INSTRUMENTATION - THE KEYSTONE OF DAM MONITORING

P. Choquet, Ph.D., First Vice-President, Roctest Ltd., St-Lambert (Montreal), Canada

K. Saleh, Ph.D., Head of Civil Engineering Research Group, IREQ, Hydro-Quebec, Varennes
(Montreal), Canada

ABSTRACT
Dam monitoring covers all procedures and methods, of which instrumentation is only one
aspect. However, instrumentation provides most of the quantitative data and therefore
represents the keystone of monitoring.
Identifying the different deformation modes involves measuring the geometrical evolution of
the dam, starting with the most accessible parts, namely the crest and exposed portion of the
downstream and upstream slopes. Where the size of a dam warrants such examination,
internal deformation or displacement can be measured in zones judged sensitive. Fissuring
zones can be due to the interface with abutments, to surrounding geometrical discontinuities
or to the nature of the material in the foundations. They could also be caused by particular
structural elements, such as an impervious membrane, toe tunnel or tunnel built under the
central core, and interfaces with concrete structures such as spillways.
Defining failure mechanisms requires measuring the factors determining mechanical load,
starting with the height of the water in the reservoir and the pore pressure at different
locations in the embankments and the foundation. The impossibility of measuring pressure at
every point means limiting the number of measurements along certain profiles upstream and
downstream from drains and natural or man-made cutoff structures. Generally, pressure
should be measured at any point where a variation could indicate a potential disorder.
The paper anylyses all the main types of dams which can be grouped in three categories:
embankment dams (homogeneous, core dams and dams with impervious membranes),
concrete dams (gravity, roller-compacted concrete, buttress, arch and multiple arch dams)
and masonry dams.
For each type of dam, design principles and modes of potential failure are detailed, leading to
recommended monitoring systems.
The paper concludes with the special case of dam foundation monitoring for both concrete
and embankment dams and stresses the importance of automatic data acquisition and
processing as a complement to modern dam instrumentation programs.

1. DAM MONITORING
Dam monitoring covers all procedures and methods, of which instrumentation is only one
aspect. However, instrumentation provides most of the quantitative data and therefore
represents the keystone of monitoring.
From the monitoring perspective, the life of a dam comprises three phases: construction,
initial filling and operation. The objectives of monitoring as well as the load conditions vary

with each of these phases. Certain measurements and the corresponding instruments may
therefore be designed to supply data only in the first two phases.
The frequency of measurements also varies with these phases. Construction and filling are
initial load phases during which safety is monitored by making sure that thresholds are not
surpassed. During these phases, every step must be taken to control the speed with which
stresses are applied, notably in the building of embankments and the raising of the water
level.
During operation, measurements may be taken at less frequent intervals. However, it is of the
utmost importance to consider the number of measurements over several decades.
Moreover, detailed observation of sensor response can provide valuable data on the evolution
of the safety of a dam and the aging of the components and materials used in its construction.
Identifying the different deformation modes involves measuring the geometrical evolution of
the dam, starting with the most accessible parts, namely the crest and exposed portion of the
downstream and upstream slopes. Where the size of a dam warrants such examination,
internal deformation or displacement can be measured in zones judged sensitive. Fissuring
zones can be due to the interface with abutments, to surrounding geometrical discontinuities
or to the nature of the material in the foundations. They could also be caused by particular
structural elements, such as an impervious membrane, toe tunnel or tunnel built under the
central core, and interfaces with concrete structures such as spillways.
Defining failure mechanisms requires measuring the factors determining mechanical load,
starting with the height of the water in the reservoir and the pore pressure at different
locations in the embankments and the foundation. The impossibility of measuring pressure at
every point means limiting the number of measurements along certain profiles upstream and
downstream from drains and natural or man-made cutoff structures. Generally, pressure
should be measured at any point where a variation could indicate a potential disorder.
The difficulty arising from the obligation not to omit any important location leads to a
consideration of overall measurements that have an integrating function., Such
measurements can alert the operator should any abnormal variations be detected in a
reading. One example would be measurement of flows through a shell or cutoff structure.
There are six phases in monitoring a dam:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.

overall design of monitoring

definition and practical organization of the system
specifications established by the chief engineer
quality assurance plan (QAP) set up by the company responsible for implementing the
system
measurements during construction
long-term follow-up during operation.

2. INSTRUMENTATION
Instrumentation is an integral component of any dam, and its insertion in a structure can entail
design modifications. Although the formulation of its goals and its definition are the
responsibility of the project designers, other players are also involved in implementing dam
monitoring systems: the equipment manufacturers, the various personnel in charge of
installing the equipment and then taking the measurements, the construction contractors, the
engineers, and the owners who will be using the results. Coordinating all these different
players is no simple task. Procedures outlined in quality assurance plans (QAP) aim at
specific objectives: an operational system, and reliable, stored and interpreted data.

2.1 Selection

Instrumentation permits a high accurate quantification of certain parameters regarding the

behavior of a structure and allows their speed of evolution to be followed. It is possible to
observe the stabilization of movements or, in the case of acceleration, to deduce the
eventuality of failure. By comparing measured values with values calculated at the design
stage, using a reference model, instrumentation enables the monitoring of dam's safety level
and the timely implementation of corrective measures.
Three major criteria should be considered in selecting instruments:

reliability of measurements obtained (absence of drift, resolution and accuracy)

longevity of the instruments, supported by numerous references
ease of automating readings essential for efficient data gathering and interpretation.

