Rotational Mechanics

Contents
1 Introduction

2 Rotational Kinematics
2.1 Angular displacement, velocity, & acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Rotation with constant angular acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Relationship between linear and angular quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2
2
4
4

3 Rotational Energy

4 Calculation of Moment of Inertia

5 Rotational Dynamics
5.1 Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Relation between Torque and Angular acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9
9
11

6 Work, Power and Energy

6.1 Work and power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Work and energy in rotational motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14
14
14

Rotational Kinematics

Introduction

When an extended object, such as a wheel, rotates about its axis, the motion cannot be analyzed
by treating the object as a particle because at any given time dierent parts of the object have
dierent linear velocities and linear accelerations. For this reason, it is convenient to consider
an extended object as a large number of particles, each of which has its own linear velocity and
linear acceleration.
In dealing with a rotating object, analysis is greatly simplified by assuming that the object is
rigid. A rigid body is one that is nondeformable, that is, it is an object in which the separations
between all pairs of particles remain constant. All real bodies are deformable to some extent;
however, our rigidbody model is useful in many situations in which deformation is negligible.
We begin by stating without any proof, the following theorem concerned with the general
motion of a rigid body:
Theorem 1 (Chasles Theorem). The most general displacement of a rigid body is a translation plus a rotation.
We already know how to describe a translational motion1 . We now turn to description of
rotational motion about a fixed axis, which is also referred to as pure rotational motion.

Rotational Kinematics

 Definition 1 (Rotational motion). If a body moves so that along some straight line, all the
particles of the body (or a hypothetical extension of the body) have zero velocity relative to some
reference frame, the body is said to be in rotation relative to this reference frame. The line of
stationary particles is called the axis of rotation.
The feature characterizing rotational motion is that, every particle of the rigid body moves
in a circular path (dierent radii for dierent particles) whose centers lie on the axis of rotation.

2.1

Angular displacement, velocity, & acceleration

Consider a rigid body rotating about an axis that is fixed in a given reference frame (see Figure 1). Suppose it accomplishes an infinitesimal rotation during the time interval dt. We shall

describe the corresponding angular displacement by the vector d

whose magnitude is equal
to the rotation angle and whose direction coincides with the axis OO , with the rotation direction

obeying the righthand thumb rule with respect to direction of vector d

(Figure 2).
Now let us find the elementary linear displacement of any point A of the rigid body resulting

from such a rotation. The location of the point A is specified by the position vector
r drawn
from a certain point O on the axis (O is thus the origin). Then the linear displacement of the end

point of the position vector

r is associated with the rotation angle d by the relation (Figure 1):

|d
r | = r sin d,
or in vector form by the vector product

d
r = d

r.

(1)

In this kind of motion, any straight line fixed to rigid body remains parallel to its initial orientation. Translation
can be described exactly like particle kinematics.

Anant Kumar

Mob. No. 8967881837, 9932347531

Rotational Kinematics
O

dr

Figure 1: A rigid body rotating about a fixed axis.

Figure 2: The righthand thumb rule for

determining the direction of angular displacement, velocity, and acceleration.

Note that this equality holds only for an infinitesimal rotation d

. In other words, only in
2
finitesimal rotations can be treated as vectors . Moreover, the vector introduced (d
)
can be shown to satisfy the basic property of vectors, that is, vector addition.

Note that in treating such quantities as position vector

r , velocity
v , acceleration
a we
did not hesitate over the choice of their direction: it naturally followed from the properties of the
quantities themselves. Such vectors are called polar vectors. On the other hand, such vectors as

d
, whose direction is specified by the rotation direction are called axial.
Now let us introduce the concept of angular velocity and angular acceleration. The angular

velocity vector
is defined as the time rate at which the angular displacement changes:

,

dt

(2)

where dt is the time interval during which a body performs the rotation given by d
. The vector

is axial and its direction coincides with that of the vector d .

The time variation of the vector

is defined by the angular acceleration:

.
dt

(3)

The direction of the vector

coincides with the direction of the infinitesimal increment d
of

the vector . Both and are axial.

