Basics of Communications

&
Antenna theory

Welcome All Trainees

Course No. 270
By
Rajesh Suwalka
Engineer (WMTDC)

Analog Vs Digital Signals

BASIC COMMUNIATION THEORY

Transmitter: The sub-system that takes the information signal

Channel: The medium which transports the modulated signal to

Receiver: The sub-system that takes in the transmitted signal

and processes it prior to transmission. The transmitter modulates

the information onto a carrier signal, amplifies the signal and
broadcasts it over the channel

the receiver. Air acts as the channel for broadcasts like radio.
May also be a wiring system like cable TV or the Internet.

from the channel and processes it to retrieve the information

signal. The receiver must be able to discriminate the signal from
other signals which may using the same channel (called tuning),
amplify the signal for processing and demodulate (remove the
carrier) to retrieve the information.

MODULATION & Its types

WHY Modulation

AM & FM
FM

AM

Comparison between AM and FM

Comparison between AM and FM

Bandwidth Calculation

AM

FM

Modulation Index =
frequency deviation /
Modulating Signal
frequency
Percentage modulation =
frequency deviation actual
/ frequency deviation max
Carson formula for BW of
FM

MOBILE COMMUNICATION CDMA & GSM

GSM

CDMA

Based on TDMA

It's a "time division" system. Calls

take turns. Your voice is

transformed into digital data, which
is given a channel and a time slot,
so three calls on one channel look
like this: 123123123123. On the
other end, the receiver listens only
to the assigned time slot and
pieces the call back together.

Based on CDMA
CDMA required a bit more processing
power. It's a "code division" system.
Every call's data is encoded with a
unique key, then the calls are all
transmitted at once; if you have calls
1, 2, and 3 in a channel, the channel
would just say 66666666. The
receivers each have the unique key to
"divide" the combined signal into its
individual calls.
Code division turned out to be a more
powerful and flexible technology, so
"3G GSM" is actually a CDMA
technology, called WCDMA (wideband
CDMA) or UMTS (Universal Mobile
Telephone System).

Comparison between GSM and CMDA

Mobile communication system

Sub-systems of GSM

I.
II.
III.

GSM networks consist of thee major systems:

SS, which is known to be The Switching System;
BSS, which is also called The Base Station; and
the Operation and Support System for GSM networks.

Below all three systems are defined in details with sub systems of each system.

HLR- Home Location Register:

HLR is database, which holds very important information of subscribers. It is mostly
known for storing and managing information of subscribers. It contains subscriber
service profile, status of activities, information about locations and permanent data of
all sorts. When new connections are purchased, these subscribers are registered in
HLR of mobile phone companies.

The Switching System The Switching system is very operative system in which many
crucial operations are conducted, SS systems holds five databases with in it which
performs different functions. If we talk about major tasks of SS system it performs call
processing and subscriber related functions. These five databases from SS systems
are HLR, MSC, VLR, AUC and EIR. Lets study each database in detail and learn what
functions this little systems performs.

Sub-systems of GSM

MSC- Mobile Services Switching Center:

MSC is also important part of SS, it handles technical end of telephony.It is build to
perform switching functionality of the entire system. Its most important task is to
control the calls to and from other telephones, which means it controls calls from
same networks and calls from other networks. Toll ticketing, common channel
signaling, network interfacing etc are other tasks which MSC is responsible for.

VLR- Visitor Location Register:

VLR performs very dynamic tasks; it is database which stores temporary data
regarding subscribers which is needed by Mobile Services Switching Center-MSC VLR
is directly connected to MSC, when subscribe moves to different MSC location, Visitor
location register VLR integrates to MSC of current location and requests the data
about subscriber or Mobile station ( MS ) from the Home Location Register HLR. When
subscriber makes a call the Visitor location register-VLR will have required information
for making call already and it will not required to connect to Home Register Location
HRL again.

AUC- Authentication Center:

AUC is small unit which handles the security end of the system. Its major task is to
authenticate and encrypt those parameters which verify users identification and
hence enables the confidentiality of each call made by subscriber. Authentication
center AUC makes sure mobile operators are safe from different frauds most likely to
happen when hackers are looking for even smallest loop wholes in systems.