The choice of components for the monitoring systems is of the utmost importance, and the
following considerations must be kept in mind:
-

environmental conditions adverse to transportation and installation, which call for simple,
sturdy equipment well protected against risks of overvoltage caused by lightning;
a dam's life span of at least several decades;
replacing equipment sunk into the ground or buried in concrete. This is a last resort, since
it always involves adding new instruments down boreholes, which constitute a
discontinuity in the site to be monitored;
the difficulty of impossibility of resetting instruments, which means they must be built
around sensors with virtually no zero drift;
the great line distance between the sensor and the cable output point, which necessarily
implies selecting means of measurements insensitive to line effects;
developing automated reading procedures, which makes equipment using electric signals
an attractive choice,.

It is important to distinguish between "hard-core" equipment, that is, equipment that provides
information and cannot be replaced, and components such as cables in tunnels, junction
boxes and data acquisition systems. These can be changed or upgraded once the dam is in
operation.
This publication deals only with static measurement instrumentation, which represents the
majority and often the only type of measurements for a dam. Dynamic measurement
instrumentation is generally restricted to the addition of seismographs at different levels on a
dam, which trigger a series of static instrument measurements, above a specific threshold.
Knowledge of a dam's behavior during an earthquake allows the reevaluation of its safety, for
the maximum theoretical earthquake intensity selected during the dam's design phase.

2.2 Quality
The importance of using sturdy, stable equipment, particularly that which is permanently
installed within the body of a dam, cannot be overemphasized. This is especially critical for
cells measuring pore pressure, a knowledge of which takes precedence over that of all other
factors. The sensors and cables that transmit the information to the outside of the dam need
excellent reliability. The amount invested in these is in line with the value of the expected data
and the time that obtaining this information will require. The relative value of the individual
sensors and cables has to be considered by comparing it to that of the peripheral components
(exterior cables, in situ or remote data acquisition) and to the amortized cost of processing the
data over several decades. This relative value is small, considering that the sensors and
cables constitute the very heart of the systems. Their gross value should not be viewed
separately.

2.3 General Layout

The general layout of the instruments is based on the vertical or horizontal sections which the
designers consider to be of primary importance. The choice of instruments depends on the
objectives assigned to monitoring. The first objective is to monitor safety by verifying the
proper functioning of the different components. Next, it is a matter of verifying the hypotheses
regarding the behavior of the dam, in order to improve future projects. Finally, the major
difficulty is to prioritize the parameters considering the overall configuration of the dam,
including the specific structural elements and the heterogeneity of its foundation.
In dam monitoring, measurements are taken only on parameters deemed significant and at
points judged critical. However, experience shows that, most of the time, difficulties spring up
where they are not expected, and that it is the local heterogeneity that weakens a structure. If
this heterogeneity is not detected or taken into account, then only continuous gathering and
interpretation of monitoring data can forewarn the operators of any evolution that could
indicate a disorder. Using very high resolution equipment or equipment that is highly sensitive
to distant stress changes is one way to compensating for the lack of precision in enumerating
the factors and locating zones of risk.

2.4 Cabling
Appropriate cable layout is one of the essential conditions if a monitoring system is to last
over the years. The layout not only has to take into consideration the geometry and the
embankment zones from the perspective of the life span of the dam, but also the conditions in
which it was built. The construction phase is one of the most critical phases in the life of any
monitoring system.
An earth dam is voluminous compared to a concrete dam. Unlike in a concrete dam, tunnels
cannot be excavated through an earth dam. At best, a tunnel can be built in the foundation
along the longitudinal axis in the case of core dams or along the perimeter of the base of the
impervious membrane.
The problem is how to minimize the length of the individual cables embedded in the
embankment by quickly joining up tunnels and abutments on the banks or downstream
slopes, while at the same time crossing the different zones and avoiding stresses due to
differential settlement (Figure 1). Installing cable trenches in a few horizontal planes as
possible makes it easier to carry out the necessary operations. These considerations are
illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 1: Cabling general layout

Figure 2: Cabling principles, zoned earth dam, detail

3. EMBANKMENT DAMS
The architecture and choice of components for monitoring earth and rockfill dams are based
on the analysis of the structure's behavior carried out by the designers in developing a
project. The designers consider certain modes of deformation and their amplitude, as well as
certain failure mechanisms. In the latter case, they also assess the factors determining the
mechanical load and potential changes in the materials.
Boundaries are a key element in the monitoring process. By boundaries, we mean
connections of any king - in the embankment, foundations, abutments, attached structures,
and concrete dams that may be combined with embankment dams.
The recommendations made in the chapters on foundations and other types of dams should
be kept in mind. However, the following points apply specifically to embankment dams:
i.

Retaining walls forming connections in earth and concrete dams

Pore pressure cells must be used to ensure that this boundary does not constitute a
preferential path for seepage flow.
ii. Tunnels under the embankment
As in the case of retaining walls, the main problem of tunnels located under an embankment
concerns seepage that must be monitored. Monitoring the tunnel itself comes under the
heading of monitoring concrete structures and is not discussed in this chapter.
Embankment dams use their own weight to resist the water pressure, and overall stability is
thus constantly ensured. The stability of the upstream and downstream slopes must be
considered separately, in relation to the construction and operation phases, which determine

the seepage flow through the embankment. This flow varies with the permeability zoning of
the embankment. It is the zoning that distinguishes between the different types of
embankment dams.