The representation of angular velocity and angular acceleration in vector form proves to be
very beneficial, especially in the study of more complicated kind of motion of a rigid body.
2

In case of finite rotation through an angle , the linear displacement of the point A can be found from Figure 1
)
(

.
| r | = r sin 2 sin
2

Whence, it is immediately seen that the displacement

r cannot be represented as a vector cross product.

as:

Anant Kumar

Mob. No. 8967881837, 9932347531

Rotational Kinematics

Finally, we write the expressions for angular velocity and angular acceleration via projections
on the rotation axis z whose positive direction is associated with the positive direction of the
coordinate , the rotation angle, in accordance with the righthand thumb rule. Then the

projections z and z of the vectors

and
on the z axis are defined by the following
formulae:
d
,
dt
dz
z =
.
dt
z =

(4)
(5)

Here, z and z are algebraic quantities. Their sign specifies the direction of the corresponding

vector. For example, if z > 0, then the direction of the vector

coincides with the positive

direction of the z axis; and if z < 0, then the vector has the opposite direction. The same is
true for angular acceleration.
Example 1. A solid rotates about a stationary axis in accordance with the law = at bt2 /2, where a
and b are positive constants. Let us determine the motion characteristics of this body.
In accordance with (4) and (5)
z = a bt;

z = b = constant.

Whence it is seen that the body performs a uniformly decelerated rotation (z < 0), comes to a standstill
at the instant t0 = a/b and then reverses its rotation direction (due to z changing its sign to the opposite.)

2.2

Rotation with constant angular acceleration

In our study of linear motion, we found that the simplest form of accelerated motion to analyze
is motion under constant linear acceleration. Likewise, for rotational motion about a fixed axis,
the simplest accelerated motion to analyze is motion under constant angular acceleration. If we
write (5) in the form dz = z dt, and let the initial time ti = 0 and the final time tf = t, we can
integrate directly to obtain
z = z0 + z t,

(for constant z )

(6)

where z0 is the z component of angular velocity at the initial time. Integrating this last expression again, and taking into account that at the initial moment the angular position was 0 , we
obtain
1
(for constant z )
(7)
= 0 + z t + z t2 .
2
Finally, if we eliminate t from these last two equations, we obtain
2
z2 = z0
+ 2z ( 0 ).

(for constant z )

(8)

Notice that these kinematic expressions for rotational motion under constant angular acceleration
are of the same form as those for linear motion under constant linear acceleration with the
substitutions x , v z , and a z .

2.3

Relationship between linear and angular quantities

Let us find the velocity

v of an arbitrary point A of a rigid body rotating about a stationary

axis OO at an angular velocity

(see Figure 3). Let the location of the point A be specified

by the position vector r measured relative to the point O on the axis of rotation. Dividing
both sides of Equation (1) by the corresponding time interval dt and taking into account that

d
r /dt =
v and d
/dt =
, we obtain

v =

r,
Anant Kumar

(9)
Mob. No. 8967881837, 9932347531

Rotational Kinematics

dt

dr

Figure 3: As a rigid object rotates about the fixed axis OO , the point A has a linear velocity that is always
tangent to the circular path of radius .

that is, the linear velocity

v of a point A of a rigid body rotating about some axis at an angular

velocity is equal to the vector cross product of

and the position vector
r of the point A
relative to some point on the axis of rotation (Figure 3).

The magnitude of the vector

v is given by v = r sin , or as seen from Figure 3,
v = ,
where is the radius of the circle which the point A circumscribes.

Next, we dierentiate (9) to obtain the linear acceleration

a of the point A:

)
d
v
d (

=

r
a =
dt
dt
(
) (
)

d
r

r +

=
dt
dt

= r + v
(
)

=

r +


r
Therefore, the linear acceleration is
(
)

a =

r +


r .

