June 2016 International

June
2016
www.chemengonline.com
Practical
Troubleshooting
Vortex Breakers
Shedding Light
on Rupture Discs
page 38
Predicting Prandtl
Numbers
Facts at Your
Fingertips:
Petrochemical
Industry Reactions
Focus on
Sensors and
Detectors
Electropositive
Filtration
Innovation in the
Glass Industry
Heat Transfer
Equipment
Circle 03 on p. 74 or go to adlinks.chemengonline.com/61496-03
June 2016
Volume 123 | no. 6
Cover Story
38
Modern Rupture Discs Support Increased Plant

Capacity The use of todays high-performance rupture-disc designs can
help to reduce many common operating problems and support increased
throughput requirements
In the News
7
Chementator
Commercial launch for a hybrid wastewater-treatment process;
Sun and rain generate electricity in this solar cell; Diamond-based
electrodes allow handling of difficult-to-treat wastewaters; A direct
route for making polycarbonate from CO2 and diols; Imitating
cactus plants to improve membrane performance; and more
12
Business News
Ineos to build world-scale linear alpha-olefins unit in Texas;
Chemours starts up 200,000 m.t./yr titanium dioxide plant in
Mexico; Asahi Glass to expand capacity for vinyl chloride monomer
in Indonesia; Total buys battery manufacturer Saft to boost its renewable
energy business; and more
14
Newsfront Innovation and Demand Keeps Glass

Industry Afloat Despite competition from many new players, the
glassmaking sector is rebounding with new applications and smart products
20
Newsfront New Ways to Deal with Old HeatTransfer Issues New developments in heat exchangers solve
common problems and enhance performance
38
20
Technical and Practical

34
Facts at your Fingertips Key Reactions for the

Petrochemical Industry This one-page reference provides
information on key reactions for several fundamental petrochemicals
36
Technology Profile Precipitated Calcium Carbonate

from Limestone This column describes a carbonization process for
making precipitated calcium carbonate from limestone
44
Feature Report An Up-close Look at Electropositive

Filtration Electropositive filters take advantage of surface-charge effects
to filter nanometer-sized particles. Provided here is an overview of how they
work and where they can be used
52
Engineering Practice Rapid Prediction of Prandtl

Number of Compressed Air Two methods are presented and
compared for quickly calculating this important, yet neglected parameter
44
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In this issue
This months issue covers a wide variety of topics. Our Cover Story
sheds light on rupture disc performance and the technologies used in
these safety devices. We have an Engineering Practice article that takes the reader through a series of
practical troubleshooting experiences, as well as articles on vortex breakers and Prandtl numbers. The
Feature Report looks in depth at electropositive filter media. Our Newsfronts cover the latest developments in the glass industry, and in heat exchanger
design. And as always, the latest technology news
can be found in our Chementator section. We hope
you enjoy reading.

Dorothy Lozowski, Editor in Chief
JUNE 2016
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Contact Ross today to put our
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Scan to learn more.
Chementator
Commercial launch for a hybrid wastewatertreatment process
hybrid process that comOil, TSS

bines micro-flotation and
flat-sheet ceramic-membrane filtration to remove
Clean
oil and suspended solids from
water
difficult-to-treat industrial wastewater has been commercialized Oily
by akvola Technologies (Berlin, wastewater
akvola MicroBubble
Ceramic membrane
Germany;
www.akvola.com).
Generator
filtration
The system can treat water with
high oil loads (up to 3 wt.%) with up to 99% end also reduces energy costs, because the
removal efficiency, and at a fraction of the pressure drop (transmembrane pressure of
costs of alternative technologies, says Lucas 0.2 bar) is 710 times lower than that used in
Len, founder and CFO.
crossflow membrane systems, he says. FiIn the akvoFloat process (diagram), nally, the MicroBubble Generator consumes
wastewater is continually fed to the micro- 510 times less energy than conventional
flotation zone, where the akvola MicroBub- dissolved air flotation (DAF) systems.
ble Generator induces fine (50100 m) gas
The process was first demonstrated in a
bubbles. The small bubbles have a large 400-m3/h pilot plant that treated scrubber
surface-to-volume ratio, and agglomerate water at a metallurgical-coke plant of Thyswith suspended solids, oil, grease, algae senKrupp in Duisburg, Germany. The comand organic flocs to form a float layer, which pany is now focussing on treating oily indusis skimmed from the tank. The water then trial wastewaters, such as that generated in
passes through the membrane module, the metalworking, petroleum-refining and
which contains dead-end-operated, flat- steel industries. In the first quarter of 2016,
sheet ceramic membranes. The akvoFloat akvola Technologies has received six orders
systems are engineered to achieve stable for its akvoFloat units, the first of which (2.5
operation at very high fluxes generally m3/h) has been operating since March at a
five times higher than that of polymeric wastewater treatment facility in Austria. The
membranes, says Len.
company is also working on the engineering
Operation at higher flux enables a reduc- of larger scale projects (250 m3/h) with two
tion in the membrane area required, which EPC (engineering, procurement, constructranslates into lower investment costs, ex- tion) companies for two different applicaplains Len. Operating the membrane dead- tions, says Len.
Sun and rain generate electricity in this solar cell
n all-weather solar cell that generates electricity by both sunlight

and rain has been developed by researchers led by professor Qunwei
Tang from the Institute of Material Science
and Engineering at Ocean University of China
(Qingdao; http://eweb.ouc.edu.cn) and professor Peizhi Yang from Yunnan Normal University (Kunming, China; www.csc.edu.cn).
The researchers developed a highly efficient dye-sensitized solar cell and coated
the cell with an extremely thin film of graphene. Graphene conducts electricity and
has a large number of electrons that can
move freely across the entire graphene
layer (delocalized electrons). In aqueous
solution, graphene can bind positively
charged ions with its electrons, a property
used to remove lead ions and organic dyes
from solutions.
This property inspired the researchers to

use graphene electrodes to obtain power
from the impact of raindrops. The raindrops
contain salts that dissociate into positively
and negatively charged ions. The positively
charged ions, including sodium, calcium
and ammonium ions, can bind to the graphene surface. At the point of contact between the raindrop and the graphene, the
water acquires additional positive ions and
the graphene acquires additional delocalized electrons. This forms a pseudocapacitor made of a double-layer of electrons
and positive ions. This produces a voltage
and current.
Tang says the all-weather solar cell will
make it possible to generate electricity also
in acid-rain-prone areas and on islands and
reefs. It can also be used in marine navigation, he says.
Edited by:
Gerald Ondrey
COOLING-TOWER MOTOR
A new electric motor for driving cooling-tower fans features a design that prevents
current from flowing through
the shaft bearings, allowing
longer lifetime and less maintenance. The TEAO motor,
made by Marathon Motors
Corp. (Wausau, Wis.; www.
marathonelectric.com) also
has the highest ingress protection (IP) rating for small
airborne particles of any fan
motor currently available and
can be mounted with the shaft
at any angle, the company
says. It is suitable for use in
all HVAC (heating, ventilation
and air conditioning) applications and for cooling towers
in the power generation and
other industries, notes Chris
Voll, distribution product
manager at Marathon. The
motor is available in a range
of sizes from 3 to 250 hp.
ELECTRODE SLURRY
A continuous process for
making electrode slurry for
lithium-ion batteries has
been developed by Bhler AG (Uzwil, Switzerland;
www. ) and Chinese battery
producer Lishen, enabling
this critical material to be
manufactured on a larger
scale to meet the increasing demand for electricpowered vehicles. The new
process uses a twin-screw
extruder to make the slurry,
which formerly had to be
made batch-wise. The new
process enables a much
more consistent quality to
be achieved, takes up 60%
less space and reduces energy consumption by 60%,
compared to batch production, says Bhler.
Lishen awarded Bhler its
first large-scale order for
four production lines valued at nearly CHF10 million
(about $10.2 million). The
investment represents a
production capacity of about
(Continues on p. 8)
Note: For more information, circle the 56-digit number on p. 74, or use the website designation.
JUNE 2016
150,000 electric vehicle batteries per year (or 20-million/

yr batteries for e-bikes).
ZERO-POWER COOLING
A newly introduced coolant
material can reduce temperatures rapidly from room
temperature to below freezing with the addition of water.
The material enables the
possibility of industrial cooling systems that consume
little to no electric power and
do not require the compression of refrigerant materials,
such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), according to
developer Frosty Cold LLC
(Overland Park, Kan.; www.
frostycoldtech.com).
Using a patented blend of
solid fertilizers, the product
undergoes an endothermic
reaction when exposed to
any type of water, and cools
by 50F or more in just 1020
seconds, depending on the
mix ratio of the powder to
water, explains John Bergida, the founder and president of Frosty Cold.
The non-oxidizing, endothermic salt has numerous
features that allow it to be
used in a broad range of
cooling applications. After
cooling, the water can be
evaporated and the powder reused for hundreds of
cycles, Bergida says. The
instantly activated material
is flexible, even when frozen,
and is non-toxic, Bergida
says. At the end of its life, it
can be used as a fertilizer.
Frosty Cold developed a
proprietary manufacturing
process for the material and
has set it up at a California
manufacturing plant. In addition to consumer, medical
and cold-chain applications,
such as ice packs, beverage
coolers and shipping pads,
the company is also pursuing industrial cooling applications. These include zeropower cooling, continuous
refrigeration, air conditioning,
cooling-tower heat removal,
machine chillers and more.
DIGITAL MECHANICS
At the Hannover trade fair,
Siemens AG (Munich, Ger(Continues on p. 10)
Diamond-based electrodes allow handling of

difficult-to-treat wastewaters
scaled-up version of an electrochemical cell with boron-doped diamond

electrodes has been introduced,
and the system treats wastewaters
containing difficult-to-oxidize dissolved pollutants. Known as Diamox, the electrochemical oxidation cell was developed by Element
Six (www.e6.com), a designer and manufacturer of synthetic diamond materials and
products. The unit mineralizes the dissolved
contaminants in the water and, via oxidation
by electrochemically generated hydroxyl radicals, releases them as CO2. The companys
next-generation version increases the oxidation capacity by five times compared to its
original device, making it more suitable for
industrially relevant scales up to 2 kg of
chemical oxygen demand (COD) per hour.
Using a microwave plasma-enhanced
chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process
(diagram), the company synthesizes its
solid, free-standing bulk diamond materials
by manipulating conditions at the substrate
surface such that carbon forms diamond
preferentially over graphite. The CVD process allows Element Six to control the purity
and introduce boron atoms to the diamond
as dopants. The addition of boron in a ratio
of about 1 atom of boron per 500 atoms
of diamond allows the material to become
a metal-like conductor, explains Tim Mollart, applications engineer at Element Six.
This results in an electrode that can perform
electrolysis, but still retain the properties of
diamond, including chemical inertness and
erosion resistance, Mollart continues.
Waveguide
Microwaves
Antenna
Chamber
Window
Plasma
Gas inlet
Substrate
Pressure control
Vacuum
The inertness of the diamond surface is critical to the materials operation in wastewater
treatment. The current passing through the
electrode generates hydroxyl radicals from
water at the electrode surface, and since the
radicals do not react with the inert diamond,
they exist long enough to oxidize dissolved
pollutant molecules in wastewater.
The Diamox water-treatment system is
best applied to industrial wastewaters containing phenolic compounds, mercaptans,
dyes, aldehydes and wastewater from pharmaceutical manufacturing, Mollart says.
Element Six is actively working with watertreatment technology providers to develop
modular electrochemical advanced oxidation
water-treatment systems.
A direct route for making polycarbonate

from CO2 and diols
direct copolymerization of carbon dioxide and diols has been

achieved by Keiichi Tomishige
and Masazumi Tamura at Tohoku
University (Sendai; www.che.tohoku.ac.jp)
and Hiroshi Sugimoto at Tokyo University
of Science (both Japan; www.sut.ac.jp).
The synthesis takes place with a metaloxide catalyst using 2-cyanopyridine as
a promotor, and produces alternating cooligomers with yields and selectivities of
up to 99%.
For example, a polycarbonate with molecular weight of 1,070 and dispersity (a
measure of the polymers heterogeneity) of
1.33 is obtained with 97% yield after reacting 1,4-butandiol in an autoclave with CO2
at 5 MPa and a relatively mild temperature
of 403K after 8 h.
The catalyst, which is obtained by calcination, does not leach into the reaction
solution, and maintains its activity after recovery from a reaction. The catalyst system
is applicable for a wide variety of diols, including linear C4C10 , -diols, producing corresponding co-oligomers with yields
of 9499% and higher. These compounds
cannot be made by conventional routes,
such as the copolymerization of CO2 and
cyclic ethers and ring-opening polymerization of cyclic carbonates.
The chemists believe this new route is
simpler and more environmentally friendly
than alternative methods, which require
expensive or hazardous reagents, such as
phosgene, carbon monoxide and epoxides.
It also opens the door for utilizing CO2 as
a feedstock.
JUNE 2016
Making motors intelligent
t the Hannover trade fair (April 2429; Hannover, Germany), ABB (Zurich, Switzerland;
www.abb.com) introduced a new sensing
solution for monitoring low-voltage motors.
Smart sensors attached directly to the motor supply
information regarding operating and condition parameters via wireless transmission. The innovative sensor technology offers plant operators not only huge
potential savings on maintenance and repair, but will
also make it easy to utilize the Internet of Things, Services and People (IoTSP) for millions of motors, says
ABB. IoTSP is ABBs concept for enabling its users to
take advantage of the opportunities of digitalization.
With the new solution, small and mid-sized companies can also benefit from the advantages offered by
the IoTSP.
The smart sensor provides information on operating
and condition parameters, such as vibration, temperature or overload, and calculates power consumption.
The data are analyzed by a software program, and provided to the plant operator in the form of graphics for
maintenance planning, thereby enabling downtime reductions of up to 70%, says ABB. At the same time, the
lifetime of the motors can be extended by up to 30%
and energy consumption reduced by as much as 10%,
so that the investment in this form of condition monitoring pays for itself in less than a year, says the company.
The sensors can be installed at the factory or retrofitted on any already operating low-voltage motors within
minutes. Cybersecurity is guaranteed because the
smart sensors wirelessly transmit the data via encryption protocols to a secure, cloud-based server, where
they are analyzed using special algorithms.
onversion of carbon dioxide into useful carbon sources, such as carbon monoxide,
formic acid and formaldehyde, is attracting
considerable interest as a way to recycle and
utilize CO2. A step in this direction is the direct photocatalytic reduction of CO2 into CO using water as
a source of electrons. Researchers in the group of
Kentaro Teramura at Kyoto University (Kyoto, Japan;
www.moleng.kyoto-u.ac.jp/~moleng_04/teramura/
index.html) have developed a catalyst system that
uses a silver-loaded Ga2O3 photocatalyst with a ZnGa2O4 layer. The Ag serves as a co-catalyst to enhance CO evolution, while the ZnGa2O4 inhibits the
generation of H2.
Now, the researchers have doubled the conversion
efficiency by adding a rare-earth compound, such as
ytterbium-based oxide, to their basic catalyst system.
The reaction is performed at room temperature in a flow
reactor with an internal ultraviolet (UV; wavelength less
than 265 nm) light sources. The laboratory-scale system
(30 mL/min) generated 100 mol/h of CO with 8090%
selectivity. The researchers now plan to enhance the
CO selectivity and modify the catalyst system to enable
operation at longer wavelengths so that solar radiation
can be used.
Excellence Down to
the Smallest Detail
ATEX certified separation
technology
Safe and ecient for applications with

ammable liquids: Gastight, ATEX certied
design various options and sizes of package
units available. You need, we care.
GEA-CP-01-006
The photocatalytic reduction

of CO2 into CO
many; www.siemens.com)
introduced its digital measurement technology for
gears Flender Gearlog.
This new technology entails
the capture of values relating
to rotational speed, torque,
temperature and, in the future, also vibration by special
sensors. The system adds
up these readings in parallel
with machine capacity utilization. The measurement results are logged, saved and
digitally depicted in compressed form. Operators are
able to visualize the results
at any time or read them out
in the form of a dataset. The
measurements enable conclusions to be drawn about
the applied load and loading
capacity of gears when used
in specific applications. The
full transparency of operating
data means it can be used to
identify possible sources of
damage, capacity reserves
and overloading in the measured gear.
Flender Gearlog comprises
software, a hardware component and sensor equipment
coordinated in line with the
gear. Special algorithms are
used to compress the time
signals and depict wide-ranging information relating to operating data on a digital basis.
If threshold values are exceeded, Flender Gearlog also
records time signals, allowing
any detected overloads, for
instance, to be additionally
analyzed. All the data necessary for this are already available locally, and in the future,
will also in the cloud.
The measurements can be
performed on all available
Flender gears, both catalog
and non-standard types, for
instance for the mining, cement or oil-and-gas industry, for wind turbines and
cranes. The Hannover fair
marked the beginning of a
one-year pilot phase for the
product, says Siemens.
HS-FCC DEBUT
In late April, Technip (Paris,
France; www.technip) was
awarded an engineering,
procurement and construction (EPC) contract by Daelim Industrial Co. to provide
(Continues on p. 11)
10
Imitating cactus plants to

improve membrane performance
egulation of water content in polymeric membranes is important

in several applications, including
proton-exchange fuel cell membranes. Normally, this is achieved either by
external regulation or by operating the cells
at higher temperatures.
Now a team from CSIRO (Melbourne,
Australia; www.csiro.au) and Hanyang
University (Seoul, South Korea; www.hanyang.ac.kr), led by the universitys professor Young Moo Lee, has developed an
alternative solution that does not rely on
external regulation of water supply or high
temperatures. The team proposed a new
concept for regulating membrane hydration
in low-humidity or non-humidified environments without modifying the morphology
of an ion-exchange membrane, analogous
to the water-retention mechanisms of the
cactus plant (such as Ferocactus schwarzii). The team explains that the cactus
retains water by opening and closing an
array of stomatal openings, which respond
to environmental conditions. The stomata
are open at night, and closed in daytime in
hot and arid conditions.

In the teams concept, water content in
hydrocarbon polymer membranes is regulated through nanometer-scale cracks
in a hydrophobic surface coating. These
cracks function as nano-scale valves to
retard water desorption and to maintain
ion conductivity in the membrane on dehumidification. According to the team,
hydrocarbon fuel-cell membranes with
surface nanocrack coatings operated at
intermediate temperatures exhibit improved electrochemical performance, and
coated reverse-electrodialysis membranes
show enhanced ionic selectivity with low
bulk resistance.
Lee says that one of the main barriers to
the widespread use of fuel cells in electric
vehicles is water and heat management in
fuel cell systems. He says the teams work
addresses this hurdle, and brings us a step
closer to wider use of fuel-cell-powered vehicles. The work could also help in other
existing technologies that require hydrated
membranes, including devices used in water
treatment and gas separators.
Collaboration commercializing technology for

reusing complex catalysts
he manufacture of pharmaceuticals
and many fine chemicals requires
costly, toxic catalysts with metal
atoms bonded to complex organic
ligands that catalyze the creation of chiral centers. Current processes often use
homogeneous (dissolved) chiral catalysts
and batch processing, an approach that
requires extra steps to separate catalyst
from products, a process that often destroys the catalyst or makes catalyst recycling difficult.
Now, GreenCentre Canada (Kingston,
Ont.; www.greencentrecanada.com), a
not-for-profit organization that commercializes technologies developed in academic laboratories, and Chiral Technologies (West Chester, Pa.; www.chiraltech.
com), a company specializing in enantioselective separation of racemic mixtures,
are jointly commercializing a technology
from the University of Alberta and TEC Edmonton (Edmonton, Alta.; www.ualberta.
ca, www.tecedmonton.com) that allows
continuous use of these catalysts in flow
reactors without leaching of the catalyst
into the product stream. The technology
enables dramatically better recyclability.
In this invention, the chiral catalyst can
be physically attached to solid supports to

allow heterogeneous catalysis in flow systems, or if preferred, in batch.
Research by Alberta chemistry professor
Steve Bergens resulted in a method to covalently link complex metal-ligand catalysts
to a polymer matrix, thus immobilizing them.
The idea of immobilizing these catalysts is
not new, but previous efforts were not robust
enough to handle continuous flow or many
reuses in batch, explains Andrew Pasternak, commercial director at GreenCentre
Canada. Bergens devised a very ingenious
way to achieve robust immobilization without
disrupting the catalyst activity of the metalligand complexes.
After further development of Bergens
original research, Chiral Technologies was
approached to develop and market flow
columns incorporating the technology that
can be integrated into existing synthesis
systems and can dramatically improve
catalyst recyclability while maintaining
high activity.
The collaborative partners are planning
to offer flow columns containing several
commonly used chiral metal-based catalyst systems for real-world pharmaceutical
synthetic processes, Pasternak states.
JUNE 2016
This handheld chemical analyzer connects

to smartphones
new smartphone-operated portable chemical analyzer provides a

platform for chemical leak detection and other industrial applications, according to developer MyDx Inc.
(San Diego, Calif.; www.cdxlife.com). The
company designed the handheld analyzer
for consumers, but the technology platform
has origins in the space program and could
be used in industry.
The initial rollout of the MyDx product is
aimed at the medical marijuana industry,
where it will be used by growers and users
to quickly test levels of cannabinoids (including THC) and other compounds in cannabis
plants. The company plans to follow its cannabis product with other sensors, using the
same platform for detecting chemicals in
water and air samples, including CO, NH3,
NO2 and others.
The analyzer is equipped with conducting polymer receptors that are chemically
functionalized to bind to specific target molecules. Binding induces expansion or contraction of the polymer, thereby changing
resistance in associated electrical circuitry.
Resistance changes correspond to levels of

the target molecule.
The device works by inserting a disposable, sample-containing cartridge, where
small air pumps pull vapor from the sample
to the sensor surface. The technology really is an electrical analog to the human
sense of smell, where receptors detect
specific molecules and the brain interprets
the signal, explains Daniel Yazbeck, the
former Pfizer and Panasonic scientist who
now heads MyDx. The analyzer relays data
to iOS- and Android-based smartphones
wirelessly, where a specialized app interprets the signal. Depending on the sensor
and target, the analyzer can detect down
to the parts-per-million or parts-per-billion
level, and results can be obtained in three
minutes, Yazbeck says.
The company licensed the sensor technology from the California Institute of Technology (Pasadena, Calif.; www.caltech.
edu), which developed it in conjunction
with NASAs Jet Propulsion Laboratory
for use as a chemical leak detector in the
n
space shuttle program.
proprietary equipment for

the worlds first commercial
High Severity Fluid Catalytic
Cracking (HS-FCC) unit. The
HS-FCC cracks heavy hydrocarbons into lighter olefins, such as propylene, and
lighter fuels, such as gasoline. It will be constructed
as part of the expansion of
the existing residue conversion facilities at the S-Oil
petroleum refinery in Onsan,
South Korea.
The proprietary equipment
provided by Technip includes
an innovative downflow reactor, the key component
of the HS-FCC technology.
HS-FCC was developed by
an alliance comprising Saudi
Aramco, JX Nippon Oil &
Energy Corp, King Fahd
University of Petroleum and
Minerals (see Chem. Eng.
August 2013, p. 10). The
technology is licensed by
Technip Stone & Webster
Processing Technology and
Axens. This first unit was licensed by Axens.