Figure 3: Manicouagan 3 dam Overall instrumentation diagram

3.1 Homogeneous dams

3.1.1 Design Principles
In this type of dam, the zoning consists of installing either a vertical or an inclined chimney
drain. Seepage flow through the dam is controlled by the upstream section of the
embankment.
3.1.2 Modes of Potential Failure
Excluded a priori from this discussion are failures due to submersion, which is by far the most
frequent cause of destruction (31% of principal causes). The notion of overall failure or failure
by a dam sliding on its foundations also does not apply here. Potential failures develop mainly
in the slopes, either during construction, when pore pressures develop as a result of
introducing a load too quickly, or during operation, for example in the upstream slope
following a drop in reservoir level, or in the downstream slope. Failures may also involve part
of the foundations.

However, these modes of failure are less to be feared than failure due to internal erosion,
which represents the major danger that generally threatens embankment dams.
Manifestations of this type of phenomenon are difficult to define, and the resulting failure
mechanisms are complex. Instrumentation of these structures may therefore focus not on the
initial cause, but on one of its effects (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Embankment dam Modes of potential failure

3.1.3 Monitoring Systems

The indispensable role played by visual observation should once again be noted. The
monitoring systems are designed to determine flow networks upstream from filters and drains,
verify the efficiency of drainage systems (absence of downstream pressure), monitor pressure
values in the foundations and follow the evolution of seepage flows through the embankment
at critical points. Figure 5 illustrates these principles.
The most important parameters measured are therefore pore pressure, seepage flow,
upstream reservoir level and water levels in the abutments and downstream. The
measurements obtained allow cross-checking of the design assumptions that helped
determine the size of the dams. They are useful in monitoring safety, by ensuring that these
measurements do not deviate, over time, from the values corresponding to admissible safety
factors (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Homogeneous dam Overall instrumentation diagram

The following instruments are used:

-

reservoir level indicators showing the hydraulic load applied to the structure as a whole.
Depending on site conditions, the downstream level may also have to be measured.
pore pressure cells, (PWS, PWF and FPC-2 piezometers) in the body of the dam,
abutments and foundations.
open piezometers, Casagrande CP type, on the lower portion of abutments and
downstream from dams.
seepage flow meters, at different points, consisting of weirs equipped with level indicators
(NIVOFLO and ultrasonic systems) and TH thermometers.

With the exception of open piezometers, all these instruments must allow automatic reading,
although this certainly does not rule out selective direct readings. Open piezometers are
increasingly automated, through the installation of electric cells in the access standpipes
(PWS piezometers).
Overall deformation may also be measured, as discussed in the following section on core
dams.

3.2 Core dams

3.2.1 Design Principles
Stability and impermeability are completely separate functions. Stability is maintained by
shells of alluvium or rockfill. Impermeability is ensured by cores made up of a mainly clay-silt
mix or with a very broad grain size distribution. Drains and filters installed between the cores,
shoulders and foundations provide the necessary transitions in grain size distribution for
drainage and for preventing internal erosion. Depending on the nature of the foundations
(rock or alluvium), special measures may be taken to connect the core to the foundation with
an impervious seal.
3.2.2 Modes of Potential Failure

The main risk threatening core dams throughout their life remains submersion. As in the
previous case of homogeneous dams, the other failure mechanisms relate to the slopes along
with the foundations.
Internal erosion in the body of the dam or its foundation is the most prevalent cause of
destruction, ahead of mechanical failure. Fissuring in the core may be behind the erosion, and
can be avoided by installing elaborate filters.
3.2.3 Monitoring Systems
The monitoring systems are designed to verify the efficiency of the cutoff structures by
measuring pore pressure. External and internal displacement measurement, together with
load measurement, allow the structure's response and, specifically, the risks of fissuring, to be
evaluated. The overall evolution of flow through the dam is monitored by means of integrating
flow measurements. Figure 6 illustrates these principles.

Figure 6: Core dam - Overall instrumentation diagram

For pore pressure and seepage flow measurements, the same instruments used in
homogeneous dams are employed. Displacement measurements, which are carried out in
conjunction with load measurements, may take on particular importance,. These
measurements are used in assessing the evolution of displacement and the corresponding
risks of fissuring.
The following instruments are used:
i.
-

ii.
-

for surface displacement measurements (crest and slope)

targets for direct topographic measurements. These same targets may be combined
with measurement devices (bench marks) using long base extensometers (CONVEX),
in particular for measuring crest deformation. This brings out any zones of tension or
compression, as well as potential fissuring.
for measurements of displacement within the dam:
settlement standpipes using an R-4 torpedo, which give a discontinuous reading of
displacements along a vertical line.

inclinometer tubings using an ACCUTILT RT-20 inclinometer probe, which give a

discontinuous reading of horizontal displacements along a vertical line (settlement
inclinometer tubings providing measurements in x, y and z are also available).

horizontal tubings or equivalent devices, which indicate the evolution of settlement

along an initially horizontal line (profile gages and settlement gages).

extensometric systems, which indicate displacements in x and y on bases (distance

between two measuring points ranging from a few meters to several dozen meters.
They are laid out over distances that may cover the entire length of a dam along its
axis or, in a transverse direction, the width of a load (ERI 200 embankment
extensometers).

