over the arson that they thought was being
committed, which seemed to negate everything for them, in
reality very little was destroyed. And what happened here in
relation to thought, happened in France in relation to social life.
The French social philosophers, Babeuf in his day, which
was the time of Fichte, and more recently Proudhon, touched
the igniting flame of the modern spirit to the structure of the old
society, just as the German philosophers did to the structure of
the old beliefs. But both the French and the German arsonists
scarcely knew what they were after. The aim of socialism is
nothing other than that of idealism which is this: to allow
nothing to remain of the old activity of plunder. None of the
forms within which this plunder had affixed itself until now can
continue in the face of the free spirit, which now manifests itself
only as active, and which does not stop with some result that
has been won by someone and fix, embody and materialize it in
order to store it up as property which rather, as the real
power over all things that are finite and determined, ever
transcends them, and creates itself anew as an active force (each
time in a different, particular way, to be sure). In this way does

the free act distinguish itself from unfree work; for, in the
condition of slavery, the very act of creation enchains what is
created, whereas, in the condition of freedom, every limitation
of which the spirit divests itself is not turned into determined
nature, but is overcome, and thus turned into selfdetermination.
It is now the task of the philosophy of the spirit to become
the philosophy of the act. Not only thought, but all human
activity, must be brought to the point at which all oppositions
fade away. The heavenly egoism, that is, the theological
consciousness, against which German philosophy is now so
zealously crusading, has thus far hindered us from stepping
forth into the act. In this respect, Fichte went much further than
our latest philosophy has gone. The young Hegelians,
paradoxical as it may sound, continue to be enmeshed in the
theological consciousness; for, although they have renounced
the Hegelian Absolute Spirit, which is a reproduction of the
Christian God, although they have given up the Hegelian
politics of Restoration and juste-milieu, and although they have
finally negated the religious dualism, they nevertheless continue
to set up the universal, or State, against the individual, and
they arrive at best at the anarchy of liberalism, that is to say, at
the condition of limitlessness, from which they nevertheless fall
back into the theological State, because they have never really
stepped forth into self-determination or self-limitation, but
rather have remained in the self-centeredness of reflection.
With them, social life has never overcome the attitude of
reflection, the stage of self-centeredness. In this stage, the
object of activity still appears to be really another, and the
subject, in order to strive for the gratification of its selfhood, of
its life, of its activity, must hold on to this object that has been
torn from it as its property, because it is otherwise threatened
with the loss of its selfhood. It is in the form of material
property that the notion of itself being active no, of itself
having been active for its own sake, first occurs to the
consciousness of the subject, which is still in the stage of

reflection. Its act never manifests itself as present; it never lives

in the present, but only in the past. It goes forth constantly
deprived of its real property, its present act, because it does not
yet have the capacity to manifest itself in its true form. It holds
fast only to appearance, to the reflection of its property, of its
activity, of its life, as if this reflection were its true life, its real
property, its own act!
This is the curse that has weighed upon mankind
throughout history until now: that men do not set up activity as
an end in itself, but constantly conceive of its gratification as
something separate from it, because all history up until now has
presented itself as none other than the evolution of the spirit,
which, in order really to evolve, must constantly rise up in
opposition to itself. And just as this curse came into being with
religion and politics, so it will also disappear after the
domination of religion and politics is brought to an end, after
the stage of reflection is overcome, and the reign of speculation,
of the philosophical ethic, begins and takes hold of all of life.
The first words through which the God of reflection made
himself known to man was that curse that the Bible loyally
handed down to us in the form of the well-known saying: In
the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread. The first words
through which the free spirit made itself known to man in
opposition to the other was the famous dictum of
Spinozas Ethics: What activity furthers and the love of life
extols, is good. The work by the sweat of thy face has reduced
man to slavery and misery; the activity out of love will make
him free and happy.
Because men in Germany and France have so far not
united with each other, but have striven after freedom isolated
on either side, the result has been that a reaction has recently
set in on both sides. On the French side, of course, where
spiritual freedom has not yet been won, it has come from
religion, while in Germany, on the other hand, where social