(10)

In this case (when the rotation axis is stationary),

is parallel to
(and therefore
the vector
)

r represents the tangential acceleration a t . The vector r is the normal

acceleration
a n . The magnitudes of these two vectors are
at = ;

an = 2 ,

whence the magnitude of the total acceleration is

a = a2t + a2n = 2 + 4 .
Anant Kumar

Mob. No. 8967881837, 9932347531

Rotational Energy

Rotational Energy

Let us now look at the kinetic energy of a rotating rigid object, considering the object as a

collection of particles and assuming it rotates about a fixed OO axis with angular velocity

(Figure 3). Each particle has kinetic energy determined by its mass and linear speed. If the mass

of the ith particle is mi and its linear velocity is

vi , its kinetic energy is
1
mi vi2 .
2

Ki =

To proceed further, we must recall that although every particle in the rigid object has the same
angular speed , the individual linear speeds depend on the distance i from the axis of rotation
according to the expression vi = i . The total kinetic energy of the rotating rigid object is the
sum of the kinetic energies of the individual particles:
KR =

Ki =

1
i

mi vi2 =

1
mi 2i 2 .
2
i

We can write this expression in the form

1
KR =
2

)
mi 2i

2.

(11)

where we have factored 2 from the sum because it is common to every particle.
We simplify this expression by defining the quantity in parentheses as the moment of inertia
I of the rigid body about the axis OO :

I
mi 2i .
(12)
i

From the definition of moment of inertia, we see that it has dimensions of M L2 (kgm2 in SI
units). With this notation, (11) becomes
KR =

1 2
I .
2

(13)

Although we commonly refer to the quantity 12 I 2 as rotational kinetic energy, it is not a new
form of energy. It is ordinary kinetic energy because it is derived from a sum over individual
kinetic energies of the particles contained in the rigid object. However, the mathematical form of
the kinetic energy given by (13) is a convenient one when we are dealing with rotational motion,
provided we know how to calculate I.
It is important that you recognize the analogy between kinetic energy associated with linear
motion 12 mv 2 and rotational kinetic energy 12 I 2 . The quantities I and in rotational motion
are analogous to m and v in linear motion, respectively. (In fact, I takes the place of m every time
we compare a linearmotion equation with its rotational counterpart.) The moment of inertia
is a measure of the resistance of an object to changes in its rotational motion, just as mass is a
measure of the tendency of an object to resist changes in its linear motion. Note, however, that
mass is an intrinsic property of an object, whereas moment of inertia depends on
the physical arrangement of that mass about a certain axis. Can you think of a situation
in which an objects moment of inertia changes even though its mass does not?
Example 2 (The Oxygen Molecule). Consider an oxygen molecule (O2 ) rotating in the xy plane about
the z axis. The axis passes through the center of the molecule, perpendicular to its length. The mass
of each oxygen atom is m = 2.66 1026 kg, and at room temperature the average separation between
the two atoms is d = 1.21 1010 m (the atoms are treated as point masses). (a) Calculate the moment
of inertia of the molecule about the z axis. (b) If the angular speed of the molecule about the z axis is
Anant Kumar

Mob. No. 8967881837, 9932347531

Calculation of Moment of Inertia

= 4.60 1012 rad/s, what is its rotational kinetic energy?

Solution: (a) This is a straightforward application of the definition of I. Because each atom is a distance
d/2 from the z axis, the moment of inertia about the axis is
I =

mi ri2 = m

( )2
( )2
d
d
1
+m
= md2
2
2
2

1
= (2.66 1026 kg)(1.21 1010 m)2
2
= 1.95 1046 kgm2
(b) We apply the result we just calculated for the moment of inertia in the formula for KR :
1 2
I
2
1
= (1.95 1046 kgm2 )(4.60 1012 rad/s)2
2
= 2.06 1021 J

KR =

Calculation of Moment of Inertia

We can evaluate the moment of inertia of an extended rigid object by imagining the object
divided
into many small volume elements, each having a mass mi . We use the definition3 I = i ri2 mi
and take the limit of this sum as mi 0. In this limit, the sum becomes an integral over the
whole object:

2
I = lim
ri mi = r2 dm.
(14)
mi 0

It is usually easier to calculate moments of inertia in terms of the volume of the elements rather
than their mass, and we can easily make that change by using = m/V , where is the density
of the object and V is its volume. We want this expression in its dierential form = dm/dV
because the volumes we are dealing with are very small. Solving for dm = dV and substituting
the result in (14) gives

I=

r2 dV.

