Hear The Music Hearing Loss Prevention For Musicians PDF

Hear The Music
Hearing Loss Prevention for Musicians

Dr. Marshall Chasin
AuD., M.Sc., Reg. CASLPO, Aud(C),
Audiologist
Director of Auditory Research
Musicians Clinics of Canada
#340-340 College Street
Toronto, Ontario
Canada M5T 3A9
Co-ordinator of Research
The Canadian Hearing Society
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Adjunct Professor
Department of Linguistics
University of Toronto
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Associate Professor
School of Communication Sciences & Disorders
University of Western Ontario
London, Ontario, Canada
www.musiciansclinics.com
Copyright 2001, 2006, and 2010 by Dr. Marshall Chasin.

Printed in Canada. All rights reserved under the Pan-American and
International Copyright Conventions.
The book may not be reproduced in whole or in part in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording,
or by any information storage and retrieval system now known or hereafter
invented, without written permission from the author.
Design: Thong Ling
Project management: Dan Diamond and Associates, Inc.
e-mail: [email protected]
ISBN 0-920445-74-8
iii
CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Hearing and Hearing Loss ...........................
Chapter 2: Factor Affecting Hearing Loss ..................... 21

Chapter 3: Strategies to Reduce Music Exposure ......... 33
Chapter 4: Five Fact Sheets for Musicians .................... 65
Chapter 5: Frequently Asked Questions ........................ 79
Preface
Hear the Music Hearing loss prevention for musicians
is really three books in one, intended for musicians. The first
book is comprised of Chapters 1, 2, and 3. It is a detailed
explanation of those factors that affect hearing loss, and those
strategies that can be used to prevent hearing loss. While the
book is written in an easy-to-read, non-technical manner, the
information is correct and is well supported by research. The
second book is in Chapters 4 and 5, and is an accessible
summary of those issues and data that are discussed in the first
part. Chapter 4 has five summary sheets for various classes of
musical instruments and Chapter 5 is written in a Frequently
Asked Question format. The third book is made up of an
additional 5 full-pages of more technical information that is
optional. The interested reader will gain much from these
pages, but skipping them will in no way affect the completeness of this book. These 5 pages have a solid line rectangle
around the page and are well marked. They are about the
decibel, resonances, the occlusion effect, two laws of physics,
and more detailed information on in-the-ear monitors.
Hear the Music has been written for musicians and represents more than 20 years of clinical work with musicians at
the Musicians Clinics of Canada. Hearing loss prevention in
musicians is something that has evolved from a fringe, barely
acceptable concept, to a central one. Musicians are now, more
than ever aware of the importance of protecting their hearing.
Another book of mine called Hearing Loss in Musicians
(2009), published by Plural Publishing (www.pluralpublishing.com) was intended for those who work with musicians.
vi
For those who find this book interesting, but would like more
information, I would certainly recommend it.
I would like to thank my wife Joanne and three children,
Courtney, Meredith, and Shaun for putting up with me while
I was writing. Finally, I would like to thank another Sean
Sean OConnor who has taught me most of what I know
about music, and who tried to teach me the essence of a II,
V, I turnaround.
For the interested musician, a website has been developed
by the Musicians Clinics of Canada. The URL is www.
musiciansclinics.com. This website was intended for the
high school garage band but older musicians will find it
interesting as well.
Education about the effects of music exposure on hearing is a
cornerstone to any hearing loss prevention program. To support these efforts, the proceeds of this book will go to support
educational activities of the Musicians Clinics of Canada.
Dr. Marshall Chasin, Aud., M.Sc., Reg. CASLPO, Aud(C),
Audiologist
Director of Auditory Research
Musicians Clinics of Canada
340 College Street, Suite 340
Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M5T 3A9
[email protected]
January 2010
Hear The Music

Chapter 1: Hearing and

Hearing Loss
he ear is an amazing organ that causes one to suspect

that evolution had music and musicians in mind. The
ear is made up of sound enhancers that boost the
treble notes, sound attenuators that damp the very lowfrequency bass notes, and even special devices that serve to
protect the ear from overly intense sounds. The ear even has
a sound translator that converts sounds from their normal
state in the environment to individual notes, not unlike those
on the piano keyboard. In fact the inner ear has individual
nerve fibres that are tuned to receive only certain sounds and
transfer them up to a part of the brain where the information
from these individual sounds are maintained. Figure 1-1
shows the relationship between some notes found on musical
clefs and their frequency, given in Hertz (Hz).
F5 (699 Hz)
D5 (587 Hz)
A4 (440 Hz)
E4 (330 Hz)
Figure 1-1: Treble clefs with some notes
4 CHAPTER 1
Hearing and Hearing Loss
The jargon of musicians and scientists have long kept them

apart. Musicians call musical notes A, B, and C,... Scientists
working with sounds call them frequencies. For example, 440
Hz (read as 440 Hertz) is the frequency of the A on the
second space on the treble clef, 494 Hz for the B, above it,
and 523 Hz for the C above that. Middle C is 262 Hz and
the top note on a piano keyboard is C (4186 Hz). They can
be used interchangeably and sometimes will be shown as A
(440 Hz) to represent both the note and the frequency of that
note. One convenient advantage of the numerical method is
that the number doubles for each octave. That is, an octave
above A (440 Hz) is A (880 Hz), and an octave below A (440
Hz) is A (220 Hz).
Another bit of jargon that has prevented communication is
the decibel. Musicians talk about forte, and piano. Scientists may talk about 90 decibels (written as 90 dB) and 60
dB. Music played at a forte level is certainly loud, but when
measured with a special device for measuring the physical
vibration in the air (called a sound level meter), it may be 90
dB for one instrument and musician and 110 dB for another.
That is, unlike the musical note and its frequency which are
synonymous, loudness judged by a musician (eg. forte or
piano) corresponds only loosely with the physical vibration in
the airthe decibel. It is true that a forte passage has a higher
decibel reading than one that is played at a piano level but that
is about all that can be said. Table 1-I shows some ranges
that various musicians may play a forte and a piano passage
along with some measurements in decibels. The physical
measure of sound vibration is called the intensity (measured
in dB), whereas the subjective impression of the intensity of
the sound is called loudness. Sound level meters are relatively
inexpensive and can be purchased for less than $100. As will
be seen in Chapter 3, this subtle difference between loudness
and intensity will provide the musician with a few tricks to
minimize their future hearing loss.
Hear The Music

Table 1-I
Loudness Level
ppp
pp
p
mf
f
ff
fff
dB SPL
40 - 50
45 - 55
50 - 60
55 - 70
70 - 80
80 - 90
90 - 110
What is a decibel?
The decibel is an artificial device that allows us to talk reasonably
about the range of intensities that humans can hear. If we merely
measure the size of the vibration in the air, the most intense one we
can tolerate is about 100,000 times as large as the softest sound that
we can hear. The decibel uses logarithms (or logs) to compress this
100,000 range to one of about 100 dB. A measure of intensity such
as a dB is crucial because it is the intensity that corresponds to hearing loss and not our subjective impression of it (namely loudness).
The decibel is given by 10 X log (magnitude/reference).
Like the temperature scale (F or C), the zero reference is 32 F or
0 C. Similarly with decibels, different references can be chosen.
For measuring many forms of noise, speech, or music, the Sound
Pressure Level (SPL) is used. The reference for this decibel scale
is 0.0002 dynes/cm2. We just need to measure the magnitude of
the sound or music with reference to this value. Typically a sound
level meter is used which converts vibrations in the air to numbers
expressed in decibels. Other reference values are used for other
types of decibel measures, and the reference point is usually added
to the end of the decibel reading, as 90 dB SPL. In this book, the
SPL has been left off for convenience and clarity.
Please see page 6
6 CHAPTER 1
What is a decibel continued
What is twice (or double) the intensity? Recall that a decibel is

10 log (magnitude/reference). If the magnitude is twice the reference, we have 10 log (2/1) or 10 log 2. For those that like to do
calculations, 10 log 2 = 10 X 0.3 = 3 dB. That is, a doubling of
intensity is just noticeable as a 3 dB increase.
Humans are rather insensitive creatures and we can barely detect a
3 dB change. Yet, a 3 dB increase means that we have doubled our
exposure. Looking at it from a different point of view, a decrease
of 3 dB is barely noticeable, yet we have decreased our exposure
to the point that we can be exposed for twice as long before damage occurs!
In contrast to intensity, loudness is merely our subjective impression of the intensity, and this varies widely from person to person,
and from environment to environment. For example, increasing
the bass (or our awareness of bass notes) will significantly increase
our perception of the loudness, yet the intensity may only change
slightly. In many cases, the musician or sound engineer will turn
down to the overall volume (measured in dB) if the bass notes are
boosted up. The musician may feel that they are playing louder,
but the overall intensity may be less (i.e. at a lower dB).
The Human Ear
The ear is composed of several sections: the outer ear, the

middle ear, and the inner ear, as well as the nerves that take
sound to the brain (and those that create a feedback loop back
from the brain!).
The Outer Ear
The outer earthe section bounded by the pinna on the outside

and the eardrum (or tympanic membrane) on the inside has
two primary functions. They are (i) an amplification of higher
frequency energy (the pinna effect) and (ii) the creation of a
resonance in the 3000 Hz region that further amplifies higher
Hear The Music

frequency energy. That is, the outer ear serves to make the
highest octave on the right hand side of the piano keyboard
(above 2000 Hz) more intense.
The pinna effect creates a high-frequency boost of sound
energy above 2000 Hz. We can exaggerate this phenomenon
by cupping our hands behind our ears. There is a definite
boost for the higher frequency treble sounds. The physics of
this effect are simple and relate to the shorter high-frequency
wavelengths reflecting from the pinna back to the opening of
the ear canal. The higher frequency sounds not only go in to
the ear initially, but are further enhanced by reflecting off the
pinna and re-entering the ear. In contrast, the lower frequency
energy range, which has longer wavelengths, is not affected
by the presence of the pinna and, therefore, is not reflected
back to the ear canal entrance. Figure 1-3 shows this net
high-frequency boost due to the presence of the pinna, as well
as the ear canal resonance. The total effect is also shown.
Structure of a Human Ear
Figure 1-2: The Human Ear is made up of 3 portions: the

outer, the middle and the inner ear. Picture courtesy of
Bernafon Canada, Ltd.
8 CHAPTER 1
The 3000 Hz resonance (shown in Figure 1-3) is inversely

related to the length of the ear canal (and corresponds to a
quarter wavelength resonance, for those who like physics.)
This resonance or boost of sound energy is about 15-20 dB.
For people with very long ear canals, this resonance tends to
be at a slightly lower frequency than that of short-eared individuals. In addition to the ear, almost all musical instruments
have these wavelength resonances, that ultimately characterize
the sound. That is, a clarinet sounds like a clarinet and not a
violin partially because of these resonances. High-frequency
fundamental or harmonic energy is enhanced in intensity
because of these two properties of the outer ear.
Pinna Effect
Ear Canal Resonance
Total Effect
Figure 1-3: The natural amplification of the outer

ear, primarily caused by the ear canal resonance
and the pinna effect.
Hear The Music

Resonance
All tubes and chambers possess resonances, or best frequencies- frequencies that are amplified or enhanced by the container. A pop bottle
has a Helmholtz resonance that can be heard when we blow across
the top of it. This resonance is caused by the interaction between the
characteristics of air in the neck of the bottle and the volume of air
beneath it. The ER-series of musician earplugs use such a resonance
to re-establish the high-frequency sound, in order to make a flat or
uniform attenuator.
In contrast, another type of resonance exists called a quarter wavelength resonator. This only happens when a tube is open at one end
and closed at the other. When we say the vowel [a] as in father our
vocal tract is closed at the vocal chords and open at the open end
of the mouth. Another example involves our ear canal. It is about
28 mm in length and is closed at the ear drum and open at the
opening of the ear canal on the outside. Some musical instruments
such as the clarinet and trumpet function as a quarter wavelength
resonator. A clarinet has a register key that increases the frequency
one and one half octave.
There are also half-wavelength resonators where the tube is either
closed at both ends or more often open at both ends. Many musical instruments, such as the flute and saxophone function as a half
wavelength resonator. These are instruments with an octave key.
The main characteristic of a wavelength resonator is that the longer
it is, the lower will be its resonant frequency. The mouth, when wide
open resonates at 500 Hz, and the ear canal (being much shorter)
resonates at about 3000 Hz. This means that a 3000 Hz sound, is
amplified or made more intense by almost 20 dB by the time it hits
the ear drum!
Blocking the tube with your tongue if it is your mouth, or by blocking it with an earplug, will destroy the natural resonance of that
tube. French horn players can do this with their hand. This is why
all earplugs give more protection in the higher frequencies- the
natural ear canal resonance that serves to boost the intensity of the
higher frequency sound energy, is lost. The ER-series of earplugs
re-establishes this lost energy using a Helmholtz resonator. And,
the less expensive, non-custom ER-20/HI-FI earplug does this with
a quarter wavelength resonator.
10 CHAPTER 1
The Middle Ear
The middle ear has three major characteristics that relate to

the acoustics of the sound that a person ultimately receives:
impedance matching, temporary reduction of high-intensity
sounds, and pressure release.
Impedance matching
Why do we have a middle ear? The primary reason is to
match the characteristics of the air in the ear canal to that
of the fluid in the inner ear. The middle ear can be thought
of as a transformer for a train set. When we play with an
electric train set we must be cautious to ensure that the 120
volts coming from the electric socket in the wall is stepped
down to match the 10 to 12 volt requirements of the train set.
Subsequently, all train sets come with a matching transformer
(or simply a transformer) that electronically matches the wall
power supply to the needs of the train set. This is known as
impedance matching.
Similarly, the middle ear serves to match the mechanical characteristics of sound in the air to that of the fluid in the inner
ear. Approximately 99.9% of the energy is lost when sounds
go through an airfluid barrier. This translates to a loss of 30
dB (i.e., 10 x log 10-3, for those who like logarithms) and can
be noticed when swimming under the water while listening to
someone above the surface. If there was no middle ear, our
hearing sensitivity would be reduced by about 30 dB. The
effects of the middle ear are less beneficial for very low- and
very high-frequency sounds.
Temporary reduction of high-intensity sounds
The middle ear also provides for a temporary reduction of
highintensity sounds. This is related to a small muscle that
is connected to the stapes bone in the middle ear, called the
stapedius muscle. Such a muscle, which contracts with highintensity sound, serves to lessen the intensity of the persons
Hear The Music

own voice, especially for the mid- and low-frequency sounds.