freedom has been neglected, it has come from politics, or the

states. In France we see the Clergy and the Legitimists steadily
regaining power; here the Nobility and the Pietists are doing the
same. There, it is the power of the state that has emerged from
the revolution that feels itself threatened, here, it is the science
that has come out of the Reformation. And because both
revolutionary powers, in their one-sidedness or isolation, are
without a strong base upon which to stand, they are led by a
sense of their own weakness to placate and make concessions to
the enemies whom they could destroy if they were united. In
opposition to this tendency, as a result of the sense of deficiency
in this matter that is now developing on both sides, a so-called
radical party is emerging in both countries, to stand up against
the reaction that has so far been victorious, in Germany in the
form of the official learning, and in France in the guise of the
official revolutionary government. This party does not wish to
be known as a mediator and maker of concessions, because it is
beginning to have an inkling of its real power, which resides in
the fusion of the problems of spiritual freedom and social
freedom.
In both countries, the radical party has come out against
the official powers that emerged from the spiritual and social
movement. Protestantism and the July Monarchy have now
been attacked. Pierre Leroux, the French Arnold Ruge, is
polemicizing against the juste-milieu government, just as his
German equivalent is polemicizing against Protestantism,
because they are beginning to see that these represent only a
half-victory, as I have pointed out, and that they are really
insufficient to destroy the enemy and indeed are more likely
to let themselves be overcome by it, in order to maintain the
appearance of their existence. Consequently, an apparent
alliance of radicalism with reaction emerges. This alliance is
only an ironical one, to be sure, the character of which is made
evident enough, for example, by Bruno Bauers trumpet
blasts. Certainly the alliance between radicalism and the
Legitimists in France is an old story by now, just as is the one in

Germany between the radicals and the Pietists against the old
rationalism. But now as they organize themselves to pursue
practical goals, the irony fades into the background, and they
show a stern mask to the world. To any but the most superficial
observer, this alliance appears only all the more comical as a
result. But because of this ironical alliance, the people allow
themselves to be led out of the light, that is, back to religion,
which here in Germany serves, by tacit agreement, as a common
meeting-ground for both the radicals and the reactionaries. Just
as it is the State that is exploited here in Germany, in the
name of their opposing aims and by very different means, of
course, by the philosophers and the Pietists (the one group
using the material power of the State, the other employing the
abstract Idea), so it is the Church, religion, that is exploited in
France.
The free act of the spirit is the common ground from
which all the aspirations of the present time originate, and to
which they return. It is therefore necessary to inquire into the
very law of its structure and of its consequences. The basis of
the free act is the Ethics of Spinoza, and the forthcoming
philosophy of the act can be only a further development of this
work. Fichte laid the groundwork for this further development,
but German philosophy cannot break out of idealism on its own.
In order for Germany to be able to attain socialism, it must have
a Kant for the old social organism, just as it had for the old
structure of thought. Without revolution, no new history can
begin. As strong as was the approval of the French Revolution in
Germany, its essence, which consisted in nothing less than
tearing down the pillars upon which the old social life had
stood, was just as strongly misunderstood everywhere. The
value of negation was perceived in Germany in the realm of
thought, but not in the realm of action. The value of anarchy
consists in the fact that the individual must once again rely
upon himself, and proceed from himself.

But Kants philosophical criticism brought about this state

of anarchy nowhere but in the realm of thought, and so his
immediate successor, Fichte, laid the groundwork of modern
history only, once again, in the realm of thought, and not in the
realm of the whole life of the spirit, of free social activity. In this
respect, people were happy simply to appropriate the results of
the French Revolution for themselves. But nothing more than
that is done about it. In History, in the life of the spirit, results
mean nothing; it is only the carrying out of legacies that is
effective. The realizing, not the realization is the important
thing. With the realization, the spirit has nothing more to do,
nothing new to realize, to work out and strengthen. Simply to
appropriate results is to place old patches upon old clothes.
People in Germany have become satisfied with just this kind of
patchwork as far as social life is concerned, and they believe that
they have thus wrought justice. Only in France was the spirit
given its due in the matter of free social activity. From the
anarchy of terrorism stepped forth Babeuf, the French Fichte,
the first communist, who laid the groundwork for the further
development of the new ethic with respect to social activity, just
as Fichte, the first true atheist, laid the groundwork with respect
to thought. On the other hand, matters pertaining to thought
were not set right in France, and as much as people there strive
to appropriate the results of German philosophy for
themselves, they have not been able to make any sense out of it
all, for the same reason that this appropriation of results
miscarried in Germany.
Man must begin with himself, with the I, if he wants to
create, to be active. Just as the old History, the History of
nature, began with the first man, so must the new History, the
History of the spirit, begin with the original individual.
Descartes made an unhappy attempt at this he lost the thread,
as we have seen, with his second word. Spinoza did it all, but
history did not immediately come to terms with his
achievement; his Ethics lay in the earth bearing no fruit for
more than a century, until finally the two-edged sword of the