SSG and R4 settlement systems consisting of spaced measuring points, as in

extensometric systems, and generally combined with the latter.

Unlike the preceding systems, which involve manual operations that are therefore
discontinuous in time, extensometric systems allow automatic data input with a measurement
frequency varying according to the range of parameters that affect the measured value.
Chains of fixed clinometers (LITTLE DIPPER) inserted in inclinometer tubings can also be
read automatically.
iii.

for load measurements;

Load measurements refer to measurements made using cells that are often called total
pressure cells. It is a fact that great difficulties are encountered in stress measurement. This
type of measurement is always indirect, and consequently comprises many difficulties in
interpretation.
In embankment dams, TPC total pressure cells are used, in which the filling fluid pressure is
preferably measured by electric sensors, which are easy to read. These jacks, laid out in
groups, each have a different orientation. They thus allow an assessment of load variations
rather than stress variations. They are useful near the boundaries of zones forming
embankments, and provide data on the formation of discharging arches in the core and the
associated risk of fissuring.

3.3 Dams with impervious membranes

3.3.1 Design Principles
In impervious membrane dams, impermeability and stability are also separate. Stability is
maintained by a shell of random fill or rockfill. Impermeability is provided by a thin membrane
laid on the upstream slope. This membrane, made of asphalt, concrete or geotextile, drains
inward and is connected by an impervious seal, natural or man-made, to the banks and
foundations.
3.3.2 Modes of Potential Failure
Except for failures due to submersion, failures of impervious membrane dams are the result of
internal erosion, mainly in the foundations. They may also relate to the failure of the
impervious membrane following differential settlement, which may stem from a variety of
causes.
3.3.3 Monitoring Systems
The monitoring systems are designed to verify such aspects as the behavior of impervious
membranes by measuring displacement and deformation, which could lead to local failures
that are the site of seepage through the membranes. Seepage flows must always be
measured. Figure 7 illustrates these principles.

10

These systems are always combined with visual inspection, and are designed to:
-

monitor seepage that may originate in fissuring in the membrane or insufficient

impermeability of the foundation.

measure pressure in the foundations or in mechanically dangerous zones that may be

stressed by seepage.

verify the behavior of the impervious membrane by measuring displacement and

deformation which could lead to local failures that are the site of seepage through the
membrane.

The most important measurements are those related to the first two objectives, which involve
monitoring the impermeability of the membrane and the foundations, as well as seepage flow
and pressure. Seepage flow meters are used, with an effort made to distinguish between
seepage from the membrane, the perimetral joint and the foundations, through careful
placement of the collector and measurement instruments. These instruments are described in
Figure 7.
Pore pressure measurement instruments and open piezometers (PWF and FPC-2) are also
used.

Figure 7: Dam with impervious membrane Overall instrumentation diagram

For the behavior of the impervious membrane, whether rigid or flexible, equipment for either
selective or integrating measurements is available. The following are used:

11

ICA-2000, ACCUTILT and R-4 settlement inclinometers

SSG settlement gages
joint meters (for rigid membranes), such as JM, RTF and GEO-D fissurometers
EM vibrating wire extensometers embedded in the concrete (for rigid membranes)
topographic bench marks on the crest and downstream slope of the membrane's
supporting embankment.

The body of the embankment may be monitored as detailed in the section on core dams,
although this occurs less often.

4. CONCRETE DAMS
Concrete dams may be classified in four main categories: gravity dams, buttress dams, arch
dams and multiple arch dams. The concrete may be poured in place or roller compacted.
These methods affect instrument selection, but do not alter the monitoring principles, which
are based on the nature of the structures.

4.1 Gravity dams

4.1.1 Design Principles
Gravity dams are more or less triangular in shape. They rely on their weight for stability. The
resultant of this weight, together with the other external forces applied to the structures, must
satisfy certain location criteria at the base of the dam. Figure 8 shows the various forces
taken into account in analyzing the stability of a gravity dam.

Figure 8: Gravity dam Applied forces

12

To ensure adequate distribution of the stresses placed by the dams on their foundations, the
resultant of the various static and dynamic forces must pass through the center third of the
base of the structures.
When the resultant R lies between B and C, the entire foundation (AD) is in compression
(Figure 9).

Figure 9: Gravity dam Stable situation

When the resultant R lies between C and D, i.e. in the downstream third of the base, there is
a loss of contact between the dam and the foundation of the upstream part, and an increase
in stresses at the downstream toe of the structure (Figure 10).

Figure 10: Gravity dam Unstable situation

When the resultant R lies downstream from the toe of the dam, i.e. beyond point D, the
structure tilts over.
4.1.2 Modes of Potential Failure
Failures of gravity dams occur following two main modes: sliding and tilting. These
phenomena may apply to the structure as a whole or, more often, to some blocks only.
Understanding the modes of failure helps determine the monitoring necessary to prevent
them.
Sliding may take place along the surface of the concrete-rock interface (Figure 11) or within
the foundation mass, along a surface of lower resistance, such as joints or layers of materials
(Figure 12). These planes of potential sliding must be taken into account in designing the
structures, and their presence calls for particular instrumentation.