This is called the stapedial reflex. However, such a neurological reflex only lasts for 15 to 20 seconds. Therefore, eliciting
this reflex prior to a sound such as a loud noise impulse (by
humming) may serve to lessen the damaging effects, but the
duration of the effect will not be long lasting. Drummers
routinely grunt and hum during playing, and in doing so are
eliciting this natural intensity reducer that aids in the protection of their hearing.
There are two important studies (both performed in the laboratories of Dr. Erik Borg in Sweden). One involved studying
humans who had a temporary condition called Bells Palsy.
During Bells Palsy there is a one sided facial weakness and
the stapedial reflex is temporarily disconnected. Experiments
with these people that create a temporary hearing loss have
shown that the ear with the functioning stapedial reflex had
much better hearing than the ear with the disconnected reflex.
A second experiment involved surgically cutting the middle
ear muscle that is involved in this reflex on one side only in
rabbits. The researchers created a permanent hearing loss by
subjecting the rabbits to very intense noise. The permanent
hearing loss was 30 dB greater on the side with the disconnected stapedial reflex. Possibly the most important factor to
explain why some individuals are more susceptible to hearing
loss from music or noise exposure than others is because they
have stapedial reflexes that are more active and start to operate
at a quieter level, thus providing more protection.
Pressure Release
A third feature of the middle ear is pressure release. A trapped
volume of air such as that found in the middle ear would not
be able to respond to changes in environmental air pressure
unless a pressure valve was utilized. The eustachian tube
serves such a function. Typically, this tube is closed and is
surrounded by mucous membrane. When a person yawns or
11
12 CHAPTER 1
swallows, the tube opens, allowing the air pressure to equalize between the environment and the middle ear. When a
person has a cold, swelling occurs in the mucous membrane,
thus closing the eustachian tube. Pressure equalization is
therefore very difficult during such a time and a temporary
mild hearing loss may occur.
However, this pressure release can work both ways. Not only
can the middle ear pressure be equalized with the environment,
but positive middle ear pressure relative to the environment
can be established by extreme effort during lifting. Forceful
air pressure from the lungs, such as that necessary to lift heavy
objects, can cause air to be forced up through the eustachian
tube into the middle ear space. This is called the Valsalva
maneuver. Such a pressure differential can cause a slight
temporary hearing loss that can actually benefit musicians by
acting as a mild earplug. This is frequently noted for woodwind and brass players who have to continually blow against
a reed or mouthpiece.

Problems with the outer or middle ear (such as ear wax
buildup, tympanic membrane perforation, middle ear infection, or a stiffening of the middle ear bones) lead to conductive
hearing losses. With a few exceptions, conductive hearing
losses are medically treatable. Hearing loss related to the inner ear and associated neurological structures is referred to as
a sensorineural hearing loss and, with a very few exceptions,
is not medically treatable.
Hear The Music

The Inner Ear
The inner ear (or cochlea) is a fluid-filled, snail-shaped structure about the size of the small fingernail. Running the length
of the inner ear, over the full two-and one-half spiral turns,
is a thin sheet called the basilar membrane. Sitting upon this
membrane is the Organ of Corti that contains approximately
15,500 nerve endings or hair cells. The structure of sound
transduction in the inner ear is similar to that of a piano keyboard: low-frequency sounds are transduced on one end while
the higher frequency sounds are transduced from the other
end. Specifically, in the inner ear, high-frequency sounds are
transmitted by those hair cells nearer to the stapes (nearest to
the middle ear), while those that transmit the lower frequency
sounds are found in the innermost turns of this snail-shaped
organ. There is approximately a one octave change every 1.25
mm along the basilar membrane (about 30 mm in length in
adults) in the inner ear.
One quarter (about 3,500) of the nerve fibers are called inner
hair cells and three quarters (about 12,000) are called outer
hair cells. Almost all of the inner hair cells take sound up to
the brain , and almost all of the outer hair cells receive sound
back from the brain. The inner ear presents us with a startling
irregularitythe majority of the hair cells are connected to
nerve fibres that return from the brain, and only a small minority take sound up to the brain!

Up until the late 1970s, the physiology of these commonly
found nerve fibers that return from the brain, was not understood, but recent research indicates that they function as a
feedback loop modulating the function of the inner ear. They
alter the inner ear in, as yet not well understood ways that may
make the inner ear more or less susceptible to music or noise
exposure. As will be seen in Chapter 2, disliking the music
slightly increases the potential for music induced hearing loss,
and not the way it is now.
13
14 CHAPTER 1
Most people with normal or near normal hearing have emissions emanating from the outer hair cells in the inner ear.
These otoacoustic emissions can be measured in the outer
ear canal (using a very sensitive microphone) and have been
used as indicators of hearing function. An interesting finding
is that hearing damage from music or noise exposure occurs to
the outer hair cells prior to inner hair cell damage. Therefore,
an abnormal otoacoustic emission test result may be observed
before a measurable hearing loss is detected utilizing conventional pure-tone hearing testing.
It is not clear why outer hair cells are more prone to damage
than inner hair cells. One possible reason may be related to
the physical location of the hair cells in the inner ear. The
inner hair cells sit at the edge of a bony shelf (osseous spiral
lamina) so they are not as affected by the motion of the basilar
membrane as are the outer hair cells, which sit directly on
this moving base. It is possible that this constant movement
of fluid and structures of the inner ear eventually causes the
outer hair cells to lose their transducing properties before the
inner hair cells do.
As discussed above, the inner ear has a complicated neurological structure associated with it that includes feedback loops.
In addition to this structure, is the auditory cortex where
much of auditory cognition or understanding occurs. It is this
central area that is related to an individuals ability to be able
to attribute a pitch to a sound. Approximately one person in
1,500 can perform this task with amazing accuracy (called
perfect or absolute pitch) and this is thought to be related to
the organization of the central structures. People with perfect
pitch generally retain this ability despite significant inner ear
damage. Recent evidence suggests that this is also the site
of many forms of tinnitus which will be discussed in more
detail later in this chapter.
Hear The Music

The Shape of Things to Come
Hearing losses from a wide range of music and noise sources

have similar audiometric patterns on a hearing test. The
low-frequency sensitivity is either normal or near normal,
whereas the hearing sensitivity in the 3000 to 6000 Hz region
is reduced. Yet, the hearing sensitivity of an individual to an
8000 Hz sound is much better, and like the lower frequencies
can be normal or near normal. This notch (where hearing
sensitivity falls off and then returns to a normal, or near normal
level) shown in the audiogram in Figure 1 - 4, is characteristic
of music and noise exposure.
Frequency in Hertz
-10
125
250
500
1K
2K
4K
8K 10K -10
0
10
10
20
20
30
30
40
40
50
50
60
60
70
70
80
80
90
90
100
100
110
110
120
120
Figure 1 -4: Audiogram showing a music or noiseinduced hearing loss, (0 = right ear and
x = left ear).
dB HTL
15
16 CHAPTER 1
Audiometric Notch
Why does music or noise-induced hearing loss cause an audiometric notch? Several explanations have been proposed
for this notch. These include (a) a poor blood supply to the
part of the inner ear that corresponds to the 3000 to 6000 Hz
region; (b) a greater susceptibility for damage of the supporting structures of the hair cells in this region; (c) the orientation
of the stapes footplate into the inner ear is such that its primary
force aims toward those hair cells in this region, with the effect
of eventual failure because of the constant hydromechanical
action; and (d) permanent noise exposure has its greatest effect
approximately one-half octave above the peak frequency of
the noise spectrum. Since all music (and noise) spectra are
enhanced at 3000 Hz by the outer ear canal resonance, the
greatest loss will be one half octave higher- in the 4000 to
6000 Hz region. Because of these phenomena, hearing losses
due to music and noise exposure are relatively easy to spot.
A bass player and a picollo player may have similar hearing
losses measured on an audiogram, despite these instruments
have different sounds.
A flat audiogram at 0 dBwhich is a graphic measure of
hearingwould indicate normal hearing. A 30 dB hearing
loss in the hearing at 6000 Hz (an audiometric notch), that is
frequently observed in musicians (and industrial workers),
implies that individual has lost 30 dB of sensitivity for sounds
with energy at 6000 Hz. Such a mild hearing loss however,
would not be readily noticed by a musician. It should only
be thought of as an early warning indicator and not as the end
of ones ability to play music.
Otoacoustic emission testing (measuring changes in the feedback loop to our inner ear with very sensitive microphones)
can also be thought of as a very early warning indicator and if
our clinical function is to warn our patients of any impending
damage, then otoacoustic emission testing should be part of
the audiometric battery.
Hear The Music

Tinnitus and Hyperacusis
Tinnitus is defined as a perceived acoustic sensation that

occurs in the absence of an external sound source. It may
be classified as objective or subjective. Objective tinnitus is
extremely rare and can actually be audible by another person
in the room. This is usually related to a vascular or muscular
etiology. In contrast, subjective tinnitus is heard only by the
patient. Depending on the study, up to 30% of the population may suffer from tinnitus and 1% of patients report that
it significantly interferes with daily living.
Most tinnitus research is designed to develop treatments rather
than to determine the etiology, and this is understandable
given the wide range of possible causes covered by the one
term tinnitus. Nevertheless, there has been some progress
in the development of an animal model by Doctors Pawel
Jastreboff and Jonathan Hazell based not only on damage
to the outer and inner hair cells, but on certain parts of the
brain as well. And for those that like brain anatomy, the
dorsal cochlear nucleus in the brainstem may be the generator of tinnitus. Unfortunately for those who do not like brain
anatomy, its still the dorsal cochlear nucleus! Indeed, many
researchers now agree that tinnitus is localized in the auditory
cortex and that this has been caused by altered input caused by
inner ear damage. That is, an inner ear hearing loss restricts
the input to the brain and tinnitus is perceived. Appropriate
retraining of the brain can therefore reduce the perceived
tinnitus. In this approach, a person wears a noise generator
that looks like a hearing aid. It serves to mask or just cover
the tinnitus. The level of the noise from the noise generator,
over a period of months, is gradually reduced, until it is no
longer required. Indeed, there are a number of tinnitus clinics
that have opened up using techniques based on the work of
Jastreboff and Hazell.
The suffering of tinnitus is caused by the involvement of the
sympathetic part of the auditory system and the limbic system
17
18 CHAPTER 1
the emotional part of the brain. Once the patient becomes

emotionally involved, annoyed, or angry at the tinnitus, the
louder it becomes. The more annoyed they get, the more they
suffer. This has been the source of some treatments.
Some treatments for tinnitus that have appeared in the literature, include intravenous use of lidocaine, various antidepressants, and behavior modification and psychotherapy
intervention. The use of hearing aids has been shown to
reduce the annoyance of tinnitus in many subjects, as has the
use of tinnitus maskers in a lesser number of subjects.
Some people report a strong dislike of sounds sounds that
you or I may not consider to be that loud. In some cases, the
fear of bothersome sounds prevents people from going to
shopping malls, or socializing with friends. This is sometimes
referred to as hyperacusis. A hallmark of hyperacusis is that
it is not always constant and certain sounds seem to be more
bothersome than others. Some people are more bothered by
sounds when they are stressed or bothered by something else
going on in their lives.
This appears to be similar to how some people are affected
by tinnitus. And it is no surprise therefore to find that people
suffering from hyperacusis have the problem in the exact same
place in the brain as people who are suffering from tinnitus.
Many of the therapies and strategies to reduce the bothersome
effects of tinnitus are the same as those to reduce the effects
of hyperacusis. Many audiology clinics offer both tinnitus
and hyperacusis treatment programs.
While the approach of Doctors Jastreboff and Hazell looks
quite promising, it should be pointed out that no single approach can be considered a cure. An eclectic approach that
includes elements of masking, biofeedback, and psychological
counseling, as well as various suppression techniques, may
be the optimal clinical approach.
Hear The Music

Chapter 2: Factors Affecting

Hearing Loss
Introduction
Hearing loss is caused by many different factors. These may

include ones that are related to the outer or middle ear or factors related to the inner ear. By in large, most of the causes
that affect the outer or middle ear are temporary and may be
medically or surgically corrected. These causes may include
ear infections, wax occlusion, or other possibly reoccurring
reasons. The two most common causes of inner ear hearing
loss are noise/music exposure and hearing loss associated
with aging. While being 75 years of age is not preventable,
hearing loss associated with loud music or loud noise is certainly preventable.
Hearing loss prevention is therefore a major concern for
musicians and for those who work in factories and other
noisy places. This chapter will subsequently only deal with
the characteristics of music exposure and how it affects the
inner ear. Much of what has been learned about hearing loss
in the inner ear are from studies about noise exposure and not
music, however, most of what is known can be extended to
musicians. There are however, some interesting differences
between how noise affects workers and how music affects
musicians. The differences and similarities will be discussed
in detail later in the chapter.
The Intensity Of Music
Clearly not all music is equally intense. Rock and roll is more
intense than classical, and both are more intense than jazz or
blues. This is generally true, however there is much overlap.
The Ring Cycle by Wagner is considered to be one of the most
intense classical pieces ever written and indeed, it has been
21
22 CHAPTER 2
Factors Affecting Hearing Loss
shown that musicians routinely are exposed to almost 200%

of their daily dose of noise exposure, in a single performance.
In contrast, some rock and roll pieces are rather quiet. In
addition, musicians dont just play their own music. They
listen to other music and may even have day jobs in noisy
factories. Frequently professional musicians teach students
and that adds to their daily music exposure. And, we must
add in their other recreational sources of noise exposure such
as hunting, and driving motorcycles. Musicians are subject
to a wide range of noise exposure in their daily lives, with
music being only one component. Nevertheless, music can
have sustained peak levels over 120 dB (in many Rock bands
and even during the classical Ring Cycle). Even quiet balletic
etudes may have sustained levels of over 100 dB.
The intensity range of orchestras varies depending on the
piece of music being played, the performance hall and its
acoustical condition, the preferences of the conductor, and the
techniques of the individual musicians. Research with various
classical orchestras in Scandinavia found that depending on
the seating position within the orchestra, musicians achieved
their maximum safe weekly dose of exposure after only 1025
hours of playing.
The intensity ranges in pop and in rock and roll bands tend
to be rather uniform since the output is usually controlled
by the sound engineer, but sound levels in excess of 120 dB
routinely have been measured. With the advent of lower
distortion amplifiers, sound engineers are able to increase
the volume further without the previous concerns of audible
distortion.
Depending on the study, hearing loss has been found in over
52% of the hearing of classical musicians and about 30% of
rock and roll musicians. In addition, over 80% of musicians,
if tested just after their performance had a temporary musicinduced hearing loss.
Hear The Music