JUNE 2016
11
Business News
LINEUP
AEMETIS
AKZONOBEL
ASAHI GLASS
CHEMOURS
DOOSAN ENGINEERING &
CONSTRUCTION
EDENIQ
GE POWER
GREENMANTRA
HONEYWELL
HUNTSMAN
INEOS
JACOBS ENGINEERING
POLYNT GROUP
REICHHOLD GROUP
RENNOVIA
SAFT
SAUDI ARAMCO
SHANDONG LUQING
PETROCHEMICAL
SOLVAY
STORA ENSO
THYSSENKRUPP
INDUSTRIAL SOLUTIONS
TOTAL
UNIPAR CARBOCLORO
UOP
Plant Watch
Ineos to build world-scale linear
alpha-olefins unit in Texas
May 17, 2016 Ineos (Rolle, Switzerland;
www.ineos.com) has announced that Ineos
Oligomers has made a final investment
decision build a new world-scale linear alphaolefin (LAO) unit at Chocolate Bayou, Tex.
Its capacity of 420,000 metric tons per year
(m.t./yr) is 20% larger than when the project
was originally announced. When it comes
onstream in November 2018, Ineos Oligomers
will have a global LAO capacity of around
1 million m.t./yr.
Shandong Luqing Petrochemical
commissions Chinas first C4 Oleflex unit
May 17, 2016 Honeywell UOP (Des Plaines,
Ill.; www.uop.com) says that Shandong Luqing
Petrochemical Co. has accepted the performance
of Chinas first standalone Honeywell UOP C4
Oleflex process unit, which produces 170,000
m.t./yr of isobutylene. Located in Shandong
province, the plant will support Chinas growing
demand for fuel and petrochemicals. The C4
Oleflex process uses catalytic dehydrogenation
to convert isobutane to isobutylene.
AkzoNobel expands performance
coatings plant in Indonesia by 40%
May 17, 2016 Akzo Nobel N.V. (Amsterdam,
the Netherlands; www.akzonobel.com) has
completed phase one of the 2.5-million
expansion of its performance coatings plant
in Cikarang, Indonesia. The investment will
increase capacity at the facility by 40%.
AkzoNobel has been in Indonesia since 1971
and is now the countrys largest paints and
coatings producer.
Huntsman begins production at new
pigments plant in Georgia
May 17, 2016 Huntsman Corp. (The
Woodlands, Tex.; www.huntsman.com)
announced the startup of operations at its
brand-new color pigments facility in Augusta,
Ga. Huntsman has invested more than $172
million in the plant the first of its kind to be
built in North America for more than 35 years.
It has a capacity of 30,000 m.t./yr of yellow,
red and black iron-oxide pigments.
Look for more

latest news on
chemengonline.com
12
Jacobs awarded engineering contract at

Saudi Aramco refinery
May 17, 2016 Jacobs Engineering Group
Inc. (Pasadena, Calif.; www.jacobs.com) has
received a two-year contract from Saudi Aramco
Total Refining and Petrochemical Co. (SATORP)
to provide general engineering services at
SATORPs Jubail Industrial City II facilities in
Saudi Arabia. Jacobs will provide a range of
feasibility studies, conceptual designs and
detailed engineering designs for a portfolio

of minor capital projects.
Chemours starts up 200,000-m.t./yr
titanium dioxide plant in Mexico
May 17, 2016 The Chemours Co. (Wilmington,
Del.; www.chemours.com) has begun the
commercial startup of a new titanium dioxide
(TiO2) line at its Altamira plant in the Mexican
state of Tamaulipas. The new line, which uses
the Chemours chloride process, is expected
to take several years to reach its nameplate
capacity of 200,000 m.t./yr.
Asahi Glass to expand capacity for
vinyl chloride monomer in Indonesia
May 13, 2016 Asahi Glass Co. (AGC;
Tokyo; www.agc.com) will further increase
production capacity for vinyl chloride monomer
(VCM) at P.T. Asahimas Chemical (ASC), one
of its consolidated subsidiaries in Indonesia.
ASC has just doubled its VCM capacity to
800,000 m.t./yr, and now a debottlenecking
operation will further increase this to
900,000 m.t./yr by 2018.
GreenMantra starts production of waxes
based on recycled-plastic feedstocks
May 11, 2016 GreenMantra Technologies
(Brantford, Ont., Canada; www.greenmantra.
ca), a producer of high-value waxes and
specialty chemicals from recycled plastic
feedstocks, has completed construction
of its first commercial-scale (5,000 m.t./yr)
manufacturing plant. GreenMantra uses
a patented catalytic process to transform
hard-to-recycle polyolefin plastics, such as
grocery bags, shrink wrap and bottle caps,
into waxes, greases, lubricants and other
specialty chemicals.
Mergers & Acquisitions
Resin manufacturers Polynt Group
and Reichhold Group to merge
May 18, 2016 A planned merger between
Polynt Group (Bergamo, Italy; www.polynt.it)
and Reichhold Group (Durham, N.C.; www.
reichhold.com) will create a global, vertically
integrated manufacturer of resins for composites
and coatings, and of other specialized chemicals,
including intermediates, plasticizers, additives
and compounds. Subject to regulatory approval,
the merger is expected to be completed in
the second half of 2016.
Total buys battery manufacturer Saft to
boost its renewable-energy business
May 16, 2016 Oil and gas major Total
S.A. (Paris, France; www.total.com) plans
to acquire industrial battery manufacturer
Saft S.A. (Paris, Fance; www.saftbatteries.
com). The combination of Saft and Total will
JUNE 2016
enable Saft to become the Groups

spearhead in electricity storage, says
Patrick Pouyann, chairman and CEO
of Total.
Thyssenkrupp Industrial Solutions
gains new business structure
May 13, 2016 Thyssenkrupp
Industrial Solutions, the engineering and
construction arm of the Thyssenkrupp
Group (Essen, Germany; www.
thyssenkrupp.com), is modernizing
its management structure to focus on
customers and business fields, and
speed the integration of the previously
separate engineering companies
Uhde, Polysius and Frdertechnik.
Jens Michael Wegmann, CEO of
Industrial Solutions since October
2015, says: We are operating in a
difficult environment, and we want
to make our organization faster, more
flexible and more efficient.
Honeywell to spin off its resins
and chemicals business
May 12, 2016 Honeywell (Morristown,
N.J.; www.honeywell.com) plans
to spin off its resins and chemicals
business into a standalone, publicly
traded company named AdvanSix Inc.
This part of the business manufactures
Nylon 6, ammonium sulfate, and
chemical intermediates, including
phenol, acetone, cyclohexanone
and caprolactam, with a turnover of
$1.3 billion. Completion is expected
by early 2017.
GE Power to acquire HRSG

business from Doosan
May 10, 2016 GE Power (Schenectady,
N.Y.; www.gepower.com) has agreed to
buy the heat-recovery steam-generator
(HRSG) business of Koreas Doosan
Engineering & Construction for $250
million. Last November, GE Power
completed the acquisition of Alstoms
power and grid businesses. Demand for
combined-cycle power plants, which
use HRSGs, is currently very high, the
company says.
Biotech company Aemetis buys

cellulosic ethanol specialist
May 6, 2016 Biotechnology company
Aemetis, Inc. (Cupertino, Calif.; www.
aemetis.com) has acquired Edeniq
(Visalia, Calif.; www.edeniq.com), which
develops technology to make ethanol
from cellulose. Edeniq has 29 of its
Cellunator mechanical systems in U.S.
ethanol plants, and has signed several
license agreements for its enzymen
assisted technology.
Charles Butcher
We sweat the [small] stuff.

Quality & process control. Compliance. Safety.
The stuff that costs time, money and resources.
[Its not such small stuff after all.]
Solvay sells Latin American PVC

business to Unipar Carbocloro
May 10, 2016 Solvay S.A. (Brussels,
Belgium; www.solvay.com) is selling its
71% stake in Solvay Indupa (Buenos
Aires, Argentina; www.solvayindupa.
com) to Brazilian chemical group Unipar
Carbocloro. Indupa makes PVC, sodium
hydroxide and sodium hypochlorite,
and is valued at $202.2 million.
Running an efficient operation requires

real-time data that you can obtain only
through reliable representative sampling.
With Sentry automatic samplers, you can
glean the critical insights needed to control
every phase of your process for improved
output and safety.
Sentry ISOLOK SAE, SAH and SAK
Rennovia and Stora Enso join

forces on bio-based processes
May 10, 2016 Renewable materials
company Stora Enso Oyj (Helsinki, Finland;
www.storaenso.com) and specialty
chemicals company Rennovia, Inc.
(Menlo Park, Calif.; www.rennovia.com)
have announced a joint development
and license agreement to cooperate
on developing bio-based chemicals.
Rennovia uses high-throughput
techniques to develop catalysts for
the production of chemicals from
renewable feedstocks.
[And thats no small thing.]
automatic point sampler is ideal

for chemical powders or pellets
Learn more at sentry-equip.com/chemical.
JUNE 2016
13
Newsfront
Innovation and Demand

Keeps Glass Industry Afloat
Despite competition from many new players, the glassmaking sector is rebounding with new
applications and smart products
IN BRIEF
THE MARKET
FLOAT GLASS
BOTTLES
INNOVATIONS
SMART GLASS
FLEXIBLE GLASS
GLASSMAKING
INNOVATIONS
he global glass industry

is looking up again, in the
aftermath of the recession of the past 10 years,
when much of the industry for
both of the main markets flat
glass and container glass suffered quite badly. For a number
of years, the market was quite
uncertain for container glass for
bottles and jars, as well as for the
main flat-glass products glazing in homes, commercial buildings and vehicles; wired glasses
for fire resistance; patterned
glass for decoration; and a range
of glass for environmental control
and energy conservation.
The industry rebound is being
helped by a number of new demands, such as specialty glass
for electronics devices as well
as new innovations, such as
smart windows.
The market outlook

Float glass. According to the
U.S. National Glass Association
(NGA; Vienna, Virginia; www.
glass.org) the float-glass industry (the flat glass made by
the float-glass method see box below)
experienced steep capacity reductions in
North America and Western Europe where

many plants had to close down, although in
MAKING GLASS
Practically all commercial glass is made mainly of silica (SiO2) the main constituent of sand. Sand could by
itself be fused to produce glass, but this requires heating the sand to about 1,700C. The melting temperature of
sand can be lowered to about 800C by adding sodium carbonate to produce a mixture of 75 wt.% silica and 25
wt.% sodium oxide. A glass of that composition is water soluble, however, which is undesirable. To give the glass
stability, substances such as calcium oxide (lime) or magnesium oxide are added.
Most commercial glasses have a similar composition of up to 75 wt.% SiO2, up to 15 wt.% Na2O, up to about
10 wt.% CaO, up to about 3 wt.% MgO, and up to 3 wt.% Al2O3. Container glass has a very similar composition,
except that flat glass contains a higher proportion of MgO.
The composition of the glass is varied to suit a particular product. The quantities of raw material are carefully
dosed because consistency of composition is paramount in glass making.
(Continued on page 16)
14
JUNE 2016
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(Continued from page 14)
Making float glass

According to organizations such as the NGA and the British Glass Manufacturers Confederation (British Glass, Sheffield, U.K.; www.britglass.org.uk), there are about 260 float plants and
more than 400 float lines worldwide, with a combined output of some 800,000 metric tons of
glass per week. A float plant, operating non-stop for up to 15 years, produces about 6,000
km of glass per year in thicknesses of 0.4 to 25 mm and widths up to 3 m.
The float glass process was conceived by British engineer Alastair Pilkington in the 1950s. It
allows forming a perfectly flat sheet by floating molten glass on a pool of liquid metal. The glass
is smoothed by gravity and surface tension, instead of being squeezed by rollers. Today practically all flat glass in the world is made using the Pilkington float process.
The glass-making process starts with the delivery of raw materials. They are all dusty materials either in the form of powder or as fine-grained material. The raw materials are heated in a
furnace to produce molten glass. The molten glass floats on a molten tin bath to become a
flat solid ribbon at 600C. Tin is the most widely used metal, although lead and various lowmelting-point alloys have also been used.
The glass ribbon is transferred on transport rollers into a controlled cooling tunnel that can
be more than 100 m long. During this process the glass cools to room temperature.
Making bottles
Bottles, on the other hand, have been traditionally made by glass blowing and blow-molding.
Today most bottles and jars are made by one of two automated processes: press-and-blow
or blow-and-blow. Press-and-blow is the most commonly used method. Press-and-blow
formation takes place in an individual section machine. Individual section machines have between 5 and 20 identical sections. Each carries out the glass-container forming, so that 5 to
20 containers can be produced with one machine at the same time. Press-and-blow formation begins when the molten glass reaches a temperature of about 1,200C. A shearing blade
is used to cut and shape the glass into a cylindrical shape called a gob. The gob falls and
rolls toward the molds. A metal plunger presses the gob into the blank mold where it assumes
the molds shape and is then called a parison. The parison is moved into a final mold where
it is blown into the mold to assume its final dimensions.
The blow-and-blow method is similar to press-and-blow, except that the gob is forced into
the blank mold using compressed air. The parison is flipped into a final mold where it is blown
again to form the interior side of the glass container.
Japan, float capacity remained practically unchanged.

In China, on the other hand, the
float-glass industry experienced
spectacular growth. Despite the recession, growth was quite strong in
the emerging economies of Brazil,
Russia, India, and in some countries
of Asia and Africa, the NGA says.
According to the NGA, the big
companies also found it difficult to
compete with the many small players that emerged during the past
20 years. The competition from the
smaller companies was mainly a
consequence of the introduction of
turnkey technology. The worlds four
largest glass makers Asahi Glass
Co. (AGC; Tokyo, Japan; www.agc.
com), Guardian Industries (Auburn
Hills, Mich.; www.guardian.com),
Nippon Sheet Glass Co. (NSG;
Tokyo; www.nsg.com) and SaintGobain SA (Paris, France; www.
saint-gobain.com) continued to
expand their businesses globally.
However, the majority of the new
plants that appeared recently were
built by smaller, regional manufacturers, the NGA says.
16
The dearth of experienced personnel has contributed to creating

a challenging business environment
for glass fabricators. Attracting, training and retaining employees are top
concerns of many glass makers.
Bottles. The market for bottles has
also suffered, as brewers put more
of their beer into cans, and thousands of small companies held
prices down. In China there were
more than 1,000 bottle makers selling at low prices with which the big
companies could not compete.
The experience of Owens-Illinois
Inc. (Perrysburg, Ohio; www.o-i.
com) the worlds largest maker
of bottles for beer, wine and liquor is a good illustration. The
company shed about half of its capacity in China in the light of stiff
local competition. It also had to cut
back in Australia because more of
the countrys wine was exported
in bulk and bottled elsewhere. It is
now taking various steps, including
the development of new plants to
reuse more heat, lowering energy
costs, increasing automation, and
building small bottle plants as effiCHEMICAL ENGINEERING
cient as big ones that will be closer

to customers, in order to reduce
transport costs.
Fabricators say that many of the
challenges that faced them in 2015
will continue, including capacity constraints, and transportation and employment issues.
However, they view the coming
years with optimism. According to
the NGA, glass continues to grow in
popularity around the world, especially as the industry keeps coming
up with better-performing products.
A vice president at NSG, Stephen
Weidner, says: We will always be
building with glass. There will always
be business.
Innovations
Innovation has become a top priority of the glass makers, due to the
challenging environment they have
faced. There have been many exciting developments and innovations
in the glass industry during the past
years, heralding a whole new era for
the industry.
Some of the most exciting developments are outlined by William C
LaCourse, professor of glass science at Alfred University (Alfred, New
York, N.Y.; www.alfred.edu) the
only university in the U.S. with a degree specifically in glass engineering.
(Although there are other universities
with courses in glass science or engineering, they are part of a materials
science course).
Some of the many exciting recent
developments in the glass industry
are the use of computers to generate
glasses by means of a mathematical
representation of glass structure, and
laser modification of glass structure,
LaCourse says. Glass melting can
now also be modeled by computer,
he says.
Most recent is the development
of memory devices that are able to
store information.
Smart glass. Another area of development is in smart glasses, with
light-transmission properties that
can be altered when voltage, light
or heat is applied. The glass may
change from translucent to transparent, changing from blocking
some or all of lights wavelengths to
letting light pass through (Figure 1).
JUNE 2016
View
ing into a home, the window has a double-sandwich of five ultra-thin layers:
a separator in the middle,
two electrodes (thin electrical contacts) on either side
of the separator, and two
transparent electrical contact layers on either side of
the electrodes. Lithium ions
migrate back and forth between the two electrodes
through the separator.
When the window is clear,
the lithium ions reside in the
innermost electrode (which
FIGURE 1. Smart glass can help save costs for heating, air conditioning or lighting by adapting to the climate
can be made of lithium cobalt oxide, LiCoO2). When
Smart glass can help adapt a build- trochromics, Inc. (Faribault, Minn.; a small voltage is applied (about 5 V
ing to the climate, saving costs for www.sageglass.com), a wholly d.c.) to the electrodes, the ions miheating, air conditioning or lighting. owned subsidiary of Saint-Gobain; grate through the separator to the
Smart glass technologies include View, Inc. (Milpitas, California; www. outermost electrode. When enough
electrochromic, photochromic, ther- viewglass.com); and Econtrol-Glas of them get into that layer (which can
mochromic, suspended particles, GmbH & Co KG (Plauen, Germany; be made of polycrystalline tungsten
micro-blind and polymer dispersed www.econtrol-glas.de).
oxide, WO3) they make it reflect light,
In electrochromic windows, the turning it opaque. They remain there
liquid crystals.
Companies offering electrochro- glass is coated with several ultra-thin until the voltage is reversed, when
mic glasses include: SAGE Elec- metal oxide layers. On the side fac- they move back and the window be-
With manufacturing facilities in North America

and Asia, TITAN Metal Fabricators has the
design, fabrication and welding expertise to
produce the highest quality process equipment
using corrosion-resistant alloys guaranteed to
yield the longest life possible.
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JUNE 2016
M O N E L
17
Schott Glass
FIGURE 2. Schott Glass received the German Industry Innovation Award 2016 for its ultra-thin, flexible glass
comes transparent again.

The glass stops solar heat gain,
blocks glare, reduces fading, and
eliminates the need for window
shades and awnings, while allowing building occupants to continually
view the outdoors.
EControl works in a manner similar to that of a traditional solar control and thermal control glass. With
EControl, the outer pane of an insulating glass is replaced by an electrochromic laminated pane. This basic
construction can be combined with
additional functions, such as security glazing.
Another type of smart glass technology is used in suspended particle
devices (SPDs). In these devices, a
thin film laminate of rod-like nanoscale particles is suspended in a liquid and placed between two pieces
of glass or plastic, or attached to
one layer. Normally the suspended
particles are randomly positioned,
blocking and absorbing light. When
a voltage is applied, the particles
align and allow the light to pass
through. Varying the applied voltage can control the particles orientation, thus controlling the tint of
the glazing and the amount of light
transmitted. SPDs can also control
the amount of heat passing through,
reducing the need for air conditioning or heating.
Companies offering SPD smart glass
18
include AGC, Asahi India Glass Ltd.

(Mumbai, India; www.aisglass.com),
and Research Frontiers Inc. (Woodbury, N.Y.; www.smartglass.com).
Flexible glass. A few companies
offer a flexible, ultra-thin glass that
can bend to such an extent that you
can almost wrap it around your finger without breaking it. Such glass
can be used in displays to make
thinner and lighter portable devices,
such as smartphones and tablets. It
can be used as cover glass in flexible OLED (organic light emitting
diode) displays, and as substrate
material for thin-film batteries. It
can also be used in communications to process data up to eight
times faster than was previously
possible. Companies offering such
glasses include Corning, Inc. (New
York; www.corning.com), whose
thin flexible glass is called Willow
Glass; and Schott AG (Mainz, Germany; www.schott.com).
According to John Mauro, senior
research manager at Corning, the
most successful of his companys innovations is Gorilla glass, a brand
of toughened glass, now in its fifth
generation, designed to be thin, light
and damage-resistant. The alkalialuminosilicate sheet glass has been
used mainly as cover glass for portable electronic devices such as mobile
phones, portable computer displays,
and television screens. Corning reCHEMICAL ENGINEERING
cently teamed with Ford Motor Co.

to use Gorilla glass for the front and
rear windshields on the Ford GT
sports car.
The toughened glass is made by
being immersed in a molten alkaline
potassium salt at a temperature of
about 400C. Here the smaller sodium ions in the glass are replaced
by larger potassium ions from the
salt bath. The larger ions occupy
more space and thus create a surface layer of high residual compressive stress at the surface, giving the
glass surface increased strength,
the ability to contain flaws, and
crack-resistance.
Other glass makers that have developed similar glass include Asahi
Glass and Schott. Asahi Glass
toughened glass is called Dragontail glass and Schotts is called
Xensation, and both are also alkali-aluminosilicate sheet glass with
properties very similar to those of
Gorilla glass.
Glassmaking innovations
Apart from the many innovations in
glass products, there have also been
important developments in the glass
manufacturing methods.
Late last year, Praxair, Inc. (Danbury, Connecticut; www.praxair.
com) demonstrated a thermochemical regenerator system at a glassmaking facility in Mexico. Known as
Optimelt, the heat-recovery system
lowers fuel consumption in oxy-fuel
furnaces, which use pure oxygen instead of air as the primary combustion oxidant (for more details about
Optimelt, see Chem. Eng., December 2015, p. 7).
In April, Praxair signed a contract with Libbey, Inc. (Toledo,
Ohio; www.libbey.com), one of the
largest glassware and tableware
manufacturers, to supply it with
the Optimelt system. Praxair also
entered into a contract with Libbey
to deliver O2 to its glass melting facility in the Netherlands through a
non-cryogenic, vacuum pressureswing adsorption (VPSA) system.
Both the Optimelt system and the
VPSA supply system are scheduled
to start up in 2017.
n
Paul Grad
JUNE 2016
Newsfront
New Ways to Deal With Old

Heat-Transfer Issues
New developments in heat exchangers solve common problems and
enhance performance
DeDietrich
IN BRIEF
WHY UPGRADE?
INCREASING RELIABILITY
AND SAFETY
IMPROVEMENTS TO
ALTERNATIVES
DESIGNS FOR SPECIAL
APPLICATIONS
DESIGNED FOR
EFFICIENCY
20
hemical
processors are no
strangers
to
heat exchanger
problems, such as corrosion, fouling and thermal
expansion, which interfere with reliability of the
units and adversely affect
process uptime. Because
unplanned downtime in
the chemical process industries (CPI) is unacceptable, experts suggest that
upgrading to newer exchanger technologies may FIGURE 1. QVF coil-type heat exchangers are made of borosilicate glass 3.3 and
provide solutions to com- are single-piece units where the tube coil is fused to the shell, so that no seals are
mon challenges, while also required, which eliminates the risk of cross-contamination between the service medium and the product
increasing uptime, performance and efficiency.
Reliability of heat exchangers in terms of that will be able to work for longer periods
operational uptime and efficient heat transfer without servicing. So people are looking into
at design conditions, which can be nega- new solutions that can increase the time betively impacted by fouling or outages due tween shutdowns.
to mechanical failures caused by corrosion,
Some of these solutions come in the form
erosion or similar phenomena, is likely the of shell-and-tube heat exchangers, which
biggest operational challenge for chemical remain the workhorses of the industry, that
processors concerning their heat exchang- feature new materials or designs to help proers, says Hank Shamsi, president of Gooch vide greater uptime and efficiencies. PlateThermal Systems (Lebanon, N.J.; www. based technologies, including welded-plate
goochthermal.com).
and gasketed-plate heat exchangers, and
Nuno Duarte, director of global business spiral units, are also being considered for
development of process technology at Wie- use in the CPI due to the benefits different
land Thermal Solutions (Ulm, Germany; styles may provide. In the past, processors
www.weiland.com) agrees. He says that werent always eager to evaluate alternative
todays current economic scenario is driving solutions to their heat-transfer requirements.
companies to get more from every invest- However, the inherent advantages of welded
ment and ensure that every process is run- plate and spiral heat exchangers thermal
ning at top level, which results in increased efficiency, lower fouling tendencies, more
interest in new or different solutions. As the compact footprint and, often, lower-cost
need for reliability continues to grow, due stainless or high-alloy construction, comto higher safety standards, increased plant bined with enhancements in design and
complexity and tighter operating expenses, fabrication techniques that allow for operaassuring a continuous operation means tion at higher pressures and temperatures
there is an increased demand for equipment are the impetus behind the increased acCHEMICAL ENGINEERING
JUNE 2016
NOV
FIGURE 2. Kenics heat exchangers are equipped

with streamlined Kenics static mixer elements to
offer uniform heat transfer, as well as efficiency and
reliability in difficult, demanding applications
ceptance of welded plate and spiral

heat exchangers in more demanding
applications and difficult services,
adds Shamsi.
Why upgrade?
A lot of the exchangers in service
today were built over twenty-five
years ago and likely used materials such as carbon steel or copper tubes and, in todays chemical
processing environment, thats no
longer acceptable because of corrosion concerns, explains Ron Herman, director of sales and marketing
with Enerquip (Medford, Wis.; www.
enerquip.com). Some of the older
units were also built without following
the current standards of the Tubular
Exchanger Manufacturers Assn.
(TEMA; Tarrytown, N.Y.; www.tema.
org), so if there is thermal expansion
in a process, safety and environmental concerns also may be an issue.
Or, older units may simply be difficult to clean and maintain so maintenance doesnt occur as often as it
should and that results in fouling and
unplanned downtime.
There are so many improvements
in todays materials and designs that
it is often worthwhile to upgrade,
Herman continues. The capabilities
of heat exchanger manufacturers
are so much more advanced today
than they were when these older exchangers were designed and put into
service that we can not only replace
a unit, but also greatly improve its operation and efficiency.