spiritual and social revolution cleared away the rubble that was
weighing down the buds of the modern era. Suddenly there
appeared two little shoots, whose roots no one had perceived.
Atheism and communism were taught, to the horror of the
Philistines, by Fichte and Babeuf, in the two chief cities on
either side of the Rhine, Berlin and Paris, and young people
streamed to these places, seeking the inspiration of the new
teachings. Atheism and communism! Let us examine this
sapling.
The thing about it that most frightens people is its
apparent lack of roots in any solid earth. Anarchy, upon which
both atheism and communism are based, the negation of all
domination in both spiritual and social life, seems at first to be
the absolute annihilation of all definition, and thus of all reality.
But it is only the process of the act becoming fixed by something
outside itself, the domination of one thing over another, that
anarchy strips away. So far is self-determination from being
negated here, that it is rather the negation of it (brought about
by the process of determination from the outside) that is being
transcended. The anarchy created through the spirit is only a
negation of limitation, not of freedom. It is not the limits that
the spirit establishes for itself that anarchy clears away, for the
limits that the spirit establishes for itself form the content of its
free activity. Thus this establishing for itself, this determining of
self, this limiting of self, is not something that can be negated by
the free spirit; it can be negated only by the setting of limits
from the outside.
When I believe in a power that is above or outside of my
I, I am thus limited from without. When I think in opposition
to the object, and self-consciously create in accordance with the
law of my spirit, I limit myself, without my being limited from
without. In this way, I can determine myself in social life, and
can be active in this or that determined way, without
acknowledging a limit imposed from the outside on my activity
without having another to allow me my rights, or to limit me.

How, then, now that anarchy is everywhere surging forth from

communism and atheism, can we refashion the limitations from
without into self-limitation, the outer God into an inner God,
material property into spiritual property? To say it this way
already makes it sound much less dreadful, and yet the atheists,
communists and anarchists want nothing but this. It is what
they must want, since they cannot desire the impossible.
In the meantime, we can perceive that the anarchists are
not perfectly clear about what it is they want. The free
individual who emerged from the revolution had no conception
of his limits at first, but saw only his limitlessness; he did not
see self-determination taking place within him, but saw only his
complete lack of definition, his indeterminateness. He did not
yet perceive that the true negation of the process of becoming
defined from without consists in self-determination from
within. The upshot of this was that he was unable to arrive at
overcoming the limits imposed upon him from without, and
anarchy turned into its opposite, the domination of the one over
the other. People once again were forced to tolerate the limits
from without, material property, the complete separation of
individuals, because they did not understand that they had to
set limits upon themselves, had to determine their own activity,
had to enter into spiritual creativity, refashioning the I into its
becoming-something-else, their activity into its being-for-itself.
The terrorists and Babouvists cried out against the betrayal of
the revolution, while two fine thinkers, Saint-Simon and
Fourier, who saw what this betrayal necessarily had to produce,
dedicated themselves to finding a remedy for the evil, and
sought anew to define, to delimit, to give organization to the
limitlessness of social activity, which the conflict of
individualities made sharper in their time than it had been
before.
The Kantians and Idealists were displaced here in a
similar fashion, when Schelling and Hegel began to reflect upon
how to restore the negated objective world. But in the midst of