Temporary and Permanent Hearing Loss
We all have experienced temporary hearing loss after a

noisy rock concert, after mowing the lawn, or even after a
noisy social event. A feeling of numbness or dullness in the
ears is perceived for a number of hours after the event and
there may be an associated tinnitus or ringing in the ears for
a period of time. If a persons hearing was to be assessed
immediately after such a noisy event, a temporary inner ear
(or sensorineural) hearing loss may be found. This would
typically resolve in 1618 hours. Eventually, if a person is
repeatedly subjected to intense music or noise, the hearing
loss becomes permanent. Permanent hearing loss comes on
very gradually and may not be noticed until age 50 or 60.
Most people would notice this as a perception that others are
mumbling more. They may comment that I can hear you
OK; its just that people mumble. Of greater importance for
musicians than the gradual onset of hearing loss, is the tinnitus or ringing that is associated with hearing loss and less
commonly, pitch perception problems, where a musician may
hear a C as if it were a B.
In the research literature, most of the studies in this subject
area relate either to hearing loss in large scale field studies or
from experiments with animals. The most common type of
experiment is to give an intense noise to create a temporary
hearing loss referred to as a temporary threshold shift (TTS).
As the name implies, TTS is the temporary elevation of the
hearing threshold and can be thought of as an early warning
sign for a potentially permanent threshold shift (PTS).
Temporary and permanent inner ear hearing losses typically
occur at approximately one half octave above the stimulus
peak (most intense) frequency and, as noted in Chapter 1, this
would be in the 30006000 Hz region for most noise sources
and for music. That is, regardless of whether a person was
playing the bass or a picollo, the hearing loss would be in the
23
24 CHAPTER 2
3000-6000 Hz regionnear the top note of the piano keyboard. Above this region, the hearing would return to normal.
Therefore a musician with a very significant hearing loss at
4000 Hz, may have excellent hearing at 15,000 Hz or even
20,000 Hz (the upper range of hearing for humans). This is
one reason why hearing is not routinely tested at these ultrahigh frequencies. There is no diagnostic information up in
that rarified region.

The relationship between TTS and PTS is not well defined.
A musician or concert goer that has a large temporary hearing
loss (e.g., a muffled feeling) after a concert is not necessarily
more prone to a future permanent hearing loss than someone
else who only experiences a slight temporary hearing loss.
However, researchers can say that if music or noise does not
cause TTS, then it will also not cause PTS.
If you look at the physiology of what exactly happens in the
cochlea with TTS and PTS we see that there are different
mechanisms involved. TTS derives from several mechanisms
that may included an overabundance of a chemical called
glutamate. High levels of glutamate can be toxic to the ear
and until the body carries this away, there may be a temporary
loss. Permanent hearing loss derives from other mechanisms
such as a destruction of hair cells and understandably this
would be permanent. So it is not surprising that TTS and
PTS would not be highly correlated.
How loud does music have to be in order to be
damaging?
This is an area where the subjective impression of the intensity,
known as loudness, may mislead us. Recall (from Chapter 1)
that it is intensity that is related to hearing loss and not loudness. Whereas intensity is a measure of the physical vibration
in the air, loudness is merely our subjective impression of the
Hear The Music

intensity. A dial tone on a telephone is about 85 dB, and a

MP-3 player on volume 3 may be about 85 dB. Clearly 85
dB does not sound loud, but it is intense. In fact, if one would
listen to 85 dB for about 40 hours each week, for 1 year, one
would expect to have a permanent hearing loss.
Several factors can affect our subjective impression of the
intensity of the music. One is the presence of background
noise. Imagine yourself in a car going at the speed limit on
a highway with the radio set to a comfortable loudness. The
car comes to a stop (hopefully not due to an accident) and the
radio sounds much louder. In both cases the intensity was the
same, but due to the presence of wind and car noise, while
driving at the speed limit, our impression was altered. At the
speed limit, our most comfortable listening level may be at
90 dB, but when at rest, it may only be at about 75 dB. The
important thing to note is that whether the car is moving or
not, as long as the intensity is the same, the potential damage
is the same, regardless of ones impression of the intensity.
And, certain types of music are supposed to be louder
than other types, so expectation of loudness can be an issue.
Table 2-I shows the permanent hearing loss at 4000 Hz for a
number of different studies at three exposure levels (85 dB,
90 dB, and 95 dB).
But,... I dont listen or play my music for
40 hours each week!
There is a relationship between how intense the music or
noise is and how long one can be exposed to it. This has
been called the exchange rate, since we can figuratively
exchange a higher intensity level for a shorter time of exposure. Simply stated, the exchange rate says that for every
increase in intensity of 3 dB, we should only be exposed one
half the time. For example, if we listen to, or play music for
40 hours each week at 85 dB, this is identical to listening to
25
26 CHAPTER 2
PasschierVermeer
Robinson
Baughn NIOSH
ISO
R-1999
85 dBA
90 dBA
15
12
14
11
11
95 dBA
23
18
17
20
21
Table 2-I: Prediced permanent hearing loss as a

function of three intensity levels (from 85-95 dBA)
for five different studies/models of hearing loss.
music, for 20 hours each week at 88 dB, 10 hours each week

at 91 dB, and 5 hours each week at 94 dB. We may not play
or listen to music for 40 hours each week, but even 5 hours
each week at 94 dB (about half volume on a Walkman) may
create a permanent hearing loss. The other way of looking
at this, is if we can reduce the sound level by only 3 dB (see
Chapter 3 for some strategies) we can be exposed for twice
as long before the same damage occurs!
That may be true for factory workers, but Im a
musician. It cant be as bad for music!
Actually, musicians are different from factory workers in
several areas which do indeed make them slightly less susceptible to music exposure than their industrial colleagues.
Music tends to be intermittent, with loud passages, and quiet
passages intermixed. It is this intermittency that causes the
music to be slightly less damaging than an equal intensity of
noise for a similar length of time. Researchers have calculated
how quiet the sound needs to be in order to have no damage
(no TTS). These values along with typical intensities of 3
instruments, are shown in Table 2-II. Depending on the mu-
Hear The Music

sical piece, the orchestra size, and ones exact position in the
orchestra pit or stage, there may be some relief from hearing
loss by the intermittent nature of music. Certainly musicians
in smaller groups such as quartets would receive a greater
relief from the intermittent nature of the music than would
musicians in a large orchestra or rock band. Those in rock
bands may never achieve an effective quiet level.
Whether the full benefit of intermittent noise or music can be
achieved by that individual or not, undoubtedly some relief
is provided to musicians that is not shared by those people
working in a noisy factory. A major reason why intermittent
sound, like music, is less damaging than factory noise exposure is related to the function of the stapedial reflex which
reduces the music intensity in the middle ear.
A major difference between noise and music exposure is that
music is presumably enjoyable. This preference for music is
Frequency Effective Clarinet
Quiet (dBA) (dBA)
(Hz)
Violin
(dBA)
Trumpet
(dBA)
250
77
72 - 82
75 - 84
75 - 98
500
75 - 85
73 - 84
75 - 87
76 - 98
1k
81 - 82
69 - 81
71 - 78
70 - 87
2k
77 - 78
66 - 74
70 - 74
66 - 77
4k
74 - 76
56 - 62
59 - 65
60 - 67
Table 2 - II: Estimates of Effective Quiet a

level that would cause no hearing loss and the
range of intensities of three musical instruments.
(see text for explanation).
27
28 CHAPTER 2
the source of some interesting findings with respect to temporary hearing loss or TTS. In a landmark study, a German
researcher named Hrmann studied the emotional effects on
TTS at 4000 Hz. One group of subjects was given a 95 dB
noise for 30 minutes as a reward for performing a task and
another group was given the same noise as a punishment.
The TTS for the punishment group was 18.1 dB but that for
the reward group was only 12.8 dB. That is, the noise exposure was the same but one group viewed it positively and
the other, negatively. The group that viewed it negatively had
a greater temporary hearing loss! This type of study has been
performed many times over the years with noise and music
of equal energy, and with comparing groups of subjects who
loved or hated a certain type of music. The results are always
the same: The group that disliked the music had more TTS
than those who liked it.
Although, to date we have little physiological evidence to
explain these findings, the answer may be related to the
feedback (or outgoing) neurological pathways that go from
the brain, to the outer hair cells in the inner ear (see Chapter
1) as well as the chemistry of the outer hair cells in the inner
ear. It is also felt that there may be a change in the circulation in the inner ear on a hormonal basis if music was felt to
be beautiful versus terrible. For example, it was found that
emotional stress in guinea pigs created increased levels of
catecholamines that may reduce the level of available oxygen
in the inner ear. Reduced oxygen levels (anoxia) in the inner
ear has been suggested as a mechanism for temporary and
even permanent hearing loss.
MP-3 players and the 80/90 rule
We have had portable music since the development of the

transistor radio in the 1950s. In the 1980s we had portable
cassette players (e.g. Walkmans), in the 1990s we had portable
CD players, and today we have portable MP-3 players such
Hear The Music

as the ipod. It is the portability of these devices that poses the

danger. We can use them while walking by construction sites
or on public transit and when this is done, we tend to increase
the volume to potentially damaging levels.
What are the damaging levels? It turns out that the 80/90 rule
is a good place to start, and this came out of the research of
Dr. Brian Fligor. If we listen to music at 80% of the volume
setting for 90 minutes a day, this would give us about 50%
of our noise dose for the day. This is not exact since the
earphone used can be the main culprit in how loud the music
is, but the 80/90 rule is a good place to start. If your favorite
song comes on, turn up the volume and enjoy it; just turn
down the volume to 80% or less after. And if you want to
listen for more than 90 minutes a day, either turn down the
volume further or take the next day off. Like many things in
life, moderation and common sense are the key elements.
Smoking and Hearing Loss
Yet, another factor may be that many musicians play in

smoky environments and may even smoke themselves. A
small, but growing body of research is attempting to answer
the exact nature of the interaction between hearing loss and
an increased carbon monoxide level such as that found with
smoking. However, no definitive study provides conclusive
evidence. This is probably related to the fact that those who
smoke also have other physiological problems that may alter
their susceptibility to hearing loss from music exposure.
There is evidence that cardiovascular function and overall
physical fitness can affect the propensity for hearing loss.
Scandinavian researchers found shipyard workers who had
increases in heart rate and blood pressure when working hard,
also had the greatest hearing losses. They studied the degree
of TTS initially and after these same subjects completed an
eight-month physical training program and found that after
29
30 CHAPTER 2
the training program there was significantly less TTS. The

rationale is that more physically fit people have a better overall blood supply, including the supply to the inner ear. This
increased blood supply implies that those with better cardiovascular systems (e.g. non-smokers) are less susceptible to
hearing loss from loud music or noise. This is also supported
with research from the American Medical Association.
However, to muddy up the waters, other researchers found
that the effects of smoking and cold temperatures decreased
ones susceptibility to hearing loss. They argued that both
of these factors cause a peripheral vasoconstriction, thereby
making more blood flow available to central locations such
as the inner ear. They also found that exercise and smoking in noise decreased ones susceptibility to hearing loss as
compared with a nonsmoking, nonexercising group. It was
argued that more blood supply was available to the central
locations such as the inner ears of the smokers because of the
peripheral vasoconstriction of this group. In this same vein,
they also found that lower body temperature decreased ones
susceptibility to noise exposure.
These findings are not necessarily contradictory. Simply
stated, if there is less oxygen and/or more carbon monoxide
(from smoking) available to the inner ear, there will be an
increased risk to music and noise exposure. In summary, to
reduce the propensity for music or noise exposure, if people
smoke, then they should make sure their cardio-vascular system is very healthy. Because many smokers do have associated cardiovascular problems and tend to have more overall
health problems, they should be counseled to minimize their
exposure to damaging music or noise, or at least to take extra
precautions to reduce the exposure. So dont smoke and get
plenty of exercise.
Hear The Music

Chapter 3: Strategies to
Reduce Music Exposure
Hearing Protection
Many musicians who have tried hearing protection in the past

have commented that the sound is hollow and there is no
high-end. There are reasons for these comments and the
understanding of the physics behind them have led to much
improved and readily acceptable ear plugs. Musicians now
have a range of optimal hearing protection at their disposal
that will allow optimal hearing with no echoey sensation.
The echoey/hollow sensation is related to the occlusion effect
and the loss of high-end hearing is related to a fundamental
characteristic of sound.
Custom made hearing protection means that the musician
goes to an accredited audiology or hearing aid dispensing
facility and has custom made ear mold impressions taken.
These impressions are sent to earmold laboratories. About
a week later, the custom made form of hearing protection is
fit. During the fitting session, the hearing health care professional may use a small microphone situated in the ear canal to
verify the function of the hearing protection. This can be done
while the musician plays their own instrument, as shown in
Figure 3-1.
33
34 CHAPTER 3
Strategies to Reduce Music Exposure
The Occlusion Effect
When we sing, talk, or play a musical instrument, the sound

energy of our own voice or instrument not only goes out into
the environment, but also goes in to our ear canals. The inner
portion of our ear canal is lined with bone (as compared with
the outer portion which is cartilage). This bone receives lowfrequency sound vibration directly from our jaw and mouth.
That is, the boney wall of the ear canal vibrates like a speaker
diaphragm and sound is generated in the ear canal. Normally,
this sound energy goes out to the environment. However,
what happens if we plug up the ear canal with an earplug?
The sound becomes trapped in the ear canal and goes inward
through our hearing systemwe hear it. This is called the
occlusion effect and accounts for the echoey and hollow sound
of our voice whenever we plug our ears.
Figure 3-1: Musician being tested with a

real-ear measurement system while playing
the clarinet. A probe is inserted into the ear
canal between the earplug and the ear canal
wall while the clarinet is being played.
Hear The Music