For example, he says Enerquip
offers reverse-engineering capabilities. If a customer provides the
dimensions, parameters and process flows, we can not only run a
simulation model that will duplicate
the performance of a customers
current heat exchanger, but also
allow us to make recommendations
that will improve its performance,
including upgrading the materials,
planning for thermal expansion or
simplifying maintenance.
Increasing reliability and safety

Many older exchangers were built
using materials that could not withstand the corrosive environment
sometimes found in the CPI, so they
were built with a corrosion allowance, meaning that the materials
were layered and thickened to compensate for the corrosion that was
expected to occur. This increased
weight and size of the units. With
todays materials we dont have to
overcompensate for corrosion anymore, explains Herman. There are
different blends and entirely new
brands of metals that were specifically designed for corrosion resistance in the chemical industry. Not
only does the use of these new materials result in a more robust, reliable
heat exchanger, but it also means
that the unit will be lighter in weight
JUNE 2016
and provide a better return on investment. If we are using less material,

it results in a lighter heat exchanger
that can be hung in framework on
the second or third floor in a facility
where weight might previously have
been an issue. Also, the exchanger
will likely last twice as long because
it wont deteriorate with corrosion, so
it provides a better return on investment, says Herman.
Another area that affects reliability
is thermal expansion. If a hot gas is
entering the shell and theres cold
water in the tubes, they fight against
each other. If you are using different
materials in the tubing than in the
shell, they may expand and contract at different rates, which is likely
to cause stress on the unit, causing
a possible rupture over time. If the
exchanger wasnt designed to combat thermal expansion or if someone
didnt account for the thermal expansion that might occur during process
upsets or high-temperature cleaning
processes, there could be a safety
issue, notes Herman.
He says expansion joints are one
way to deal with thermal expansion.
However, todays latest improvement comes in the form of a floating
tube sheet-style exchanger, which
features a tube sheet that is fixed
in place on one end but allowed to
move within the shell at the other
end. Theres some spring action
involved so that the unit doesnt get
damaged if theres thermal expansion, explains Herman.
Improvements to alternatives
Many exchanger styles, such as
plate-based and spiral technologies,
would not have been considered
for chemical process applications in
the past. However, improvements
to the design and technologies are
making todays models viable and
beneficial solutions.
There has been a lot of development in the components from
gaskets to welding technology to
materials construction that make
compact heat exchangers good for
very severe applications where we
may not have recommended them
previously, explains Klas Abrahamsson, director, process industry with
21
the Process Technology Division of

Alfa Laval (Richmond, Va.; www.
alfalaval.us). However, because we
are able to employ technologies that
allow these models to withstand increased pressure and temperature
requirements, they are finding use
in process applications that benefit
from the lighter weight and smaller
footprint they provide.
For example, Alfa Lavals newest introduction, the DuroShell, is a
specially engineered plate-and-shell
heat exchanger that is suitable for
demanding duty in high-pressure,
high-temperature and corrosive applications. Designed for use up to
100 bars and at temperatures up
to 842F, the unit provides excellent
thermal performance that results in
maximum heat recovery using minimal heating or cooling media, which
cuts fuel consumption, energy costs
and the environmental impact. The
small footprint and light weight also
minimize installation, operating and
maintenance costs and the gasketfree construction provides security against leakage, while the fully
welded design allows for the high
operating pressures and optimizes
resistance fatigue.
Spiral heat exchangers are also
employing advancements. The availability of materials in continuous-coil
form, coupled with improvements in
the design and fabrication machinery
that allow the use of heavier plate
thicknesses, have enabled manufacturers to push the boundaries of
operation for todays spiral heat exchangers to pressures as high as 650
psi (45 barg), says Goochs Shamsi.
A spiral heat exchanger offers
processors certain operational advantages due to its inherent circular
design, curved, single-flow channels, rectangular flow cross-section,
large surface area-to-volume ratio
and compact geometry. In liquidto-liquid services, the continuously
curving, single-flow passages induce high-shear rates that tend to
scrub away deposits as they form,
which reduces fouling and makes
spiral heat exchangers suitable for
handling tough fluids, such as process slurries, sludge and media with
suspended solids or fibers, whether
on one side or on both sides, all of
22
Watlow
FIGURE 3. Optimaxs EFD technology provides

advanced flow without compromising the integrity
of the fluid, heating elements or vessel
which are difficult for traditional multichannel heat exchangers. In vaporto-liquid duties, a large flow crosssection perpendicular to vapor flow,
a short condensing zone, and often
column-mounted execution, ensure
extremely low pressure drops, making spiral heat exchangers suitable
for condensing of overhead vapors
from distillation columns operating
under deep vacuum.
Designs for special applications

In pharmaceutical applications,
users demand exchangers that
eliminate any possibility of cross
contamination, which requires either
gasket-free construction or intermediate chambers that collect potential
leaks, says Edgar Steffin, head of
marketing for the QVF product line
with DeDietrich Process Systems
GmbH (Mainz, Germany; www.qvf.
com). Avoiding contamination of the
pharmaceutical product also requires
the use of materials approved by the
U.S. Food and Drug Admin. (FDA;
Silver Spring, Md.; www.fda.gov) for
contact with the product, as well.
Fine-chemicals applications also
require more low-temperature process steps, notes Steffin. For batch
processes, this means huge temperature ranges during a process cycle.
Increased usage of closed cooling
circuits, which operate at pressures
up to 6 bars (gage) are common, as
well, he says. Both these factors
are difficult on materials of construction and applied sealing technology.
As an answer, his company offers QVF heat exchangers (Figure 1),
which are made of inert materials with
proven sealing systems or seal-free

solutions. Our QVF coil-type heat
exchangers are made of borosilicate
glass 3.3 and are single-piece units
where the tube coil is fused to the
shell, so that no seals are required,
which eliminates the risk of crosscontamination between the service
medium and the product. They offer
heat-exchange surface areas up
to 15 m2. For higher heat-transfer
rates, we offer QVF shell-and-tube
heat exchangers made with highly
corrosion-resistant SiC or borosilicate glass 3.3 up to 27 m2. These
are designed for the condensation
and tempering of highly corrosive
products up to 6 barg.
Some applications, such as those
that involve fluids that are highly viscous and difficult to process (as in
the the polymer, plastic and food
industries), require a different heat
exchanger technology altogether,
says Steve Willis, sales manager
for the chemical market, with National Oilwell Varco (NOV; Houston;
www.nov.com/mixing). Enhanced
surface heat-exchanger technology
was often the traditional method for
heat transfer in these difficult applications, but we determined that by
adding mixing to the problem, you
can increase heat transfer and eliminate burning, scorching and uneven
heat history in delicate applications
like tempering chocolate, extrusion
cooling of foam and cooling of adhesives for pelletizing, he says.
So, NOV offers Kenics heat exchangers (Figure 2), which are
equipped with streamlined Kenics
static mixer elements to offer uniWWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM
JUNE 2016
FIGURE 4. High-efficiency heat exchanger tubes,

especially on processes with media phase change,
are improving heat transfer efficiencies
Wieland Thermal Solutions
form heat transfer, as well as efficiency and reliability in difficult, demanding applications.
Designed for efficiency

There are some applications where
efficiency is key and in many of those
applications, electrical heat exchangers have been the solution. Electrical
heat exchangers are typically as close
to 100% efficient as is possible because any electricity that is put into the
electrical heating coils goes directly to
the process media. However, recent
developments in design have allowed
companies like Watlow to squeeze
even more efficiency from this design.

We used enhanced fluid dynamics
(EFD) to design a heater, the Optimax,
with a higher heat flux while still maintaining the same sheath temperatures
of the electrical heat exchangers that
have been on the market for forty
years. This provides benefits such
as improved heat-transfer rates, increased efficiency, smaller footprint
and lighter weight, says Mike Bange,
product engineer with Watlow (St.
Louis, Mo.; www.watlow.com).
Optimaxs (Figure 3) EFD technology provides advanced flow without
compromising the integrity of the
fluid, heating elements or vessel.

Fluid temperatures are further optimized though the use of optimized
film temperature technology in the
heating elements. Coupled together,
these provide an accelerated heattransfer rate, allowing the vessel
to perform consistently at shorter
lengths or smaller shell diameters.
Improvements in the tubes, as well,
are increasing efficiency of exchangers, according to Wielands Duarte.
Certainly, the high-efficiency heatexchanger tubes, especially on processes with media phase change,
are improving the efficiencies, he
says (Figure 4). Performances of
the equipment have increased dramatically when compared to plain
or low-fin tubes. In some cases, two
exchangers can be replaced by one
more efficient piece of equipment. In
addition to providing these enhanced
tubes to the market, our customized
heat-exchanger design results in
substantial capacity and energy efficiency improvements, as well.
Joy LePree
JUNE 2016
23
Focus
Sensors and Detectors

NK Technologies
Solid-state sensor protects

machinery from shocks
The AGLD Series Ground Fault Sensors (photo) keep machinery and operators safe from accidental shocks.
They are designed to monitor large
machines, to detect moisture ingress in water-delivery and treatment systems, and to ensure safety
in heating processes. They feature
a one-piece, solid-core design. The
output relay will change state at any
point between 5 and 100 mA, or between 80 and 950 mA, depending
on the model. These sensors have
a large LED display, which shows
the precise trip point clearly in any
light condition. A delay can be set
to allow downstream protection to
activate before the sensor, keeping
the main circuit protection hot and
equipment energized while smaller
faults are cleared, says the manufacturer. Electromechanical relay
output provides both normally open
and normally closed contacts. These
sensors are said to be compatible
with most automation and control
systems. NK Technologies, San
Jose, Calif.
www.nktechnologies.com
Hamilton Co.
This family of sensors now

has Bluetooth capabilities
ArcAir (photo) is the latest communication package to support this
companys Arc family of process
sensors. ArcAir enables economical Bluetooth 4.0 wireless connectivity in all environments, says the
company. The new Bluetooth capabilities allow users to view or control
Hamilton Arc sensors from a wide
range of devices, including smart
phones and tablets. ArcAir apps are
available online for both Android and
iOS platforms in three versions: ArcAir
Lite (free), ArcAir Basic and ArcAir Advanced. Hamilton Co., Reno, Nev.
www.hamiltoncompany.com
Floor scales are undaunted by

tough industrial conditions
Pepperl+Fuchs
Hardy Floor Scales and Hardy Lift

Deck Floor Scales can now be ordered in custom sizes. These pro-
cess weighing scales combine

best-in-class durability with the companys Process Toolbox features, including weightless calibration via the
companys C2 electronic calibration
process, and built-in, easy-to-use
Integrated Technician (IT) circuitry
diagnostics. These scales provide
the latest advancements in weighing
technology (including hermetically
sealed load sensors that are sealed
at both the gaging area and cable
entry, to ensure long life). They are
easy to use and install, and are designed and built to withstand harsh
chemical and washdown environments. Both are available in a variety of dimensions and capacities.
Hardy Process Solutions, San
Diego, Calif.
www.hardysolutions.com
Luminescence sensors support

packaging applications
The DK50-UV Luminescence Sensors (photo) provides a reliable way
to complete tasks such as error
checking, sorting, measuring and
positioning materials that blend into
a background or are invisible. They
detect fluorescent chalk marks, clear
glue, tamper-proof seals and other
marks that regular contrast sensors
cannot detect, even on irregular
backgrounds. These sensors deliver a sensing range of 600 mm in
a space-saving housing that is 50%
smaller than previous generation luminescence sensors, says the company. A light spot with a small focal
point allows users to monitor small
parts, such as O-rings, pinpoint
leaks, and invisible markings down to
2.2-mm-dia. targets. These sensors
are UL and cUL listed. The DK50-UV
can also differentiate between multiple luminescent targets. Its graphical eight-segment LED display,
which indicates luminescent signal
strength, and other key parameters.
It comes with an integral timer that
allows slower controllers to react to
sensor output. Pepperl+Fuchs,
Twinsburg, Ohio
www.pepperl-fuchs.us
(Continues)
Note: For more information, circle the 3-digit number on p. 74, or use the website designation.
24
JUNE 2016
Viscosity systems are reliable

under harsh conditions
BinMaster
TE Connectivity
Endress+Hauser
The Dynatrol CL-10DV Viscometer

operates in a wide range of conditions. It provides precise measurement with fast and continuous readings for a diverse array of chemicals,
including Newtonian and shear-thinning liquids. The Dynatrol viscometer
uses a vibratory principle to provide
continuous, online measurement of
process conditions. This eliminates
the need for sampling and provides
exceptional accuracy, says the company. The viscosity probe is available
in stainless steel and other corrosion-resistant materials. It operates
in ranges up to 100,000 centipoise.
It has a standard pressure rating of
1,000 psi, and a temperature rating
of 300F (higher pressure and temperature ratings are available). The
microprocessor-based system has
noise immunity for harsh industrial
environments, and displays viscosity in standard units. Automation
Products, Dynatrol Div., Houston
www.dynatrolusa.com
Magnetostrictive liquid-level
sensors provide reliable insight
The MPX Series magnetostrictive
liquid-level sensor (photo) provides
accurate, repeatable level readings
in a variety of liquid-level measurement applications. The MPX-R has
a large, buoyant and robust float
that allows it to be used reliably in
harsh environments, where fouling
or buildup might otherwise be potentially troubling. The MPX-Es lighter
weight design allows it to be used in
applications where space is limited.
The sensor is used for tank volume
or level measurements and duallevel interface measurement, and the
probe is available in custom lengths
up to 25 ft (7.62 m). BinMaster,
Lincoln, Neb.
www.binmaster.com
Intrinsically safe position

sensors serve many purposes
The intrinsically safe HLIR 750 Series
LVDT position sensors (photo) have
a 420-mA output signal, and are
CSA listed for use in hazardous locations and applications for which an
intrinsically safe sensor is required.
With stainless-steel construction
and a hermetically sealed sensor
body, these LVDT position sensors
26
provide reliable, contactless position

measurement for critical applications
in gas turbines (such as fuel-valve
position feedback), vane-pitch servo
controls, governor controls, and generator-shell expansion measurement.
Units are also suited for the following:
throttle-position sensing in enginedriven compressors in natural gas
pumping stations; for height measurement for head boxes and slicers
in paper mills; for edge detection and
web-tension controls in plastic film
plants;and for realtime position sensing for all types of valves in process
plants, says the company. TE
Connectivity, Pennsauken, N.J.
www.macrosensors.com
Adaptable sensor assemblies

are easy to clean and sterilize
The Cleanfit CPA875 and CPA871
sensor assemblies (photo) allow pH,
ORP, oxygen and NIR sensors to
be easily installed or removed during operation. By moving the sensor from the measuring position to
a service position, these retractable
assemblies allow the sensor to be
cleaned, calibrated or replaced without interrupting the process. The
Cleanfit CPI875 is for applications in
the pharmaceutical and food-andbeverage industries, in which the
sensor must be removed for cleaning, calibration or maintenance on a
regular basis. The CPA875 assemblies, along with their service chambers and process adapters, are designed to drain freely and completely
and allow for thorough cleaning and
sterilization. The CPI871 sensor is
designed for water and wastewater
and chemical industries applications.
The retractable assemblies permit
removal and installation, while protecting the process and operaing
personnel. Both sensor assemblies
are available with a manual or an automatic drive. Endress+Hauser,
Greenwood, Ind.
www.us.endress.com
All-welded flowmeter handles

air and many different gases
The Model ST100L Air/Gas In-Line
Thermal Mass Flow Meters now features an all-welded, no-thread flow
element connection, for improved
reliability in high-pressure industrial
operating environments. The flowmeter has a high pressure rating of
JUNE 2016
up to 3,000 psig, and is designed to

handle a wide range of gases, including natural gas, hydrogen, helium,
methane, ethane, propane, ethylene,
nitrogen, carbon dioxide and many
specialty gases. The ST100L Flow
Meter is inherently thread-less. The
elimination of threaded connections
removes a potential leak path compared to standard meter compression fittings, which are threaded and
can provide a conduit for hazardous
gas leakage, says the company. It
has no moving parts, which virtually
eliminates wear, breakage and maintenance. The flowmeter measures
flow with 100:1 turndown in ranges
from 0.006 to 1,850 ft3/min. Fluid
Components International LLC, San
Marcos, Calif.
www.fluidcomponents.com
Capacitive sensors track level

for all types of media
The Advanced SmartLevel Sensor
(photo) combines standard capacitance-sensing technology with patented SmartLevel technology, which
enables it to reliably sense solids,
granulates and highly conductive
acids and bases, says the company.
It is housed in 316 stainless steel to
withstand aggressive environments.
The polyether ether ketone (PEEK)
housing on the sensing nose provides protection against sticky and
adhesive materials. It can withstand
use in an autoclave for up to one
hour, and when used with proper
mounting accessories, the sensor
can be used in hygienic applications.
It can be easily integrated into control systems (discrete-output and
IO-Link versions are available). This
sensor provides excellent compensation against foam, film and material buildup that cause false triggers
in competing sensors, according to
the manufacturer. Balluff GmbH,
Neuhausen, Germany
www.balluff.com
Rugged transducer is available

for position sensing
The heavy-duty LDI-127 Series Linear Variable Inductive Transducer
(LVIT; photo) is a contactless position
sensor that is designed for a wide
array of in-plant applications, as well
as industrial testing, laboratory and
OEM applications. It has a compact,
anodized aluminum housing (27-mm
dia.; 1.05-in. dia.) that is sealed according to IP67 requirements. The

LDI-127 sensors are offered in five
full scale ranges, from 25 to 200 mm
(1 to 8 in.). Operating from a variety
of d.c. voltages, these sensors offer
a choice of outputs. They include a
field-programmable calibration feature, and operate reliably in temperatures from 20 to 85C (4 to 185F).
Omega, Stamford, Conn.
www.omega.com
Balluff
Sensor monitors cleaning,

coating and quenching fluids
The cleaning, coating and hardening of industrial components and
surfaces are critical process steps
that directly impact the final product.
Using inline analytical technology, the
fluids used by these processes can
be monitored continuously and in realtime to meet demanding process
and safety objectives. The LiquiSonic
sensors (photo) are installed directly
into baths or pipes of any size. The
sensors precisely measure the concentration of cleaning, anti-corrosive
or quenching agents, allowing for
immediate replenishment. This can
reduce the production of off-specification batches that can result when
such fluids are not replenished or
replaced frequently enough.
SensoTech, Wayne, N.J.
www.sensotech.com
Omega
Compact Coriolis liquid flow

sensor is ideal for tight spaces
The Sitrans FC430 Coriolois flowmeter (photo) is designed for both
volume and mass liquid flow, and
offers high-accuracy measurement
with minimum pressure loss in many
chemical process industries (CPI) applications. It is available for new and
retrofit situations, where space is limited. The sensors compact design
is possible from the patented CompactCurve tube shape, which offers
flow accuracies of 0.1% of flowrate
on both liquids and gases, says the
company. User-friendly support tools
provide direct access to operational,
configuration and functional data.
With both hazardous and sanitary
approvals, this device is suitable for
use during liquid custody transfer.
Siemens Process Industries & Drives
Div., Spring House, Pa.
n
www.siemens.com
Suzanne Shelley
JUNE 2016
SensoTech
Siemens Process Industries & Drives Div.
27
New Products
Linde Gases
A cloud-based service
for cylinder inventory
This company has introduced a new
cloud-based version of its gas cylinder
inventory intelligence service, Accura
(photo). Each time a cylinder is moved,
it is scanned and traced, and realtime
location data is uploaded to the Accura platform. The service enables live
information on cylinder stock levels,
movement history and usage patterns,
which can be accessed through a mobile application for smartphones and
tablets, or via a regular web browser.
Tools such as re-ordering assist and
gas-consumption reports help increase productivity, especially for
customers requiring an uninterrupted
gas supply for process continuity. Additional benefits of the service include
enhanced visibility of potentially hazardous products and cylinder expiry
dates. Linde Gases, a division of
The Linde Group, Munich, Germany
www.linde-gas.com
Enhanced safety is among the

upgrades to these pumps
MilliporeSigma
Blacoh Fluid Control
The newly upgraded mRoy line of

metering pumps includes new features for improved safety, improved
hydraulic efficiency and easier startup
and maintenance. Specific enhancements include a liquid-end bleed system, making it easier to commission a
new or newly maintained pump, and
threaded elements on the housing to
assure there is no easy access to potential moving parts. The pumps are
designed to accurately control chemical dosing while meeting API 675, CE
and ATEX standards. The durable,
compact design enables metering
of harsh chemicals with 100-to-1
turndown capabilities and repetitive
steady-state accuracy of 1%.
Milton Roy, Houston
www.miltonroy.com
Faster fluid management

for biopharmacuticals
Lynx CDR connectors (photo) allow efficient fluid management through sterile
connection, disconnection and reconnection, providing an alternative to the
more time-consuming tube-welding
processes and costly manifold configurations traditionally used in upstream
and downstream biopharmaceutical
28
processing. The connectors provide

six sterile connections, disconnections
and reconnections from one disposable device. Previous disposable connector technologies allowed users to
make only a single sterile connection
per device, requiring the use of multiple
devices per unit operation. According
to the manufacturer, the Lynx CDRs
ability to perform connections and disconnections with a wet, pressurized
flow path allows for more economic
fluid management than with connectors that require a dry, non-pressurized flow path. MilliporeSigma,
Billerica, Mass.
www.emdgroup.com
Interconnect industrial
software systems of all sizes
The recently introduced Matrikon OPC
Unified Architecture (OPC UA) Software Development Kit (SDK) is a fully
scalable toolkit that allows users to interconnect industrial software systems,
regardless of the platform, operating
system or size. According to the company, the Matrikon OPC UA SDK requires the smallest amount of memory
in the industry, and runs as efficiently as
possible to leave sufficient computing
resources for correct device functionality. The toolkit is suitable in both small
embedded environments and large
PC-based applications, providing the
scalability to enable multiple product
lines ranging from networked discrete
sensors and actuators to programmable controllers. Honeywell Process
Solutions, Houston
www.honeywellprocess.com
New pulsation dampener

design for AODD pumps
This company has launched a new
pulsation dampener designed specifically for air-operated doublediaphragm (AODD) pumps. The
AODDampener (photo) is constructed of 316L stainless steel with
a
polytetrafluoroethylene
(PTFE)
diaphragm, and employs an automatic air-control mechanism that
utilizes the existing compressed-air
source in an AODD pump system for
charging. Because there is no need
to adjust the dampeners charge
at pump startup or when there is a
change in system pressure, the AODWWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM
JUNE 2016
Dampeners automatic air control

works with AODD systems where
fluid pressures vary substantially on
a regular basis. Another benefit of
the dampeners automatic air control
is that air is not required unless the
average line pressure in the system
changes. Blacoh Fluid Control,
Riverside, Calif.
www.blacoh.com
Emerson Process Management
ing continuous, realtime production
An ultrasonic sensor for layer

data. The platform also provides
detection in a variety of materials measurement insight to reduce
waste, maintain product quality, and
identify process upsets in the presence of multiple phases in life sciences and chemical applications.
Emerson Process Management,
Austin, Tex.
www.emersonprocess.com
SICK
The UD18-2 ultrasonic sensor for

double layer and splice detection
(photo) is able to determine whether
one, two or no material layers are
present between its sender and receiver. The UD18-2 can reliably detect
objects regardless of material, including paper, cardboard, shiny metal,
transparent plastic and more. The
UD18-2 also features the functionality
for up to four sensitivity levels, and the
sensor can switch between sensitivity levels during operation. This allows
the sensor to tackle complex applications and ensure permanent system
availability. In addition, the UD18-2
features rapid commissioning thanks
to plug-and-play technology, as well
as variable mounting distance for flexibility during installation. The UD18-2
is also immune to dirt, dust and humidity, making it appropriate for a
wide variety of applications in the
packaging, paper, electronics, solar,
metal and steel industries. Sick AG,
Wildkirch, Germany
www.sick.com
PROCESS
PLANTS

n HYDROGENATION
n SPECIAL CHEMISTRY
n POLYMERS
These limit switches

require no batteries
Steute Industrial Controls
This companys line of wireless limit

switches (photo) feature an internal
electrodynamic energy generator
no battery is required. Displacement
of the actuator generates power to
send a uniquely coded signal to
one or more compatible, easily-programmed receivers. If the limit switch
does not receive the confirmation
signal within 15 ms, it transmits a
second signal. The receiver accepts
up to 10 discrete signals per channel. With a transmission range of 40
m indoors and 450 m outdoors, the
switches are available for operation at
915 MHz (for use in the U.S, Canada
and Australia) or 868 MHz for use in
Europe. A variety of actuator styles
are available, including roller plunger,
This transmitter software
reduces process upsets
roller lever, rocker lever, spring rod
Micro Motion Advanced Phase Mea- and more. Steute Industrial Consurement (APM; photo) is a software trols, Inc., Ridgefield, Conn.
option available on this companys www.steutewireless.com
Model 5700 transmitter that helps
improve measurement accuracy in An easily expandable
challenging multi-phase applica- wireless I/O system
tions. This measurement solution The new Multi-Point Wireless I/O sysprovides insight into the complete tem allows users to transfer I/O or
flow stream, including oil, water and Modbus data to and from multiple
gas, through a local display, provid- locations without the hassle of wires,
n PHARMA, FOOD
COSMETICS
Your fast lane to production:

Contact USA
(201) 825 4684, [email protected]
Contact international
+49 7622 290, [email protected]
www.ekato.com
JUNE 2016
29
conduit, trenching or permits. The secure system deploys quickly and can
be used indoors or outdoors in a variety of industries. The system can be
expanded as the needs of the users
application expand. Three module
types two analog and one digital
allow users to customize their setup.
The Multi-Point Wireless I/O system
can be used in three different methods: I/O to I/O; I/O to Modbus serial;
and Modbus serial to Modbus serial.
The digital module also serves as a
counter. ProSoft Technology, Inc.,
Bakersfield, Calif.
www.psft.com
Pall Life Sciences
Hugo Vogelsang Maschinenbau
ExxonMobil Chemical
Wilden Pump and Engineering
30
New PE resins allow for

faster film-production rates
Developed through advanced catalyst technology and process research, Exceed XP performance
polymers are specifically designed
to run at faster film-production rates
in a variety of film applications. The
polyethylene (PE) resins offer a high
level of protection and preservation
for a broad range of flexible packaging products, and are especially wellsuited for challenging applications,
such as liquid and food packaging,
construction liners and agricultural
films (photo), says the manufacturer.
In the food-packaging sector, Exceed
XP can be used in highly demandA single-use, stirred-tank
bioreactor for scalable cell culture ing environments with low temperaThe Allegro STR 1000 single-use, tures or high volumes. ExxonMobil
1,000-L stirred-tank reactor (photo) Chemical Co., Spring, Tex.
provides scalable cell culture in a www.exxonmobilchemical.com
simple-to-install package. Installation
is largely automated and requires min- An aluminum version of this
imal operator interaction, reducing the AODD pump is now available
potential for error or damage. The cu- The HS430S Advanced FIT 1.5-in.
bical design and large bottom-driven high-pressure AODD pump is now
impeller result in high oxygen-transfer available in an aluminum version
rates and short mixing times. In ad- (photo) that is well-suited for applidition, both disposable and reusable cations that require high head pressensors can be integrated with the sures, such as viscous and solidAllegro STR 1000 bioreactor for in- laden slurries. The aluminum pump
creased flexibility. Pall Life Sciences, comes equipped with the FIT wetted
Port Washington, N.Y.
path, which minimizes the number of
www.pall.com
fasteners and allows for single-socket
reassembly for simpler maintenance.
The pumps Simplex design allows
Expanded throughput is
available with these shredders
for one liquid chamber to pump fluid
The new generation of the XRipper while the other is used as a prestwin-shaft shredder is designed to sure-amplification chamber. With a
reduce the size of coarse matter that two-to-one pressure ratio, the pump
can clog pumps, pipes and fittings. generates 250 psig and does not reIn addition to shredding more evenly, quire external boosters or amplifiers
new housing geometry allows for sig- to achieve this discharge pressure.
nificantly higher throughput, which Wilden Pump and Engineering,
can be further increased with an op- Grand Terrace, Calif.
tional add-on feature, says the com- www.wildenpump.com
pany. Designed specifically for pipelines, the XRipper model XRP (photo) All-new industrial thin client
has the optimal type of construction for virtualized HMI systems
for inline installation in sewage pipe- The BTC01 is a new standalone inlines and other confined spaces, such dustrial-box thin client that is ideal for
as ducts. The easily accessible ripper modular virtualized human-machinerotors and cartridge seals allow quick interface (HMI) systems. It comes
parts replacement. A version designed preloaded with this companys new
especially for channel installations, proprietary operating system, RM
the XRC, is also available. Hugo Shell 4.0. The BTC01 features enVogelsang Maschinenbau GmbH, hanced security, a new user interface
Essen, Germany
that simplifies integration and autowww.vogelsang-gmbh.com
connect and connection-loss feaCHEMICAL ENGINEERING
JUNE 2016
tures. The fully customizable unit can

simultaneously run up to four systems,
and it restricts operators to predefined
web addresses. Shock and vibration
resistant, the BTC01 is built on an aluminium chassis with a fanless design.
All internal moving parts are eliminated,
and the unit can operate safely at
temperatures between 20 and 60C.
Pepperl+Fuchs North America,
Twinsburg, Ohio
www.pepperl-fuchs.us
These low-emission
burners produce less noise
Developed with computational fluid
dynamics (CFD), as well as practical
combustion tests, the ACE low-emission burner (photo) produces very low
NOx emissions. Its CO emissions are
also very low. In typical conditions, the
NOx emissions of natural-gas combustion are less than 60 mg/Nm3 with
these burners. In addition to combustion emissions, the burners noise
emissions are significantly lower than
those of earlier models. ACE burners
are suitable for natural gas, light and
heavy oil, as well as other liquid and

gaseous fuels. The ACE product family consists of several different burner
capacities, currently covering the 6.5
70-MW power range. Oilon Oy,
Lahti, Finland
www.oilon.com
Oilon
Metallic gear pumps

with very few parts
The Eclipse Series of metallic gear
(photo) pumps features 12 different
models to handle a wide variety of
chemicals, connection sizes and flow
ranges for water treatment and chemical processing applications. Equipped
with a patented front pull-out design
that simplifies routine maintenance,
the Eclipse series features the fewest number of parts compared to any
other external gear pump on the market, says the manufacturer. Two different types of metallic gearing Alloy
C and 316LSS are available for
addressing higher temperatures (up
to 450F) and wider viscosity ranges
for process chemicals. Each member of the Eclipse Series is magneti-
Pulsafeeder Engineered Products
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31
cally driven, with no seals to wear or

replace, providing reliable handling of
highly corrosive fluids in a wide range
of temperatures. Pulsafeeder Engineered Products, Rochester, N.Y.
www.pulsa.com
Gebr. Ldige Maschinenbau
Perform wear tests onsite

with this fully mobile mixer
Watlow Electric Manufacturing
A mobile version of this companys