Sub-systems of GSM

EIR Equipment Identity Register:

EIR is another important database which holds crucial information regarding mobile
equipments. EIR helps in restricting for calls been stolen, malfunctioning of any MS, or
unauthorized access. AUC Authentication center and EIR- Equipment Identity
registers are either Stand-alone nodes or some times work together as combined
AUC/EIR nodes for optimum performance.

The Base Station System (BSS) The base station system have very important role in
mobile communication. BSS are basically out door units which consist of iron rods and
are usually of high length. BSS are responsible for connecting subscribers (MS) to
mobile networks. All the communication is made in Radio transmission. The Base
station System is further divided in two systems. These two systems, they are BSC,
and BTS. Lets study these two systems in detail.

BTS The Base Transceiver Station:

Subscriber, MS (Mobile Station) or mobile phone connects to mobile network through
BTS; it handles communication using radio transmission with mobile station. As name
suggests, Base transceiver Station is the radio equipment which receive and transmit
voice data at the same time. BSC control group of BTSs.

Sub-systems of GSM

BSC The Base Station Controller:

The Base Station normally controls many cells, it registers subscribers, responsible for
MS handovers etc. It creates physical link between subscriber (MS) and BTS , then
manage and controls functions of it. It performs the function of high quality switch by
handover over the MS to next BSC when MS goes out of the current range of BTS, it
helps in connecting to next in range BTS to keep the connection alive within the
network. It also performs functions like cell configuration data, control radio frequency
in BTS. Data moves to MSC-Mobile switching center after BSC done processing it. MSC
is switching center which acts as bridge between different mobile networks.

The Operation and Support System (OSS)

OMC- Operations and maintenance center is designed to connect to equipment of MSCMobile Switching Center and BSC-Base Station Controller. The implementation of OMC
is called OSS-The Operations and Support System.OSS helps in mobile networks to
monitor and control the complex systems.The basic reason for developing operation
and support system is to provide customers a cost effective support and solutions. It
helps in managing, centralizing, local and regional operational activities required for
GMS networks.

Maintaining mobile network organization, provide overview of network, support and

maintenance activities are other important aspects of Operation and Support System

Relation between different areas in

GSM

In a GSM network, the following

areas are defined:
Cell : Cell is the basic service area;
one BTS covers one cell. Each cell
is given a Cell Global Identity
(CGI), a number that uniquely
identifies the cell.
Location Area : A group of cells
form a Location Area (LA). This is
the area that is paged when a
subscriber gets an incoming call.
Each LA is assigned a Location
Area Identity (LAI). Each LA is
served by one or more BSCs.
MSC/VLR Service Area : The area
covered by one MSC is called the
MSC/VLR service area.
PLMN : The area covered by one
network operator is called the
Public
Land
Mobile
Network
(PLMN). A PLMN can contain one
or more MSCs.

CDMA Code Division

Multiple Access

CDMA is a spread-spectrum multiple access technique. A spread spectrum technique

spreads the bandwidth of the data uniformly for the same transmitted power. A spreading
code is a pseudo-random code.

In CDMA a locally generated code runs at a much higher rate than the data to be
transmitted. Data for transmission is combined via bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) with the
faster code. The figure shows how a spread spectrum signal is generated. The data signal
with pulse duration of (symbol period) is XORed with the code signal with pulse duration
of (chip period).

Each user in a CDMA system uses a different code to modulate their signal. Choosing the
codes used to modulate the signal is very important in the performance of CDMA systems.
The best performance will occur when there is good separation between the signal of a
desired user and the signals of other users.

Handoff/Handover

Handoff or Handover is the term most popular in cellular communication. It refers to

transfer of mobile connection from one resource to another without disconnecting the
voice or data call and falls in following categories. This happens when mobile device is
moving at vehicular speed and using wireless cellular connection for voice/data call.