Understanding the occlusion effect helps in solving it. In

order to minimize the effect, a longer earplug is made that
extends in to the boney portion of the ear canal. It is like
placing ones hand on the cone of a speaker. If you push hard
enough, the vibration will not occurthat is, the loudspeaker
will not workwith no sound being transduced. If the ear
plug is made with a long enough bore extending into the ear
canal, it will prevent any vibration from being transduced to
the ear. Practically this means that in order to minimize the
occlusion effect, one needs to have a custom ear plug that is
made with a long ear canal bore. Non-custom, off the shelf
products, regardless of how well they fit, will always have
some echoey sensation associated with them when worn.
Another solution to minimize the occlusion effect is to create a
hole or vent in the ear plug that will bleed off the unwanted
low-frequency sound energy.
I have no high-end
A second complaint about standard hearing protection is that
the music sounds muffled with no high-end. This comment
is related to a fundamental characteristic of sound. High
frequencies dont like small spaces. One may characterize
higher frequency sounds as being clastrophobicnot liking
small spaces. Scientists would say that the acoustic impedance of the acoustic inertance is proportional to frequency, but
most people agree that scientists cant speak English! They
simply mean that low-frequency bass notes go through walls
and other obstructions (such as earplugs) without noticing
that there is an obstruction. In contrast, the higher frequency
treble notes see walls and earplugs as obstructions and tend to
reflect, rather than going through. Earplugs then, will allow
the low frequency bass notes to get through but there is no
high-end. Other than the scientists non-English acoustic
impedance explanation, another factor is that the ear plug is
occupying the outer ear canal. In Chapter 1, it was pointed
35
36 CHAPTER 3
The Occlusion Effect

The occlusion effect is a build-up in the ear canal of low-frequency
sound energy from a persons own voice or musical instrument.
When an ear is plugged up, a person may report that sound is
hollow or echoey. This is not just a perception- this is a real
phenomenon that can be measured with scientific instruments.
The physiology behind the occlusion effect is that low-frequency
sound energy is transduced from the mouth, through the maxilla
jaw bone, to the boney portion of the ear canal in the outer ear.
The ear canal is about an inch long, with the inner half to a third
being made up of bone. The outer portion is made of cartilage.
The boney portion of the ear canal is set in vibration, but normally
we are unaware of it because the low-frequency vibration goes
out the ear. When the ear canal is plugged up however, this lowfrequency sound energy is trapped and continues on through our
auditory system- that is, it is heard.
There are two strategies to minimize the occlusion effect. One is
to create a custom earplug with a very long ear canal bore portion.
The wall of the earplug can sit against the wall of the interior portion
of the ear canal which will prevent it from vibrating. No vibration
means no build-up of sound pressure and no occlusion effect. It
is similar to placing your hand against a loud speaker cone. If one
pushes hard enough, no sound will come out. The other strategy
is to create a hole in the earplug that will allow the low-frequency
sound energy to leak out and thereby reduce the occlusion effect.
The occlusion effect can be measured in two ways. The first is by
simply having the musician say the vowels [a] as in father and [i]
as in beet with the earplug in place. Normally these vowels are
equally loud, but the [i] sound has significantly more low-frequency
energy than the [a]. This low-frequency energy can be heard better
than that of the [a]. If the [i] is judged to be louder than the [a],
there is a significant occlusion effect. If they are roughly the same
loudness, then no occlusion effect exists.
Please see Occlusion, pg 37
Hear The Music

out that a function of the outer ear was to provide amplification for the higher frequency sounds. If the outer ear canal is
plugged up, there is a loss of this natural high-frequency boost,
much like a French horn player when they partially plug up
the bell with their hand or the trumpet player who uses a mute.
One solution would be to incorporate a specially designed
amplifier that puts back the higher frequencies, such that the
net effect at the eardrum is a flat or equal attenuation for all
of the various frequencies. One such amplifier ear plug
uses an acoustic network (i.e., no batteries) and is called the
ER-15 earplug.
The ER-15 Earplug
In 1988, a manufacturer named Etymotic Research, Inc.

(hence the name ER) devised a custom earplug with approximately 15 decibels of attenuation over a wide range
of frequencies. The earplug (named the ER-15) has become
widely accepted by musicians as well as some industrial
workers who work in relatively quiet environments. Figure
3-2 shows the attenuation characteristics of the ER-15 earplug
(along with the ER-25 earplug, the vented/tuned earplug, and
an industrial-type foam plug for comparison purposes). That
is, the ER-15 makes all the sounds of music equally quieter by
about 15 dB. Shown another way, Figure 3-3 shows the effect
the ER-15 has on the spectrum of a violin while playing the
note A (440 Hz) played at a mezzo forte level. Note that the
The Occlusion Effect continued
The other assessment techniques involves the use of a special

instrument that is routinely found in most audiology offices. A
special microphone called a probe tube microphone can be
placed in the musicians ear canal and the extent of the occlusion
effect can be measured. In some people, it can be as much as 20
dB! Clearly in this case, the earplug will have to be remade in
order to resolve this problem.
37
38 CHAPTER 3
violin spectrum with the ER-15 earplug is essentially parallel

to the sound without hearing protection. That is, music sound
the same, only quieter.
Attenuation (dB)
The design of the ER-15 earplug (and its partner, the ER-25
earplug that provides approximately 25 decibels of uniform
attenuation) is remarkably simple. Essentially, a buttonsized element (that functions as an acoustic compliance, for
those that like physics) is connected to a custom ear mold.
The resulting interaction between the button-sized element
and the volume of air in the earplug creates a resonance (or
amplification) that replaces much of the high-end sound that
would be lost with conventional earplugs. The ER- button
element is manufactured by Etymotic Research, Inc. but the
custom made silicone earplug is made at a local ear mold
manufacturing laboratory. Ensuring that the custom made
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 3-2: Attenuation characteristics of the ER-15

Earplug and that of three other earplugs. Notice how flat
the ER-15 and ER-25 responses are.
Hear The Music

Decibels (dB SPL)
earplug is sufficiently long will minimize the occlusion effect.

A schematic and ER-15 is shown in Figure 3-4. In addition
to the ER-15 and ER-25, an ER-9 with only about 9 dB of flat
attenuation is also available, but these should only be used in
rather quiet musical environments.
Violin playing A
(440 Hz)
Same note with
the ER-15
earplug
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 3-3: Musician playing A(440 Hz) with
(black) and without (top) the ER-15 earplug. Note
that the 2 curves are parallel, indicating no change in
the balance of the music.
Figure 3-4: The ER-15 earplug uses a combination

of cavities, resistances, and volumes to yield a flat
(or unchanged) response at the musicians ear, but
with a 15 decibel attenuation. Picture courtesy of
Etymotic Research.
39
40 CHAPTER 3
A noncustom (and less expensive) product is also available

called the ER-20/HI-FI earplug and was introduced in 1992.
It uses another approach to enhance the higher frequencies
and thereby reduce the high-frequency attenuation. Because
it is not custom made for an individuals ear, the bore length
is necessarily short, and the occlusion effect can be noted.
Figure 3-5 shows the ER-20/HI-FI earplug.
Figure 3-5: The ER-20/HI-FI non-custom earplug is

similar to the ER-15, but yields slightly more attenuation (protection) in the higher frequencies. Picture
courtesy Elliott Berger, E-A-R, Indianapolis, IN.
The Vented/Tuned Earplug
Another approach to acoustic tuning of hearing protection

takes a different slant. Instead of attempting to uniformly
attenuate the musical sound, an earplug can be constructed
that has minimal acoustic effect in the lower frequencies and
a significant high-frequency attenuation. This type of earplug
has been in wide use since about 1990. A vented/tuned earplug
is a custom earplug with a tuned hole or cavity drilled down
the center. The diameter of the hole can be adjusted (tuned)
with covers (called select-a-vents [SAV]) that have various
sized holes in them. In its most open position, the vented/
tuned earplug is acoustically transparent below 2000 Hz, with
Hear The Music

a significant high-frequency attenuation (up to maximum of

28 dBwith a typical attenuation of 20 dB). Most of the
musicians that wear this form of earplug use it in the most
open position.

A vented/tuned earplug would allow a musician to hear the
lower and mid-frequency sound energy of their own instrument but provide significant attenuation for the high frequency
stimuli in the immediate vicinity. Such an earplug is quite
useful for woodwinds or larger stringed instruments that have
significant high-frequency damaging energy in their environments. For example, a clarinet player will still be able to hear
their own music, while the vented/tuned earplug will lessen the
intensity of the cymbal crashes from the rear. The attenuation
pattern of the vented/tuned earplug is shown in Figure 3-2.
There is a small (45 dB) resonance in the 500 Hz region (one
octave above middle C) that is caused by the mass of air in
the vent or hole, vibrating. This small resonance can be
used to improve the monitoring ability of some musicians and
some vocalists. It also can be used as part of a program to
reduce vocal strain. That is, a small bit of amplification (like
the occlusion effect) can improve the awareness of a singers
own voice in a possibly noisy background. Too much of an
occlusion effect may be as bad as too little for some musicians.

Modifications of the vented/tuned earplugs are also available
that use acoustic resistors in, or in front of, the vent. Ear mold
laboratories have different names for these filtered vented/
tuned earplugs, and the attenuation characteristics will vary
depending on the filter used, as well as on the sound bore
dimensions.
41
42 CHAPTER 3
Table 3-I list the various forms of optimal hearing protection

for the various musical instruments. In some cases, more
than one type is possible because of the environment that
the musician finds themselves in. The input from your local
hearing health care professional such as an audiologist will
be invaluable. In some cases, more than one type is required
for optimal performance if the environments are significantly
different. For example, this may be the case for a clarinet
player that plays with an orchestra (ER-15) and then plays in
a Blues band (vented/tuned earplug).
Instrument
Auditory Danger
Reeded
Woodwinds
Brass section to the rear ER-15

Vented/tuned
Flutes
Flutes (>105 dB)
Small Strings
Small strings (>110 dB) ER-15
Large Strings
Brass section to the rear Vented/tuned
Brass
Brass (>105 dB)
Vented/tuned
Percussion
Percussion (high hats)
ER-25
Vocalists
Solo
Non-solo
Soprano (>115 dB)

Other instruments
Vented/tuned
ER-15
Speakers/monitors
ER-15
Amplified Instruments
Earplug(s)
ER-15
Vented/tuned
Table 3-I: Summary of various instrument categories,

along with the source(s) of potential damage, and the
optimal choice of earplug. See text for explanation.
Hear The Music

Two Laws of Physics

These two laws are actually related, but manifest themselves
differently in enough situations to be treated separately.
(i) A first law is that high frequencies dont like small spaces.
A scientist might say that the acoustic impedance is proportional
(or increases) with frequency.
Low-frequency sounds, such as the bass notes, have long wavelengths, like the waves in a rolling ocean. As a rule of thumb,
in order for something to behave as an obstruction, it has to be
at least one half the size of the wavelength. Understandably,
a low-frequency sound then needs a very wide obstruction to
alter its movement. In contrast, a high frequency sound has a
shorter wavelength- that is, it is more frequent.
An obstruction, such as an earplug, may have no effect on a
low-frequency sound but would interfere significantly with
a higher frequency treble sound. High frequency sounds get
caught (i.e., they are interfered with) by holes in acoustic tiles,
and even air molecules. Acoustic tiling on ceilings, attenuate
or lessen the energy of higher frequency sounds more than bass
notes. If one was to measure the intensity of music at the front of
an audience, and then measure it again at the back, there would
be less relative overall high frequency energy at the back of the
hall because of the air molecules interfering with this sound.
(ii) A second law of physics is that higher frequencies are
directional.
When sounds emanate from the end of a trumpet bell, the lower
frequency bass notes do not see the metal wall of the trumpet
as anything to be concerned about. Low-frequency bass notes
leak out of the trumpet almost everywhere. In contrast, the
higher frequency treble notes (have shorter wavelengths) and
as such see the trumpet wall as a real wall. These sounds are
guided out of the trumpet bell in almost a straight line like
a laser beam. Placing the trumpet players on risers will allow
the intense beam of sound energy to go over the heads of those
other musicians downwind.
Please see Two Laws, pg 44
43
44 CHAPTER 3
Some Techniques to Reduce

Music Exposure
Since different musicians find themselves in differing environments, the strategies to reduce the effects of music exposure
may be different. The following is organized around seven
musical instrument categories, even though there is some
overlap. Chapter 4 has some fact sheets summarizing this information, but this will serve as the basis for those summaries:
1) small strings, 2) large strings, 3) brass, 4) woodwinds, 5)
percussion, 6) amplified instruments, and 7) vocalists.
1) Small Stringed Instruments
The instruments in this category include the violins and the
violas. The ear protection of choice is the ER-15 earplug,
as this will provide broadband uniform attenuation that is
ideal for these musicians. The violins and violas generate
significant low and high-frequency sounds and more importantly, these musicians need to hear the balance between these
sounds. Sound levels in excess of 110 dB have been measured
even when played at an average, or mezzo forte, loudness.