13

Figure 11: Gravity dam Failure by sliding

Figure 12: Gravity dam Failure by sliding in foundations

Failures by sliding may occur when the design assumptions do not match certain aspects of
the actual situation. The presence of zones of low shear resistance that were not detected
during site investigation, hydrostatic force greater than the maximum foreseen due to
exceptional floods, and insufficient spillway capacity may all cause this type of failure.
Failures by sliding may also result from the inefficiency of impervious screens cutting off the
permeable, erodible horizons, or inadequate drainage leading to an increase in uplift (Figure
13). Erosion in the foundation mass at the downstream toe, as a result of spillages or faulty
spillway design, is also a cause of failure (Figure 14).

Figure 13: Gravity dam Uplift

14

Figure 14: Gravity dam Downstream erosion

Failures by tilting may occur when the resultant of all the forces applied to the dams does not
meet the criteria defined in the preceding section on design principles.
This non-compliance means that the design assumptions in some ways do not correspond to
the reality, e.g.:
-

hydrostatic force greater than the maximum foreseen

uplift greater than the assumptions, due to inefficient drainage or cutoff
uplift felt in fissures created in tension zones. High thermal gradients through the
structures may cause fissuring.
change in the profile of the dams' downstream foundations, due to erosion created by
faulty spillway design
inadequate concrete strength due to poor preparation or deterioration of the concrete,
causing failure by compression at the downstream toe in the high-stress zone.

4.1.3 Monitoring systems

As is true for most civil engineering structures, monitoring of gravity dams comprises the
following two components, in addition to visual inspection (Figure 15):
-

verification of design assumptions

study of the structures' overall behavior.

A) Verification of design assumptions

Design assumptions are verified by means of measurements, usually selective, of the
parameters applied in calculating the stability of the structures. With reference to the
preceding paragraphs, the following list of parameters to be measured can be established:
Reservoir levels upstream and downstream from the dams
Equipment used
- pressure sensors with barometric correction, such as PWS piezometers
- floats with encoding system
- bubbler systems with surface pressure sensors.
Uplift
Uplift at the concrete-foundation interface and in permeable zones may form shear planes in
the foundations. Instruments must be located so as to provide transverse profiles of uplift for
comparison with the design profiles.

15

Figure 15: Gravity dam - Overall instrumentation diagram

Uplift is measured using closed piezometers installed in boreholes or standpipes which open
onto inspection tunnels equipped with pressure gages or sensors for automatic readings.
Equipment used
- PWS vibrating wire piezometers
- pressure sensors installed in tunnels, similar to the preceding but with screwed coupling
and bleed valve.
Concrete stress condition
This measurement is designed to verify the distribution of stresses on the foundations and at
certain levels in the dams. The downstream toe of the structures, where stresses are highest,
must be monitored especially closely. This measurement must be combined with temperature
measurement to interpret the results.
Equipment used
- TPC total pressure cells
- SM and EM short base extensometers (surface and embedment type)
- thermometers such as the PT-100 thermometer probe and THT thermistor temperature
probe.

B) Study of the structures' overall behavior

The modes of potential failure help determine the type and location of measurements
designed to detect the beginning of any such phenomena. In addition to "geometric"
measurements, complete monitoring must include the measurement of seepage flows
through the construction joints and foundations. For either sliding or tilting failures, the

16

equipment used must allow the following to be measured with a high degree of resolution and
accuracy:
-

horizontal displacement
vertical displacement
rotation
construction joints and fissures
seepage flows.

Horizontal displacement
Horizontal displacement is first measured using optical instruments and studs placed along
the crest of the dams. This system has some disadvantages, however, such as the
considerable time required to take the readings and the absence of automation. These
manual measurements must therefore be complemented by automatable high-precision
measurements (Figure 16).

Figure 16: Gravity dam Rotation and displacement measurement

Equipment used
- direct and inverted pendulums
- TELEPENDULUM inductive and RXTX optical reading stations
- inclined borehole extensometers such as GEODIS, FIBERBLEX and SAM.
Vertical displacement
As in the case of horizontal displacement measurement, optical measurements must be
complemented by measurements carried out using automatable fixed apparatus.
Equipment used
- borehole extensometers
- NIVOMATIC series of leveling pots
- TELEPENDULUM or RXTX reading stations with Z displacement gages.
Rotation
On the basis of the mass profile of gravity dams, the initial hypothesis may be formulated to
the effect that each point in a block is subject to the same rotation.
Equipment used
- direct and inverted pendulums
- TUFF TILT fixed clinometers.
Joint measurement
The concrete is poured in blocks to ensure that uncontrolled fissures are not created as it
shrinks or subsequently during fluctuations in temperature. Gravity dams have joints with

17

sealing strips. The behavior of these joints is monitored by instruments placed inside the
structures during construction, or on the surface, in the inspection tunnels.
Equipment used
- JM-E embedded fissurometers
- JM-S and GEO-D surface fissurometers
Interpreting the displacement measurements requires simultaneous measurement of reservoir
levels and temperatures (water, air, internal).
Seepage flows
These measurements are essential for assessing the efficiency of the joints between sections
and seepage through the foundations. They entail building small spillways that collect
seepage from a clearly defined zone.
Equipment used
- ultrasonic level sensors
- NIVOLIC inductive sensors with float.
For result analysis, these measurements must be correlated with reservoir level and rainfall
measurements.