FKM 600 ploughshare mixer, dubbed
Mixer in the Box (photo), was specially designed for users in heavyduty industries, providing the ability to
perform practical wear tests directly
on their premises. Completely mobile and installed in a 40-ft standard
container, the fully assembled machine has a drum volume of 600 L.
Suitable for mixing heavy and coarse
products, the Mixer in the Box is constructed of highly durable materials
with a replaceable rubber lining to protect the cylindrical container and front
plates from wear. The mixing mechanism itself has shovel armor plating made of tungsten carbide, which
significantly increases service life.
Gebr. Ldige Maschinenbau GmbH,
Paderborn, Germany
www.loedige.de
This process controller

features advanced data logging
The F4T version 3.0 temperature and
process controller (photo) features
advanced data logging and graphical trend charts, as well as encrypted
data-log records to help meet industry
requirements, such as AMS 2750E and
CFR 21 Part 11. Other benefits of the
data-logging feature include the ability
to log directly to a USB memory stick
and transfer files over Ethernet. Users
can create up to four trend screens
and scroll through a matching color
legend of parameters on the trend
chart. The F4T also features a 4.3-in.,
capacitive color touch panel with high
resolution and a graphical user interface that provides customized control.
Watlow Electric Manufacturing Co.,
St. Louis, Mo.
www.watlow.com
Sandvik Materials Technology
A&D Weighing
32
coiled tubing (photo) in lengths exceeding 1,000 m from a single 125-kg hollow
with zero welds. The new production
technique is a combination of sophisticated pilgering, precision drawing and
other proprietary processes. Production of the coiled tubing is expected to
be up and running at a facility in Werther,
Germany this month, with the first
1,010-m coiled reel order to be supplied
in October 2016. Sandvik Materials
Technology, Sandviken, Sweden
www.smt.sandvik.com
Portable balances that can be used

in vapor-filled atmospheres
The EK-EP Series of intrinsically safe
compact balances (photo) are approved
for both U.S. and Canada for Zone 0
or Division 1 atmospheres where vapors are constantly present and could
be accidently ignited. The Series models have capacities of 300 and 3,000 g,
as well as 12 kg. The portable design
means that weighing can take place
near the vapor source or inside fume
hoods and explosion-proof enclosures.
Because the balances are powered by
batteries rather than electrical mains,
they do not require installation by a
qualified electrician. A&D Weighing,
San Jose, Calif.
www.andweighing.com
Use this software for steel and

concrete structural designs
The recently released Engineer 16

structural-design software features
over 350 updates upon previous versions, including important enhancements in concrete and steel design.
For concrete designs, new workflows,
a new shear-wall and frame module
and improved beam and column design functionalities have been added
to the software package. For steel
projects, improvements have been
made in the areas of composite floor
members, cold-formed steel design
and bi-axial steel-connection design.
The softwares analysis and results capabilities have also been updated to
include extensions for plastic strains,
additional yield criterion and triangular finite elements during meshing
for membrane elements. SCIA nv,
Weld-free coiled tubing in
lengths exceeding 1,000 m
Herk-de-Stad, Belgium
This company has developed a method www.scia.net
enabling the production of stainless

Mary Page Bailey
JUNE 2016
Facts At Your Fingertips

Key Reactions for the Petrochemical Industry
Department Editor: Scott Jenkins
handful of compounds derived

from natural gas and crude
petroleum are converted into
a vast array of industrial petrochemicals. Starting materials for most pet-
rochemical intermediates include

synthesis gas, ethylene, propylene,
butadiene and BTX (benzene, toluene,
xylenes). This one-page reference
provides an overview of the chemi-
cal routes and reactions required to

manufacture these fundamental petrochemicals, as well as reactions for
generating some of their immediate
chemical derivatives.
PETROCHEMICAL STARTING MATERIALS AND MAJOR PRODUCTS

Petrochemical
Potential chemical routes and required reactions
Synthesis gas
(syngas, a mixture
of mainly H2 and
CO)
Methane can be converted to synthesis gas by steam-methane reforming.

2CH4 + 3H2O
CO + CO2 + 7H2 (reaction occurs at temperatures between 700
and 1,100C with a nickel-based catalyst)
The formation of syngas is strongly endothermic and requires high temperatures.
Steam reforming of natural gas occurs in externally heated tubular reactors. The
process uses nickel catalysts on a special support that is resistant to the harsh process conditions. Waste heat from the oven section is used to preheat gases and to
produce steam.
Coal, biomass or other hydrocarbons can be converted to syngas via gasification according to the following reaction:
3C (coal) + O2 + H2O H2 + 3CO
Ethylene (C2H4;
H2C=CH2)
Propylene (C3H6;
H3CCH=CH2)
Syngas can also be made via partial oxidation processes, in which a sub-stoichiometric fuel-air mixture is partially combusted to yield a hydrogen-rich syngas.
Ethylene is commercially produced by the steam cracking of a range of hydrocarbons, including ethane from natural gas and naphtha from crude oil. Naphtha is a
name given to petroleum distillates consisting of a mixture of straight-chained and
aliphatic hydrocarbons with five to nine carbons.
Steam cracking is the uncatalyzed thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons at high
temperatures using steam. In steam cracking, gaseous, saturated hydrocarbons are
broken down into smaller, often unsaturated, hydrocarbons at temperatures from
750900C. The partial pressures of the hydrocarbon feeds are kept low to prevent
polymerization and condensation reactions from occurring. Steam cracking is generally
used to manufacture lighter olefins, such as ethylene and propylene. Steam cracker
feeds can include naphtha, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), ethane, propane and butane.
Steam-cracker product distributions can be controlled by changing the composition of the feed material, the hydrocarbon-to-steam ratio, the cracking temperature
and furnace residence time. Cracking reactions generally take place via free-radical
mechanisms in which alkane carbon-carbon bonds break homolytically, forming
alkyl radicals, which can abstract hydrogen atoms. For example, in ethane cracking,
hydrogen abstraction forms ethyl radicals, which undergo a unimolecular, free-radical
decomposition to form CC double bonds.
Initiation: C2H6 CH3 + CH3
Propagation: CH3 + C2H6 C2H5 + H
C2H5 C2H4 + H
Termination: C2H5 + C2H5 C2H4 + C2H6
A) Steam cracking of naphtha (see above description)
B) Propane dehydrogenation. Because of an increasing demand for propylene and
a shift toward ethane cracking over naphtha cracking, a number of on-purpose
routes to propylene have become more widely used, including propane dehydrogenation (PDH).
C3H8 C3H6 + H2 (in the presence of a Pt-Sn-based catalyst)
Butadiene (C4H6;
H2C=CHCH=CH2)
BTX (benzene,
toluene and xylene
isomers)
A) Steam cracking of naphtha (see above description)

B) Bio-based butadiene has been commercialized also (using a fermentation route)
A) Steam-cracking of naphtha (see above description)
B) Catalytic reforming of naphtha. This process uses platinum- or rhenium-based
catalysts. Naphtha reforming dehydrogenates naphthenes, and dehydrogenates and
aromatizes paraffins, among other reactions
Reactions involved in the manufacture of immediate

derivatives
Syngas is a crucial intermediate resource for the production of hydrogen, methanol and ammonia. For example,
CH3OH + H2O
CO2 + 3H2
Fischer-Tropsch (F-T) synthesis converts syngas into hydrocarbons that can then be converted into liquid vehicle
fuels, such as gasoline, diesel and jet fuel, as well as
chemicals such as olefins and waxes. A general representation of the F-T reaction is the following:
(2n + 1) H2 + nCO CnH(2n+2) + nH2O
Product distribution for F-T chemistry includes differentsized alkanes and alkenes, and to a lesser extent,
oxygenated products, such as alcohols. F-T catalysts are
either based on cobalt or iron.
Ethanol: C2H4 + H2O (steam) C2H5OH
Ethylene oxide (used to make ethylene glycol):
C2H4 + air (O2 source) C2H4O (in the presence of
silver catalyst)
Ethylene dichloride (1,2-dichloroethane; used to make
vinyl chloride):
C2H4 + Cl2 C2H4Cl2 (ferric chloride catalyst)
Polyethylene (used to make plastic resins):
C2H4 [CH2CH2]n (using Ziegler-Natta catalyst at
pressures of 1,000 to 3,000 bars)
Ethylbenzene (used to make styrene)
C2H4 + C6H6 C6H5CH2CH3 (Lewis acids used as
catalyst)
Propylene oxide (used to make polyether and polyols) via

the hydrochlorination route:
2C3H6 + Cl2 + H2O 2(H2CCHClCH2OH)
H2CCHClCH2OH + OH H3CCHCH2
\ /
O
Polypropylene (used to make plastic resins)
nC3H6 [CH2CHCH2]n (Ziegler-Natta catalyst)
|
CH3
1,3-butadiene is used for the manufacture of synthetic
rubbers and latex
Benzene is used to make ethylbenzene, and then styrene
(C6H5CH=CH2), as well as cyclohexane and further precursors for Nylon
Toluene is used to manufacture toluene diisocyanate (an
intermediate for polyurethane), as well as tri-nitrotoluene
(TNT). It is also used as a component of gasoline, and as
a solvent for sealants, adhesives and others
p-xylene is used to make terephthalic acid, a precursor to
polyesters. o-xylene is used to make phthalic anhydride
Selected resources
Van de Loosdrecht, J. and Niementsverdriet, J. Synthesis Gas
to Hydrogen, Methanol and Synthetic Fuels, in Chemical Energy Storage, R. Schloegl (ediitor), De Gruyter, Berlin, 2013.
34
Rase, Howard, Chemical Reactor Design for Process

Plants, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1977.
www.syngaschem.com/syngaschem
www.chemguide.co.uk
www.essentialchemistryindustry.org
JUNE 2016
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expanding across many industries. The Group keeps faith with our
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Technology Profile
Precipitated Calcium Carbonate from Limestone
By Intratec Solutions
alcium carbonate (CaCO3) is

a mineral that occurs naturally in chalks, limestones
and marbles. Its largest use
is in the pulp-and-paper industry as a
filler and pigment. Other calcium carbonate applications include its use in
building construction, plant and crop
fertilizers, food additives, water and
sewage treatment, ceramics, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics.
The process
The following paragraphs describe a
carbonization process for precipitated
calcium carbonate (PCC) production
from limestone. Figure 1 presents a
simplified process flow diagram, showing the main pieces of equipment.
Calcination. Initially, the limestone
from a quarry is stored in bins. Typical
extracted limestone contains about
75 wt.% of CaCO3. Mined limestone
is crushed in a jaw crusher and calcined (burned) in a vertical-shaft lime
kiln at about 1,000C. In the kiln, the
calcium carbonate present in the
limestone decomposes into calcium
oxide (CaO; also known as lime or
quicklime) and carbon dioxide, which
is captured and treated for reuse in
the process.
Slaking. The CaO is fed to a stirred
slaker tank, where it is hydrated (slaked)
with water to form a calcium-hydroxide
slurry called slaked lime or slake. Before carbonation, the impurities (silica
and other oxides) originating from the
limestone are separated from the slake,
producing a pure slaked lime.
Carbonation. The pure slaked lime
is then fed to a set of atmospheric
stirred reactors, where it is diluted and
Lime or limestone
Carbon dioxide
present in stack
gas emissions
Pulp-and
paper-mill
PCC
n Raw material n Process n Main product
FIGURE 2. This diagram shows how a PCC plant could be a satellite plant for a pulp-and-paper mill
subsequently reacted with the recovered carbon dioxide from the lime kiln.
The carbonation reaction is regulated
by the equilibrium of the solution: as
calcium ions are converted to calcium
carbonate and precipitated out of solution, more calcium hydroxide dissolves to equalize the concentration
of calcium ions.
Drying, grinding and finishing. The
slurry from the carbonators is sent to
a filter press, which removes most of
the water. Recovered water is recycled for reuse in the slaking step. The
PCC from the filter is dried with hot air,
de-agglomerated in grinders, packed
and stored.
Economic performance
An economic evaluation of the process described was conducted
based on data from the first quarter,
2014. The scope of this analysis assumes a PCC plant located near a
limestone quarry.
The total capital investment required to construct a plant with the
capacity to produce 50,000 metric
tons per year of PCC in the U.S. is
estimated at about $21 million. The
capital investment presented includes fixed capital, working capital
and additional capital requirements.
The production costs (including
costs associated with plant operation, product sales, administration,

R&D activities and depreciation) are
about $260/ton of PCC produced.
Process integration
When PCC plants are integrated with
pulp-and-paper mills (Figure 2), they
are called PCC satellite plants. These
plants use the stack gas emissions
from the lime kiln in the paper mill,
mainly because of its higher carbon
dioxide content. PCC satellite plants
commonly use lime as a main raw
material, rather than limestone. This
integration between the two processes has a major effect on the emission
profile of the pulp-and-paper mill,
since greenhouse gas emissions are
significantly reduced.
This column is based on Calcium
Carbonate Production from Limestone: Cost Analysis, a report published by Intratec. It can be found at:
www.intratec.us/analysis/calciumn
carbonate-production-cost.
Edited by Scott Jenkins
Editors Note: The content for this column is supplied by
Intratec Solutions LLC (Houston; www.intratec.us) and edited
by Chemical Engineering. The analyses and models presented
are prepared on the basis of publicly available and nonconfidential information. The content represents the opinions
of Intratec only. More information about the methodology for
preparing analysis can be found, along with terms of use, at
www.intratec.us/che.
Process water
Limestone
from quarry
PCC plant
1. Limestone storage & crushing

2. Lime kiln
3. Carbon dioxide recovery area
4. Slaker
5. Carbonator
6. Water removal area
7. Grinder
8. PCC storage & packing
4
6
2
5
Heavies
PCC bags
Fuel
FIGURE 1. The process flow diagram shows precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC) production from limestone
36
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Modern Rupture Discs

Support Increased
Plant Capacity
The use of todays high-performance rupture disc designs can help to reduce many
common operating problems and support increased throughput requirements
Alan T. Wilson
Oseco
IN BRIEF
KEY CONSIDERATIONS
MANUFACTURING
DESIGN RANGE
BURST PRESSURE
TOLERANCE
OPERATING RATIO
VACUUM RESISTANCE
THE EVOLUTION OF
RUPTURE DISC DESIGNS
PUTTING IT ALL
TOGETHER
Note: The discussion provided in

this article does not include every
rupture disc type and situation,
but is representative of most
rupture discs used in chemical
process industries (CPI) applications. Users should always refer
to the data sheets for any specific
brand and model for performance
specifications.
38
hemical process industries (CPI)

plants are typically designed to
achieve specific production volumes, but as anyone
who has worked in one knows,
those production targets are
prone to change as market
factors and plant objectives
evolve. Most CPI facilities are
expected to increase (or decrease) production targets
at some point. An increase
in production targets typically involves increasing
the operating pressures,
temperatures or both, in
order to increase the rate
of process reaction and the
quantity of final product manufactured at the site.
When operating pressures are
brought closer to the set pressure of rupture
discs and relief valves, these changes can
increase the frequency of nuisance failures,
which can lead to pressure releases and
shutdowns. Fortunately, pressure-relief technology has evolved over time, resulting in
greater accuracy and higher performance for
todays advanced rupture disc designs.
Rupture discs are designed to protect vessels and other capital equipment from dangerous and damaging overpressurization,
by bursting open and safely relieving the
overpressure condition when the line or vessel reaches a pre-determined pressure and
temperature. They can provide both primary
and secondary relief, and are used in combination with pressure-relief valves to prevent
leakage and protect relief-valve seats from
potential exposure to corrosive and sticky
substances.
The burst pressure is commonly set at or
FIGURE 1. Rupture discs provide overpressure protection, so they play a vital role in CPI plant safety.
High-performance rupture discs can maximize system efficiency and support increased plant capacity
below the maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) of the vessel and the temperature at which overpressure is expected to
occur. In some cases, it may be desirable to
set the burst pressure well below the MAWP.
An increase in operating pressures means
that these devices must withstand pressures
closer to the expected burst pressure. Rules
governing the use of rupture discs in chemical process plants can be found in ASME
BPVCVIII.1-2015, Section VIII [1].
Most rupture discs are manufactured from
corrosion-resistant metals, using a design
that is specified to meet the burst pressure
and performance requirements of a given
application. The user must specify the size,
type, material, requested burst pressure
and temperature.
The rupture disc manufacturer then manipulates the appropriate material in different ways to design and produce rupture
discs that meet all of the users specifica-
JUNE 2016
tions. During the manufacturing process, several pieces from each lot are
forced to burst as a test, to ensure
that the manufactured lot meets the
specifications.
Rupture discs have evolved considerably since their first use in the 1930s.
Nonetheless, most of the older designs
are still in use today. Compared to modern designs, older rupture disc designs
have lower performance capabilities,
reduced repeatability and are more difficult to accurately calibrate to a specific
burst pressure.
While they may be less expensive
than the newer high-performance designs, they may bring tradeoffs in
performance or reliability. In many
cases, a facilitys particular management of change (MOC) protocol prevents upgrading to modern
technology. When this happens, users
often become accustomed to tolerating the poor performance of these
outdated designs.
Understanding the terms that are
used to describe rupture disc performance, and the technology options
TABLE 1. MANUFACTURING DESIGN RANGE

Customer request: Burst pressure of 100 psig @72oF
Rupture discs will be marked somewhere between the minimum and maximum possible marked burst
pressure
Manufacturing design range +10 to 5 psig 10%
5%
0%
Maximum possible
110 psig
100 psig
100 psig
100 psig
marked burst pressure
@72oF
@72oF
@72oF
@72oF
Minimum possible
95 psig
90 psig
95 psig
100 psig
@72oF
@72oF
@72oF
@72oF
TABLE 2. BURST PRESSURE TOLERANCE

Customer request: Burst pressure of 100 psig @72oF
Burst pressure
35 psig (40 psig)
Maximum acceptable burst pressure
35 + 2 = 37 psig
Minimum acceptable burst pressure
35 2 = 33 psig
100 psig (>40 psig)

100+5%=105 psig
1005%=95 psig
TABLE 3. OPERATING RATIO

Rupture disc with a marked burst pressure (BP) of 100 psig @72oF
Operating ratio
70%
80%
90%
Maximum operating pressure
70 psig
80 psig
90 psig
(If based on marked BP)
66.5 psig 76.0 psig 85.5 psig
(If based on marked BP minus burst tolerance)
95%
95 psig
90.3 psig
that are available to meet the increasing demands placed upon these important safety devices can give engineers
the tools needed to support increased
production objectives at the chemical
process plant.
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from 1 - 29 gph output with 6 different models
Pressure relief and back pressure valves offer a complete range of thermoplastic
body materials, chemically resistant, spring-loaded diaphragms and choice
of end connections to match any process requirement
Thermoplastic corporation stops, injection valves and quills for chemical
injection into pressurized lines
Calibration columns with a broad range of feed rates, clear PVC or borosilicate
glass bodies, a range of thermoplastic end connectors and a choice of tops
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Pulsation dampeners for reciprocating pump applications
PBV & RPV Series

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Corporation Stops
To find the tools that work for your job,

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JUNE 2016
39
Manufacturing design range example: 100 psig

+10/5% manufacturing design range
Pressure
psig
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
105
110
115
105
110
115
10% manufacturing design range

Pressure
psig
85
90
95
100

Pressure
psig
85
90
95
100
0% manufacturing design range*

Pressure
psig
Key
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
*Rupture discs manufactured with a 0% manufacturing design range will receive a marked burst pressure at the
requested burst pressure, every time. Manufacturing tests bursts are still performed but are not averaged to determine
the marked burst pressure. Those manufacturing tests bursts must fall within the burst tolerance.
Highest possible
Requested burst
Manufacturing design range - marked burst
pressure 100 psig
pressure must fall within this range
Lowest
possible
Marked burst pressure - determine by average
Manufacturing test bursts
marked pressure
of manufacturing test bursts, except for 0%
mfg. design range
FIGURE 2. To determine the marked burst pressure, several manufacturing test bursts are run and
their results averaged. The marked burst pressure on any rupture disk must fall within the parameters defined by the manufacturing design range. As shown in these examples, the marked burst
pressure may be above or below the requested burst pressure, depending on the manufacturing
design range available and the results of the manufacturing test bursts
Burst tolerance examples applied to various manufacturing design ranges: 100 psig
Burst tolerance for +10/5% manufacturing design range
Pressure
psig
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
110
115
110
115
110
115
Burst tolerance for 10% manufacturing design range

Pressure
psig
85
90
95
100
105
Burst tolerance for 5% manufacturing design range

Pressure
psig
85
90
95
100
105
Burst tolerance for 0% manufacturing design range*