(15)

If the object is homogeneous, then is constant and the integral can be evaluated for a known
geometry. If is not constant, then its variation with position must be known to complete the
integration.
The density given by = m/V sometimes is referred to as volume density for the obvious
reason that it relates to volume. Often we use other ways of expressing density. For instance,
when dealing with a sheet of uniform thickness t, we can define a surface density = t, which
signifies mass per unit area. Finally, when mass is distributed along a uniform rod of cross
sectional area A, we sometimes use linear density = M/L = A, which is the mass per unit
length.
Example 3. Find the moment of inertia of (a) a thin uniform hoop (Figure 4), and (b) a thin uniform
disk (Figure 5) of mass M and radius R about an axis passing through the center and perpendicular to
the plane.
Solution: (a) All mass elements dm are at the same distance r = R from the axis, and so the moment of
inertia

2
2
dm = M R2 .
I = r dm = R
Note that this moment of inertia is the same as that of a single particle of mass M located a distance R
from the axis of rotation.
3

Now onwards, r will be used in place of for notational reasons. The symbol will be used to denote the
mass density.
Anant Kumar

Mob. No. 8967881837, 9932347531

Calculation of Moment of Inertia

y

dr

dm

dm
O

R
R

Figure 4: The mass elements dm of a uniform

Figure 5: Calculating the moment of inertia of a

hoop are all the same distance from O.

thin uniform disk.

(b) Take the mass element as a thin ring of radius r < R having width dr as shown in Figure 5. Since
the disk is uniform, the total mass M is distributed uniformly over the entire area with a constant surface
M
. The area of the elementary ring is 2rdr and its mass is dm = 2rdr. Thus the
mass density =
R2
moment of inertia of this ring about the given axis is (using the result of the part (a))
dI = r2 dm = 2r3 dr.
Since, moment of inertia is additive, the moment of inertia of the disk about the given axis is found
by adding the moment of inertia of the elementary rings whose radius vary from 0 to R. The process is
that of integration:
r=R
R
M R4
1
R4
I=
dI = 2
= 2
= M R2 .
r3 dr = 2
2
4
R 4
2
r=0
0

The moments of inertia of rigid bodies with simple geometry (high symmetry) are relatively
easy to calculate provided the rotation axis coincides with an axis of symmetry. The calculation
of moments of inertia about an arbitrary axis can be cumbersome, however, even for a highly
symmetric object. Fortunately, use of an important theorem, called the parallelaxis theorem,
often simplifies the calculation. We state it without any proof.
Theorem 2 (Parallelaxis theorem). Suppose the moment of inertia of a rigid body of a
mass M about an axis CC through its center of mass is ICM . Then, the moment of inertia of
this body about any axis parallel to CC and a distance d away from it is
I = ICM + M d2 .

(16)

Figure 6 illustrates the theorem. One more theorem, which simplifies calculation of moment
of inertia of laminar objects is the perpendicular axis theorem. Again, it is stated without
any proof with Figure 7 illustrating the idea.
Theorem 3 (Perpendicular axis theorem). The moment of inertia of a flat, two dimensional rigid body about an axis OZ perpendicular to the plane of the body (O being an arbitrary
point in this plane) is the sum of the moments of inertia about any two mutually perpendicular
axes OX and OY , both lying in the plane of the body.
Example 4. Find the moment of inertia of a homogenous solid sphere of mass M and radius R about a
tangent.
Solution: The moment of inertia of the sphere about an axis through its center of mass (i.e. diameter) is
ICM = 25 M R2 . Applying the parallel axis theorem, the required moment of inertia becomes
I = ICM + M R2 =
Anant Kumar

7
2
M R2 + M R2 = M R2 .
5
5
Mob. No. 8967881837, 9932347531

Rotational Dynamics
C
Z
Z

IZ = IX + IY

CM
d

M
O
C

Figure 6: Illustrating the parallel axis theorem.

Figure 7: The perpendicular axis theorem for a

planar object.

Rotational Dynamics

5.1

Torque

Why are a doors doorknob and hinges placed near opposite edges of the door? This question
actually has an answer based on common sense ideas. The harder we push against the door and
the farther we are from the hinges, the more likely we are to open or close the door. When a force
is exerted on a rigid object pivoted about an axis, the object tends to rotate about that axis.
The tendency of a force to rotate an object about some axis is measured by a vector quantity

called torque
(tau).