4.2 Roller-compacted concrete (RCC) dams

Roller-compacted concrete dams are gravity dams that differ from conventional concrete
dams in the method of placing the concrete. Most of the volume of RCC structures is made up
of roller-compacted layers, as in earth dikes (Figure 17). The composition of the concrete
varies from one structure to the next, but presents a number of common features, including:

Figure 17: Roller-compacted concrete dam

low cement content with added fly ash

low moisture content
uniform grain size distribution with a wide variety of aggregate types.

The RCC layers are approximately 30 cm thick and are bound together by a layer of mortar
over all or part of their surface.
To control fissuring due to shrinkage and fluctuations in temperature, vertical joints are made
using different techniques, such as inserting vertical sheets of plastic, as the roller-compacted
layers are built up.

18

The upstream and downstream faces that serve as forms are made of either precast concrete
or concrete cast and vibrated with forms.
Their generally lower cost, due to their great speed of execution, explains the fact that this
type of dam is in ever growing use in many countries. RCC dams further offer the significant
advantage of being able to stand up to spillages when steps are taken to prevent erosion at
their downstream toe. Some structures are even designed to act as backup spillways in case
of exceptional floods.
4.2.1 Design Principles
The stability of these structures is provided by their weight, as a result of their trapezoidal or
triangular shape with chimney. The same stability criteria related to the resultant of the
applied forces, as described in the section on gravity dams, may be used for RCC dams.
4.2.2 Modes of Potential Failure
Modes of overall failure for RCC dams are similar to those for conventional concrete gravity
dams, namely:
-

failure by sliding
failure by tilting.

In addition to these phenomena affecting the structure as a whole, local disorders may stem
from the particular design of RCC dams. These specific problems are:
-

infiltration between two layers of roller-compacted concrete, which may lead to water
pressure behind the downstream, or even upstream, face in the event of rapid emptying
inefficient bond between the faces and the body of the dam
uncontrolled fissuring outside the vertical construction joints.

The detection of excessive infiltration has led to grouting work in a number of existing RCC
dams.
4.2.3 Monitoring Systems
Monitoring of RCC dams is essentially the same as for concrete gravity dams (illustrated in
Figure 15).
Measurement of internal stresses are not of any real use, outside of specific research
programs. On the other hand, incorporating instruments to measure fissuring in the structure
and joint opening is of definite interest. This measurement is done using the following
equipment:
-

EM short base extensometers

ERI long base extensometers
TH and PT-100 thermometers
JM-E embedded fissurometers
PWS and PWF vibrating wire piezometers.

Figure 18 sums up the various measurements carried out for an RCC dam.

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Figure 18: RCC dam - Overall instrumentation diagram

4.3 Buttress dams

4.3.1 Design Principles
Compared with gravity dams, buttress dams have higher internal stresses and also place
greater stress on the foundations. They call for more thorough monitoring than gravity dams,
but a similar analysis of stability. Hollow gravity dams are a variant of buttress dam.
This type of dam may be considered a "lighter" version of the gravity dams discussed in the
preceding section. Instead of having a continuous virtually triangular section, buttress dams
consist of an upstream slab supported on buttresses which are more or less triangular in
shape and which bear the hydrostatic force of the reservoir. Each buttress thus forms a kind
of gravity dam which carries an additional hydrostatic force transmitted by the adjacent slabs
(Figure 19).

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Figure 19: Buttress dam

4.3.2 Modes of Potential Failure

Modes of failure in this type of dam are essentially the same as for gravity dams, namely
sliding or tilting. The analysis of modes of failure presented in the section on gravity dams
consequently applies to buttress dams. Another mode of failure specific to this type of
structure is failure of the impervious slab. This failure may be due to an excessive internal
stress level in the concrete or to unacceptable differences in horizontal and vertical
deformation between two adjacent buttresses.
4.3.3 Monitoring Systems
The instrumentation required to verify the design assumptions and study the structures'
overall behavior is similar to that previously described. This instrumentation is naturally placed
in the buttresses. The main differences concern the importance of the measurements of
displacement of each buttress and measurements of internal stresses in the slab to ensure
that none of these parts is in tension. Additional equipment, such as JM or GEO-D short base
surface extensometers, may be installed on the downstream face of the slab.

4.4 Arch dams

4.4.1 Design Principles
Arch dams have much thinner cross-sections than do gravity dams. They comprise a double
radius of curvature, and are convex facing upstream so as to transmit the load of the
hydrostatic force onto the abutments and foundations.
Internal stresses in the concrete and exerted on the rock are much higher than for other types
of concrete dams. Analyzing these stresses demands a thorough knowledge of the modulus
of deformation of the surrounding rock. The stresses determined by analytic calculation must
be less than pre-determined values, depending on the quality of concrete. No zone should be
in tension (Figure 20).

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Figure 20: Arch dam

4.4.2 Modes of Potential Failure

The stability of arch dams is based mainly on the competence of the rock that forms the
abutments. Failures in these structures are mostly caused by sliding in one part of the
foundations along a plane of low shear resistance. This displacement may be initiated by the
creation of strong uplift in the foundations at the upstream toe of the dams. Erosion at the
downstream toe due to spillage or faulty spillway design may also lead to failure in arch dams.
Downstream displacement of the toe of the dams gives rise to fissuring in a zone at the toe
and downstream from structures in tension (Figures 21 and 22).