Pressure
psig
Key
85
90
95
100
105
Requested burst
pressure 100 psig
Highest possible marked burst pressure,

and its associated + burst tolerance
Manufacturing
test bursts
Lowest possible marked burst pressure,

and its associated + burst tolerance
Marked burst
pressure, and its
associated + burst
tolerance
FIGURE 3. The burst tolerance is the range in which a rupture disc will burst upon activation, relative
to its marked burst pressure. ASME code defines the standard burst tolerance for rupture discs as
5% of the marked burst pressure for pressures above 40 psig. For pressures up to and including 40
psig, the standard burst tolerance is 2 psi
Key terminology
Key rupture disc specification terms are
discussed as follows:
Manufacturing design range. The
40
manufacturing design range is an agreement between rupture disc manufacturer and user that specifies how close
the marked burst pressure must be to
the requested burst pressure. Specifically, ASME defines manufacturing design range as follows in the Endnote 47
of Ref. 1:
The manufacturing design range is
a range of pressure within which the
marked burst pressure must fall to be
acceptable for a particular requirement,
as agreed upon between the rupture disk
manufacturer and the user or his designated agent. The manufacturing design
range must be evaluated in conjunction
with the specified burst pressure to ensure that the marked burst pressure of
the rupture disk will always be within applicable limits of UG-134. Users are cautioned that certain types of rupture disks
have manufacturing ranges that can result in a marked burst pressure greater
than the specified burst pressure.
Rupture disc manufacturers typically
acquire and stock a limited selection of
material types and thicknesses. Early
rupture disc designs had limited means
of adjusting the burst pressure other
than by selecting a different material thickness. As a result, rupture disc manufacturers often were not able to achieve the
exact requested burst pressure. For this
reason, the manufacturing design range
must be agreed upon and specified.
The way that manufacturing design
range is expressed depends on the
rupture disc brand, model and in some
cases, designated burst pressure. Rupture discs may be specified with manufacturing design ranges of 10%, 5%,
or 0% of the requested burst pressure,
or in some cases, with a positive or
negative pressure unit value (Table 1). A
manufacturing range of 10% for a rupture disc with a requested burst pressure
of 100 psig will be marked somewhere
between 90 psig and 100 psig. Rupture
discs ordered with a 0% manufacturing
design range will be marked at the requested burst pressure. All other manufacturing design ranges will be marked at
the average value of the test breaks that
were done to qualify the lot.
Some older designs may not be available in the tightest ranges. For these designs, most manufacturers may offer a
tighter manufacturing range for an added
cost, while others may offer a zero manufacturing range as standard on premium
JUNE 2016
Operating ratio = Maximum operating

pressure/burst pressure
Some manufacturers relate it to marked
burst pressures, while others may state
it as a percentage of the marked burst
pressure minus the burst pressure tolerance. The way the operating ratio is defined can make a difference in the maximum operating pressure. Most modern
rupture disc designs especially
Operating ratio example applied to maximum and minimum burst tolerances: 100 psig
+10/5% manufacturing design range
pre-bulge type, 70% operating ratio
Pressure psig
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
forward-acting scored type, 90% operating ratio
105
110
115
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
reverse-buckling scored type, 95% operating ratio
105
110
115
70
75
105
110
115
Pressure psig
65
Pressure psig
65
Pressure psig
65
Pressure psig
65
Key
rupture disc designs. Rupture discs with

a zero manufacturing design range can
help to minimize confusion, because the
rupture discs will be marked with the requested burst pressure every time they
are ordered. All other ranges are likely
to have a slightly different marked burst
pressure each time they are ordered,
since they are marked with the average
burst pressure of the rupture discs that
were tested during the manufacture of
that given lot.
Manufacturing design ranges that
have a plus component (see the column marked +10/5 psig in Table 1)
may be marked above the requested
burst pressure. If the requested burst
pressure is set at the MAWP of the vessel, the rupture disc may violate ASME
rules by having a marked burst pressure
that is actually higher than the MAWP.
Burst pressure tolerance. As noted
above, variation in materials and manufacturing processes yield slight variations in burst pressure throughout any
given lot of rupture discs. ASME specifies a burst pressure tolerance of 2 psi
of the marked burst pressure for marked
burst pressures up to and including 40
psi; and a burst pressure tolerance of
5% of the marked burst pressure for
marked burst pressures above 40 psi
(excerpted from Ref. 1, Section UG125). This means that a rupture disc
marked at 30 psig can be expected to
burst between 28 and 32 psig (2 psi);
while a rupture disc marked 100 psig
can be expected to burst between 95
and 105 psig (5%; Table 2).
Operating ratio. Manufacturers use operating ratio to define for users the maximum
operating pressure that a rupture disc can
withstand while expecting a reasonable
service life (Table 3). It is a measure of
rupture disc performance for a particular
brand and model, as determined by the
rupture disc manufacturer. It is not an industry-standardized definition.
80
85
90
95
100
Highest possible marked burst

pressure, and its associated
+5% burst tolerance
Lowest possible marked burst
pressure, and its associated
+5% burst tolerance
Requested burst
pressure 100 psig
Manufacturing
design range
Recommended operating
pressure for lowest marked
burst pressure
Recommended operating
pressure for highest marked
burst pressure
FIGURE 4. The operating ratio is calculated as a percentage of a rupture discs marked burst pressure. It indicates how close to the marked burst pressure the rupture disc can reliably function. The
maximum recommended operating pressure can be calculated by multiplying marked burst pressure
by operating ratio. This is the maximum operating pressure or the highest pressure to which the rupture disc may be operated and cycled to without causing damage of fatigue to the material integrity,
and is a function of the process used to manufacture the rupture disc
TABLE 4. PRE-BULGED METAL RUPTURE DISCS

Pre-bulged metal rupture discs
Manufacturing design range
Burst pressure tolerance (40 psi)
Burst pressure tolerance (>40 psi)
Operating ratio
Vacuum support required?
10% or varies with burst pressure

2 psig
5% of marked burst pressure
70%
Yes for lower burst pressures
TABLE 5. COMPOSITE RUPTURE DISCS

Burst-pressure tolerance (40 psi)
Burst-pressure tolerance (>40 psi)
Operating ratio
10%, 5%, 0%
2 psig
80%
Yes
TABLE 6. FORWARD-ACTING SCORED RUPTURE DISCS

Operating ratio
10%, 5%, 0%
2 psig
8090%
No*
*Vacuum support cannot be added, but most will withstand vacuum. Check product literature.
reverse-buckling rupture discs have

much higher operating ratios compared
to older designs.
It is important to select a rupture disc
with the correct operating ratio. When
the operating pressure of the system approaches the burst pressure of the rup-
JUNE 2016
41
TABLE 7. SCORED REVERSE-BUCKLING RUPTURE DISC

Operating ratio
10%, 5%, 0%
2 psig
9095%
No
TABLE 8. INTERACTION OF PERFORMANCE FACTORS:

RUPTURE DISC WITH REQUESTED BURST PRESSURE OF 100 PSI@72F
Operating ratio
Burst-pressure tolerance
Min./Max. possible marked burst pressure
Min./Max. allowable burst pressure
% of marked BP*
Max. operating pressure
% of marked BPBP tolerance**
70%
5 to +9 psi
5%
95/109*
90.3/114.5
66.5
80%
10%
5%
90/100
85.5/105
72.0
90%
5%
5%
95/100
90/105
85.5
95%
0%
5%
100/100
95/105
95.0
63.2
68.4
81.0
90.3
*Marked BP could exceed MAWP of vessel if requested BP = MAWP

**Some manufacturers reference the operating ratio to marked burst pressure; others reference the marked burst pressure minus the burst pressure tolerance.
ture disc, the rupture disc material can

become stressed. If this stress repeats
often enough, the disc material may fatigue, and the burst pressure of the rupture disc can then become reduced as a
result of compromised material strength.
This can lead to nuisance failures.
Vacuum resistance. Many processes
require rupture discs to operate under
vacuum or backpressure. Some rupture
discs are manufactured from metal as
thin as 0.001 in. thick. Other designs use
a polymer membrane to contain the process media and transfer the pressure load
to the metal rupture disc components.
When certain types of rupture discs are
exposed to vacuum or backpressure, the
dome can invert or collapse while still remaining intact. The next pressure cycle
will reform the dome in the downstream
direction. Repeated forward/reverse
cycles may result in holes, cracks and
compromised material strength, leading
to reduced burst pressure.
Similarly, polymer membranes can
burst in the vacuum direction if they are
not properly supported. Discs using a
polymer membrane, or those manufactured of thin, weak material require the
addition of a vacuum support to prevent
damage. A vacuum support is an additional component that helps the rupture disc to resist damage by vacuum
or backpressure, but opens easily with
the rupture disc when the disc is overpressured in the positive direction.
The evolution of rupture disc design

The leading rupture disc designs available today are discussed below.
Pre-bulged metal rupture discs
42
1930s design. The earliest rupture

discs were manufactured as simple
sheets of metal that were bolted between pipe flanges. This design was
simple, but yielded relatively low performance when compared to modern
rupture discs. These early rupture discs
were also inconsistent, due to the limited grades of materials that were available, and the dimensional variation of
the flanges used to hold them.
Eventually, the nascent rupture disc
industry discovered the importance of
installing rupture discs in precision-machined holders, to ensure accurate and
repeatable burst pressures. Later, manufacturers discovered that pre-bulging the
rupture discs made predicting their burst
performance more accurate, and made
the rupture discs more robust and easier
to handle (Table 4). Pre-bulged metal rupture discs are tension-loaded, or commonly known as forward-acting, rupture
discs. Forward-acting discs are pressured
on the concave side of the rupture disc.
The material in tension is like an inflated
balloon or a loaded hammock. The burst
pressure of a pre-bulged metal rupture
disc is determined by its material strength
and thickness. When the strength of the
material is exceeded, the rupture disc
bursts, relieving the overpressure condition in the pipe or vessel.
Composite rupture discs 1950s
design. Composite rupture discs are
made of layers of components that
serve different functions. The top layer
is essentially a pre-bulged metal rupture
disc that has a series of holes and slits
that are punched or cut with a laser.
These holes and slits weaken the disc,
and add a means for further adjustment
of burst pressure and much lower burst
pressures than pre-bulged discs are
able to reach. Because this mechanism
allows manufacturers to match the requested burst pressure more accurately,
this type of disc is usually available with
a tighter manufacturing design range.
The middle layer is usually a fluoropolymer seal that is protected from
scratches and abrasion by slit fluoropolymer layers. This seal contains the process media and transfers the pressure
load to the metal top.
The bottom layer (closest to the process fluid) is usually a metal vacuum
support that supports the liner when
vacuum is present, but opens easily
when the rupture disc bursts. There are
JUNE 2016
other components and configurations available for this family of disc,

but this configuration is the most
common (Table 5).
Scored forward acting rupture discs
1970s to present. Scoring a prebulged metal rupture disc with precision tooling and specialized presses
creates an even greater level of control
over the burst pressure. Scored, forward-acting rupture discs usually have
a cross-shaped score on the dome of
the disc. This allows the disc to open
with four distinct petals, without fragmenting. Some manufacturers offer
0% manufacturing range as standard.
Others offer 5% or 10% (Table 6).
These discs also have operating ratios
as high as 90%.
Scored reverse-buckling rupture
discs 1970s to present. Reversebuckling rupture discs are pressured
on the convex side of the disc. This
puts the dome in compression until
the structure buckles. The disc does
not experience permanent deformation until right at the point where the
dome buckles. This makes reverse-
buckling rupture discs ideal for applications that must operate close to the
burst pressure, or are subject to cyclic
loads. Modern reverse-buckling rupture discs are scored to create a nonfragmenting opening after the disc
buckles. Burst pressure is adjusted
by material thickness, dome height
and sometimes by a dimple added
to the dome. Most reverse-buckling
rupture discs resist full vacuum (Table
7) without added support.
Putting it all together

When determining the maximum
operating pressure for a reasonable
service life, we must consider all of
the performance parameters together. Table 8 shows the net result
of several interacting factors. Note
that the maximum operating pressure is nearly 43% higher for the
highest performance rupture discs
when compared to the lowest performance discs.
Premium scored rupture discs can
cost more than lower-performance
rupture discs, but as Table 8 shows,
they can be operated reliably at much

higher operating pressures. The increased cost of the rupture disc is
often recovered through higher production rates and reduced downtime
due to premature failures.
n
Edited by Suzanne Shelley
Reference
1. ASME, 2015 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code,
ASME BPVC VIII.1-2015, Section VIII.
Author
Alan Wilson is senior field engineer for Oseco, a manufacturer of
rupture discs and other safety
pressure relief devices (1701 W.
Tacoma, Broken Arrow, OK 74012;
Phone: 918-258-5626; Email:
[email protected]). He holds a
B.S. degree in mechanical design
technology from Oklahoma State
University, and an MBA from Oklahoma City University. Wilson has been with Oseco for 27
years, serving as an engineering expert in research and
development, rupture disc analysis and ASME code. Wilson has earned several patents for his contributions to
the Oseco portfolio, and sits on two ASME committees.
He has helped to design, build and teach training seminar programs for the proper use, installation and specification of rupture discs in onsite learning events for
chemical processing plants and others in the field. Wilson was also on the first team to coordinate with televisions Mythbusters program, when they featured Oseco
rupture discs in the first of seven episodes, using them
to measure explosion intensity.
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43
Feature Report
An Up-Close Look at
Electropositive Filtration
Electropositive filters take advantage of surface-charge effects to filter nanometer-sized
particles. Provided here is an overview of how they work and where they can be used
Fred Tepper and
Leo Kaledin
Argonide Corp.
IN BRIEF
FILTRATION
MECHANISMS
ELECTROPOSITIVE
FILTERS
EPF ADVANTAGES AND
LIMITATIONS
SUGGESTED
APPLICATIONS
MANIPULATING FILTER
SURFACE CHARGE
SURFACE CHARGE AND
ZETA POTENTIAL
ALUMINUM HYDROXIDE
COATINGS
INTRODUCING
NANOSCALE FEATURES
FILTERING BACTERIA
AND VIRUSES
ADSORBENTS AND EPF
PLEATING AND
FLOWRATE
ffective water management is a major

issue in a growing number of geographic regions, and the chemical
process industries (CPI) are implementing strategies for water reuse at an increasing rate. Filtration is a key technology
area for realizing water treatment objectives.
Removing small particles in the sub-micron
size range, such as naturally occurring and
manufactured nanoparticles, sub-micronsized colloidal particles, microorganisms and
soluble organic materials, presents difficult
challenges for filtration equipment. These
small particles can be significant sources of
fouling for membrane micro- and ultra-filtration
in several applications, including desalination,
water treatment for reuse, removal of contaminants from waste streams, filtration of dyes,
pharmaceutical plant wastes and others.
Modifying the surface charge of filter media
offers a potentially useful and effective strategy for retaining higher levels of particles in
this small size range. By manipulating the
surface charge of filter media, particles can
be retained at higher rates and at lower head
pressures than would be possible with conventional filtration membranes. This article
discusses the properties and use of electropositive filter media and describes examples
where such media improve performance.
Filtration mechanisms
There are two recognized mechanisms
whereby micropollutants are retained by
liquid filters; namely, sieve-retention and
adsorption. The sieving mechanism is perhaps the most common manifestation of
conventional filtration, where the filter retains
44
the particles because they are too large to

enter or pass through the filters mesh or
pore. Even in situations where there are particle- and pore-size distributions, as long as
the smallest particle is larger than the largest
pore, the filtration is absolute, provided that
both the filter medium and filtered particles
are rigid non-compressible bodies. However,
only in that circumstance may the filter be
characterized as being absolute. In different situations, the removal of the same microorganism, for example, by the same filter
might not take place, as when the organism
decreases in size as a result of its suspension in a vehicle of high ionic strength. In any
case, absoluteness is not a filter property [1].
Membranes are widely used in and accepted
by industry as capable of 0.2 and 0.22 m
absolute removal of particulates and bacteria. However, these membranes have been
observed to pass latex spheres 0.5 m and
larger in diameter [2].
While sieving depends on physical blockage of particles, adsorption depends on the
surface characteristics of the filter media
itself. For this mechanism, surface charge
becomes very important. Contaminant particles and a porous filter medium can interact
via short-range van der Waals forces and via
electrical double-layer interactions, which
may be attractive or repulsive depending
on the surface charge of the contaminant
particle and that of the pore surface. Since
most contaminants encountered in nature
are electronegative, this suggests that in
order to increase retention of smaller particles, the filter medium should have a positive zeta potential [3].
JUNE 2016
Electropositive filters
The property of electronegativity
can be defined as a measure of the
tendency of an atom or a chemical
functional group to attract electrons
(electron density) toward itself. In
the context of a chemical bond, elements that are highly electronegative
will attract electron density toward
their atomic nuclei, giving them a
slight negative charge, while leaving
less electronegative atoms, to which
they are bound, with a slightly positive charge.
In the context of filtration, the overall surface charge (the combination
of the electronegativity behavior of
larger groups of atoms) becomes important. Small particles typically have
an overall negative charge. Electropositive filters (EPFs) take advantage
of this fact by introducing an overall
positive charge to the filter media, in
the form of a surface coating (Figure
1). EPFs can be visualized as aggregated or structured forms of flocculants. Flocculants, including alumina,
are charged particles that will cause
colloidal particles to aggregate.
EPF advantages and limitations

The primary advantage of EPFs is
that they are effective at filtering colloidal and nanometer-sized particles
at low head pressures. Those EPFs
that are fibrous-based depth filters
were initially designed for purifying drinking water, where operating
pressures are less than 60 psi. Most
membrane systems require operating pressures that are much higher
in the range of hundreds of psi.
A second advantage is that EPFs
allow the elimination of water waste
because there is no concentrated
stream, as would be present in reverse osmosis (RO) filtration or as
would be the case of using crossflow ultraporous membranes.
Third, EPFs achieve high filtration
efficiency. Their efficiencies are equivalent to ultraporous membranes.
EPFs are so efficient because the
electropositive charge created by
their chemistry results in adhesive
forces on the surfaces of the many
pores that a particle must travel on
its tortuous path through the depth
media. Particles in aqueous media at
pHs between 4 and 10 are virtually
all electronegative. Certain aluminized EPFs have such a high charge

that the combined electrostatic and
electrokinetic fields they create extend up to 4 m away from the surface of the media inside the pore [4,
5], overlapping the pore network and
attracting the particle to the surface.
Fourth, EPFs have high dirt-holding capacity. In order to work at high
efficiency, membranes, because
they are surface filters, must have
occluded particles swept away by
cross-flow (using water), or must
be washed out periodically. In contrast, EPFs retain dirt in their depths
or amid sorbent grains of aluminized
diatomaceous earth (DE; to be discussed more later) that are introduced into the EPF media.
A final advantage of EPFs is that
they are capable of filtering certain
soluble contaminants directly or by
incorporating secondary sorbents.
Examples include removing polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) by filtration
with EPFs. Although the mechanism
is not fully understood, it is believed
to be the result of solvated contaminant molecules that are readily polarized, exposing a negative face to the
electropositive field. Alternatively, a
sorbent particle, such as powdered
activated carbon (PAC), can be
added to adsorb Cl2. The advantage
is that the high surface area of the
PAC, as compared to granular carbon, results in high kinetic adsorption in thin layers.
Operationally, EPFs can offer other
advantages, such as lowering capital expenditure (capex) compared
to membrane systems when used
as a prefilter for RO. In a University
of Wyoming (Laramie, Wy.; www.
uwyo.edu) study [6], substantial increases in RO membrane life were
demonstrated when an EPF was inserted downstream of an ultraporous
membrane that had been previously
been inserted to protect the RO.
Presumably, the EPF collected ultrafine particles that passed through
the ultraporous filter. The study also
demonstrated improvements in RO
filter lifetimes if the backwash fluid
was first filtered through an EPF.
The limitations of EPFs include that
they are not regenerable, because the
particles are retained and enmeshed
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JUNE 2016
45
TABLE 1. COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE ELECTROPOSITIVE FILTERS

Media
AlOOH nanoalumina (nanoAl) fibers
NanoAl + powdered activated carbon
Type A media
Type A2 media
Type B media
Type C media
Type B charged composite 0.2-m membrane
Type B charged 0.1-m membrane
Pore size, m
2.0
2.0
1.1
5.0
0.6
0.8
0.2
0.1
within the depths of the media rather

than on the surface, as is the case
with membranes. In addition, EPFs
have pH range limits (depending on
which electropositive media). Finally,
salt in solution may affect charge in
certain EPFs, disrupting the EPFs
ability to function as intended.
Suggested applications
Electropositive filters separate a
wide range of particle sizes and are
diverse in composition. Those made
of non-woven material and incorporated into pleated cartridges have a
low pressure drop, yet are able to
achieve removal efficiency equivalent to ultraporous membranes.
Because EPFs are not regenerable, they are limited, particularly for
filtering heavily loaded streams, such
as municipal waste. Their best use
is as a polisher downstream of prefilters that would reduce the load of
micron-sized particles. Suggested
applications include prefiltration of
streams to protect RO or seawater
RO equipment, either acting alone or
in concert with membranes or other
media. Also, EPFs would be suited to
filtration of contaminants from chemical and pharmaceutical plant waste
streams, filtration of soluble and insoluble dyes, as a polisher downstream
of microporous membranes and removal of microbial pathogens with
minimal or no chemical treatment.
Another use of EPFs is as a carrier
of ultrafine sorbents, such as PAC,
or nanosorbents, for development
of highly dynamic adsorption media.
While aluminized filters (discussed
later) are primarily intended to purify
aqueous fluids, they can also be used
to purify other polar solvents.
Thickness, mm
0.8
0.8
3.8
5.0
2.6
4.1
0.4a
0.14
Basis weight, g/m2

220
220
1,280
1,140
1,430
1,770
100
60
bestos fibers, or asbestos-based filter precoat mixtures, and were used

for final polishing and sterilization.
These filter media were developed
in Germany by the Seitz brothers
early in 1890 by chemically treating
asbestos powders and asbestos
fibers and mixing them with other
fibrous substances (for example,
cellulose). The unique filtration properties of asbestos depended on its
electropositive surface charge. In
the late 1960s, asbestos was beginning to be recognized as a potential
health hazard, and the U.S. Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) issued regulations in 1975 in response
to increasing concerns over the use
of asbestos-based filter media in the
pharmaceutical industry.
An evaluation of asbestos had
given strong indication that the
unique filtration properties of asbestos depended on its electropositive
surface charge. Wnek [7], using the
electrokinetic perspectives of colloidal chemistry, proposed that asbestos owed its unique filtration characteristics to the strong positive surface
charge that it possessed at neutral
and lower pH. He further proposed
an operative filtration mechanism for
such positively charged filter media
that consisted of electrokinetic capture (via attractive double layer interaction) and adsorption of negatively
charged particles, which in turn resulted in modification of the surface
charge on the media from positive

to negative.
Companies worked to find replacements for asbestos-based filters. In
the early 1980s, Cuno Inc. (Meriden,
Conn.; www.cuno.com) developed
and introduced a line of membrane
filters, known as Zetapor media. The
media was produced by the application of a coating and a chargemodifying agent to the surface of the
filter media. These additions were
designed to enhance the removal of
bacteria. Cuno applied for and was
subsequently issued patents for its
Zetapor filters to Ostreicher (U.S.
Patent 4,473,474).
Pall Corp. (Port Washington, N.Y.;
www.pall.com) developed and began
to market its own charge-modified
membranes in 1982, known as cocast Posidyne membranes (U.S. Patent 4,340,479). Significant success
was achieved in removing both viruses and bacterial endotoxins by use
of the charge-modified filter medium,
and it appeared that such enhanced
performance could also be achieved
with a charge-modified polymeric
membrane. The new nylon membrane charge-modified filter media
were based on the unique morphology and surface chemistry of nylon
(U.S. Patent 4,473,474) and the very
specialized requirements of the pharmaceutical industry (low organic extractions) and the semiconductor industry (low-ionic extractions).
EPFs and zeta potential

Table 1 shows several types of commercially available electropositive
filters. In virtually all cases, the filter
is constructed into cartridges using
non-woven filter media that carries
a charge agent that can be organic
(carboxyl and amine), cationic polyelectrolytes, or inorganic (aluminum
Manipulating surface charge

Until the late 1960s, all commercially
available EPF filter sheets were derived from a mixture of cellulose-as46
FIGURE 1. These micrographs show nanometer-scale features on electropositive filters (left); adsorbent
particles incorporated into electropositive filter media (center); and aluminized particles of diatomaceous
earth used as a sorbent (right)
JUNE 2016
oxy-hydroxide). The inherent charge

gives such filters their primary benefit, being able to filter sub-micron
particles out of aqueous solutions,
some with an efficiency equivalent
to ultraporous membranes, but at
a fraction of the head pressure required of membranes.
Zeta potential, , is a measure of
the inherent charge that attracts and
retains contaminants. Figure 2 compares zeta potential values of the
above-described EPF media as a
function of pH. It is important to note
that only four media have zeta potential values greater than 25 mV in
a very wide pH range from pH 3.0 to
pH 9.5. In general, a value of 25 mV
(positive or negative) can be taken
as the arbitrary value that separates
low-charged surfaces from highly
charged surfaces [8].
Aluminum hydroxide coatings

Diatomaceous earth (DE) is a highsurface-area siliceous sorbent that
has been extensively used as a filter
media and as mechanical filter aid
in water purification. DE consists of
the skeletal remains of diatoms, and
is composed primarily of silica. This
very fine powder is calcined to form
larger particles so as to reduce pressure drop. Precoats of DE are used
as a filter aid in filter systems to collect
particles as small as several microns.
In current use, DE particles are accumulated on a septum as a precoat
and separation of suspended solids
is accomplished by size exclusion.
After first depositing a precoat, additional DE is injected into the body
fluid and serves as a filter aid. After
reaching pressure drop limitations,
the spent bed is backwashed and
replaced with a new precoat. This
technique is instrumental in meeting U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) guidelines for removing
Cryptosporidium cysts in many municipal water treatment plants. Nevertheless, the precoat method has
many disadvantages, one of which is
that particles (such as bacteria and
virus) that are smaller than the pore
size of the DE bed will permeate the
bed and contaminate the water.
In 1936, Cummings described
the treatment of DE to produce an
electropositive, insoluble alumiCHEMICAL ENGINEERING
num hydroxide coating (U.S. Patent 2,036,258). Such treated DE,

when used as a filter aid, acted as
a flocculant for colloidal contaminants. Lukasik and others [9] and
Truesdail and others [10] describe a
coating formed on the surface of DE
and sands via the reaction shown in
Equation (1):
AlCl3 + 3NH4(OH) > Al(OH)3 +
3NH4Cl
(1)
However, in the cases referenced

here, the amount of aluminum
compounds formed on the support
material was less than 10% of the
final filter aid [9]. A reason for the
low amount of aluminum oxidehydroxide coatings is the use of
inorganic or organic (or both) salts
that inhibit growth of the resulting coatings. As a result, the zeta
potential had been changed from
highly electronegative (approxi-
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JUNE 2016
47
TABLE 2. FILTER CHARACTERISTICS AND VIRUS RETENTION OF OTHER DEPTH MEDIA VS

TWO LAYERS NANOAL AND NANOAL-PAC
Media
NanoAl
Pore size,
m
2.0
ThickBasis weight,
ness, mm g/m2
1.6c
440c
NanoAl -PAC
2.0
1.6c
440c
Type A1
3.6
1.2c
210c
Type A2
5.0
5.0
1,140
Type A3
1.1
3.8
1,280
Type B
0.6
2.6
1,430
Type C
1.3
4.1
1,480
MS2 removal, LRVb
Challenge water
pH
TDSa g/L
7.0
0
8.5
0
7
30
8.5
30
7
0
8.5
0
7
30
8.5
30
7
0
9.5
0
7
30
7
0
8.5
0
7
30
7
0
8.5
0
7
30
7
0
9.5
0
7
30
7
0
9.5
0
6.0
5.5
4.8
4.1
>6.5
>6.4
>6.6
>6.4
2.1
0.4
0.02
0.7
0.1
0.1
>6.5
1.2
0.2
>6.6
5.2
0.3
5.1
0.1
2Al (solid) + 4H2O (liquid)

Al2O3H2O (solid) + 3H2 (gas)
Notes: a) Total dissolved solids; b) logarithm removal value; c) two layers
to nanoporous membranes. Nanotechnology has been employed with

membranes that are planar or hollow fiber and of varied compositions,
including with compositional and
porosity variations across the membrane wall. The advent of nanoscale
engineering in the late 2000s offered
a new avenue for introducing sur-
mately 70 mV) to electroneutral

for coated DE [9].
Introducing nanoscale features

Nanotechnology has been extensively embraced in membrane filters,
where pore sizes have extended
from microporous (0.082 m ) to
ultraporous (0.0052 m ) and down
100
80
Zeta potential, mV
60
40
20
0
-20
-40 3
10
11
12
pH
NanoAl coated DE (Kaledin et al. Int.J. Smart & NanoMaterials (2016) Fig. 5)
Aluminum hydroxide coated Ottawa sand (Tuesdail et al. J. Environ. Engineering, p. 1,228 (1998) Fig. 5)
Chrisotile B (Light and Wei, Environmental Research, v. 13, p. 135 (1997) Fig. 1)
Posidyne membrane, Pall Corporation (PFSH029)
NanoAl non-woven media (Kaledin et al., Int. J. ENT (2010) Fig. 2)
ZetaPlus (Knight and Ostraicher of Cuno, Inc., Charge-modiied ilter media, (1998) Fig. 16)
PAC/nanoAl non-woven media (Kaledin et al., Int. J. ENT (2010) Fig. 2)
FIGURE 2. Zeta potential values, such as those shown here for commercially available EPFs, vary under
different pH conditions
48
face-charge characteristics to membranes and to non-woven EPFs.