A very important factor is the positioning of this musician.
Violin and viola players should never be placed under an overhang that is within 1 meter of their heads. Such poorly constructed overhangs in performance pits are commonplace
at many theater, ballet, and opera venues. Space limitations
Two Laws of Physics continued
Another example concerns loudspeaker design. Like the trumpet

bell, the higher frequencies emanate from a loudspeaker in a much
more direct path than the lower frequency bass notes. Elevating
the speakers or aiming them at the musicians ear would improve
the audibility of these higher frequency sounds, such that, in many
cases, the sound engineer or musician would turn down the overall
volume. Not only would the music have a flatter response, but it
would also be less damaging.
Hear The Music

tend to define the size and dimensions of such performance

pits. The higher frequency components of these instruments
can be absorbed by the underside of the overhang with the
result of a loss of hearing of the harmonics. Since the higher
frequency harmonic structure is crucial to a perception of
proper playing for these instruments, violinists and violists
tend to overplay in order to re-establish the correct harmonic
balance. Arm and wrist damage can easily result.
Figure 3-6 shows the effect of a poorly constructed overhang
on the spectrum or energy of a violin playing the note A (440
Hz), compared with a spectrum of the same note played in
the open. Loss of some high-frequency harmonic energy
would not be a problem for some other instrument categories
such as clarinet players.
Violin playing A (440 Hz)

Same note played under
an overhang
Figure 3-6: A poorly constructed overhang, such as

that found in many orchestra pits, can eat-up some
of the higher frequency sound energy.
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46 CHAPTER 3
Another useful technique for violins and violas is to use a

mute while practicing. Such a mute fits over the bridge of
the instrument and attenuates or lessens the sound energy by
adding an extra mass component to the bridge transduction
system. Depending on the style of the practice mute, differing
degrees of attenuation may be realized.
2) Large Stringed Instruments
The cello, bass, and harp are the three major instruments in
this category. Like all stringed instruments, it is crucial to hear
the high-frequency harmonic content; however, because of the
larger physical size, most of the important harmonic energy
is below 2000 Hz (one octave below the top note on a piano
keyboard). Therefore, unlike violin and viola players, placing
these musicians under a poorly constructed performance pit
overhang will subsequently have little acoustic and ergonomic
effect on their playing.
Partly because of the large size of these instruments, the
sound levels generated are not excessively great. However,
the brass section is typically located to their immediate rear,
and it is this source that is the potential threat to hearing loss.
The ear protection of choice is the vented/tuned earplug
(see Table 3-I). This earplug serves to allow most of the
fundamental and higher frequency harmonic energy of these
instruments through to the ear with minimal alteration in the
spectrum. However, these earplugs provide significant highfrequency attenuation. The vented/tuned earplug (in its most
open condition) therefore can be ideal for the large stringed
instruments as it attenuates only the higher frequency sounds
of the noisy brass section to their rear.
As will be discussed later, belled instruments, such as the
trumpet, are highly directional but only for the higher frequency sounds. And it is these high frequency treble notes
Hear The Music

that are the most intense. If the trumpet section is placed on

risers, most of the damaging high-frequency energy literally
goes over the heads of the musicians downwind.
Another strategy successfully used by large string instrument
players is an acoustic monitoring device. Figure 3-7 shows
a schematic of this device that serves to transduce low-frequency energy from the cello or bass directly to the ear. This
is analogous to a doctor using a stethoscope.

Figure 3-7: An acoustic monitoring device consists

of a length of standard hearing aid tubing that joins
an earplug (usually a vented/tuned earplug) to a bass
instrument. The attachment can be clipped onto the
tailpiece, taped to the instrument body, or simply
placed in a f-hole.
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48 CHAPTER 3
Many cello players lean on the pegs of their instrument in

order to better hear the low-frequency response that is masked
by the rest of the orchestra. This can be inefficient and, in
some cases, can lead to neck strain. An acoustic monitor is
made up of four feet of standard (#13) hearing aid tubing
that is connected to a suction cup at one end and plugs in to
the left ear vented/tuned earplug on the other side. The suction cup can be placed on the tail piece of the bass or cello,
on the back, or simply sitting in one of the f-holes. This
stethoscope-like device will allow the bass and cello player to
hear more of the low-frequency sound from their instrument.
Figure 3-8 shows the boost in low-frequency monitoring that
can be achieved. This device is very inexpensive and the
hearing health care professional can provide such an acoustic
monitor to be used with the vented/tuned ear plug or with the
ER-15 and a small hole drilled into it.
Figure 3-8: Acoustic monitoring device (for cello or

acoustic bass) amplifies low-frequency sounds, in order
to improve monitoring of ones own instrument.
Hear The Music

3) Brass Instruments
Typical instruments of this category are the trumpet, French
horn, trombone, and assorted bass instruments such as the
tuba and baritone. Two important characteristics are that brass
instruments are directional for higher frequency energy and
that this high-frequency energy is significantly more intense
than the lower frequency fundamental energy. The instrument
that can generate the most intense music in this category is
the trumpet and for this reason it will be used as the example.
The trumpet (and other brass instruments) generates sound that
emanates from the end of the bell. Strictly speaking however,
this is only true for the higher frequency treble notes. In fact,
these treble notes come out of the trumpet bell almost like a
laser beam. If measured just below or just above the playing plane of the trumpet, this high-frequency sound energy
would not be as intense as if measured directly in front of it.
Figure 3-9: Low-frequency bass notes leak out of the trumpet in every direction. However, higher frequency notes
emanate in a straight line almost like a laser beam. This is
very similar to what happens in a loudspeaker.
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50 CHAPTER 3
This however, is not true of mid and lower frequency bass

notes. These notes leak out of the trumpet and may be just as
intense behind the trumpet player as in front of them. Figure
3-9 shows this characteristic of all treble brass instruments.
Therefore placing the trumpet players on risers will allow all
of the intense high-frequency energy of the trumpet to go over
the heads of those other musicians downwind.
When measured at the position of a cello players ear in an
orchestra where the cellist is downwind of the trumpet
section, a 5 - 7 dB high-frequency decrease in sound energy
was achieved when the trumpet section was placed on risers.
This significantly reduced the music exposure for other instruments in the orchestra or band. In addition, when placed on
risers, the trumpet players played at a level that was 2 - 4 dB
less intense, thereby reducing their own music exposure and
embochure stress. Anecdotally, trumpet players report that
they tend to be less stressed when they play while on risers.
Brass players do not always need hearing protection, but when
they do, the ER-15 is the optimal choice because of its flat
attenuation response.
Various types of practice mutes are available for brass instruments and these have the general effect of reducing the overall
sound levels. Depending on the model used, mutes can be
quite frequency-specific, and musicians tend to try several
models before they find one that is optimal for their style of
playing. Because the more intense sounds of brass instruments
are directional (away from the musician), practice mutes are
more for the neighbors than for the brass players themselves.
Electronic mutes can also be used that not only function as an
acoustic attenuator, but also can allow the musician to monitor the music electronically through headphones. Finally, an
innovation that has been of great use for French horn players,
is the use of a reflective baffle to their rear that is angled back
at 45 to the floor. This baffle serves to reflect the higher
Hear The Music

frequency components of their music to the audience and,

incidentally, is a welcome protector for the trumpet players
who are unfortunately placed to their rear.
4) Woodwinds
The woodwind category is made up of clarinets, saxophones,
flutes, oboes, and bassoons, as the major representatives.
These instruments can be played in a wide range of venues,
such as in large orchestras or with small jazz and blues bands.
In orchestral environments, woodwinds are typically near
the front of the orchestra but situated in front of the brass or
percussion sections. In jazz and blues environments, they can
be in front of speakers or near the drummer.

The ER-15 earplug is recommended for jazz and blues performing venues, and vented/tuned earplugs for the orchestral
environments. The rationale for the use of the vented/tuned
earplugs in an orchestra is similar to that for the large stringed
instrumentsnamely, to attenuate the high-frequency music
energy from other instruments to the rear. The broader band
ER-15 earplugs are more appropriate for the more varied
music sources in a jazz or blues band.
With woodwind instruments, the sound emanates from the first
noncovered finger hole, and as such may be lost between the
legs and music stands of other musicians. Placing woodwind
players in an unobstructed location will allow a direct path for
their sound. If the woodwinds sound is obstructed, overplaying can and does result with the potential of a career-ending
injury to the muscle that controls the embouchure. This is
also a frequently stated concern of brass musicians.
In the jazz and blues environment, a woodwind player may be
situated near a speaker or near the cymbals of the drum kit. In
most jazz or blues bands, the drummer hits harder on the ride
cymbal (on the dominant sidetypically the right side) and
51
52 CHAPTER 3
the woodwind player should situate himself or herself away

from that potential source of music exposure. It is usually
the best strategy to situate oneself parallel to a speaker rather
than to the front or to the rear of the speaker, as the speaker
enclosure wall affords some protection.
5) Percussion Instruments
Whereas there may be some flexibility in the specification of
ear protection for other instrument categories, there is very
little choice for most percussionists. The ER-25 earplug is the
optimal ear protection. Excessive ear protection may result in
wrist or arm damage, and too little may result in a progressive
music-induced hearing loss. More on this will be discussed
near the end of this chapter.
For the full drum kit (with drums and cymbals), hitting the
high hat cymbal with a drum stick can be the greatest potential
threat to hearing. It is commonplace to find that the hearing
in the left ear is worse for a right handed drummer because
of the close proximity to the high hat (and the converse for
some left handed drummers). The high hat is the main cymbal
for rock and roll, with the ride cymbal (on the dominant or,
typically, right side) for jazz and blues. The high hat, as the
name suggests, is about the diameter of a brimmed hat with
two opposing cymbals facing each other. A pedal can be
used to move them together or leave them apart. Rock and
roll musicians tend to play with the high hats slightly apart,
whereas blues and jazz musicians tend to have them apart only
about 50% of the time. Figure 3-10 shows two spectra- with
the high hats closed and with the high hats open. Note the
increased spectral bandwidth and increased intensity when the
high hats are left open. Although not shown in these spectra,
the duration of the sound of the open high hat will be longer.
The positioning of the high hats is a matter of taste (and music
style), and little can be done to convince a drummer to change
Hear The Music

his or her taste other than by education. However, many

drummers are willing to play with a closed position high hat
during practice sessions or even to use a muffling practice pad
in between the two opposing faces of the high hat cymbal.
Figure 3-10: The spectra (or display of energy) of

high-hat cymbal played open and closed (i.e. together).
When played in the closed condition, the overall
intensity is less.
Another innovation that derives from the military, has recently

been resurrected for drummers (and electric bass players)
called seat shakers (or bass shakers). These very low frequency woofer loudspeakers can be hooked in to the amplification
system and will generate improved low frequency vibrational
feedback. As shown in Figure 3-11, these devices look like
large hockey pucks and can be bolted to the underside of a
seat or more commonly bolted to a piece of 3/4 plywood
that is placed on the floor. During playing, low-frequency
vibrational feedback is available to the musician, providing
him or her with better monitoring. Drummers using this device, tend not to play as loud with a subsequent reduction in
the level of the music. This potentially decreases the risk of
arm and wrist injury.
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54 CHAPTER 3
As an alternative to earplugs, personal earphones that replace

stage monitors, can also be an option. These earphones (or
in-the-ear monitors) can be custom or noncustom. They are
essentially in-the-ear hearing aid shells that use a broadband
speaker that can handle high-levels with minimal distortion.
These are either hard wired to the amplification system or connected to an FM wireless receiver worn on the belt or under
the clothes. The music is mixed by the sound engineer and
transmitted back to the musician so that there will be optimal
monitoring. In the wirelesss situations, the musician is free
to move about the stage. Because the effects of the environment are minimized when these earphones are used, the sound
levels at the ear are significantly lower than if the musicians
were using conventional sound field monitoring systems such
Figure 3-11: Picture of seat (bass) shakers that are lowfrequency emphasis speakers designed to improve monitoring of percussion and electric bass. Courtesy of Future
Sonics, Inc.
Hear The Music

as wedge speakers. Figure 3-12 shows a schematic of a custom earphone system. Several manufacturers market such a
system, and while they can be costly, custom earphones are
gaining popularity. One such earphone system is shown in
Figure 3-13.
A less costly hard-wired system can be used by joining a
pair of broad band hearing aid receivers to standard (body aid
style) earmolds and connecting this to an equalizer/amplifier
that can be adjusted for overall gain and frequency response
shaping. This has been very useful for percussionists who
only need improved monitoring to hear a click track.
Some recent research has indicated that people still need to
be aware to turn down the volume when they wear in-the-ear
monitors. It turns out that quieter, less damaging levels, are
more acceptable by those who wear the monitors (versus stage
monitors) but that unless counselled, people may still wear
them at a higher, potentially damaging levels.
Figure 3-12: Schematic of a custom earphone system for

monitoring. The custom earphones can communicate
with the amplifier either via a wireless (FM) remote as
shown above, or can be hand-wired into the system.
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56 CHAPTER 3
Figure 3-13: A custom earphone is made up of a manufactured earpiece with a cable that can be connected to either a
wireless FM system or hard-wired to the amplifier directly.
Picture courtesy of Ultimate Ears, Inc.
Finally, drummers can use the effect of their stapedial reflex

to their advantage. If a loud sound is about to occur, such
as by hitting a cymbal, the drummer can begin humming
just prior to and through the length of the loud sound. Such
humming serves to elicit the stapedial reflex, thus providing
some additional temporary ear protection. A discussion of the
properties of the stapedial reflex can be found in Chapter 1.
6) Amplified Instruments
Musicians in amplified environments usually have a more flexible work environment than those who work in an orchestra.
Rock, blues, and jazz musicians tend to work for themselves
and are considered self-employed. Unlike many orchestral
musicians, they may have some control over the instrument
set-up. Therefore, recommendations of an environmental
change for reducing the potential for music exposure are more
frequently followed.
These musicians should be either situated away from loud
speakers or parallel to the speaker enclosures walls as this will
afford some protection. In those cases where loud speakers are
oriented towards the musicians in order to obtain side-wash,
the speakers should be elevated. This should be done with
caution, as many loud speakers are designed to be placed on
the floor. One should check with the manufacturer or retailer
before using a speaker in a position that it was not originally
Hear The Music