this zeal for Restoration, people rediscovered the essence of

revolution in spite of themselves. In order to restore the
objective world, Saint-Simon went to the rescue of personal
authority, Fourier to the rescue of material property, Schelling
to that of feeling, and Hegel to that of Being all
determinations from without, which had been negated long
before by the modern spirit.
Finally, the acknowledged new movement, the return to
the point at which revolution emerges, began in both Germany
and France, in the macrocosm of the nations as in the
microcosm of the individuals. The Restoration king was driven
out, the Restoration philosopher, Hegel, died of cholera, the
philosophers and socialists of the old school feebly flickered
about as always, unable to shed new light on anything. People
finally went back to the first heroes of the revolution, to Babeuf
in France and Fichte in Germany, so as to begin at the
beginning and move forward without any sudden leaps.
Proudhon proceeds from anarchy, and the German philosophy
proceeds from self-consciousness. Atheism is again taught in
Germany, and communism in France; but people no longer
swear by indeterminateness; Proudhon, like Feuerbach, has
accepted the dialectical moment, but without employing it in
the restoration of the old, outside, negated objectivity. It is
along this path that freedom must be pursued, and will
ultimately be achieved.
Freedom is the overcoming of limits from the outside
through self-limitation, through the self-consciousness of the
spirit as an active agent, through the transcendence of natural
determinateness by self-determination. All history until now
has been what is encountered by thought and by social life, this
being the domain of the natural history of the spirit, just as
everything that we call the objective, material or physical world
is the domain of natural history itself. The only intrinsic
difference between the history of mankind and the history of
nature is that in nature, for every self-limitation of the spirit

established, the object in which the spirit encounters itself

continues to exist, whereas for mankind every self-limitation of
the spirit is only a stage of development, and is ultimately
transcended. The true history of the spirit first begins at the
point where all natural determination comes to an end, where
the spirit develops, self-consciousness calls out and the act of
the spirit is clearly perceived. With this perception the reign of
freedom begins, and we are standing at its portals and knocking
upon them now. This perception is the true key to the kingdom,
which has been withheld from us long enough now by the
Bishop of Rome. The German religious Reformation was the
first to stretch out its arm to him, but the arm was not long
enough. In the meantime, however, the Reformation grew into
German philosophy, while the French Revolution emerged by
its side. With these two arms the European peoples are tearing
the key from the hands of its keeper; that is certain! The
unification of these efforts is now the principal task. There is
only one freedom, just as there is only one spirit.
The common ground of social and spiritual freedom is
morality, the highest good, the perception of God, as Spinoza
puts it, or the self-consciousness of the Absolute Spirit, as the
Hegelians ineptly put it. It is the spirits consciousness of its
likeness to itself in its becoming something else, the overcoming
of otherness as fixed, the transformation of determined nature
into self-determination. Without all this, neither equality nor
inner freedom is possible. All things are one, and are equal. But
this proves too much, and basically proves nothing at all. If all
things are equal, then even plants and animals are equal to
man, and Heine, the abstract pantheist, can quite rightly make
nonsense of the freedom and equality of men (who are
aristocrats alongside brute animals), as he does from the ironic
viewpoint of his Atta Troll, in which he represents the
communism of bears instead of men. Not only our efforts to
achieve freedom, not only communism, but every earnest effort
on the part of men, every moral act, is laughable if all things are
one.

Whoever knows no freedom other than limitlessness

knows no equality other than complete levelling out
pantheism and communism in the sense of spiritualism.
Whoever establishes unity only as the negation of
differentiation, and seeks idealism only through materialism, as
the Christians did, whoever does not have the power to attain
abstract anarchy, like the radicals of the stamp of Heine (this
last knight of modern Romanticism, this process of putrefaction
of the Middle Ages), must run himself into his opposite at every
moment, and finally must settle for declaring that the world is
out of joint, because he has himself gone out of joint. This is a
moral disjointedness, into which the world collapsed when it
drifted away from itself in the time of Christ, negated all earthly
interests and proclaimed only heavenly ones. Communism and
anarchy rose to the surface at that time the communism of
bears, that is, freedom as limitlessness and worldliness or
state power was transformed into spirituality. We would be
beginning the history of the Middle Ages all over again, as I
have already said, if we were to insist upon holding on to
abstract communism and idealism.
This would be to repudiate ones rights not only in the
history of religion, but in philosophy as well, not only in
political history, but in socialism. German philosophy has
already transcended the idealism of Fichte, just as French
socialism has transcended the communism of Babeuf. We have
once again lived out the history of the Middle Ages, this time
spiritually. We will no longer say, all things are one; we will no
longer say, all things are equal; least of all will we say any
longer, everything is in opposition to everything else, everything
is different from everything else. Instead we will say that the
spirit renders everything one and in opposition, alike and
different, at the same time; it creates its own opposite, the
other, the world, in order for it to transcend this determination,
this delimitation, every time, in order for it to pass back into
itself and perceive that it is its own opposite, its own act, its own
life, in order to conceive of itself, in other words, as living or