For example, in 2003 and 2014,
two water-filtration technologies
were introduced for removing microorganisms based on coating of
siliceous support materials, such as
microglass [11] and DE [12], with
nanometer-sized alumina (nanoAl;
monocrystalline aluminum oxide
hydroxide, also known as AlOOH
or Al2O3H2O) layers. In this type of
EPF, the high surface area of siliceous
support material (DE or microglass)
serves as a catalyst in the course of
the aluminum-alkaline water reaction. The reaction is unique because
only two substances are involved
(aluminum and water), resulting in
pristine nanoAl boehmite coating of
the support material according to
Equation (2):
>
(2)
The coating formed by Equation

(2) is crystallographically different
from that formed by Equation (1).
In Figure 1, conventional transmission electron microscopy shows an
amorphous-appearing coating, that
was determined to be 1.2 nm thick,
deposited on the high-surface-area
(50 m2/g) disordered DE structure.
It was ultimately deduced by X-ray
powder diffraction data, supplemented by microscopy, and infrared
spectroscopy to characterize it as
the synthetic nanoAl surface described in Equation (2). The nanoAl,
with a thickness of approximately
1.2 nm, is electroadhesively deposited onto siliceous support material
with specific surface area of about
50 m2/g.
Figure 1 (left) is a transmission electron micrograph showing
nanoAl fibers, the active electropositive ingredient in this type of nonwoven filter media. The nanofibers
(that appear as a fuzz) are only 2
nm in diameter and are dispersed
and attached to a 0.6-m diameter
microglass fiber. The composite is
then combined with polymer fibers
and formed into a nonwoven media
by wet processing. The water filters
pore size is approximately 2 m and
JUNE 2016
Silt density index
Silt density index (SDI) is a sensitive method for determining the ability of a filter to remove
colloidal particles. SDI is used extensively as a criterion in minimizing fouling of reverse
osmosis membranes. The lower the SDI value, the cleaner the stream. EPFs can be used
to pretreat water before it enters RO membranes. Pretreatment with EPF reduced nanoparticle fouling of microfiltration (MF) membrane by about 2% (with pretreatment), as compared
to 80% (with no pretreatment) [6].
Manufacturers of RO membranes recommend that the stream be prefiltered so that it has
an SDI factor less than 3.0. Typically 1-m absolute [14] filters have an SDI of about 4 to 5.
Manufacturers of hollow fiber membrane filters claim SDIs in the range of 1.75 to 2.25. SDI
measurements of effluents from the media with nanoscale alumina features media range
from 0.5 to 1.0. Turbidity as well as SDI tests have confirmed that the extent of shedding of
nanoscale particles from the nano-alumina-type filters into effluent streams is minimal.
the media thickness is 0.8 mm.

The high surface area of the nanoscale alumina fibers, plus their high
zeta potential, produce strong electrostatic and electrokinetic fields
that influence the flow of particles
as far as 1 m away from the surface of the media. Zeta potential is
a measure of the magnitude of the
electrostatic attraction or repulsion
between particles. The field therefore overlaps the flow channels of
the 2-m-pore-size media. Since
the particle flows through a tortuous
viruses (typically 2030 nm in diameter) and does so at high flowrates

and at salinity values up to 3.4 M
of NaCl (near saturation at 300,000
ppm) and at pH values in the range
from 4 to 10.
Filtering bacteria and viruses
The removal of bacteria and viruses

from water in CPI applications is important for several reasons. Aside
from being potentially pathogenic
contaminants, microbes are also
path of approximately 400 pores foulants in HVAC (heating, ventilation
across the media, there is a high and air conditioning) and other sysprobability of particle capture.
tems. Bacteria can also play a role in
Since the electropositive nanoAl corrosion (Thiobacillus ferrooxidans
fibers are dispersed and fixed in is known to feed on iron and cause
place via electroadhesive forces, corrosion, for example). Microbes
particles have easy access to the also have a tendency to attach to
charged surface. Powdered acti- surfaces and form biofilms, which
vated carbon (Figure 1, center) or may not be affected by disinfecting
nanoparticles such as nano-silica efforts, such as the use of free chlocan be retained in the nanoAl struc- rine, even at concentrations of sevture. The pore size of the non-woven eral ppm [13].
media is 2 m, yet the filter can reEPFs can offer a means of effecCHEMas
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49
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Type B & C depth media
nanoAl-PAC,
2 layers
8
Composite 0.2-m
membrane
Pressure drop, psi
nanoAl-PAC, 1 layer
nanoAl,
2 layers
10
nanoAl 1 layer
6
Type A
4
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
Flow velocity, L/min per m2
300
350
400
FIGURE 3. Data on the flowrates of some of the electropositive filters listed in Table 1 are shown in this
graph
from water (Table 2). For example,

bacteria and viruses can be retained
by nanoalumina media at neutral pH.
The filter retains 26-nm-sized MS2
virus (a bacteriophage) particles with
high efficiency at flowrates of 1 gal/
min per ft2.
Adsorbents and EPFs

The inclusion of adsorbent materials can enhance the performance
of EPFs. Adsorbents can be introduced into filter media during the
manufacture of the mulch (material that will become the nonwo-
ven filter) and then dried to produce paper media. It is pleated

to form cartridges. PAC can be
added for chlorine or organic adsorption and is most often used
for applications involving drinking water. Other sorbent materials, such as amorphous titanium
silicate, may be added for lead
removal, or silver zeolite can be
added as an antimicrobial agent.
The aluminized DE is a reaction of
aluminum powder with DE, which
is dried to form a sorbent.
Electropositive adsorbents have an
inherent charge that retains electronegatively charged particles. Since
most bacteria and most other contaminants encountered in nature are
electronegatively charged in water,
such sorbents can filter suspended
solids. A notable exception is the fr
bacteriophage (one of the few particles that are electropositive in the acceptable pH range for drinking water
it is electropositive at pH less than
about 8.99.0).
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The use of EPFs for filtration offers

the possibility of removing soluble
materials, such as heavy metals, endocrine disrupters, pesticides, algae
toxins and PCBs from water because
such filters can support sorbent materials. In the case of nanoAl-coated
EPFs, the filtration mechanism is
believed to be the result of the electrostatic field inherent in the nanoalumina, which causes polarization
of those compounds that have high
dipole moments.
Powdered activated carbon (8-m
average particle size) embodied into
non-woven nanoAl has proven to
be very successful in drinking water
applications.
The media shown in Figure 1, center, consisting of nanoAl that contains
ultrafine (8-m) PAC particles, has
also been characterized for its ability to retain metal and particles. Its
retention of colloidal and suspended
solids, including bacteria and virus,
were found to be equivalent to the
non-PAC filter.
EPF media offers a unique way
to facilitate the use of new nano
sorbents by embodying them into
new structures that could result in
high dynamic adsorption media,
much as was achieved with PAC in
nano-Al. Experimental procedures
used by the authors for development of novel media involve the
preparation of non-woven handsheets, 12 12 in., embodying
the test sorbent. Discs (25-mm
dia. 1-mm thick) are punched
out and mounted in 25-mm-dia.
filter holders (Pall Syringe filter,
VWR part #28144-109), each of
which can hold up to three discs.
The mounted filters can be tested
individually or by stacking them in
series. Significant adsorption and
hydrodynamic data can be derived
on the use of novel sorbents embodied in thin layer structures.
DE can be coated with AlOOH
to produce an electropositive filter
media (known as DEAL). Quantities of DEAL can be mixed with
test sorbents. This scheme is particularly advantageous where the
sorbent particles are sub-micron in
size. Distributing it over a coarser
DEAL particle bed allows better
access to the fluid stream and less

pressure drop.
Pleating and flowrate

Filtration often involves tradeoffs
between filtration efficiency and
flowrate. Engineers must determine
the optimal performance for both
depending on the requirements of
a particular application. One of the
key factors determining the design
and form of filters is the ability to
achieve increased effective filtration area that will facilitate scaling
and speeding up of a filtration process [15]. The primary motivation
for developing pleated membrane
cartridges is the need for increased
filter area to lower applied differential pressures. Pleating also has
an added benefit in that less plant
space needs to be allocated for filter installations.
For nonwoven filters, the thickness of the filter also plays a role in
whether it can be pleated or not. Figure 3 shows flowrate data for several
electropositive depth media including
some of those listed in Table1.
n
Edited by Scott Jenkins
10. Truesdail, S.E., G. B. Westermann-Clark, and D. O.

Shah. Apparatus for streaming potential measurements on granular filter media, J. Environment. Engineer, Dec. 1998, pp. 1,2261,232.
11. Tepper, F. and L. A. Kaledin, Nanosize electropositive
fibrous adsorbent. U.S. patent no. 6,838,005, 2005.
12. Kaledin, L.A., F. Tepper, and T.G. Kaledin, Aluminized
Siliceous Powder and Water Purification Device, Incorporating U.S. Patent no. 9,309,131, 2016.
13. Meltzer, T.H. and M. W. Jornitz, Concerning Mechanisms of Particle Removal by Filters Chapter 5, pp.
81149, in Filtration and purification in the biopharmaceutical industry, edited by Maik W. Jornitz,
Theodore H. Meltzer, 2nd ed. Informa, New York,
2008.
14. Baloda, S.B., Filter Designs, Chapter 3, pp. 4764,
in Filtration and purification in the biopharmaceutical industry, edited by Maik W. Jornitz, Theodore H.
Meltzer. 2nd ed. Informa, New York, 2008.
15. Graham, D., Characterization of physical adsorption
systems. III. The separate effects of pore size and
surface acidity upon the adsorbent capacities of activated carbon. J. Phys. Chem., Vol. 59, 1955.
Further reading
Kaledin, L.A., F. Tepper, and T.G. Kaledin, Long-range
attractive forces extending from alumina nanofiber
surface, Int. J. Smart Nano Mater., Vol. 5, pp. 133
151, 2014.
Purchas, D.B; Sutherland, K. Handbook of Filter
Media, Elsevier Science Ltd., New York, p. 18,
2002.
Hua, M., S. Zhang, B. Pan, W. Zhang, L. Lv, Q. Zhang
Heavy metal removal from water/wastewater by
nanosized metal oxides: A review. Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 211212, pp. 317331, 2012.
Authors
References
1. Meltzer, T. H., Modus of Filtration. Adv Biochem Eng.
Biotechnol. vol. 98, pp. 2771. 2006.
2. Pall, D. B., Kirnbauer, E. A.; and Allen B. T., Particulate
retention by bacteria retentive membrane filters, Colloids and Surfaces. vol. 1, Issues 34, pp. 235256.
July 1980.
3. Ostreicher, E.A., T. E. Arnold, and R. S. Conway,
Charge Modified Filter Media, Chapter 2, pp. 2346,
in Filtration and Purification in the Biopharmaceutical Industry, edited by Maik W. Jornitz, Theodore H.
Meltzer, 2nd ed. Informa, New York, 2008.
4. Kaledin, L.A., F. Tepper and T.G. Kaledin, Long-range
attractive forces extending from the aluminas nanolayer surface in aqueous solutions, Int. J. Smart Nano
Mater. vol. 6 (3), pp. 171194, 2015.
5. Kaledin, L.A. and F. Tepper, Scavenging cobalt and
other transition metals from radwaste, EPRI International LLW Conference, June 2123, 2016, Orlando,
Fla.
6. Brant, J., B. Dorr, and S. Thibeault Economic and
Performance Assessment of Electropositive Filtration as a Pretreatment Process for Reverse Osmosis.
27th Annual Water Reuse Symposium September
912, 2012.
7. Wnek, W. Electrokinetic and chemical aspects of
water filtration. Filter Separation. vol. 11 (3), p. 237.
1979.
8. Yu, W. and H. Xie. A Review on Nanofluids: Preparation, Stability Mechanisms, and Applications. Journal
of Nanomaterials, vol. 2012, 2012.
9. Lukasik, J., S.R. Farrah, S.E. Truesdail, and D.O.
Shah. Adsorption Mechanisms to Sand and Diatomaceous Earth Particles Coated with Metallic Hydroxides. KONA, vol. 45, pp. 8791, 1997.
JUNE 2016
Fred Tepper is president of Argonide Corp. (291 Power Court, Sanford, FL 32771; Phone: 407-3222500; Email: Fred@argonide.
com). Tepper has been leading Argonide since 1997. He formed the
company in 1996 to commercialize nanotechnology originally developed in Russia. Prior to starting
that company, Tepper served as
vice president of Mine Safety Appliances Co. (Pittsburgh,
Pa.) as well as general manager of the instrument division. Tepper has also served as general manager for a
subsidiary of Mine Safety Appliances Co., and has been
involved with the company since 1957. Tepper holds a
B.S. in chemistry from New York University and a masters degree in metallurgy from the NYU College of Engineering. He has authored several peer-reviewed scientific papers and is the co-inventor on 15 U.S. patents.
Leo Kaledin is vice president of
Argonide Corp. (same address and
phone; Email: kaledin@argonide.
com) and head of research and
development. Kaledin joined the
company in 1998, after several
academic research posts, at
Emory University (Atlanta, Ga.), the
Massachussets Institute of Technology (MIT; Cambridge, Mass.)
and the Institute for Applied Sciences in Moscow, Russia. He holds a Ph.D. from Moscow State University and
masters and bachelors degrees from the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology. Kaledin has presented
research at several international scientific conferences
and is co-inventor on several patents.
51
Engineering Practice
Rapid Prediction of Prandtl
Number of Compressed Air
Two methods are presented and compared for quickly calculating this important, yet
neglected parameter
Mohammad M. Ghiasi
National Iranian Gas Co.(NIGC)
Mohammad Bahadori
Griffith University
Moonyong Lee
Yeungnam University
Tomoaki Kashiwao
National Institute of Technology,
Niihama College
Alireza Bahadori
Southern Cross University
NOMENCLATURE
Tuned coefficient
Artificial neural network
Tuned coefficient
A
ANN
B
BP
Back-propagation
Bias term
bm
C
D
F
f
FF
LM
M
N
ver the last few decades,

a considerable effort has
been directed to toward
the evaluation of thermophysical and transport properties of
air for a wide range of temperatures.
However, relatively limited attention
has been given to investigation of
the compressed air Prandtl number
at elevated pressures.
In this article, two new approaches
for the accurate prediction of Prandtl
number (Pr) of compressed air are
presented. The first approach is
based on developing a simple-to-use
polynomial correlation for predicting
Pr of compressed air as a function of
temperature and pressure. The second approach is based on the feed-
Tuned coefficient
Tuned coefficient.
Activation function
Function
Feed-forward
Levenberg-Marquardt
matrix row index for m n matrix
matrix column index for m n
matrix
forward back-propagation (FF-BP)

artificial neural network (ANN) methodology, wherein the results demonstrate the ability of the presented ANN
method to predict accurate Pr values
of air at elevated pressures. A comparison of the two approaches indicates
that the developed ANN-based model
provides slightly more accurate results
than the new empirical correlation.
Introduction
The development of methods for
evaluation of air properties was the
N
O
P
Pr
RNN
rm
SOM
T
T
x
y
ym
wmn
Number of the points

Predicted value
Pressure, kPa (abs)
Prandtl number
Recurrent neural networks
The linear combiner output
Self-organizing maps
Target value
Temperature, K
Input signal of neuron
Data point
The neurons output signal.
Synaptic weight
subject of a number of earlier investigations, which were employed to

conduct property evaluation calculations at specific temperature regions
of interest in a certain range of scientific and technological applications,
such as metrology, calibration and
for air conditioning. These scientific
fields of application and the corresponding investigations have been,
for the most part, limited to relatively
low temperatures, although Melling
and others [1] investigated air properties in the temperature range be-
Synaptic weights
1
X1
X2
Wm1
Wm2
Activation
function
Summing
Junction
rm
Inputs
ym Output
O
Xn
Xi
Wmn
I
Input layer
X0=+1
Output layer
H
Hidden layer
bm
FIGURE 2. An illustration of a simple three-layer

feed-forward ANN [12] is shown here
FIGURE 1. Shown here is a typical model of an artificial neuron [12]

52
y0
JUNE 2016
tween 100 and 200C.

However, the knowledge of properties over a wide temperature and
pressure range is vital for other fields,
such as drying, to allow accurate
prediction of heat and mass transfer
phenomena during the physical processes involved.
Prandtl number. The Prandtl number is a dimensionless number approximating the ratio of momentum
diffusivity (kinematic viscosity) and
thermal diffusivity, as shown in Equation (1), with all nomenclature presented in the box on p. 52):
Pr =
Cp
k
Value
2.60209064
4.64712011
3.17817228
2.88726660
1.145969902
4.810244580
4.902744144
4.240021674
posed governing equation in which

four coefficients are used to correlate the Prandtl numbers of air as a
function of temperature (expressed
in Kelvin) and pressure (kPa), with
the corresponding coefficients listed
in Table 1.
(1)
Unlike the Reynolds and Grashof

numbers, the Prandtl number contains no length scale in its definition,
so Pr is dependent only on the fluid
involved and the state of the fluid.
As such, Prandtl numbers are often
found in property tables alongside
other properties such as viscosity
and thermal conductivity.
Over the years, considerable research efforts have investigated free
and forced convection. However, according to the authors knowledge,
there is no simple-to-use correlation
to rapidly estimate Pr of compressed
air at elevated pressures. This is important because Pr is widely used in
heat transfer and calculations related
to convection [25].
With this in mind, two tools are
presented below for predicting Pr
over a wide range of temperatures
and pressures. The first, an empirical correlation, can be used to
quickly and easily estimate a value
of Pr for air. The second method is
based on a multi-layer perceptron
(MLP) type of artificial neural networks (ANNs), which is shown to be
able to accurately predict the Pr of
air over a wide range of temperatures and pressures.
Empirical correlation
The empirical correlation presented
here has been tuned using a widely
accepted methodology described
in the literature. The empirical data
required to develop this correlation
includes the reported data [6] for the
Pr of air as a function of pressure
and temperature (K).
Equation (2) represents the proCHEMICAL ENGINEERING
TABLE 1. TUNED COEFFICIENTS USED IN EQUATIONS (36)

Coefficient
A1
B1
C1
D1
A2
B2
C2
D2
ln(Pr) = a +
b c
d
+ 2+ 3
T T
T
(2)
Where:
a = A1 + B1 P + C1 P 2 + D1 P 3 (3)
b = A2 + B2 P + C2 P 2 + D2 P 3 (4)
c = A3 + B3 P + C3 P 2 + D3 P 3 (5)
Coefficient
A3
B3
C3
D3
A4
B4
C4
D4
Value
3.5995496368
1.5920349698
2.224437123
1.8214824677
2.930937692
2.32398913631
3.17489914017
2.428258824
to develop this tool leads to wellbehaved (that is, smooth and nonoscillatory) equations enabling fast
and accurate predictions.
Neural-based model
Overview of ANNs. Briefly, ANNs
are constructed of simple processing elements, known as neurons, in
a parallel computational algorithm.
The neurons are inspired by biological nervous systems. Figure 1 shows
an artificial neuron. The mathematical representation of a neuron, n, is
given by Equations (7) and (8).
n
rm =
(wmi xi + bm )
i =1
(7)
d = A4 + B4 P + C4 P + D4 P (6)
y m = F (rm )
These optimized, tuned coefficients

are applicable for calculating the Pr
of air for temperatures up to 1,000K
and pressures up to 10,000 kPa.
If more data become available in
the future, the coefficients in Table
1 can be quickly retuned according to the approach outlined here.
In order to obtain the values of the
coefficients for the new empirical
method, the following procedure
has been applied:
1. The air Pr is correlated as a function of temperature for the selected pressure.
2. Step 1 is repeated for other pressures.
3. The corresponding polynomial
constants, which were obtained
for various Pr of air versus temperature, are then correlated.
4. The Pr of air at any temperature
and pressure can then be calculated from Equation (2).
Equation (2) and its coefficients
provided in Table 1 is believed to be
the first simple-to-use correlation
for quickly predicting Pr of air over
a wide range of temperatures and
pressures. Furthermore, the exponential function that was selected
Where x1, x2,,xn indicate the input

signals; wm1, wm2, , wmn denote
the synaptic weights; rm is defined
as the linear combiner output; bm is
the bias term; f is the activation function used; and ym is the neurons
output signal.
ANNs are robust types of computational intelligences with the ability
to express non-linear and complex
relationships. This is done by using
several input-output training patterns
from introduced datasets to the network. A nonlinear mapping between
inputs and outputs is provided intrinsically by ANNs [7, 8]. ANNs have
primarily been used by investigators
for pattern recognition, classification,
and prediction [9, 10].
Among the wide variety of ANN
types and architectures, such as
recurrent neural networks (RNNs),
feed-forward
neural
networks
(FFNNs), and self-organizing maps
(SOMs), most investigators use
FFNNs. Most believe that FFNNs,
including functional link networks
(FLNs), radial basis function networks (RBFNs) and MLPs, are the
most potent, versatile and trustworthy nonlinear classifier recognizers
JUNE 2016
(8)
53
1.2
Prandtl number of air
of neural network model and corresponding target values will propagate backward via the network and
the values of weights and biases will
be adjusted so that the error function
is minimized.
In this article, the mean squared
error (MSE), as defined by Equation
(9), is selected as the performance
criterion of the constructed network.
P=100 kPa
Data
P=500 kPa
Data
P=1000 kPa
Data
P=2000 kPa
Data
P=3000 kPa
Data
P=4000 kPa
Data
P=5000 kPa
Data
P=6000 kPa
Data
P=7000 kPa
Data
P=8000 kPa
Data
P=9000 kPa
Data
P=10000 kPa
Data
1.1
0.9
0.8
MSE =
0.7
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
Temperature, K
320
340
360
380
400
FIGURE 3. A comparison of the Air Prandtl number calculated by Equation (2) with reported data [6] as a
function of pressure and temperature
1.2
1.15
1.1
Pressure=10000 kPa
Prandtl number
1.05
1
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
0.75
0.7
Pressure=200 kPa
180
200
220
240
Temperature, K
260
280
300
FIGURE 4. This graph shows the behavior of Pr calculated with Equation (2) as a function of pressure and
temperature
1
N
(t i
oi )
i =1
Where N indicates number of the

points, ti is target value, and oi is
prediction of the network.
Design of BP-ANN. With the aim
of developing a neural-based model
for predicting Pr of air, a feed-forward BP-ANN with single hidden
layer [8, 13] has been employed.
The BP algorithm is trained with the
well-known Levenberg-Marquardt
(LM) technique [1416]. Hence,
the values of weights and biases
are updated with regard to LM optimization. The number of neurons
in the input layer and output layer
equals the number of dependent
variables and independent variables, respectively. Based on data
reported in the literature [6], the Pr
of air is expressed as a function of
pressure and temperature:
Prandtl number of air
Pr = f (P, T )
10o
10-0.1
T=1000 K
103
104
Pressure, kPa
FIGURE 5. Another viewpoint of the calculations shown in Figure 4
[11]. Figure 2 shows a schematic

diagram of a three-layered MLP
neural network with I input branching nodes, H neurons in the hidden
layer, and O output neurons.
A proper learning algorithm must
be employed to construct a MLP
54
neural network model. Amidst available learning laws, the most practical one is known as the back propagation (BP) learning algorithm [12].
The procedure of the BP method is
as follows: the errors following from
the differences between estimations
(9)
(10)
The main task is to determine the

optimum number of neurons in the
hidden layer. As mentioned in the
previous section, the objective function is MSE. With 2-H-1 form, the
number of hidden neurons has been
varied from 1 to 10 and the capability
of each network in predicting Pr has
been measured. It should be noted
that the transfer function used in the
hidden layer is a log-sigmoid. For the
output layer, a linear transfer function
is employed.
To develop the neural-based
model for the application of interest,
a total number of 175 data sets have
been collected from Ref. 6. Before
training the networks, the database
was separated into three subsets
randomly: training data set (70%),
validation data set (15%), and test
data set (15%). The network adjusts
the values of biases and synaptic
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28014
56
Mean squared error (MSE)
7.5e-5
7.0e-5
6.5e-5
1
8
9 10 11 12 13 14
Number of Neurons in hidden layer
15 16
17
18
19
20
FIGURE 6. This graph shows the MSE between predictions of the constructed BP-ANNs and corresponding target values
1.6
Data
Fit
Y=T
1.6
1.5
1.5
1.4
1.4
1.2
Model output
1.3
Training: R=0.99867
1.1
1.3
1.2
1.1
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.8
1.2
1.4
Reported value
0.8
1.6
1.6
1.2
1.4
Reported value
1.6
1.6
1.5
1.5
1.4
1.4
1.3
Model output
The empirical correlation. Figure 3

compares Pr values of air calculated
from Equations (26) as a function
of pressure and temperature with
the reported data [6]. It is evident
from the figure that there is a good
agreement between predicted values (for pressures up to 10,000 kPa
and temperatures up to 1,000K and
the reliable data [6]). Figures 4 and
5 show the behavior of Equation (2)
from two different viewpoints. Figures 4 and 5 show that pressure itself has a major effect on the Pr of
air at temperatures less than 350K
but for air temperatures higher than
350K, pressure does not have a
large affect on Pr.
The tool developed in this study
can be of immense practical value for
engineers and scientists who need a
quick check on the compressed air
Pr at various conditions without opting for any experimental measurements. In particular, engineers would
find the approach to be user-friendly
with transparent calculations involving no complex expressions.
The BP-ANN. Figure 6 shows the
obtained values for MSE as an objective function versus the number of
neurons in the hidden layer. As can
be seen from Figure 6, the optimum
number of hidden neurons is 10,
where MSE is minimum. Hence the
best network topology for accurate
prediction of Pr as function of pressure and temperature is 2-10-1 (two
input neurons, ten hidden neurons,
one output neuron).
Figure 7 shows regression plots
of the built BP-ANN comprising 10
hidden neurons as compared with
measured data from Ref. 6. The correlation coefficient, R, is very close to
unity (R = 1 means perfect correlation between the model outputs and
corresponding target value).
Comparing the two methods. All
reported data were regenerated by
the new empirical correlation and
the selected BP-ANN model with
8.0e-5
Model output
Model evaluation
8.5e-5
Model output
weights by employing the training

subset. The allocated data points
for the validation are used to avoid
over-fitting. The performance of the
constructed network is evaluated by
measuring the differences between
the predictions and corresponding
target values of test subset.
1.2
1.1
1
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.8
1.2
1.4
Reported value
1.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
Reported value
1.6
FIGURE 7. R-values for training set, test set, validation set and all the data points of the BP-ANN calculations
MSE equal to 1.11 104 and