intended. Elevating the speakers is done for the same reason

as elevating brass players on risers. Like the trumpet, the
speaker cone of a loud speaker is highly directional, but only
for the higher frequency treble notes. Increasing the height of
loud speakers to the level of the performers ear will improve
the monitoring of these higher frequency components, such
that the sound engineer will be able to decrease the overall
sound level emanating from the loud speaker. The musician
will feel that the music is as loud as before, but the overall
intensity will be lower, with less potential for hearing damage.
Musicians playing in an amplified environment should be using the ER-15 earplug (except for the drummer who should
be using the ER-25). If improved monitoring is required,
in-the-ear monitoring (as discussed in the percussion section
above) can be very useful. Other than improved monitoring,
significant hearing protection can also be achieved with these
monitors.
7) Vocalists
By far, the primary concern of vocalists is related to vocal
strain. Blues and jazz singers frequently complain of sore
throats after long sets, especially in smoky environments.
While part of the problem is the air quality, their situation
can be improved by the use of an earplug that creates a slight
occlusion effect.
Vocalists are divided into two categories: solo and nonsolo.
Solo vocalists can be found in classical environments and may
be accompanied by relatively quiet instruments. The vented/
tuned earplug is the most appropriate protection in this case.
These earplugs will provide some high-frequency attenuation,
but also will generate a slight increase in the loudness of ones
own voice. The vocalist will tend to sing slightly less loud
with reduced long-term vocal strain.
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58 CHAPTER 3
Nonsolo vocalists, typically found in pop bands, are susceptible to the same sources of music exposure than their
instrumental colleagues. Because of the wide range of music
sources on stage, the wide band ER-15 earplug is the form of
ear protection of choice. As in the case of the solo performer,
a slight degree of occlusion may be useful, and it is therefore
recommended that the ER-15 earplugs be made with short
canals. Nonsolo vocalists will also gain an improved monitoring (as well as some hearing protection from the various
sources of music) by using the custom earphones as shown
in Figures 3-12 and 3-13.
Two Hearing/Non-hearing Interactions
The auditory system is certainly not the only potential area

of damage for musicians. Entire clinics have been set-up,
based on a sports injury model, to provide rehabilitation services and prevention education to musicians. Two forms of
musician injury can be related directly to improper auditory
or hearing monitoring. These are vocal strain/nodules and
wrist/arm injury.
Vocal Strain and Hearing Monitoring
Singers frequently report vocal strain, especially after a long
set or if they are required to sing in a smoky environment. Although vocal strain is primarily related to the singing intensity
and length of singing time, vocal strain may also be related
to monitoring. Monitoring of ones own voice is necessary
for the proper speaking and singing intensity.
Improving the monitoring of a singers voice during a performance by creating a slight occlusion effect has been shown
to clinically decrease vocal strain, and in a few cases, has
been shown to reduce the severity of vocal nodules. This is
a very exciting area of current research and investigations are
underway that seek to assess a wide range of voice-related
Hear The Music

In-the-ear Monitors
In-the-ear monitors are small custom made loudspeakers that are
designed to fit into a musicians ear, much like a small hearing
aid. The monitors are fit binaurally (in both ears) and can either
be connected directly to the amplifier by a cable (frequently used
in this fashion by drummers) or by a wireless FM route.
The advantage of such a monitor is that it replaces the various
wedge monitors up on stage as well as the need for side wash
from speakers aimed sideways up on stage to improve the monitoring of the musicians own sound. Using in-the-ear monitors
means that the environment is controlled and the overall level up
on stage is less damaging.
In-the-ear monitors come in two forms- a custom made one and a
non-custom one. The non-custom ones uses a foam, one size fits
all plug that joins it to the ear. An advantage of the non-custom
monitor is that the same piece of hardware can be used for different
people at different performances- only the replaceable foam plug
needs to be changed. A modification of this is to use an inexpensive
earmold that is custom made for an individual. The more expensive
loudspeaker can connect with this custom made ear earmold which
may improve wearing comfort.
In contrast, custom made in-the-ear monitors are made like hearing aids. An earmold impression is taken by a hearing health care
professional, such as an audiologist, and sent to a special earmold
laboratory. A hard custom made shell is made that fits that individual musicians ear precisely and a miniature loudspeaker is
installed in the shell. The in-the ear shell is then connected to a
cable that can either be connected directly to the amplification
system with an extension cord, or by way of a wireless FM system.
When fitting in-the-ear monitors, there are two issues to consider.
One is whether the monitor yields a flat response like the ERseries of earplugs and the other is related to the amount of attenuation or protection that the monitor will provide. The in-the-ear
monitor will not necessarily have a flat response, but since it is
an electrical system, its output can be run through an equalizer to
Please see Resonance, pg 60
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60 CHAPTER 3
measures as a result of improved monitoring caused by a

slight artificial occlusion.
The vented/tuned earplug has been of use in many jazz and
blues venues to reduce vocal strain. Strictly speaking, the
vented/tuned earplug does not significantly increase the occlusion effect. This earplug has a vent-related resonance (see
Figure 3-2) that creates a mild low-frequency amplification.
And it is this slight amplification that serves to improve the
singers monitoring of their own voice. The ER-15 earplug
can also be modified to create a slight occlusion effect by
intentionally shortening the length of the bore. The shortened ER-15 earplug is more appropriate for rock and roll
singers.
Wrist/arm Injury and Hearing Monitoring
Drummers tend to be aware of the potential of music-related
hearing loss. It is commonplace for them to have read in the
popular press that drummers require hearing protection, and
the most available type is the industrial strength earplugs.
Wrist and/or arm strain is the number one reason for drummers
seeking medical help. These two occurrences can be related.
In-the-ear Monitors continued
ensure any desired response. As far as the attenuation or protection provided, as a rule of thumb, the softer the material in
contact with the ear, the greater will be the attenuation. A noncustom monitor that uses a disposable foam plug or one where
an individual musician has had a custom made soft earplug will
provide the greatest attenuation of stage sound. The hard shell
custom in-the-ear monitors will provide less overall protection
from the stage noise than the softer non-custom ones. Using
clinically available probe tube microphones, an audiologist can
measure precisely what the response and the attenuation of an
individuals in-the-ear monitor are, in order to ensure optimal
listening and hearing protection.
Hear The Music

The following scenario is commonly found with drummers:

A drummer starts to wear industrial-strength ear protection
such as foam plugs, and after about 6 months, arm and/or
wrist pain begins.
This problem can be directly related to the wrong ear protection. Industrial-strength foam earplugs attenuate the higher
frequency energy to such an extent that there may be a loss of
monitoring of the energy from the cymbals and snare drum.
Table 3II shows the intensity of a drummer hitting a practice
drum pad (i) with no ear protection, (ii) with the wrong ear
protection (foam earplugs), and (iii) with the ER-25 earplugs.

Note that the hitting intensity of the no ear protection and
the ER-25 earplug conditions are similar, whereas that of
the industrial foam earplug is much greater. In this case,
the loss of high-frequency monitoring caused by the foam
earplugs caused the drummer to hit the practice pad harder,
increasing the potential for arm and/or wrist injury.
Earplug
dBA
Industrial foam earplug

ER-25
No earplug
113
104
103
Table 3-II: Intensity of a drummer hitting a practice drum pad

with no hearing protection, with the wrong hearing protection
(foam earplugs) and with the ER-25 earplugs.
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Hearing Aids and Music
What about those people who are reading this book too late
in their musical careers, or are getting up there in age and
have a hearing loss? Hearing aids are devices that amplify
only certain sounds that are lost. Hearing aids are quite sophisticated in that they make soft sounds louder and almost
as importantly, make loud sounds softer. Unfortunately it
turns out that hearing aids of 20 years ago were better for
music than the more modern digital hearing aids. Hearing aids of the 1990s were quite capable of re-establishing
the dynamics and quality of louder inputs such as music.
Modern digital hearing aids are actually better for hearing
speech, especially in the presence of background noise, but
unfortunately cannot handle louder inputs such as music as
well as the older hearing aid technology. Modern digital
hearing aids have a great difficulty handling inputs over
about 95 decibels and tend to distort.
Engineers are working feverishly to resolve this problem
and some improvements have been made. If hearing aids
are required one should consult their audiologist or other
hearing health care professional to determine, not only the
best hearing aids, but the best strategies to use them for the
listening to, or the playing of music.
Hear The Music

Chapter 4: Five Fact Sheets

for Musicians
Following are five facts sheets for a number of musical instrument categories that summarize the important strategies
to minimize hearing loss from music. There is some overlap,
because those musicians that are involved, may have much
in common. The science behind these recommendations can
be found in Chapter 3:
Guitar and Rock/Blues Vocalists
Guitar players and Rock/Blues vocalists share a similar part

of the stage and as such, are similarly exposed to loud music.
Some of the strategies to reduce the risk for music related
hearing loss, are also similar.
Ear monitors are small in-the-ear devices that look like
hearing aids connected to small wire cables. These can be
plugged directly into the amplification system. These not
only afford some protection from overly loud music, but allow
the guitar players and vocalists to monitor their music better.
Frequently, the overall sound levels on stage during rehearsals
and performances are quieter while using these monitors. In
the case of vocalists, the use of ear monitors will allow them
to hear their voice better with an added benefit of reduced
vocal strain after a long set. Ear monitors can be designed to
either improve monitoring or function as ear protection, or
both. Depending on the type of music, ones style, and ones
position in the band, a trade-off between these goals may be
necessary.
Loudspeakers generate a wide range of sounds. Like the
bell of a trumpet however, not all sounds come directly out
of the speaker. Low-frequency bass notes can be just as loud
65
66 CHAPTER 4
Five Fact Sheets for Musicians
beside the loudspeaker enclosure as directly in front, whereas

higher frequency sounds emanate much like a laser beam.
Tilting or aiming the loudspeaker up to the musicians ear will
ensure that the music has a flatter response. The overall
level will tend to be lower on stage because the sound engineer
will not need to compensate for a peaky response. Some
researchers recommend elevating loudspeakers to ear level
for much the same reason. Indeed this can be useful, but this
will depend on the design of the loudspeaker. Checking with
the manufacturer will provide information on whether this is
the best choice of orientation for that specific loudspeaker.
The loudspeakers can also be used as an acoustic shadow
to hide in. As stated above, high-frequency sounds tend to
emanate from the loudspeakers in almost a straight line. Since
these same high-frequency treble notes can also be the most
intense, standing beside the loudspeaker enclosure (instead
of in front or behind it) may afford some protection.
The main source of potential damage appears to be from the
drummers high hat cymbal- typically on the left side of the
drummer. Moving away from the high hat cymbal as much
as is reasonable, or the use of lucite or plexiglasTM baffles
between the cymbals and the other musicians may be useful
to minimize the potential damage to ones hearing. If baffles
are used, it is important to ensure that they do not extend
above the level of the drummers ear, since high-frequency
reflections can exacerbate the drummers hearing problems.
There are now custom made tuned earplugs that many
instrumental musicians and vocalists using called the ER15 earplugs. These allow all of the music to be attenuated
(lessened in energy) equally across the full range of musical
sounds. That is, the low-bass notes are treated identically as
the mid-range and high-frequency treble notes. The balance
of music is therefore not altered. These have been in wide use
since the late 1980s.
Hear The Music

The human ear is much like any other body parttoo much
use and it may be damaged. The ear takes about 16 hours to
reset. After attending a rock concert or a loud session, you
may notice reduced hearing and/or tinnitus (ringing) in your
ears. And if your hearing was assessed immediately after the
concert, one would find a temporary hearing loss. After 16
hours however, your hearing should return to its baseline
(hopefully normal) level. After a loud session or concert,
dont practice for 16-18 hours. Also, its a good excuse not
to mow your lawn for a day or two!
Woodwinds and Large Stringed Instruments

Woodwinds such as clarinet, saxophone, oboe, bassoon, and
the flute are all found in symphonies and smaller groups. So
are the larger stringed instruments such as cello, string bass,
and the harp. These instruments generate similar sound levels (albeit at different frequencies), and are subject to similar
music exposure from other instruments. Many of these musicians need to sit in front of potentially damaging trumpet and
percussion sections.
Most of these instruments possess significant low-frequency
sound energy with very little fundamental and harmonic energy in the higher frequencies. And, these same musicians need
to sit downwind of the brass section. Most of the damaging
energy from the brass section is in the higher frequency ranges,
so it would be ideal to have ear protection that lets through
the lower frequency sounds, but attenuates (or lessens) the
higher frequencies from the other instruments. Indeed such
a vented/tuned ear plug is useful for these instruments. A
tuned cavity is created in the ear plug that allows the musician
to hear their own instrument while ensuring that the damaging
elements of the trumpet and percussion sections are reduced.
For those woodwinds (clarinet, saxophone, flute) that also
play in jazz and blues bands, a wider form of protection can
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be useful. These are called the ER-15 earplugs. They allow

all of the music to be attenuated (lessened in energy) equally
across the full range of musical sounds. That is, the lowbass notes are treated identically to the mid-range and highfrequency treble notes. The balance of music is therefore
not altered. These earplugs have been in wide use since the
late 1980s.
Plexiglas baffles can be erected between the cymbals and
the jazz/blues woodwind players, but should not extend higher
than the drummers ear. Such baffles can attenuate the sound
energy of the drums for the other musicians. Ensuring that
the baffles do not extend too high, ensures that the drummer
is not subject to their own high-frequency reflections, which
may increase the potential for future hearing loss.
In-the-ear monitors are small in-the-ear devices that look
like hearing aids connected to small wire cables. They can be
connected directly to the amplification system. These not only
afford some protection from overly loud music, but allow the
woodwind players to monitor their music better. Generally
however, these are not necessary unless the music levels are
very intense. Frequently, the overall sound levels on stage
during rehearsals and performances are quieter while using
these ear monitors.
Acoustic monitors are stethoscope-like devices that can be
used by acoustic bass, cello and harp players to allow them
to better hear their own instrument. A length of hearing aid
tubing plugs into ones custom made earplug on one end and
by way of a suction cup or similar attachment, it plugs onto
the tail piece, bridge, or body of the bass, cello, or harp. The
musician can better monitor their own instrument which
has the benefit of not overplaying. Wrist and arm strain is
usually reduced with such a set-up.
Hear The Music