 Definition 2 (Torque). Let a force F act at a point P whose position vector measured from

a point O be
r (see Figure 8), then the torque of F about the point O is defined as the vector

cross product of
r and F :

=
r F.
(17)
From this definition, we note the following facts:
Torque is defined about a certain point.

The magnitude of the torque, |

| = rF sin , where is the angle between the vectors
r

and F .
Plane containing vectors

r and F

Figure 8: The direction of the vector is perpendicular to the plane containing the vectors r and F , and is
determined by the righthand thumb rule.

Anant Kumar

Mob. No. 8967881837, 9932347531

10

Rotational Dynamics

The direction of the torque is perpendicular to the plane which contains the vectors
r and

F (that is, the torque is perpendicular to both the position vector and the force) and is
determined by the righthand thumb rule.
The magnitude of the torque produced by a force can be interpreted in two manners. Consider the
wrench pivoted on the axis through O in Figure 9. With respect to the point O, the magnitude

of the position vector is just r. The magnitude of the torque is |

| = rF sin . Written in
this manner, we see that torque is the product of the magnitude of the position vector and the
component F sin of the force, that is perpendicular to the position vector. Alternatively, if we
note that d = r sin is the perpendicular distance of the axis through O from the line of action

of the force F (The line of action of a force is an imaginary line extending out both ends of the

vector representing the force. The dashed line extending from the tail of F in Figure 9 is part

of the line of action of F .), we can write |

| = F d. This quantity d is called the moment arm

(or lever arm) of F .

In case, more than one force acts on a rigid body, the net torque about any point is the
vector sum of the individual torques about the same point.
Torque should not be confused with force. Forces can cause a change in linear motion,
as described by Newtons second law. Forces can also cause a change in rotational motion, but
the eectiveness of the forces in causing this change depends on both the forces and the moment
arms of the forces, in the combination that we call torque. Torque has units of force times length
newton meter in SI units and should be reported in these units. Do not confuse torque and
work, which have the same units but are very dierent concepts.
y

F sin

R1

r
R

F cos

Line of action

F1

z
2
F

Figure 9: It is the component F sin that

tends to rotate the wrench about O.

Figure 10: A solid cylinder pivoted about the z axis

1 is R1 , and the mothrough O. The moment arm of F
2 is R2 .
ment arm of F

Example 5. A onepiece cylinder is shaped as shown in Figure 10, with a core section protruding from
the larger drum. The cylinder is free to rotate around the central axis shown in the drawing (which

coincides with z axis). A rope wrapped around the drum, which has radius R1 , exerts a force F 1 to the

right on the cylinder. A rope wrapped around the core, which has radius R2 , exerts a force F 2 downward
on the cylinder. (a) What is the net torque acting on the cylinder about the rotation axis? (b) Suppose
F1 = 5.0 N, R1 = 1.0 m, F2 = 15.0 N, and R2 = 0.50 m. What is the net torque about the rotation axis,
and which way does the cylinder rotate from rest?

Solution: (a) The torque due to F 1 is R1 F1 (the sign is negative because the torque tends to produce

clockwise rotation). The torque due to F 2 is +R2 F2 (the sign is positive because the torque tends to
produce counterclockwise rotation). Therefore, the net torque about the rotation axis is

= 1 + 2 = R1 F1 + R2 F2 ,
Anant Kumar

Mob. No. 8967881837, 9932347531

11

Rotational Dynamics

the direction being along the positive z axis if the above quantity is positive, along the z axis otherwise.
We can make a quick check by noting that if the two forces are of equal magnitude, the net torque is
negative because R1 > R2 . Starting from rest with both forces acting on it, the cylinder would rotate

clockwise because F 1 would be more eective at turning it than would F 2 .

(b)

= (5.0 N)(1.0 m) + (15.0 N)(0.50 m) = 2.5 N m

Because the net torque is positive, if the cylinder starts from rest, it will commence rotating counterclockwise with increasing angular velocity. (If the cylinders initial rotation is clockwise, it will slow to a stop
and then rotate counterclockwise with increasing angular speed.)