Figures 21 and 22: Arch dam Mode of failure

The other causes of failure in arch dams are mainly related to deterioration of the concrete
during exceptional floods or spillages. Significant seasonal fluctuations in the thermal gradient
between the upstream and downstream faces are also a cause of fissures in the arches, and
may lead to their destruction.
4.4.3 Monitoring Systems
The monitoring of arch dams, like that of other dams, comprises:
-

verification of design assumptions

study of the structures' overall behavior.

Because of the much higher level of stresses, both in the dams themselves and in the
abutments, the instrumentation of arch dams must be very carefully planned and denser than
that of other types of concrete dams.

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A) Verification of design assumptions

In the analysis of arch dams, the stress condition and associated deformations at each point
are determined on the basis of the geometry of the structures, the external forces applied, the
mechanical properties of the concrete and the deformability of the abutments. The
instrumentation must allow the water level, uplift and stress condition to be verified.

B) Study of the structures' overall behavior

The general principles described earlier for monitoring the other types of concrete dam apply
here as well. Special attention must be paid to foundation deformations as discussed in
Chapter VI.
The basic measurements also cover:
-

horizontal displacement
vertical displacement
rotation
opening of construction joints and fissures
seepage flows.

Equipment used
The same equipment is used as mentioned in the preceding section on gravity dams. A high
degree of resolution and accuracy in the integrating equipment used to measure
deformations, such as direct and inverted pendulums, is of prime importance.

4.5 Multiple arch dams

This type of dam is a combination of arch dam and buttress dam. There are very few of them
around the world, and monitoring them will not be discussed in this book. Their
instrumentation incorporates all the measurements previously described, with particular
emphasis on the following measurements (Figure 23):

Figure 23: Multiple arch dam Daniel-Johnson instrumentation

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rotational displacement of the buttresses by sliding and settlement, using direct and
inverted pendulums and borehole extensometers
distribution of stresses and temperatures in the different arches, using embedded short
base extensometers and thermometers
uplift beneath the buttresses, using piezometers.

Understanding the behavior of these dams calls for a simultaneous analysis of all data and
the establishment of correlations which cannot be made without automated data acquisition
and processing and expert systems of analysis software. These analyses provide a good
understanding, after several years of observation, of a structure's evolution for a given
reservoir level and temperature.

5. MASONRY DAMS
Most masonry dams were erected before the intensive use of concrete became established in
the building of large structures. They are nearly always of moderate height and require very
good foundation conditions. These structures demand constant monitoring and, in
comparison with concrete dams, show a greater number of cases of failure. Generally
speaking, the monitoring of these structures was limited to optical level measurements; no
instrumentation was installed during construction. Any instrumentation has been added, as
needed, during maintenance.

5.1 Design principles

Trapezoidal in shape, these dams rely for stability on their weight, as do concrete gravity
dams. The interstices between the blocks forming the body of the structure are filled with
mortar, which may represent 30% to 35% of the total volume. The faces that act as form work
are made up of roughly textured ashlar with headers as anchors. In some dams, these faces
are made of concrete. The rules concerning the resultant of the different forces exerted on the
structures are the same as those defined in section 4 on concrete dams.

5.2 Modes of potential failure

Because of their construction method, in ashlar masonry, masonry dams present the following
characteristics which differentiate them from concrete gravity dams:
-

absence of construction joints like those found between sections in concrete dams
absence of inspection or drainage tunnels, with some exceptions
the possibility of water infiltration into the actual body of the structures, through defective
mortar
uplift behind the upstream and downstream faces.

The first two modes of failure, namely sliding and tilting, are the same as for concrete gravity
dams.
The comments made in Chapter IV on these modes of failure apply to masonry dams, as well.
In analyzing these modes of failure, the effect of the potential presence of water inside the
structures must be taken into account. Such infiltration, which may stem from the foundations
or from fissures through the upstream face of the dams, must be considered in the analysis of
the structures' stability. Measuring uplift with piezometers selectively located along the rockmasonry interface may not suffice for determining the structures' hydraulic condition.
Due to internal infiltration, the following types of failure must be added to the overall modes of
failure already described (Figure 24):

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Figure 24: Masonry dam

separation of faces, particularly during rapid emptying

local failures as a result of disintegration of mortar.

5.3 Monitoring systems

Monitoring of masonry dams is essentially the same as for concrete gravity dams. It therefore
comprises:
-

verification of design assumptions

study of the structures' overall behavior, in relation to modes of potential failure.

The differences between concrete and masonry dams call for a different monitoring approach
with respect to the following points, however:
-

significant internal stresses cannot be measured in masonry dams

integrating measurements of displacement are preferred in masonry dams, because of
the specific behavior of the blocks
detailed observation of the downstream face is needed, allowing local infiltration to be
detected
also required is detailed observation, through the eventual installation of fissurometers, of
the state of fissuring in the upstream face when the reservoir level is lowered.