The human ear is much like any other body parttoo much
reset. After attending a rock concert or a loud session you
may notice reduced hearing and/or tinnitus (ringing) in your
ears. And if your hearing was assessed immediately after the
concert, one would find a temporary hearing loss. After 16
hours however, your hearing should return to its baseline
(hopefully normal) level. After a loud session or concert,
dont practice for 16-18 hours. Also, its a good excuse not
to mow your lawn for a day or two!
Bass Players and Drummers
Even though it may be surprising to group bass players and

drummers together, because of the similar location in a band,
the types of noise exposure can be similar. In some cases,
the environmental strategies to minimize the potential from
hearing loss, are also similar.
Humming just prior to, and through a loud sound such as a
cymbal crash or rim shot, may afford some hearing protection.
There is a small muscle in our middle ears that contracts upon
the sensation of loud sounds. This contraction pulls on the
bones of the middle ear, thus temporarily making it harder for
sound to be transmitted through to ones inner ear. Mother
nature designed us with this, so that our own voice would not
be perceived as too loud. If one knows about an imminent
loud sound such as a cymbal crash, hum just before the crash
and sustain the hum through the sound.
Shakers are small, hockey puck sized speakers that can be
wired into the main amplification system. These shakers can
be bolted under a drummers seat, or screwed onto a 1 square
foot piece of 3/4 plywood board placed on the floor near the
bass player or drummer. The musicians feel they are playing slightly louder than they actually are. The musicians are
happy and their ears are happy.
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Plexiglas baffles can be erected between the cymbals

and the bass players, but should not extend higher than the
drummers ear. Such baffles can attenuate (lessen) the sound
energy of the drums for the other musicians. Ensuring that
the baffles do not extend too high, ensures that the drummer
is not subject to his own high-frequency reflections, which
may increase the potential for future hearing loss.
Ear monitors are small in-the-ear devices that look like
hearing aids connected to small wire cables. They can be
plugged directly into to the amplification system. These not
only afford some protection from overly loud music, but allow
the bass players and drummers to monitor their music better.
Frequently, the overall sound levels on stage during rehearsals and performances are quieter while using these monitors.
Acoustic monitors are stethoscope-like devices that can
be used by acoustic bass and cello players to allow them to
better hear their own instrument. A length of thin hearing aid
tubing plugs into ones custom made earplug on one end and
by way of a suction cup or similar attachment, it plugs onto
the tail piece, bridge, or body of the bass. The bass musician
can better monitor their own instrument which has the benefit
of not overplaying. Wrist and arm strain is usually reduced
with such a set-up.
Drummers should be using the ER-25 earplugs. Too much
ear protection can and does result in arm and wrist strain
(due to overplaying) and not enough protection can result in
continued hearing loss. The ER-25 (like its more mild form,
the ER-15) is a uniform or flat ear protector such that the bass
notes, the mid-range notes and the high-frequency notes are
all attenuated equally. The balance of music is not altered.
The human ear is much like any other body parttoo much
use and it may be damaged. The ear takes about 16 hours
Hear The Music

to reset. After attending a rock concert you may notice

reduced hearing and/or tinnitus (ringing) in your ears. And
if your hearing was assessed immediately after the concert,
one would find a temporary hearing loss. After 16 hours however, your hearing should return to its baseline (hopefully
normal) level. After a loud session or concert, dont practice
for 16-18 hours. Also, its a good excuse not to mow your
lawn for a day or two!
School Band Teachers
Several inexpensive modifications can be made to school

classrooms and portables. Such venues may not be optimal
for use as music rooms. These modifications can be accomplished without any special technical knowledge. In addition,
other modifications can be made by acoustical engineers.
While this second option may be costly, many of the changes
made by engineers may yield dramatically improved acoustic
environments.
Trumpets and other treble brass instruments should be placed
on risers. Most of the damaging energy of the trumpet is in
the higher frequency ranges, and these high-frequency treble
notes tend to emanate from the bell of the trumpet like a laser
beam. That is, high-frequency damaging sounds will tend
to go over the heads of those other musicians downwind. In
addition, the trumpet players will not need to play as hard for
their sound to be heard clearly. And by the time the trumpet
sound reaches the conductor, the levels are not nearly as
damaging as for those immediately in front of the trumpets.
A highly reflective surface, such as a blackboard, behind
the teacher/conductor is the worst possible wall covering.
High-frequency sounds tend to reflect off such surfaces
thereby adding to the overall intensity level in the room.
Moveable drapes or thick curtains can be hung over the
blackboard (or concrete wall) to absorb these unwanted
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reflections. They can then be pulled aside when the

blackboard is being used.
Carpeting can be used at the front of the room where the
conductor stands. Not only will this absorb some of the undesirable reflections, but will also allow the music teacher to
stand for longer periods of time without backaches.
3-D relief art (from the Art Department) would make an
excellent wall covering for the side walls of the music room.
In this location, the art will not be visually distracting and at
the same time absorb many of the undesirable mid- and highfrequency reflections.
There are now custom made tuned earplugs that many musicians and music teachers are using called the ER-15 earplugs.
These allow all of the music to be attenuated (lessened in
energy) equally across the full range of musical sounds. That
is, the low-bass notes are treated identically as the mid-range
and high-frequency treble notes. The balance of music is
therefore not altered. These earplugs have been in wide use
since the late 1980s.
reset. After attending a rock concert or a loud session at
school you may notice reduced hearing and/or tinnitus (ringing) in your ears. And if your hearing was assessed immediately after the concert, one would find a temporary hearing
loss. After 16 hours however, your hearing should return to
its baseline (hopefully normal) level. After a loud session
or concert, dont practice for 16-18 hours. Also, its a good
excuse not to mow your lawn for a day or two!
Hear The Music

Violins and Violas
Violins and violas can generate sufficiently loud levels of

music such that they can cause permanent hearing loss.
This is typically worse in the left ear (the ear nearer the
instrument). In many cases, the violin or viola player is
surrounded by many like instruments, such that the overall
level in an orchestra in the violin and viola sections can be
quite intense. Unlike most other instrument categories, the
ability to hear the higher frequency harmonics is crucial to
these musicians. Therefore recommendations are provided to
protect hearing and to maintain audibility of the higher
frequency harmonics.
Violins and violas should always be played away from
overhangs such as those commonly found in orchestral pits.
The roof of such overhangs frequently are treated acoustically
in order to minimize reflections. It is not uncommon that the
magnitude of the higher frequency harmonic components
of these instruments are reduced by this acoustic treatment.
Since players of violins and violas need to be aware of this
high-frequency energy, the sound is muted. These musicians
tend to play harder to compensate for this lost energy with
an unnecessary increased sound level and a possible danger
to their arms.
There are any number of acoustic baffles that can be placed
on the rear portion of a seat in an orchestra that can serve to
reduce the loudness of the instruments to the rear.
Depending on the manufacturer some are opaque and some
are transparent. Baffles do work well and serve to attenuate
(or lessen) higher frequency sounds more than bass sounds.
However, these seat baffles only work if the baffle is within
7 inches of the musicians ear. If further away, because of
reflections off the floor and music stands, the baffles have no
significant effect.
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Like other instruments, violin and viola players can use

mutes while practising, thus reducing the overall daily
exposure to noise/music. These mutes can fit over the bridge
and only result in a slight high-frequency loss of musical
information.
There are now custom made tuned earplugs that many violin
and viola players are using called the ER-15 earplugs. These
allow all of the music to be attenuated (lessened in energy)
equally across the full range of musical sounds. That is, the
low-bass notes are treated identically as the mid-range and
high-frequency treble notes. The balance of music is therefore
not altered. These earplugs have been in wide use since the
late 1980s.
reset. After attending a rock concert or a loud musical session you may notice reduced hearing and/or tinnitus (ringing)
in your ears. And if your hearing was assessed immediately
after such a concert or session, one would find a temporary
hearing loss. After 16 hours however, your hearing should
return to its baseline (hopefully normal) level. After a loud
session or concert, dont practice for 16 -18 hours. Also, its a
good excuse not to mow your lawn for a day or two!
Hear The Music

For those who just like to listen to music:

ear plugs, humming and moderation
Hearing loss is a gradual process that may not be noticed for
years. And when it does happen, people generally notice
that speech is mumbled and unclear. People may report a
ringing (or tinnitus) in their ears. By that time, it may be too
late. Prevention of hearing loss is where its at! There are
many sources of noise in the music industry explosions,
loud cymbal crashes, feedback from speakers, and the routine
noise and music of a busy life. Yet, even quiet noises, if one
listens to them long enough, can damage ones hearing. A
dial tone on a telephone, if listened to long enough, can cause
a permanent hearing loss. Its not just rock music it can be
your Walkman, or even a symphony! A permanent hearing
loss can be the result of a single loud blast, but more often
its the result of years of exposure to sounds that one would
not normally think of as damaging.
Conventional hearing protection has historically not been
well received by those in the performing arts and by music
listeners. This form of foam plug usually causes the wearer
to hear speech as if was muffled and unclear. In addition,
frequently ones own voice sounds hollow and echoey. A
solution is a tuned earplug called the ER-15 and it treats all
sound identically the low bass notes, the mid-range, and the
higher treble notes are all lessened or attenuated by the same
15 decibels. With this earplug, speech is clear and there is
significant reduction of the potential for hearing loss from
loud sounds. People who wear the ER-15 frequently forget
that they are actually wearing ear protection.
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Another strategy is to hum while you work. Humans (and

all other mammals) have a small muscle in their middle
ears that contract upon loud sounds. From an evolutionary
perspective, we have such a muscle so that our own voice
would not be too loud for us. When this muscle (called the
stapedius muscle) contracts, it pulls on the chain of bones in
the ear that conduct sounds, making them less efficient as
conductors. Sound from the environment therefore cannot
get through to our ears as readily, thus providing us significant
protection. If you know that a loud sound or blast is about
to occur, start humming before the blast and continue until
the blast is finished. Drummers have known this for years
without being told.
Finally, permanent hearing loss starts as a series of temporary hearing losses. When you come out of a rock concert or
other loud venue, your hearing may temporarily be decreased.
You might noticed this as a muffled feeling and may notice
ringing or tinnitus. This temporary hearing loss resolves after
about 16-18 hours. Eventually it may become permanent.
The strategy would therefore involve moderation. If you
see a loud rock group on Friday night, dont mow your lawn
on Saturday. Wait until Sunday, or better still get someone
else to do it!
Hear The Music

Chapter 5: Twenty-Five
Frequently Asked Questions
1) What happens when we get a music related
hearing loss?
Most people reach the ripe old age of 50 without any hearing
problems, but others suffer a very slow and gradual hearing
loss that may not be noticed for years. Certainly working in a
noisy factory is one such cause. And listening to loud music
is another. The ear is made up of three parts- the outer ear,
the middle ear, and you guessed it, the inner ear. The inner
ear is about the size of a small finger nail and contains about
15,500 nerve endings, called hair cells. When some of these
hair cells are damaged, you have a permanent hearing loss.
Damage to the outer and middle ears is usually temporary
and can be treated by a doctor.
2) What are some other causes of permanent
hearing loss?
Other than hearing loss associated with aging (called presbycusis), the single greatest cause is working around noise.
The ear does not know the difference between loud noise and
loud music. To the ear, noise and music are just vibrations
in the air. Rarely, a person may suffer a permanent hearing
loss from a virus or even a brain tumor. These usually have a
sudden onset and may be accompanied by dizziness. Hearing
loss from noise or music tends to be gradual in nature with no
dizziness. If one experiences dizziness or a sudden hearing
loss, one should contact their doctor.
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Twenty Five Frequently Asked Questions
3) Can my hearing loss be treated with

medicine or surgery?
Only hearing losses that are from the middle ear (where kids
get ear infections) or from the outer ear (such as wax occlusion) can be treated. Rarely can a hearing loss be treated if
it is from the inner ear. The inner ear is actually in the brain,
so inner ear surgery is brain surgery! Having said all this,
researchers are working on a vaccination that can be given
to reverse inner ear hearing loss.
4) I went to a concert last night and my ears are
still ringing. Will this stop?
The ringing is called tinnitus. Actually, tinnitus refers to any
noises that are heard in the head, that dont come from the
outside. Tinnitus comes in two flavorsobjective and subjective. Objective tinnitus is tinnitus that can be heard by other
people. This is very rare, and is usually related to blood vessel
problems in the ear. Subjective tinnitus is much more common and refers to the type of tinnitus that only the person can
hear. But, to answer your question: You are probably suffering
from TTS from the concert.
5) Well, ... thank you for that, but what is TTS?
What a good question! TTS stands for Temporary Threshold
Shift. This is a fancy way of saying temporary hearing loss.
After a loud concert, or a day in the factory, your hearing is
temporarily reduced. After about 16 hours to 18 hours, this
resolves and your hearing should return to the level it was before (hopefully normal). When the hearing is reduced, there is
frequently tinnitus, which is especially noticed in quiet places
such as when you are trying to sleep. The tinnitus and hearing loss (sometimes felt as a numbness in your ears) should
completely resolve after 16 hours.
Hear The Music