5.2

Relation between Torque and Angular acceleration

In this section we show that the angular acceleration of a rigid object rotating about a fixed axis
is proportional to the net torque acting about that axis. Before discussing the more complex case
of rigidbody rotation, however, it is instructive first to discuss the case of a particle rotating
about some fixed point under the influence of an external force.
Consider a particle of mass m rotating in a circle of radius r (Figure 11) under the influence

of a force F that has both a normal component F n along the radius (this normal component
must be present to provide the particle the necessary centripetal acceleration), and a tangential

component F t . The tangential component provides a tangential acceleration

a t , and Ft = mat .
t
F

d Ft

dm
O

n
F

r
r

Figure 11: A particle rotating in a circle under

Figure 12: A rigid object rotating about an axis

t . A force F
n in
the influence of a tangential force F
the radial direction also must be present to maintain
the circular motion.

through O. Each mass element dm rotates about O

with the same angular acceleration
, and the net
torque on the object is proportional to
.

The torque about the center of the circle due to F t is

= Ft r = (mat )r.
Because the tangential acceleration is related to the angular acceleration through the relationship
at = r, the torque can be expressed as
= (mr)r = (mr2 ).
But mr2 is the moment of inertia of the particle about the axis that is perpendicular to the plane
of the circle and passes through the center. Thus (taking the directions into account),
= I.

(18)

That is, the torque acting on the particle is proportional to its angular acceleration,
and the proportionality constant is the moment of inertia. It is important to note that = I is
the rotational analogue of Newtons second law of motion, F = ma.
Anant Kumar

Mob. No. 8967881837, 9932347531

12

Rotational Dynamics

Now let us extend this discussion to a rigid object of arbitrary shape rotating about a fixed
axis, as shown in Figure 12. The object can be regarded as an infinite number of mass elements
dm of infinitesimal size. If we impose a cartesian coordinate system on the object, then each mass

element rotates in a circle about the origin, and each has a tangential acceleration
a t produced

by an external tangential force d F t . For any given element, we know from Newtons second law
that
dFt = (dm)at .

The torque d
associated with the force d F t acts about the origin and is given by
d = rdFt = (rdm)at .
Noting that at = r, the above expression becomes,
d = (rdm)r = (r2 dm).
It is important to recognize that although each mass element of the rigid object may have a

dierent linear acceleration

a t , they all have the same angular acceleration
. With this in
mind, we can integrate the above expression to obtain the net torque about O due to the external
forces:
(
)

2
2
= (r dm) =
r dm ,
where has been taken out of the integral because it is the same for all mass elements. Since
the quantity in the parentheses is the moment of inertia of the rigid body about the axis through
O, we obtain (after taking the directions into account):

= I
.
(19)
So, again we see that the net torque about the rotation axis is proportional to the angular
acceleration of the object, with the proportionality factor being I, a quantity that depends upon
the axis of rotation and upon the size and shape of the object. Finally, note that the above
result also applies when the forces acting on the mass elements have radial components as well
as tangential components. This is because the line of action of all radial components must pass
through the axis of rotation, and hence all radial components produce zero torque about that
axis.
Example 6 (Rotating Rod). A uniform rod of length L and mass M is attached at one end to a
frictionless pivot and is free to rotate about the pivot in the vertical plane, as shown in Figure 13. The
rod is released from rest in the horizontal position. What is the initial angular acceleration of the rod and
the initial linear acceleration of its right end?
Solution: The only force contributing to torque about an axis through the pivot is the gravitational force

M
g exerted on the rod. (The force exerted by the pivot on the rod has zero torque about the pivot
because its moment arm is zero.) To compute the torque on the rod, we can assume that the gravitational
force acts at the center of mass of the rod, as shown in Figure 13. The torque due to this force about an
axis through the pivot is
( )
L
.
= Mg
2

With
= I, and I = 31 M L2 , we obtain
(
)
( )
1
L
3g
M L2 = M g
=
.
3
2
2L
All points on the rod have this angular acceleration.
To find the linear acceleration of the right end of the rod, we use at = r with r = L to obtain as the
acceleration of the right end as
3
at = g.
2
Anant Kumar

Mob. No. 8967881837, 9932347531

13

Rotational Dynamics
M

O
R

L/2

Pivot

Mg

mg

Figure 13: The uniform rod is piv-

Figure 14: A falling smokestack.

Figure 15: Rotating pulley.

oted at the left end.