acting but not to create itself as material and fix itself in that
state in which the free act would become an objective fact that
limits it, in which the spiritual being-for-itself would become
material property that throws away its likeness to itself, its
morality, negates its freedom, freezes and confines the flow of
its life, its movement.
Material property is the being-for-itself of the spirit
transformed into a fixed idea. Because the spirit does not itself
spiritually conceive its work, its working-out or working-away,
as a free act, as its own life, but rather creates this work as a
material other, it must therefore fix this other to itself, so as not
to lose itself in infinity, so as to arrive at its being-for-itself. But
property comes to an end and turns into spirit, which is what it
should be (that is, into being-for-itself), when it realizes not the
forms of the act but the result, the creation itself, as the beingfor-itself of the spirit, when it realizes the phantom, the
representation of the spirit, to be its own idea in short, when
it realizes its otherness as its being-for-itself, and holds firmly
on to this. It is the very quest for being, that is, the quest to
endure as determined individuality, as a delimited I, as
unending essence, that leads to greed. It is, once again, the
negation of all determination, the abstract I and abstract
communism, the outcome of the empty thing-in-itself of
Kantian criticism and of the revolution, of the unsatisfied sense
of duty, that led to being and having. This is howauxiliary verbs
became transformed into substantives. This is how all verbs
become substantives, and how everything that belongs to the
changing periphery is made into the permanent core; yes, this is
how the world was stood upon its head!
Freedom is morality; it is above all the fulfillment of the
law of life, of spiritual activity, as much in the narrow sense, by
which the act is called idea, as in the broader sense, by which
the idea is called act, with clear consciousness of this law. Thus
it is fulfillment, not as natural necessity or as determination by
nature, as was the case for all living creatures until now, but as

self-determination. Without this morality, no state of

collectivism is conceivable; but also, no morality is conceivable
without collectivism. The riddle drawn out of the closed circle of
slavery can be solved by the spirit, and by the spirit alone,
through the progress of the dialectic, through its history.
History has already broken through the closed circle of slavery.
The revolution is the break from captivity, from the condition of
bigotry and oppression in which the spirit found itself before it
became self-conscious. But, as we have seen, this anarchy only
broke through the limits imposed from the outside, without
progressing further to self-determination or self-limitation, to
morality. The revolution is still incomplete, and it knows that it
is still incomplete. Even so, the anarchy could not stay as it was
at the beginning, and has in fact not stayed that way. And as we,
the children of the revolution, move on from it forward into
morality, the riddle is thus being solved.
The forerunners of the revolution foreshadowed this
solving of the riddle. Montesquieu had already said that the
republic is not possible without virtue. In this statement, as well
as in many others made by other men of that time, such as
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, they had shown themselves to have a
fair premonition of the idea of collectivity and morality that is
now beginning to reign. But they did not clearly perceive it, and
imagined that they were doing away with the conditions of the
past with their words, which really lacked clearly defined and
meaningful ideas. They thought that they were drawing a
picture of what was to be done.
Like the word republic, the word virtue has not been
properly understood. Res publica and virtus are words without
content, just as the ideal state of things that they described was
without content. The content first had to be built up through
history. Our morality is different from the virtue of the ancients,
our freedom is not theirs; how could the future condition of
society be like the ancient world? The conditions of old have
been long since negated; Christianity transcended them, and the

Middle Ages have transcended Christianity. Montesquieu

committed an error in politics similar to the one that Luther,
the forerunner of German philosophy, committed in religion. In
its still blind strivings, the revolution sought to rehabilitate the
situation of ancient times, just as the Reformation sought to
revive primitive Christianity, whereas history had long since
transcended these ancient conditions. They made this error
because, though they had a consciousness of degeneration, of
aberration, they did not know that the trouble bad arisen in the
transition from unconsciousness to the self-conscious spirit.
Every early condition is an undeveloped shoot that must first
perish in order for the seed to sprout into a full-grown tree, into
a ripe and succulent fruit. Whoever wants to return to an earlier
condition wants, in effect, to go through history all over again
from the beginning.
This is the sort of thing that we want to abolish at last, and
we must do so! What we want is something brand new, that has
never existed before. We must first begin to develop it. Freedom
and equality are beautiful words. We have made ourselves suffer
for them, we have sacrificed ourselves for them, and it is for
them that we will be resurrected, so that we can stand up and
fight once more!