6.56 105, respectively. Table 2
presents the summary of accuracies
with the proposed models, including the neural-based model and the
mathematical expression in terms of
average absolute deviation percent
with reliable data [6]. One can observe that the proposed methods
have average absolute deviation of
around 0.64% for the empirical correlation, and 0.48% for the BP-ANN
method, which are considered to
be very small deviations from the
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24670
wm1 =
0.3216
0.65214
4.0507
3.2956
3.2416
2.0465
3.4723
2.064
0.0097574
2.6965
wm2 =
2.0161 5.9455
4.2718
11.3338
1.9625
1.1574
0.59033
1.9713
1.0582
3.7569
4.2455
4.1957
0.33876
b1 =
0.76768
calculations and measured values

of Pr. However, the developed BPANN with 10 hidden neurons gives
slightly better results than the new
empirical correlation. The excellent
performance of the neural network
model follows from a massive interconnection of neurons.
Example calculations
As an example, a calculation of the
Prandtl number of air at a pressure
of 5,000 kPa and a temperature of
300K is presented.
Empirical correlation. For P = 5,000
0.43231
5.457
12.6913
2.0199
1.6017
1.5439
0.41678
0.64223
3.2015
3.8872
3.8679
b2 = [3.3506 ]
0.042193 0.03252
0.12619 0.40173 0.10306
kPa and T = 300K, and using the coefficients in Table 1, one finds:
From Equation (3), a = 3.26808140
From Equation (4), b = 2.09774347
From Equation (5), c = 4.80707571
From Equation (6), d = 3.132981196
Plugging these results into Equation
(2) gives Pr= 0.71597
The value for Pr reported in the
literature [6] is 0.721, which shows
good agreement between predicted
value and reported data.
BP-ANN method. To solve the
same example using the BP-ANN
with optimum hidden neurons re-
TABLE 2. COMPARISON OF PREDICTED PR WITH DATA FOR COMPRESSED AIR

Temperature, K
Air Prandtl number

Reported
Empirical
data [6]
correlation
200
100
0.738
0.7417
600
100
0.690
0.6943
200
500
0.743
0.7452
600
500
0.690
0.6944
300
1,000
0.708
0.7059
700
1,000
0.695
0.6982
280
2,000
0.717
0.7141
800
2,000
0.704
0.7019
300
3,000
0.715
0.7103
900
3,000
0.708
0.7046
180
4,000
0.876
0.8880
1,000
4,000
0.71
0.7060
200
5,000
0.841
0.8519
350
5,000
0.707
0.7026
240
6,000
0.78
0.7745
400
6,000
0.699
0.6984
350
7,000
0.711
0.7057
450
7,000
0.694
0.6972
300
8,000
0.732
0.7267
500
8,000
0.691
0.6972
350
9,000
0.714
0.7090
600
9,000
0.690
0.6981
350
10,000
0.716
0.7107
700
10,000
0.695
0.6995
Average absolute deviation per cent (AADP)
58
Pressure, kPa
BP-ANN
0.7353
0.6933
0.7415
0.6933
0.7082
0.6976
0.7168
0.7036
0.7112
0.7063
0.8714
0.7064
0.8343
0.7014
0.7786
0.6954
0.7115
0.6894
0.7432
0.6944
0.7097
0.6984
0.7113
0.6897
Percent absolute deviation

Empirical
BP-ANN
correlation
0.51
0.36
0.63
0.47
0.29
0.19
0.63
0.47
0.29
0.02
0.46
0.22
0.40
0.02
0.29
0.04
0.65
0.53
0.48
0.23
1.36
0.51
0.56
0.49
1.29
0.78
0.62
0.77
0.70
0.16
0.08
0.51
0.73
0.07
0.46
0.65
0.72
1.52
0.89
0.48
0.70
0.59
1.17
1.20
0.73
0.64
0.65
0.75
0.64%
0.48%
quires the biases and weight values.

The bias and weight terms to layers
1 and 2 (b1, wm1 and b2, wm2) are
given in the box above. These matricies are used as input to Matlab for
calculating the value of Pr at 300K
and 5,000 kPa, which gives a value
of 0.718 (with MSE = 6.32 106).
This corresponds well with the literature value [6] of 0.721.
n
Edited by Gerald Ondrey
References
1. Melling A., Noppenberger S., Still M., Venzke H., Interpolation
correlations for fluid properties of humid air in the temperature
range 100C to 200 C., J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 26(4), pp.
1,1111,123, 1997.
2. Koca A., Oztop H.F., Varol Y., The effects of Prandtl number on
natural convection in triangular enclosures with localized heating
from below. Int. Comm. Heat Mass Tran., 34 (4), pp. 511519,
2007.
3. Yang H., Zhu Z., Numerical study of three-dimensional turbulent
natural convection in a differentially heated air-filled tall cavity, Int.
Comm. Heat Mass Tran., 35 (5), pp. 606612, 2008.
4. Taymaz, I., Islamoglu, Y., Prediction of convection heat transfer
in convergingdiverging tube for laminar air flowing using backpropagation neural network, Int. Comm. Heat Mass Tran., 36 (6),
pp. 614617, 2009.
5. Shapiro, A., Fedorovich, E., Prandtl number dependence of unsteady natural convection along a vertical plate in a stably stratified
fluid, Int. J. Heat Mass Tran., 47, pp. 4,9114,927, 2004.
6. Perry, R.E., Green D.W. Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook,
7th edition., McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y., 1997.
7. Vall es, H.R., A, Neural Networks Method to Predict Activity Coefficients for Binary Systems Based on Molecular Functional Group
Contribution, M.Sc. Thesis, University of Puerto Rico, 2006.
8. Hornik, K., Stinchcombe, M., White, H. Universal approximation of
an unknown mapping and its derivatives using multilayer feedforward networks, Neural Network., 3 (5), pp. 551560, 1990.
9. Bose, N.K., Liang, P., Neural Network Fundamentals with Graphs,
Algorithms, and Applications, McGraw-Hill Series in Electrical and
Computer Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y., 1996.
10. Haykin, S.S., Neural Networks: A Comprehensive Foundation,
Prentice Hall International, Upper Saddle River, N.J., 1999.
11. Looney, C.G., Pattern Recognition Using Neural Networks,
Theories and Algorithms for Engineers and Scientists, Oxford
University Press, New York, N.Y., 1997.
12. Ghiasi, M.M., Bahadori, A., Zendehboudi, S., Jamili, A., Novel
methods predict equilibrium vapor methanol content during gas
hydrate inhibition, J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng., 15, pp. 6975, 2013.
13. Brown, M., Harris, C., Neurofuzzy Adaptive Modelling and Control, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, N..J.; 1994.
14. Kelley, C.T., Iterative Methods for Optimization, SIAM Press,
JUNE 2016
Philadelphia, Pa., 1999.

15. Nocedal, J. and Wright, S. J. Numerical Optimization, Springer
Publishing Co., New York, N.Y., 1999.
16. Press, W.H., Teukolsky S.A., Vetterling, A.W.T., Flannery, B.P.,
Numerical Recipes in C: The Art of Scientific Computing, Cambridge University Press, U.K., 1992.
Authors
Alireza Bahadori is a lecturer
and academic research staff
member in the School of Environment, Science and Engineering at Southern Cross University (P.O. Box 157, Lismore,
NSW, 2480 Australia; Phone:
+61-2-6626-9347;
Email:
[email protected]).
Over the past twenty years, Bahadori has held various process and petroleum engineering positions and was involved in many largescale projects at National Iranian Oil Co. (NIOC),
Petroleum Development Oman (PDO), and Clough
AMEC Pty. Ltd. He is the author of several articles
and 14 books. Bahadori is the recipient of the highly
competitive and prestigious Australian Government's Endeavour International Postgraduate Research Award as part of his research in the oil-andgas area. He also received a Top-Up Award from the
State Government of Western Australia through
Western Australia Energy Research Alliance
(WA:ERA) in 2009. He is member of Institution of
Engineers Australia as a professional engineer. He
received his Ph.D. from Curtin University (Perth,
Western Australia).
Moonyong Lee is a professor at

the school of chemical engineering at Yeungnam University (Daedong 214-1, Gyeongsan 712749, South Korea; Phone:
+82-53-810-2512,
Email:
[email protected]). Prior to this,
he worked in SK energy refinery
and petrochemical plants for 10
years as a design and control
specialist, and was a visiting professor at the University of Utah and ETH in Switzerland. His current areas
of specialization include modeling, design and control
of chemical processes. He is a member of AIChE, ISA,
KIChE, ICASE, as well as being a member of IEEE Realtime Software Committee. He holds a B.S.Ch.E.degree
from Seoul National University, and M.S. and Ph.D.
degrees in chemical engineering from KAIST.
Tomoaki Kashiwao is a visiting
fellow at the School of Environment, Science and Engineering
Southern Cross University (same
address as Bahadori; Phone +61
2 6626 9534; Email: tomoaki.
[email protected]) and an
assistant professor, Department of
Electronics and Control Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Niihama College (7-1 Yagumo-cho, Niihama, Ehime
792-8580, Japan; Phone & Fax: +81-897-37-7771;
Email: [email protected]). Prior to this
(in 2005), he joined Nichia Corp. as an LED packaging
design engineer. His research interests include hybrid
systems, LED packaging, and neural networks. He received his B.E., M.E., and Dr.Eng. degrees from Tokushima University (Japan).
Mohammad M. Ghiasi is a production engineer at South Pars

Gas Complex, National Iranian
Gas Co.(NIGC) (Asaluyeh, Iran;
Email: [email protected]),
where he is responsible for many
operations units, including sulfur
recovery unit, sulfur solidification
and granulation, ethane decarbonization, NGL fractionation,
propane treating and drying, butane treating and drying and caustic regeneration. Prior to this, he was a
research engineer at Petro Solution for a year, and a
trainee at Pars Oil & Gas Co. (POCG). He has published
more than 20 peer-reviewed journal papers on petroleum, natural gas, and chemical engineering topics.
Ghiasi holds a B.Sc. degree in chemical engineering
from The Petroleum University of Technology (Abadan,
Iran) and is currently working on M.Sc. degrees in
chemical engineering from University of KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa), and in energy systems engineering
from the University of Tehran.
Mohammad Bahadori is a Ph.D.
student in The School of Environment at Griffith University (170
Kessels Rd., Nathan, Queensland
4111, Australia, Phone: +61-45606-5822,
Email:
mohammad.bahadori@griffith.
edu.au). He received his B.Sc.
degree from Shahaid Chamran
University (Ahwaz, Iran) and a
M.Sc. degree from the University of Tehran.
T +49 2961 7405-0 | [email protected]
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59
Vortex Breakers in Practice
When vortex formation limits outflow from a tank, consider a disc-type vortex breaker
Jim Gregory and Katy Lentz
Fluor
FIGURE 1. The Coriolis force accounts for the

motion of an object within a rotating frame of
reference. The purple line shows how a moving object in a non-rotating frame of reference
will continue to move in a straight line. The
red line shows its path over the surface of the
Earth, thanks to the rotation of the Earth.
hemical engineers have long

said that, while it is easy
to get liquid into a tank, it
can be difficult to get liquid
out. Large line sizes or high-pressure
pumps can fill tanks at any desired
rate. Tank drainage rates, in contrast,
are strictly limited by vortex formation. High-powered pumps cannot
increase the drain rate because a
vortex extends into the outlet nozzle
and blocks the flow. The vortex is
caused by the Coriolis effect.
Coriolis forces and the resultant
vortex formation are widely misunderstood because they are not well described in chemical engineering textbooks or other information sources.
The Wikipedia entry for Coriolis force
actually includes a Simpsons TV
show episode as a reference. As a
result, some explanation is in order.
Coriolis force, like centrifugal force,
is sometimes referred to as a fictitious or pseudo force. This does
not mean these forces are in any way
unreal. It just means that they derive
from changes in our frame of reference, rather than from matter and
energy, which give rise to forces like
gravitation and electromagnetism.
Coriolis force causes a moving object to deflect in the horizontal plane
when viewed in a rotating frame of
reference (Figure 1).
When liquid drains from a tank, a
vertical column of liquid in the center moves down toward the outlet
of the tank while the surrounding
liquid moves inward horizontally to
fill the void. The liquid moving horizontally is subject to Coriolis force,
which causes it to rotate. The vortex
speeds up because the Coriolis force
continues to push the flow faster and
away from the center.
Figure 2 shows how the Coriolis
force always acts at right angles
to the direction of flow, and never
points towards the outlet nozzle.
60
Unlike gravity, which is independent of velocity, the Coriolis force

increases with velocity. The result
is an acceleration of acceleration,
limited only by fluid viscosity. For
water, within half a minute the whole
batch is rotating at about one revolution per second.
The angular momentum of the
fluid is the product of the mass of
the fluid, its velocity, and its distance from the center of the tank.
Due to the conservation of angular
momentum, radius and velocity are
inversely related. As the fluid moves
Liquid moves toward center to
replace liquid leaving the tank.
inward toward the center outlet, the

radius of rotation decreases and
so the velocity increases, increasing the rotation rate. Soon, the
cone of the vortex extends down
to the outlet nozzle and blocks it
(Figure 3).
In applications where drain rate
is not important, vortex formation is
usually not a problem. But there are
many applications where the drain
rate is important. In those applications, a vortex breaker is required.
Another negative outcome of operating with a vortex is gas entrain-
Coriolis force is proportional

to liquid velocity.
Resultant flow is deflected

away from outlet.
FIGURE 2: As liquid drains from a tank, the Coriolis force acts at right angles to the flow direction and so
sets up a vortex motion
JUNE 2016
Start to drain
Start to
drain: disk
prevents most
horizontal
motion
Start to drain:
cross does
not prevent
horizontal
motion
All horizontal
motion is
subject to
Coriolis
forces
Downward
motion not
subject to
Coriolis
forces
All horizontal
motion is
subject to
Coriolis
forces
Continued
horizontal
motion
results in
acceleration
Horizontal
motion only
for liquid
about to
leave tank
Continued
horizontal
motion
results in
acceleration
No vortex
formation
Vortex
extends
through one
or another
quadrant and
blocks the
outlet nozzle
Vortex cone
blocks the
outlet nozzle
FIGURE 3: In a tank without a vortex breaker, a

vortex will form and quickly grow to the point
where it obstructs flow from the bottom outlet
FIGURE 4. Disc-type vortex breakers work well

and do not create undue flow restriction as long as
they are suitably positioned
FIGURE 5. Small cross-type vortex breakers do not

work in practice because they have no influence
on vortex formation in the main part of the tank
ment. Gas from above the liquid can

be drawn down into the vortex, reducing the capacity of the discharge
pump and affecting the performance
of processes downstream.
A further problem is reduced
cleanability of the tank. Food and
pharmaceutical manufacturers have
strict requirements for flowrates in
clean-in-place (CIP) applications.
Typically a spray ball must supply
about 3 gal/min per foot of tank circumference (40 L/min per meter) to
ensure good cleaning performance.
To prevent liquid holdup, which
could allow dirt to accumulate, the
discharge rate must be at least as
large as this. In practice, tanks for
CIP must be designed to prevent
vortex formation.
the liquid above moves downward

to replace it. The relatively small volume of liquid in the bottom dish that
is moving toward the exit nozzle still
experiences Coriolis force, but only
for a short time since it is about to
leave the tank.
Cross type. The second type of
vortex breaker is the cross type (Figure 5). This is supposed to eliminate
the formation of a vortex by providing
a barrier to rotational flow. In practice, however, small cross-type vortex breakers mounted immediately
above the exit nozzle do not work.
A little thought shows why: the cross
does not influence vortex formation
since it impedes rotation only in the
immediate vicinity of the outlet, not in
the bulk of the tank, which is where
the main rotational forces operate.
If you watch the draining of a tank
without a vortex breaker you will see
a vortex form. If the tank has a crosstype vortex breaker you will also see
a vortex form. Looking down into a
fully developed vortex shows that
the cross has no effect whatsoever,
with the vortex moving freely from
one quadrant to another.
Given the prevalence of vortex
formation when draining tanks, it
is surprising that cross-type vortex breakers still sometimes appear in engineering designs. One
reason may be a fear that the alternative disc-type vortex breaker
will present too large a restriction
and actually reduce flow out of the
tank. This will not occur, however,
as long as the flow area under the

disc is greater than the area of the
outlet nozzle.
In conclusion, the Coriolis effect
causes liquid to rotate as it drains
from a tank. Unrestricted, the liquid
rotation creates a vortex which will
block the outlet and limit the drain
rate. In cases where a high drain
rate is important, such as for CIP or
to match discharge pump performance, a vortex breaker is required
to prevent liquid holdup and air entrainment. Cross-type vortex breakers are not effective, so the disc type
should be installed whenever a vor
tex breaker is required.
Edited by Charles Butcher
Vortex breakers
A vortex breaker is installed to prevent the formation of a vortex when
draining a tank. There are two types
of vortex breakers: disc-type and
cross-type.
Disc type. The disc type (Figure 4)
acts as a baffle plate that impedes
axial flow without interfering with radial flow. It is typically designed to be
three times the diameter of the outlet
nozzle and mounted approximately
1 in. (25 mm) above the nozzle. This
design eliminates the center vertical column of flow above the disc
and allows only horizontal flow in
the area below the disc. As the liquid in the bottom of the tank moves
horizontally towards the exit nozzle,
JUNE 2016
Authors
Jim Gregory is a process engineer at Fluor Corp. (100 Fluor
Daniel Dr., Greenville, SC 296072762; Email: jim.gregory@fluor.
com). He holds a B.A. in biophysics and a B.S.Ch.E. from the University of Connecticut, and an
M.Sc. in biochemical engineering
from Rutgers University. He has
experience in the design and operation of industrial microbiological processes ranging
from human-cell-line monoclonal antibodies to diesel
fuel.
Katy Lentz is a process engineer
at Fluor (100 Fluor Daniel Dr.,
Greenville, SC 29607-2762;
Phone: 864-281-4579; Email:
[email protected]). She holds a
B.S.Ch.E. from the University of
Toledo, Ohio. She has experience
in the design and operation of
manufacturing and life sciences
processes including monoclonalantibody therapeutics, clean utilities, electrode manufacturing, carbon fiber, and bourbon production.
61
Field Troubleshooting 101 and
How to Get the Job Done
A major part of field work lies in troubleshooting problems: finding out why a system
is not operating the way it is intended. This article provides guidelines for effective
troubleshooting and contains many practical examples of their successful use
Thomas F. McGowan and
Dennis J. Coughlin
TMTS Associates
ffective troubleshooting in the

field requires not only skillful
engineering but also an equal
dose of the right behavior.
Together, these qualities represent
a combination of art and science
that will get the troubleshooting job
done well and done quickly.
Field troubleshooting is not for everyone, but if you like a challenge, it
may be for you. Troubleshooters are
always in demand when equipment
goes down or is not making product
the way it should. They are brought
in to solve problems that have defeated on-site personnel.
It is much like crime scene investigation on television. Its the engineering
equivalent of detective work, tracking down the felons that are causing
problems. When it is done effectively,
everyone walks away satisfied.
A blend of science and art

A wise mentor once said that troubleshooting involved breaking the
problem in half and breaking it in half
again. His trade involved test trains
for combustion gas analysis. Each
train contained perhaps 20 ground
glass joints, which were prone
to leaks. Our mentor could have
checked each one, with an average of 10 steps to find the leak. But
using his heuristic, the math says we
can find it in, at most, five steps (the
leak is in joints 110 15 35
3 or 4 4, bingo!). The bigger the
system, the greater the reduction in
the number of steps needed to find
a leak, or a break in a series wiring system (think Christmas lights),
compared to a linear search.
62
FIGURE 1. Troubleshooting may require a variety of test equipment some typical items are shown here
Having the right tools is important, too. They need not be expensive, but it helps if you have them in
your gear bag ready to use. Figure 1
shows (left to right) a Pitot tube for
flow measurement, a measuring
tape, pipe-thread-to-barbed tubing
adapters and connectors, a digital
manometer, thermocouples and a
field readout, a hand-held infrared
temperature probe, a clamp-on ammeter and multimeter, a combination
pressure/vacuum gage, a roll of electrical tape, and of course a flashlight.
They will help you get the hard data
you need to back up your hunches.
One can also use bigger and more
expensive tools, like the combustion test system shown in Figure 2,
to provide fast feedback on what
is going on inside the process. For
those who want to learn about the
wide variety of tools used by many
trades, government training manuals
and other source materials are available online [1, 2].
The art side of troubleshooting

includes being a good listener, being
observant, taking time to think over
information, taking action, opening things up to look at them, and
being willing to get dirty to get the
job done. The science side includes
doing calculations, testing the system, and comparing the results to
what was expected in the design.
The following is a litany of field
problems encountered and solved
in the experience of the authors by
employing the guidelines suggested
in this article.
Those pesky valves

Each type of valve has its own set
of quirks, and many an engineer has
learned to distrust all types. Here are
two examples of ball valves that did
not operate as expected.
Valve failure makes scrubber prequench inoperative. A brand-new
solid-waste incinerator was failing
particulate-matter stack tests, deWWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM
JUNE 2016
FIGURE 2. More-specialized equipment includes this portable combustion analyzer
spite being equipped with a state-ofthe-art venturi scrubber and packedtower acid-gas absorber. After three
failed stack tests, we were called in
to fix the problem. First step was to
get the stack test data. It was horrible. Emissions exceeded the normal
particulate-matter guarantee with
no air pollution control of 0.08
grains/dry std. ft3 (180 mg/dry std.
m3). We called the test company to
ask about the M5 filter paper used in
the test: what did it look like? They
said it had a heavy coating of white
dust. The heavy coating was no surprise, but white dust? From an incinerator? This was the first clue, since
the expected color would range from
brown to gray.
The white color suggested a spraydried sub-micron salt fume from the
caustic scrubber, which turns HCl
into NaCl. The venturi was designed
with a freshwater pre-quench to preclude sub-micron salt fume generation; the aim was to reduce the temperature to below 600F before the
gas entered the venturi throat. The
venturi itself had a high flow of recirculated salt water sprayed in downstream of the pre-quench. This salt
water, if vaporized, would produce
the salt particles and this was
clearly happening in practice.
The venturi vendor had changed
the pre-quench nozzle several times,
hoping to address the issue, and finally changed the original solid-cone
spray to a radial-fan spray. This was
pointless, since the replacement
nozzle had less time for gas/water
contact and quenching than did the
original. It seemed that the real problem lay elsewhere.
The piping was straightforward:
fresh makeup water went to the prequench nozzle at a relatively steady
rate to handle the adiabatic quench
vaporization load (from 1,800F

down to 170F), with feedback on
flowrate provided by the level in
the sump. While checking the system, we looked at the manual 1-in.
quarter-turn ball valve used to fill the
system with fresh water for startup
(Figure 3 shows an example). We
verified that the valve was closed, as
it should always be during operation.
Had it been open, it would have cut
flow to the pre-quench via feedback
from the higher sump level.
When exercised, the fill valve felt
fine. While the incinerator room was
hot, however, the copper pipe remained cold even though the valve
was in the closed position. The only
way it could be cold was if water
was flowing through the closed
valve. Indeed, the valve stem had
snapped, so the fill valve was continuously adding fresh water, cutting
off flow to the pre-quench and producing a spray-dried salt fume from
the recycled salt water. A $15 valve
swap-out solved the problem.
Stuck fuel valve creates inadvertent bypass. A second example of
valve troubleshooting relates to the
supply of liquid propane to two burners rated at 200 million Btu/h. The
two positive-displacement pumps
mounted in series produced less
than the expected 250 psig output
pressure. The first clue was that one
pump was noisy, sounding like it was
grinding rocks, while the other was
comparably quiet.
The liquid propane system contained multiple quarter-turn ball
valves. We made sure that those
valves that could cause reverse flow
and loss of pressure were all closed,
and exercised them to verify their operation. All felt good except one 2-in.
valve, which gave less than a solid
thunk when closing. It did not feel
JUNE 2016
FIGURE 3. This small reduced-bore ball valve with

a PTFE seat, shown here in the half-open position,
is similar to the one whose broken stem caused
an exhaust-gas scrubber to fail
quite right, and closed perhaps three

degrees short of a full 90-deg swing.
With these auditory and touch clues
leading the way, the system was
vented and the valve dismantled. A
brass poppet, perhaps from a pressure control device, was found stuck
inside the valve body, keeping it
from full closure (Figure 4). With the
foreign object extracted, the valve
closed and backflow stopped. The
pumps quietly shared the load
and produced the full pressure.
Finding leaks
Leakage in and out of systems is
the bane of engineers existence,
and must be minimized and eliminated. There are many ways of finding leaks, including modern ones like
handheld ultrasonic leak detectors.
Basic methods still hard at work,
however, include soap and water solution (still required by many codes
for commissioning fuel gas piping),
and using your eyes, nose and ears
as a guide.
Air leakage in a thermal soil-treatment plant. A client had a low production rate on a contaminated-soil
treatment project in Siberia. The system had a direct-fired rotary dryer/
desorber and afterburner. The first
step was to get some hard data. A
quick test showed 18% oxygen in
the stack gas, compared to the expected value of around 7% for a tight
system. Checking oxygen levels between the units pinpointed the major
air leaks. Eyeballing the system
found some access doors open and
a shroud missing. In essence, they
were heating the surrounding air
rather than the process. After closing
open hatches, adding some sheet
metal and a bit of welding to keep
out the frosty Siberian air, production
went from 9 ton/h to 1617 ton/h.
63
FIELD TROUBLESHOOTING REQUIRES ENGINEERING