This result that at > g for the free end of the rod is rather interesting. It means that if we place a
coin at the tip of the rod, hold the rod in the horizontal position, and then release the rod, the tip of the
rod falls faster than the coin does!
Example 7 (Falling Smokestacks). When a tall smokestack falls over, it often breaks somewhere along
its length before it hits the ground, as shown in Figure 14. Why does this happen?
Solution: As the smokestack rotates around its base, each higher portion of the smokestack falls with
an increasing tangential acceleration. (The tangential acceleration of a given point on the smokestack is
proportional to the distance of that portion from the base.) As the acceleration increases, higher portions
of the smokestack experience an acceleration greater than that which could result from gravity alone; this
is similar to the situation described in the last example. This can happen only if these portions are being
pulled downward by a force in addition to the gravitational force. The force that causes this to occur
is the shear force from lower portions of the smokestack. Eventually the shear force that provides this
acceleration is greater than the smokestack can withstand, and the smokestack breaks.
Example 8. A wheel of radius R, mass M , and moment of inertia I is mounted on a frictionless,
horizontal axle, as shown in Figure 15. A light cord wrapped around the wheel supports an object of mass
m. Calculate the angular acceleration of the wheel, the linear acceleration of the object, and the tension
in the cord.
Solution: The torque acting on the wheel about its axis of rotation is = T R, where T is the force exerted
by the cord on the rim of the wheel. (The gravitational force exerted by the Earth on the wheel and the
normal force exerted
by the axle on the wheel both pass through the axis of rotation and thus produce no
torque.) Because
= I, we obtain

= I = T R,

TR
.
I

(1)

Applying Newtons second law to the block, taking downward direction as positive, we obtain

Fy = mg T = ma

T = mg ma.
(2)
Substituting this expression for T , expression (1) above, we obtain
=

mgR maR
.
I

Because the object and wheel are connected by a string that does not slip, the linear acceleration of
the suspended object is equal to the linear acceleration of a point on the rim of the wheel. Therefore,
Anant Kumar

Mob. No. 8967881837, 9932347531

14

Work, Power and Energy

the angular acceleration of the wheel and this linear acceleration are related by a = R. Putting this
expression in the last expression and solving for , we obtain
I = mgR mR2

g
1
).
(
I
R
1+
mR2

Therefore, the linear acceleration of the block is a = R = (

1+
obtain the tension as

6
6.1

g
I
mR2

) . And from expression (2), we

mg
).
T =(
mR2
1+
I

Work, Power and Energy

Work and power

In this section, we consider the relationship between the torque acting on a rigid object and its
resulting rotational motion in order to generate expressions for the power and a rotational analog

to the work-kinetic energy theorem. Refer to Figure 3 again. Suppose that a force F is applied

to the point A. Then, for an infinitesimal displacement d

r , the work done by the force F is

dW = F d
r

= F ( v dt) = F (

r )dt
(since
v =

r)

= ( r ) F dt
(since dot product is commutative)

=
dt (
r F)
( (
a b)
c =
a (b
c ))

= ( dt) = d
( dt = d )

Thus, the total amount of work done by the torque of the force F is

W = z d,

(20)

where the integration limit is over the entire angular displacement and the z axis is taken along
the direction of rotation with the positive direction of coordinate coinciding with it.

The power delivered to the rigid body by the force F is

P=
Thus, the power delivered is

dW

=

=

.
dt
dt

P=

.

(21)

This expression is analogous to P = F
v in the case of linear motion.

6.2

Work and energy in rotational motion

In studying linear motion, we found the energy concept and, in particular, the work-kinetic
energy theorem extremely useful in describing the motion of a system. The energy concept
can be equally useful in describing rotational motion. From what we learned of linear motion,
we expect that when a symmetric object rotates about a fixed axis, the work done by external
forces equals the change in the rotational energy.

Anant Kumar

Mob. No. 8967881837, 9932347531

15

Work, Power and Energy

To show this, consider a rigid body rotating about the z axis. We have

dz
dz d
dz
=I
=I
z .
dt
d dt
d

Rearranging this expression and noting that

d = dW , we obtain

d = dW = Iz dz .
= I = I

Integrating this expression, we get for the total work done by the net external force acting on a
rotating system

zf
1 2
1 2
W = dW =
Izi
,
(22)
Iz dz = Izf
2
2
zi
where the angular velocity component about the z axis changes from zi and zf over the total
displacement. Thus, the net work done by external forces in rotating a symmetric rigid
object about a fixed axis equals the change in the objects rotational energy.