6) If my tinnitus goes away after 16 hours, is it safe

to go to another concert after?
The short answer is yes and no. It is true that the ear recovers after about 16 hours and can take on new challenges of
loud music, but TTS is a warning signal of being exposed to
too much music. If you go to a rock concert on Friday night,
dont mow your lawn until Sunday (or better yet, get someone
else to do it!) However, once you have a music related (or
noise related) hearing loss, it is permanent, so do whatever it
takes to prevent it. Certainly moderation is one idea. Enjoy
that loud song, but when its over, turn down the volume a bit
to give your ears a rest.
7) What else can happen as my hearing gets worse?
In some sense, hearing loss is the least of your worries. After
all, it is very gradual, and only affects the very high pitched
sounds... so you may not notice it for years to come. But,
with hearing loss comes two other things that can be very
annoyingor if you are a musician, can be career ending.
They are pitch perception problems and permanent tinnitus.
Pitch perception problems, as the name suggests, means that
a person with a significant hearing loss may hear one note as
another (and have limited understanding for speech). And can
you imagine having a constant hum or whistle in your head
day and night? This is what many people report with permanent tinnitus. So, ... prevention of hearing loss is where its at.
8) So what can be done if I do have tinnitus that
wont go away?
Dont panicthis is rather uncommon, but it does occur on
occasion. There is almost always a hearing loss associated
with the tinnitus. Using a small hearing aid (and there are
some that fit invisibly into the ear canal) not only will help
you hear better, but will tend to mask or block out the tinnitus
in the majority of people. Being overly concerned about it is
another problem. The last thing someone should do is become
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CHAPTER 5
stressed as this may make the tinnitus more noticeable. There

are therapy programs that serve to retrain the brain to ignore
tinnitus and these can be very successful. Contact your local
audiologist or doctor if this becomes a problem.
9) I understand that rock music can be damaging
to my hearing, but I cant believe that Mozart or
Beethoven can be bad for me.
Believe it or not, but Classical music or specifically playing
classical music can be more damaging than rock music.
Research has shown that about 30% of rock musicians have
a hearing loss, and about 52% of classical musicians suffer
from this problem. The main difference is that classical musicians rehearse, perform, and teach more hours each week
than typical rock musicians. And classical musicians tend
to be clustered closer together than rock musicians. So even
though the peak sound levels in a rock band may be higher
than in an orchestra, the total weekly dosage of a classical
musician is greater.
10) Are there any other differences between classical musicians and rock musicians besides the
obvious?
You mean, beyond the long hair? Although this next issue
is highly variable, many classical musicians dont like their
music as much as rock musicians do. It is this disliking or
hating of the music that is partially responsible for the difference in susceptibility between rock and classical musicians.
Research has shown (see Chapter 2) that if you dislike the
music, it is actually more damaging than if you like it. Classical or orchestra musicians may play the same piece of music
countless times, and become bored with it. In addition, an
orchestra musician has their music selected for them by a
conductor or artistic director. They may not like the selected
pieces. In contrast, a rock musician tends to play their own
musicmusic that they love. This research has been repli-
Hear The Music

cated many different ways, always with similar results. So,

go ahead and enjoy your music (in moderation).
11) Let me get this straight. If I like my music, it is
less damaging to my hearing?
No. Its the other way around. Liking the music will not
decrease the potential damage. Its an issue of disliking or
hating it that makes music potentially more damaging. Were
not sure exactly why that happens, but there are two theories.
One is that when you are under stress, certain hormones are
released in your inner ear that makes it more susceptible to
hearing loss. A second theory is related to the fact that there
are a series of feedback loops from the brain back to the inner
ear. These feedback signals can change the susceptibility of
the inner ear to damage.
12) So what are the factors affecting hearing loss?
The two main factors are how intense the music or noise is, and
how long one has been exposed to it. We know from research
that prolonged exposure to 85 decibels (dB) or greater, over
time will cause a permanent hearing loss. A level of 85 dB
is not particularly loud - a dial tone on a telephone is about
that! Even though it is not loud, it is intense enough to be
damaging. But, it also depends on how long you are exposed
to it. Research has found that the maximum exposure each
week should be less than 85 dB for 40 hours. This is identical to 88 dB for only 20 hours. That is, for each increase of
3 decibels, you can only be exposed for half as long. Saying
it differently, for every 3 decibel increase, your exposure
doubles. Other less significant factors are your liking of the
music, general health, and hereditary factors.
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13) I listen to my MP-3 player at about half

volume. Is this level OK?
Well, lets find out. We know that MP-3 players generate about
85 decibels at about 1/3 volume control. Many MP-3 players
yield about 95 decibels at half volume. Lets do some math
85 dB for 40 hours, is the same as 88 dB for 20 hours, which
is the same as 91 dB for 10 hours, and this is the same as 94
dB for 5 hours each week. Therefore you can listen to your
MP-3 player safely at one half volume for about 5 hours each
week. If your favorite song comes on, turn up the volume and
enjoy, but be sure to turn it back down after.
14) I have tried earplugs but they sound hollow.
Also, I cant really hear the high-end. Are there
better earplugs?
Because of the laws of physics, earplugs lessen (attenuate) the
sound energy for the higher pitches more than the lower bass
notes. Typically earplugs will cause music to sound hollow
without much high-end. In the late 1980s, a company named
Etymotic Research came out with a flat earplug- one that
lessens the sound energy for the high pitched notes as much
as for the low bass notes. These use a small acoustic amplifier
that puts back many of the high pitched sounds. Musicians
and music listeners then can hear their music unaffected, except that its at a non-damaging level. These earplugs come
in several amounts of protection- 9 decibels of protection
(ER-9),15 decibels of protection (ER-15) and 25 decibels of
protection (ER-25). Different musicians use different earplug.
(See Table 3-I for a listing of which earplug is best for which
musical instrument).
15) Im a drummer and sometimes when I wear
earplugs, my wrists hurt. What is happening here?
Wow! Its as if I wrote this question myself! I see this clinically all of the time. Many drummers use industrial strength
earplugs, like those used in factories. These earplugs take off
Hear The Music

a lot of the sound of the high hat cymbal and rim shot of the
drum. The drummer needs to hit harder in order to hear properly, with the result of wrist and arm damage. Using proper
ear protection will resolve this. Drummers should be using
the ER-25 earplugenough ear protection to prevent further
hearing loss, and enough audibility of the music, so that they
will not overplay. (For further information, see Chapter 3).
16) Ive seen musicians on TV wearing what look
like hearing aids connected to small wires. What
are these?
These are called in-the-ear monitors, and they are a form
of a modified hearing aid. Musicians use them as their own
monitoring system instead of the small wedge monitors on
the floor of the stage. The wires are connected to the sound
amplification system either directly or though a wireless
transmitter. The musician can then hear their own music as
well as that of the other musicians, but at a safe level. When
musicians use in-the-ear monitors, the overall sound level on
stage is typically much less than if they were using conventional wedge monitors.
17) I play the bass in a band, but cant really hear
myself play because the drummer is so loud. Is
there anything that I can do?
Unfortunately (for bass players) they usually stand near the
drummer. Many bass players (and drummers) use a special
type of loudspeaker called a shaker. These small hockey
puck sized devices are designed to enhance the very low
pitched bass notes. Shakers are plugged into the main sound
amplification system. With this set-up, the bass players and
drummers have a better awareness of their own music, and as
such, do not have to play as loud. The overall sound level is
less, but everyone thinks they are playing louder. The musicians are happy and the music is less damaging.
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18) I practice in a small room. What changes can

I make to reduce the sound levels... P.S. I dont
have much money!
There are some inexpensive changes you can make. Wall
coverings and floor coverings are the two easiest things you
can do. If there is nothing on the walls, try putting up some
heavy drapes. These will absorb many of the undesirable
reflections. Also, carpeting will serve the same purpose for
those reflections from the floor. A drop ceiling is starting to
get a bit costly, but this will also help. Finally, you should be
using hearing protection such as the ER-15 or ER-25. These
will let you hear your music, but at a safe level.
19) I have seen some clear plastic shields up
on stage in front of the drummer. What are these
used for and do they work?
These are called baffles and are usually made of Plexiglas or lucite. All baffles, because of the laws of physics,
attenuate (or lessen) the intensity of higher pitched sounds
more than the lower bass notes. These baffles are designed
to lessen the energy for those high pitched high hat cymbals,
and rim shot hits that a drummer may make. This protects
the other musicians and helps to improve the balance of the
music. Note that the low bass thumping sounds from the bass
drum are not really affected. The only trick with baffles
is that they should not extend up above the drummers ear.
The last thing anyone would want is to cause more hearing
loss in the drummer by being forced to hear his music, not
once, but twice (the initial sound and the reflection off the
back of the baffle).
20) I have also seen some baffles hooked onto the
back of some seats at the symphony. What are these
used for?
These are typically used on the seats of violinists and viola
players. In many cases, these musicians need to sit in front
Hear The Music

of the brass or percussion sections, and they serve to lessen

the energy from these louder instruments. The only problem
with a seat baffle is that it has to be within 7 inches (18 cm
for Canadians, eh?) of the violinists ear. If it is further away,
there is minimal benefit because of the reflections off the floor,
ceiling, and music stands.
21) Can I do anything with my loudspeakers to
hear better and to protect myself from further
hearing loss?
Loudspeakers do not send all sounds out equally. Typically
the low pitched bass notes emanate from all parts of the
loudspeaker- bass notes are equally loud from the back, front,
top and sides. However, the higher pitched notes come out
almost like a laser beam- in a straight line. If the loudspeakers
can be tilted to aim towards your ears, you will hear a flatter,
more true sound. And, more importantly, if the loudspeaker
is aimed at your ears, the overall volume control level will
be lower. In this way, even though the music will sound as
loud, it will be less intense. That means it will be less damaging. Intensity is what causes hearing loss, whereas loudness
is simply your impression of the sound. Some researchers
suggest elevating the loudspeakers, and this can be useful,
but be careful. Some loudspeakers are designed to be left on
the floor. Check with the manufacturer or retailer before you
elevate loud speakers to see if this would be a problem.
22) When I go to a concert in a large venue, the
band is set back from the edge of the stage. Is this
to protect them from the fans?
How observant you are! It may be to protect them, but there
is an acoustic reason as well. The lip of the stage in front of
the band or orchestra acts as an acoustic mirror. That is, the
higher pitched sounds of the band not only come off the stage
to the audience but also reflect off the lip of the stage, thereby
enhancing the higher pitched sounds. The band members
87
88 CHAPTER 5
dont have to play as loud up on stage in order for the people

in the audience to hear it better. Not only are the musicians
performing at a safer level, but the potential for arm and wrist
injuries are lessened.
23) My friend is a drummer and whenever he
practices, he hums and grunts. Is he weird or is
he doing this for a reason?
He isnt weird (... well, he might be...) but many percussionists
hum and grunt. There is a small muscle in the middle ear that
mother nature gave us so that our own voice would not be too
loud to ourselves (called the stapedial muscle). It has been
shown that if one hums or grunts just prior to a loud sound
and continues that hum through the sound, this muscle in the
ear continues to contract, providing an attenuation (or lessening) of the sound energy. So your friend is actually protecting
his hearing. Some of the function of the stapedial muscle is
discussed in Chapters 1 and 2.
24) I teach music in a high school and the room is
awful. Is there anything I can do to improve it? ...
P.S. I dont have much money!
Actually there are several things you can do that are easy to
accomplish and inexpensive. Incidentally, there is a fact sheet
on this topic entitled School Band Teachers (see Chapter
4). You can place the trumpet players on risers as this will
allow the higher pitched harmonics of the trumpet to literally
go over the heads of the other musicians downwind. You
can put up some drapes over the blackboard behind you while
you are playing in order to dampen the unwanted reflections.
These drapes can be pulled aside when you want to use the
blackboard. Finally, get the Art Department to make some
3-D relief art that can be placed on the side walls. This will
also help to lessen the unwanted reflections. High school band
teachers, because of the number of hours each week that they
must be in a band room should consider the ER-15 earplugs.
Hear The Music

Teachers are at risk of hearing loss and have successfully

won cases with the Workers Compensation Board or other
regulatory government agencies, in the past.
25) Do you have any specific information or
suggestions for bagpipers?
Bagpipes are a fascinating instrument- the only modern
instrument with no volume control! The output of bagpipes
has been measured at 108 dB, and combine that with the
drum corps to their rear and you can have a real problem.
The hearing protection of choice is the ER-15 earplug if the
piper is solo and the ER-25 earplug if drums are around. Of
course, the same precautions/moderation should be taken as
other woodwinds. You can check out the Woodwind fact
sheet in Chapter 4 for more information.
26) What earplugs do you suggest for musicians?
There are three major types of ear plugs for musicians the
ER-15, the ER-25, and vented/tuned ear plugs. The ER-25
is generally only recommended for drummers. The ER-15
is the ear plug of choice for most other rock and blues instruments, as well as most classical instruments. The vented/
tuned ear plugs are useful for those instruments that either do
not have much treble sound energy (such as the acoustic bass
and cello), or for those instruments that are not particularly
damaging (such as the clarinet), but have to play near other
noisy instruments, such as the drums.
27) Where can I get musician ear plugs?
Musician ear plugs, like the ER-15, can be obtained from anyone that makes hearing aids. I would contact an audiologist
and they can either make the ear plugs fro you, or send you to
someone who specializes in musicians. Remember however,
that while ear plugs are very important, they are only one of
the many things that can be done to reduce music exposure.
Environmental strategies (many of which are inexpensive)
can be very useful.
89

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Hear The Music

Hearing Loss Prevention for Musicians

Copyright 2001, 2006, and 2010 by Dr. Marshall Chasin.

Chapter 1: Hearing and Hearing Loss ...........................

Chapter 2: Factor Affecting Hearing Loss ..................... 21

Hear The Music

Chapter 1: Hearing and

he ear is an amazing organ that causes one to suspect

Hearing and Hearing Loss

The jargon of musicians and scientists have long kept them

Hear The Music

Hearing and Hearing Loss

What is a decibel continued

What is twice (or double) the intensity? Recall that a decibel is

The Human Ear

The ear is composed of several sections: the outer ear, the

The Outer Ear

The outer earthe section bounded by the pinna on the outside

Hear The Music

Structure of a Human Ear

Figure 1-2: The Human Ear is made up of 3 portions: the

Hearing and Hearing Loss

The 3000 Hz resonance (shown in Figure 1-3) is inversely

Figure 1-3: The natural amplification of the outer

Hear The Music

Hearing and Hearing Loss

The Middle Ear

The middle ear has three major characteristics that relate to

Hear The Music

own voice, especially for the mid- and low-frequency sounds.

Hearing and Hearing Loss

Hear The Music

The Inner Ear

Hearing and Hearing Loss

Hear The Music

The Shape of Things to Come

Hearing losses from a wide range of music and noise sources

Hearing and Hearing Loss

Hear The Music

Tinnitus and Hyperacusis

Tinnitus is defined as a perceived acoustic sensation that

Hearing and Hearing Loss

the emotional part of the brain. Once the patient becomes

Hear The Music

Chapter 2: Factors Affecting

Hearing loss is caused by many different factors. These may

The Intensity Of Music

Factors Affecting Hearing Loss

shown that musicians routinely are exposed to almost 200%

Hear The Music

Temporary and Permanent Hearing Loss

We all have experienced temporary hearing loss after a

Factors Affecting Hearing Loss

Hear The Music

intensity. A dial tone on a telephone is about 85 dB, and a

Factors Affecting Hearing Loss

Table 2-I: Prediced permanent hearing loss as a

music, for 20 hours each week at 88 dB, 10 hours each week

Hear The Music