6. FOUNDATIONS
This chapter discusses the main steps involved in monitoring the foundations of concrete,
masonry and embankment dams. These foundations may be of alluvium or rock.
The designers must exercise the utmost caution in planning foundation monitoring systems,
more so than for the bodies of the dams themselves. Few general rules exist in this regard,
since each dam is an individual case. The nature and geological structure of the site are what
determine the monitoring systems' architecture. This issue is sufficiently important to warrant
repetition. That is why foundation monitoring has already been touched upon in the preceding
chapters on concrete, masonry and embankment dams.
Experience to date indicates that the following points must be monitored, particularly in
foundations and abutments:
-

concrete and masonry dams: shear resistance and risk of internal erosion
embankment dams: risk of internal erosion.

We will first look at concrete and masonry dams, and then embankment dams. We will
attempt to provide some general rules, while also emphasizing the need for adaptation,

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particularly in the area of research, and the consideration of local heterogeneities, which are
always difficult to foresee or imagine.

6.1 Concrete and masonry dams

To monitor shear resistance, movements at the base of the structures must be followed.
Long-term displacement measurement may, in fact, provide data on slow drifts, indicative of
the existence of pathologies relating to decreased shear resistance. Inverted pendulums and
borehole extensometers may be used for this purpose.
These instruments are installed in the lower portion of the foundations, as well as abutments
and banks. Boundaries of all kinds constitute particularly dangerous zones and in themselves
represent heterogeneities. The location and number of measurement points, which may be
increased during the dams' life, depend principally on the results of the geological and
geotechnical site analyses and of the transmission of stresses by the structure.
The risk of internal erosion is always difficult to assess. These risks are monitored by an
indirect procedure, through measurements of pressures upstream and downstream from
grout curtains or natural cutoffs, flows in drains, and water levels in open piezometers
immediately below the dams and in the banks. Figures 25 and 26 elaborate on this broad
outline. They also underscore the great freedom which designers have in terms of the number
and location of sensors.

Figure 25: Gravity dam Foundation monitoring

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Figure 26: Concrete dam Foundation monitoring

The equipment used is basically the same as that described in the chapters on the bodies of
the dams, and comprises:
-

pore pressure cells (PWS, PWF and FPC-2 vibrating wire piezometers)
seepage flow meters
inverted pendulums, in an adapted foundation version of the direct pendulums used in the
body of the dams
GEODIS and SAM borehole extensometers
NIVOMATIC series of leveling pots

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Specific equipment for rock foundations includes long base borehole extensometers,
designed to detect movements of small magnitude. Mobile extensometers differ from fixed
ones, in that the latter are more precise and facilitate data acquisition when they are equipped
with electric sensors. This equipment must have a high degree of resolution and great stability
since, in order to obtain useful data, reliable measurements must be taken well before any
deformation or displacement reaches a critical level. In addition, regular data acquisition is the
natural complement of high-resolution equipment. The curve which it yields constitutes a
signal which may prove very productive.

6.2 Embankment dams

Here, whether the foundations lie in upper layers of alluvium or in rock, the basic risk is
related to internal erosion. As in the case of concrete and masonry dams, the method is
designed to ensure that the flow through the foundations does not present any anomalies. As
always, the difficulty consists in not leaving out any hypotheses and having a fairly tight
network of instruments available. Measurements of pressure, using cells, of water levels in
open standpipes, and of seepage flows may be helpful in monitoring this type of dam.
Figures 27 to 31 illustrate different examples of foundations. They outline the application of
these various principles, without entering into great detail, however, unlike any list of actual
cases, which is always of limited exemplary value.

Figure 27: Homogeneous embankment dam Foundation monitoring

Figure 28: Core dam with perimetral tunnel Positioning of pore pressure sensors

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Figure 29: Core dam with foundation tunnel - Positioning of pore pressure sensors

Figure 30: Impervious membrane dam with toe tunnel Positioning of pore pressure sensors

Figure 31: Impervious membrane dam with cutoff wall Positioning of pore pressure sensors

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7. CONCLUSION
This article sets out to present the main points of instrumentation for the principal types of
dam, in static mode. The detailed data sheets and instruction manuals for the instruments
must be read for a more thorough understanding of the uses of the equipment and its
installation methods, in order to plan adequate monitoring systems.
Since each dam and its foundations represent an individual case, it is essential that a
dialogue be established between the designers of the structures and the instrumentation
specialists, before a sites instrumentation is determined.
As a result of the considerable research and development effort undertaken by Roctest over
the years, the equipment involved undergoes constant study designed to improve its
performance. These improvements are especially notable not only in the area of improved
instruments but also in automatic data acquisition and related software.
Current trends in the field of instrumentation emphasise the search for higher resolution and
precision, providing more accurate measurements and permitting rapid detection of any
behavioural anomalies. Increasing the life of these instruments through strict quality control is
a constant concern, moreover, with special attention paid to protection against overvoltages
due to lightning. Finally, virtually no instrumentation is considered complete without automatic
data acquisition and processing, which increases the reliability of the results, yields more
detailed analyses, with alarm thresholds, and unquestionably enhances dam safety.
A new range of fully optical sensors, the fruit of a major research program in response to
current demand, has just been brought out. Its initial applications in the field of dams should
soon be made, thanks to the considerable technological benefits offered by the fiber optic
sensors. In their desire to maintain their leadership in the monitoring of large-scale structures,
Roctest is devoting substantial means to developing its new SENSOPTIC fiber optic product
line.
In closing, it should be recalled that dam monitoring is a key component of dam safety.
Because the failure of a dam can lead to human as well as economic disaster, no
compromise in regards to instrumentation quality or reliability should be made.

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