E i = U = MgL/2

L/2
O

m2
h
h
m1

1
E f = K R = I
2
2

Figure 16: A uniform rigid rod pivoted at O rotates in a vertical plane under the action of gravity.

Figure 17: Connected pulleys.

Example 9. A uniform rod of length L and mass M is free to rotate on a frictionless pin passing through
one end (Fig 16). The rod is released from rest in the horizontal position. (a) What is its angular speed
when it reaches its lowest position? (b) Determine the linear speed of the center of mass and the linear
speed of the lowest point on the rod when it is in the vertical position.
Solution: (a) When the rod is horizontal, it has no rotational energy. The potential energy relative to the
lowest position of the center of mass of the rod (O ) is M gL/2. When the rod reaches its lowest position,
the energy is entirely rotational energy, 21 I 2 , where I is the moment of inertia about the pivot. Because
I = 31 M L2 , and the mechanical energy is conserved (there are no dissipative forces), we have Ei = Ef , or

(
)
1 2
1 1
1
3g
2
2
M gL = I =
ML
=
.
2
2
2 3
L
(b) Using the relation v = r between linear and angular velocity, we obtain
vCM =

L
1
3gL ,
=
2
2

and for the lowest point

v = L =

3gL .

Example 10. Consider two cylinders having masses m1 and m2 , where m1 = m2 , connected by a string
passing over a pulley, as shown in Figure 17. The pulley has a radius R and moment of inertia I about
its axis of rotation. The string does not slip on the pulley, and the system is released from rest. Find the
linear speeds of the cylinders after cylinder 2 descends through a distance h, and the angular speed of the
Anant Kumar

Mob. No. 8967881837, 9932347531

16

Work, Power and Energy

pulley at this time.

Solution: We are now able to account for the eect of a massive pulley. Because the string does not slip,
the pulley rotates. We neglect friction in the axle about which the pulley rotates for the following reason:
Because the axles radius is small relative to that of the pulley, the frictional torque is much smaller than
the torque applied by the two cylinders, provided that their masses are quite dierent. Mechanical energy
is constant; hence, the increase in the systems kinetic energy (the system being the two cylinders, the
pulley, and the Earth) equals the decrease in its potential energy. Because Ki = 0 (the system is initially
at rest), we have
K = Kf Ki = ( 12 m1 vf2 + 21 m2 vf2 + 12 If2 ) 0
where vf is the same for both blocks. Because vf = Rf , this expression becomes
(
)
1
I
K =
m1 + m2 + 2 vf2 .
2
R
From Figure 17, we see that the system loses potential energy as cylinder 2 descends and gains potential energy as cylinder 1 rises. That is U2 = m2 gh, and U1 = m1 gh. Applying the principle of
conservation of energy in the form K + U1 + U2 = 0, gives
(
)
I
1
m1 + m2 + 2 vf2 + m1 gh m2 gh = 0
2
R
[
] 12
2(m2 m1 )gh
)
vf = (
m1 + m2 + RI2
Because vf = Rf , the angular speed of the pulley at this instant is
[
] 12
vf
1
2(m2 m1 )gh
(
) .
f =
=
R
R m1 + m2 + RI2

Anant Kumar

Mob. No. 8967881837, 9932347531

17

Work, Power and Energy

Hoop or
cylindrical shell
I CM =MR 2

Solid cylinder
or disk
=1 MR 2
CM
2

Hollowcylinder
1
I CM = M(R 12 +R 22)
2

R1

R2

Rectangular plate
I CM =1 M(a2 +b2)
12
b
a

Long thin rod

with rotation axis
through center
I CM = 1 ML 2
12

Long thin
rod with
rotation axis
through end

I = 1 ML 2
3

Solid sphere
I CM =2 MR 2
5

Thin spherical
shell
I CM =2 MR 2
3
R

Figure 18: The moments of inertia of some common objects about the standard axes of symmetry.

Anant Kumar

Mob. No. 8967881837, 9932347531