Factors causing handoff/handover in the wireless system:

1. Signal strength/power
2.speed of the device/mobile
3. weaker signal from serving Base station and strong signals from neighbor base
stations
4. Bit Error Rate
5. Interference from adjacent channels

There are two main types soft handoff and hard handoff based on connection with the
target resource.

Hard handoff- break before make, in this type connection with the source
channel/BTS/BSC is first broken before making connection with target
channel/BTS/BSC.
soft handoff- make before break, in this type connection with the source
channel/BTS/BSC is retained for sometime before connection with the target
channel/BTS/BSC is established. In this type user of cellular network will not
experience any glitch and will continue to receive better service.

Antenna Types and

Applications

Antenna Principles
Radiation Resistance

Antenna Pattern
Directivity and
Gain
Bandwidth
Signal-To-Noise
Ratio

Rrad

Prad
2
I

Antenna Principles

Antenna Gain: The parameter that measures the degree of directivity of antennas
radial pattern is known as gain. An antenna with a higher gain is more effective in its
radiation pattern. Antennas are designed in such a way that power raises in wanted
direction and decreases in unwanted directions.
G = (power radiated by an antenna)/(power radiated by reference antenna)

Aperture: This aperture is also known as the effective aperture of the antenna that
actively participate in transmission and reception of electromagnetic waves. The
power received by the antenna gets associated with collective area. This collected
area of an antenna is known as effective aperture.

Directivity and Bandwidth: The directive of an antenna is defined as the measure of

concentrated power radiation in a particular direction. It may be considered as the
capability of an antenna to direct radiated power in a given direction. It can also be
noted as the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction to the average radiation
intensity. Bandwidth is one of the desired parameters to choose an antenna. It can be
defined as the range of frequencies over which an antenna can properly radiates
energy and receives energy.

Polarization: An electromagnetic wave launched from an antenna may be polarized

vertically and horizontally. If the wave gets polarized in the vertical direction, then the
E vector is vertical and it requires a vertical antenna. If vector E is in horizontal way, it
needs a horizontal antenna to launch it. Sometimes, circular polarization is used, it is a
combination of both horizontal and vertical ways.

Antenna Principles

Polarization and its different types

Polarization
is
defined
as
the
orientation of electric field as a
function of direction. The polarization
of the radio wave can be defined by
direction in which the electric vector E
is aligned during the passage of atleast
one full cycle.

Types of Antennas

Log Periodic Antennas

Bow Tie Antennas
Log-Periodic Dipole Array

The polarization are of three types.

Wire Antennas
Short Dipole Antenna
Dipole Antenna
Monopole Antenna
Loop Antenna

Linear Polarization: A linearly polarized

wave is one in which the electric field
remains in only one direction

Travelling Wave Antennas

Helical Antennas
Yagi-Uda Antennas

Elliptical polarization: The electric field

vector rotates and form a ellipse called
polarization ellipse.

Microwave Antennas
Rectangular Micro strip Antennas
Planar Inverted-F Antennas

Circular polarization: The electric filed

vector rotates and form a circle and
this wave is called circularly polarized
wave.

Reflector Antennas
Corner Reflector
Parabolic Reflector

Antenna Types
Wave Dipole
E:
H:

Wave Monopole
E:
H:

Antenna Types
Loop Antennas

Microstrip Antennas

Antenna Types
Horn Antennas
Helical
Antennas

Log Periodic Antenna

The ratio of the successive

element lengths (L_(n+1)/L_n) be
equal to some constant k, and
that the distance between
elements (d_(n+1)/d_n) also
equal k. This is a log periodic
structure.

Log-Periodic antennas antennas

are designed for the specific
purpose of having a very
wide bandwidth. The achievable
bandwidth is theoretically
infinite; the actual bandwidth
achieved is dependent on how
large the structure is (to
determine the lower frequency
limit) and how precise the finer
(smaller) features are on the
antenna (which determines the
upper frequency limit).

Antenna Applications
VHF and UHF Antennas

Transmitting Tower

UHF/VHF/FM
Receiving Antenna