Review available documents (piping and instrumentation diagrams, standard operating
procedures, cut sheets)
Review available data (tests, event logs)
Contact vendors or use the internet to get cut sheets and parts lists
Have the right equipment with you, and when you dont, improvise
Break the problem into parts and isolate each issue
Keep in mind that failure of a new component is frequently the result of its being the
wrong component, or improper installation or operation
Understand that very few of the problems encountered in process systems are truly
random; if something happens more than once, there is a root cause
Organize your work with a checklist and data sheet, and document what you have
already checked out
Change one variable at a time isolate cause and effects from each change
Understand the chemistry of the process as it was designed, but also of any foreign
material or unexpected byproducts
Run calculations to home in on the issues and prove or deny suspected root causes
Get equipment model/serial number/job number nameplate data, by hand or photo
Take good notes and always write up a trip report to close out the job
Notches from
ball clamping the
poppet stem
and the right behaviors

Actively engage the operators and maintenance personnel. Ask for their input, and be
aware that all personnel have the potential to answer key questions
Ask for help dont let your pride get in your way
Be persistent and unafraid to ask the stupid question
Ask what happened right before any unpredicted event
Call the original equipment designers
Call those who installed the system
Call those who worked previously with the system
Routinely use senses (eyes, ears, nose and touch) in addition to your brains
Take photos for later review
Write up notes at the end of each day or the beginning of the next day to keep up with
the data and spot errors
Take action dont be afraid to try things out
Get out and around the equipment, and be willing to get dirty as you investigate
Set aside time to think over information and discuss with others onsite
Use the human factor to your advantage; people are a major resource of knowledge
Commissioning a pneumatic conveying loop. While working as a

freshly minted engineer at Particulate
Solid Research in New York City, one
of us designed and built a pneumatic
conveyor system for industrial research, made from 200 ft of Plexiglas
pipe with an inside diameter of 4 in. It
was instrumented with pressure taps
every five feet. During commissioning, the goal was zero leakage.
The leak test method used a simple tool: a rotameter. Both ends of
the conveyor pipe were capped off,
and compressed air was added via
a pressure regulator through the
rotameter, slowly raising the pressure
as leaks were found and sealed. The
rotameter reading provided visual
feedback on the size of the leak (for
instance, an open valve, a missing
pressure tap plug, or weld porosity).
Once the big leaks were found and
fixed, a persistent low-level leak remained. The technicians used soap
and water to check multiple Victaulic
64
couplings used on the Plexiglas piping, the threads on pressure taps,

and the valve stems to no avail.
A change in personnel and sheer
persistence eventually located the
felonious fitting: a Victaulic coupling
in a downcomer just below a penthouse floor (Figure 5) [3]. The couplings donut-like rubber gasket carried concrete chips that sliced up the
rubber. With a fresh gasket, leakage
fell to effectively zero. A final safety
note: the compressed air approach
is not acceptable for leak-testing
at high pressures or large volumes,
due to the amount of stored energy
in these cases.
FIGURE 4. This 1-in. long brass poppet from an

unknown source became jammed inside a ball
valve in liquid propane service. It stopped the
valve closing fully, and so allowed backflow
When stack tests were run on the

incinerator, two runs passed the required 99.99% lower limit for creosote destruction efficiency by a wide
margin. The third test, however,
showed far worse results. Interviewing the operators revealed that the
failed run was less stable than the
other two. After further consideration, the operators zeroed in on the
symptom that, on that run, the draft
in the kiln was not stable.
The hot solids from the 7.5 ft
45 ft kiln exited to a rotary cooler,
with the exhaust gas from the cooler
being ducted to a baghouse. This
exhaust should have contained only
steam, air and dust. However, when
the draft was momentarily unstable,
CO2 was detected in the duct as well.
This confirmed that incompletely oxidized creosote vapors could bypass
the oxidizer along with the CO2. The
fix was to reroute the cooler fume
duct to the oxidizer inlet, thereby fully
treating the fume (Figure 6).
Upstream problems
Preventing bypassing
Close cousins of leaks are bypassing
problems, in which gases, liquids or
solids go unexpected places inside
a system. One example concerns
a transportable high-temperature
incinerator that processed soil contaminated with coal-tar creosote.
If you dont look, you dont see, and

if you dont go inside, all you have is
speculation. Sometimes you have to
follow the process upstream to find
the source of the problem.
Ionizing wet scrubber. An incinerator stack test showed particulate emissions at about 60% over
JUNE 2016
occur at lower voltages. So we had

found the cause of the low voltage
and hence poor collection efficiency.
But what caused the black buildup?
Time to get dirty again.
Suited up, we entered the large
secondary incineration chamber. We
expected to see the usual white to
brown refractory walls, but instead
found walls that were nearly black.
Walking up to the burners, we found
Victaulic
coupling
FIGURE 5. The gasket on a Victaulic coupling on

this pneumatic conveying line was cut by embedded chips of concrete, causing it to leak
the permitted limit. Upstream was a

rotary kiln and a large multi-burner
oxidizer. After a pre-quench and acid
gas absorber, the fume from the afterburner passed through a singlestage ionizing wet scrubber (IWS),
also known as a wet electrostatic
precipitator (ESP). The fume passed
between grounded parallel plates,
with positive charging wires between
them. The charged particles would
be pulled to the plates by electrostatic forces, and collected on downstream packing.
A properly set-up IWS does a very
good job, removing about 84% of
almost all particle types per stage.
This one was not doing so. In terms
of hard data, a visual examination
of the M5 test filter paper showed
a heavy dust coating, as expected.
No news there. The high-voltage
power supply showed inconsistent
readings of maximum voltage, which
were also lower than expected. This
was the first clue, since higher voltages means better particle removal.
It was time to get dirty.
Upon opening the IWS, we found
thick, black, rubbery material here
and there on the grounded plates.
It looked much like smears of silicone rubber caulk, but with a softer,
sludgier consistency. Since the
plates were backwashed frequently,
they should have been clean, and
so the buildup was unexpected. The
plate spacing was about 2 in. The
buildup, which was up to -in. thick,
reduced the clearance between the
charging wires and the grounded
plates, so that short-circuits would
that the large pilot burner used for

startup was missing its refractory tile,
whose purpose is to shape the flame
and provide a point for flame attachment. Without the tile, the burner
would produce a low-velocity, poorly
mixed flame, atomizing the fuel but
not fully burning it. Oil droplets would
therefore bypass the flame and foul
the IWS.
The burner tile was replaced, the
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65
Original
cooler duct
Oxidizer
New duct
FIGURE 6. On this thermal oxidizer, under some

draft conditions, incompletely treated vapors could
be discharged to the stack
scrubber cleaned up, and the power

supply retuned. A subsequent stack
test showed particulate emissions at
half the permitted limit.
A contributing issue was probably
that the pilot burner was fueled with
heavy No. 6 oil, whereas easier-toburn No. 2 oil would have made more
sense for cold startup. In retrospect,
it would also have been a good idea
to have a sight glass on the oxidizer.
This would have allowed operators
to see the smoking burner before it
caused problems downstream.
Air-pollution-control system. A
large rod bed scrubber (a variation
on a venturi wet scrubber) was used
to clean up combustion products
downstream of a big wood-fired
boiler. Unfortunately, this one was
allowing more particulates than expected to escape the stack.
Suiting up (Figure 7) and looking inside revealed a buildup of particulate
solids on the rod bed. We needed
to head back upstream, toward the
boiler, to see what might be causing
the issue. The plant allowed a twohour shutdown to gain access. A
hole was cut in the steel duct, and
in full harness, one of us shimmied
66
in and slid down a 45-deg slope to

check the 3,500-hp induced-draft
fan. All seemed well there, but looking up into the blackness of the
duct heading to the scrubber, things
did not add up. There should have
been three sub-ducts, separated
by welded steel dividers 4-ft tall and
-in. thick. However, one divider had
ripped loose and closed off the other
two openings. As a result, almost all
the flow was going into a third of the
scrubber, overwhelming the water
sprays and leading to buildup. There
were warning signs: someone had
heard a banging noise in the duct a
month before, and a patch had been
fitted to the high-velocity channel
side due to erosion.
More missing burner tiles. An indirect-fired dryer a three-shell, triple-pass design had a production
rate that was lower than expected.
Checking burner condition is always
on the list when this happens, since
less heat means less driving force
for drying. In addition, it is always a
good idea to eyeball burners from
the business end during shutdowns.
Donning safety gear and crawling
along 60 ft of shell, with a tight 18-in.
clearance, was made more interesting by the 9-in. flow-inducing baffles
rising from below like sharks fins and
hanging from above like stalactites.
Along the way, we found pieces of
something not quite metal, not
quite ceramic in the otherwise
clean shell. We were rewarded at the
end of the crawl, for two of the eight
burners had lost their silicon-carbide
tiles. Without the flame shaping and
means of attaching the flame that the
tiles provide, the burners had been
spraying fuel oil on the inner shell,
rather than burning it as planned.
Chemistry 101
Mother Nature has a wide variety
of chemicals. Some are good, and
some not so good.
Scrubber plugging. A clients
acid-gas-absorber packing fouled
and plugged, requiring twice-yearly
shutdowns. We put a sample of the
fouled packing in a beaker of hydrochloric acid. It fizzed and bubbled
as expected, and the buildup disappeared. The buildup was a carbonate, which the acid dissolved. A simple acid wash once a year was all the
scrubber needed to keep it happy.
FIGURE 7. Be willing to get dirty for confined

space entry inspections
Water in your tank. A client suffered

plant shutdowns soon after filling
their 15,000-gal liquid-propane tank.
Restart was never a problem. The
seeming randomness of the shutdowns made it hard to zero in on the
problem. While we were observing
the offloading of propane, however,
within five minutes of the truckmounted pump starting, the plant
shut down due to burner loss.
Noticing some icing on the outside
of a throttling valve on one of the big
burners, we did some digging into
issues with propane-fired systems. It
turns out that propane can contain
water, the amount varying with the
source of the propane, the location,
and perhaps the time of year. Water
has twice the density of liquid propane, so it was lying in the bottom
of the tanker and passing into the
storage tank when the truck pump
started. The water then passed
straight into the plant intake below
the tank fill pipe, and from there to
the burner. When the water caused
the flame to flicker, the flame monitoring system cut out the burner.
The solution was more chemistry:
adding alcohol to absorb the water
and allow it to dissolve in the propane. Being a Sunday afternoon, alcohol supply options were slim. The
quick fix was to buy two cases of an
alcohol-based winter gasoline additive used to stop water from freezing
in automobile fuel lines.
JUNE 2016
Melted copper
FIGURE 8. This electrical wire shows melting and

arcing at the point where it was pinched inside a
connection box, causing an intermittent fault
When the next tanker came in,

we poured about a gallon of alcohol
into the transfer hose, clamped it up,
slowly opened the valves, waited,
bump-started the pump once,
waited, bumped it again, waited,
and then pumped the load out. The
plant happily hummed along. We got
more alcohol in quarts from a truck
stop (thanks to one of the operators
who knew that it is used for truck
brakes), and later a full barrel with a
manual pump. With that, the problem was behind us.
able, but infrequently they can turn

out to be malefactors.
A radioactive hazardous-waste lagoon was being solidified with a grout
mixture. A diesel pump transferred
the mixture to a 12-ft diameter pond
mixer mounted on a 100-ton crane.
The job safety plan called for work
to cease during thunderstorms.
When the first storm came in, the
crew came out. When they went
back to work, they found that the

idling diesel pump had shut itself
down and would not restart. The
starter was pulled and replaced,
and all was well until the next storm,
when the same thing happened. Yet
another storm-related shutdown
later, it was time to invoke a basic
rule of troubleshooting: the third time
a problem happens, its time to find
the root cause and fix the problem.
Drive Efficiency Into

Your Chemical Plant
Electrical issues
Power is critical to making a plant
run, from the three-phase 460 V that
powers motors all the way down to
milliamp circuits for instrumentation.
A multimeter and clamp-on ammeter
come in handy when troubleshooting, but as always, people can be
even more important than tools.
Pinched wire. A fuel supply pump
would shut down randomly, and
similarly refused to start on a random
basis. The problem had gone on for
a while and was growing worse,
shutting down an entire plant. We
worked with the electricians, who
raised the motor amp trip level and
changed out breakers, but with no
success. The problem appeared to
lie between the motor control center and the motor itself. Then the
human factor took the stage. When
the electrician was told we had to repull 500 ft of wire, his brain sprang
into action. He said he knew where
to look, and found a pinched wire in
the cast-steel connection box on the
motor. The cover had clamped the
wire. A close look at Figure 8 shows
where some of the copper has
melted from repeated arcing. With
wires trimmed back and packed in
appropriately, the pump motor and
the client were happy again.
A bad switch. Switches are a bit like
valves. Normally they are dependCHEMICAL ENGINEERING
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chesterton.com/chemical
24338 2016 A.W. Chesterton Company.
JUNE 2016
67
When we inspected the starter

personally, we found that the Bendixtype starter pinion was locked up and
the matching ring gear on the engine
looked unhappy. The control panel
looked like one on a working boat,
with switches on a pulpit exposed
to the elements. We removed the
toggle-type start switch and turned
it upside down. Water dripped out.
The root cause turned out to be the
fact that when it rained, this switch
shorted out, and energized the starter
motor. The starter got tired of running
its Bendix unit into the already turning ring gear, effectively braking the
engine to a stop. One marine waterproof switch later, all was well.
The wrong thermocouples. Its a
good habit to specify all the thermocouples on a system to be of the
same type. This reduces the chance
of a Type R being installed in place
of a Type K, and so on. Much mischief has occurred when the wrong
type is installed: in incinerators, for
example, low oxidizer temperatures
and high CO emissions. For very hot
equipment, refractory color provides
a first approximation to cross-check
with control-room readings. The best
way to check out the issue, however, is to insert a field thermocouple
into a nearby port and compare its
readings with those of the installed
instrument. When bench-checking
thermocouples, one can vigorously
stir the tip in a mix of chopped ice
and water. If it reads within 2F of
32F or 1C of 0C, the thermocouple and its wiring are okay. Another
good check for high limits is to pull
the high-limit thermocouple and use
a propane torch on it.
Uncooperative machinery
Its been said that machines run
better when one of the authors is
around, but that is not always the
case, as you will see below.
Apron feeder. A rotary kiln system
had a slow-moving apron feeder for
metering the contaminated soil feed.
It stopped feeding during a stack
test, which is not a great time for a
breakdown. From this point on, the
worm-drive gearbox would work
only when not under load. Procuring
and installing a new gearbox would
result in a three-day shutdown.
Its okay to open things up if they
dont work anyway. With nothing
68
to lose, we therefore had the case

pulled apart. Other people who
looked at it said that the big 12-in.
diameter driven gear was worn out,
since it had a groove cut through
the outer edge of the teeth. We said
otherwise; having read an article on
a failed elevator drive of the same
type, we knew the groove was part
of the original machining, being the
root of the worm drive gear. We had
the big gear pulled out, knocked
off the bearings, and discovered a
hidden 3/8-in. square key that had
sheared. After a quick trip to the
local automotive machine shop that
had a hydraulic press, a new key
was installed and we were back up
and running in four hours.
But what had caused the key to
shear? The root cause that killed the
gearbox was soil compacting and
locking up on the sides of the apron
feeder. This is an old problem in bulk
solids, which in general are prone to
arching and bridging if the length of
the flow channel is more than about
three times the width. After figuring
out the cause, we loaded the belt to
no more than 12-in. deep. A mirror
above the feed bin, plus a light, allowed the front-end loader operators to see the soil level, and fixed
the problem.
Belt conveyor. On the same rotary
kiln system, contaminated soil was
screened to 2 in. and passed through
a dryer, before being transferred to
the kiln via a belt conveyor 100 ft
long. While walking the circuit during
startup, we observed that feed was
going into the dryer, but not coming
out the other end. The cause was a
stick, 2-ft long and about 1.5 in. in
diameter, that had made it through
the 2-in. screen. Jammed at the feed
end of the belt, the stick was pinching the belt edge and backing up soil
into the dryer. We alerted the operators to shut down the plant before
they filled the dryer up.
This abuse had caused the conveyor belt to slack off. When retightened, it refused to track correctly,
trying to run up and off the idler rollers. Several hours of work proved
futile and we contemplated replacing the belt (with a two-day downtime), figuring it had been stretched
beyond repair. Then the human factor saved us. When the night-shift
crew came in, one of them, normally
a quiet type, spoke up. He pointed

out that when the belt was installed,
the nuts on the belt splice faced
down. They now faced up! While
hard to imagine, this meant the belt
had completely inverted itself when
the stick pinched it at the feed point.
We flipped the belt back over and it
tracked perfectly. It had just worn itself into a comfortable position and
resented being turned over.
Summary
When troubleshooting, keep your
eyes open and be observant. Be
persistent. Break the problem into
parts to quickly isolate the issue. Ask
for help. Listen to people. Take good
notes as you go, and always, always
write up that trip report to close out
the job!
Edited by Charles Butcher
References
1. Tools and Their Uses an Armed Forces training manual
www.maritime.org/doc/pdf/tools.pdf.
2. Voltmeter and Amprobe Instructions www.wikihow.com/
Use-a-Multimeter.
3. McGowan, T., Disperse-Phase Pneumatic Conveying
of Glass Beads in a Four-Inch Diameter Plexiglas Loop,
M.S. Thesis, Department of Chemical Engineering, Manhattan College, New York, May, 1974.
Authors
Thomas F. McGowan is president
and founder of TMTS Associates
Inc. (399 Pavillion Street, Atlanta,
GA 30315; Phone: 404627
4722;Email:tmtsassociates1000@
mindspring.com; Website: www.
tmtsassociates.com), a firm that
specializes in thermal systems and
air-pollution control. Prior to starting the firm in 1998, he was employed by RMT/Four Nines, Envirite, the Georgia Tech
Research Institute, and Particulate Solid Research, Inc.
McGowan has 40 years of experience in troubleshooting
combustion, air pollution control, and solids handling, and
received the Chemical Engineering magazine 2010
Award for Personal Achievement. He holds an M.S. ChE
from Manhattan College in New York City, and a masters
degree in Industrial Management from Georgia Tech. He
is a registered professional engineer (PE).
Dennis J. Coughlin is an engineering and management consultant, primarily supporting TMTS
Associates, Inc. (contact details as
above). He serves companies in
manufacturing and the chemical
process industries, and focuses
predominantly on combustion,
thermal treatment, air-pollution
control, application of alternative
fuels, and power generation. He was previously employed by Westinghouse, GTRI, and Lucent Technologies. He held a number of positions at various facilities
with Lucent, including director of manufacturing, director of facilities and construction, and manager of global
procurement. He has over 40 years of engineering and
management experience, and holds a B.S. in industrial
engineering from Georgia Tech.
JUNE 2016
Reformer Tube Wall Temperature

Measurement and Imaging
The latest thermal imager offering, the NIR-b 3XR from AMETEK Land is designed for
reformer tube skin continuous temperature measurement and furnace optimisation.
Building on AMETEK Lands long history with the high accuracy Cyclops portable
pyrometer, the NIR-b 3XR provides stability of temperature measurement reducing
many external errors and influences on the result. When a -10C measurement error
over time can result in either 1% lost productivity or a +10C error can result in 25%
reduction in tube life, automated continuous temperature measurement with long term
data trending is the solution.
The high quality image combined with the wide angle FOV (90) allows multiple
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For more information on how to improve your primary reformer performance through
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AMETEK Land
https://www.landinst.com/lp/tce6
The innovative laboratory-scale process

plant, ideal for any industry
The magic PLANT gives you a competitive edge by bringing
your products to market.
The magic PLANT is a modular, laboratory-scale process
system that can be used for batch and inline processes as well
as for powder mixing and drying.
The magic PLANT is ideal for emulsifying, mixing and
dispersing liquids with liquids, solids with liquids, wet milling,
and for the mixing and drying of powders.
Mixing solids? No problem. The magic PLANT powder
efficiently mixes solids to perfection.
The flexible design, in combination with the 2 liter capacity
makes the magic PLANT the optimal solution for laboratory
scale product and process development.
IKA
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70
JUNE 2016
Eliminate Exchanger Pluggage and

Associated Lost Revenue
Replace your existing bar screens on line, without any basin
modifications with our unique, continuous screening. The Vari-Flow
SS Series Traveling Sump Screen is custom fabricated to easily
replace stationary screens while your unit stays in full operation.
The screens can be automated and are available in more than 20
different screen-mesh sizes. The Traveling Sump Screen is patented, manufactured and distributed by Industrial Cooling Tower
Services. Let the experts handle your equipment screening needs
with this easy-to-use, cost efficient solution.
Industrial Cooling Tower Services, Inc.

www.ictsinc.com
Designed to Handle Specialty Gases

Tuthill Vacuum & Blower Systems has a long history of providing
positive displacement blowers to the chemical processing industry.
The PD Plus blower is one of the few in the industry designed to
handle specialty chemical gases with various properties such as
flammable, corrosive, hazardous, high pressure, and high
temperature gases. Tuthills PD Plus blowers are known for quality,
dependability and outstanding performance. Models range from
3.25 to 12 gear diameter and 2.5 to 48 rotor length. Special
materials offered include stainless steel, carbon steel, and ductile
iron. Special testing available.
Tuthill Vacuum & Blower Systems

www.tuthillvacuumblower.com
WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM JUNE 2016
71
Product Showcase
Advertise in
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Tel: 512-337-7890
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Circle 201 on p. 74 or go to
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Febru
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FEBRUA
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40
Written for engineers, by engineers

More and more, business in the Chemical Process Industries
(CPI) is not local, its global. To keep up with this rapidly
evolving marketplace, you need a magazine that covers it all,
not just one country or region, not just one vertical market,
but the entire CPI. With editorial offices around the world,
Chemical Engineering is well-positioned to keep abreast of all
the latest innovations in the equipment, technology, materials,
and services used by process plants worldwide. No other
publication even comes close.
To subscribe or learn more about membership, please visit
www.chemengonline.com/subscribe
72
JUNE 2016
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Specialists in design, failure analysis

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Contact Jim Salter 281-282-9200
HEAT EXCHANGERS
Fax: 512-213-4855
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We stock
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JUNE 2016
Advertisers Index
Advertiser............. Page number
Phone number
Reader Service #

Reader Service #
Phone number

Phone number
Reader Service #
Abbe, Paul O ......................... 31
Load Controls ........................43
Sandvik Process Systems ......45
1-855-789-9827
1-888-600-3247
+49 711 5105-0
AMETEK Land ........................70
Miller-Stephenson Chemical
Company ...............................49
Sentry Equipment Corp .......... 13
1-800-992-2424
Sturtevant, Inc. .......................65
Bete Fog Nozzle, Inc. ........... C4

Bluebeam Software, Inc. ....... C2

Check-All Valve Mfg. Co. .......49

1-515-224-2301
Paharpur Cooling
Towers Ltd ...............................4
91-33-4013-3000
1-800-992-0209
TEES Turbomachinery
Laboratory .............................37
*Plast-O-Matic Valves, Inc. ...25I
Titan Metal Fabricators, Inc. ....17
Chemstations .......................... 11
1-713-978-7700
Pompetravaini ........................35
1-805-487-5050
Chesterton, A.W. Co. .............67
+39 0331 889000

Tuthill Vacuum
& Blower Systems..................50
RedGuard .............................. 19
Eastman Chemical Co .............3
1-855-REDGUARD
1-800-825-6937
1-800-426-2463
Rembe GMBH........................59
Tuthill Vacuum
& Blower Systems...................71
Ekato Process
Technologies GmbH ..............29
1-704-716-7022
1-417-865-8715
1-201-825-4684
Ross, Charles & Son Co...........6
Wyssmont Company, Inc. ...... 31
1-800-243-ROSS
1-201-947-4600
Fluid Line Products, Inc. .........23

1-440-946-9470
GEA Group ...............................9
Classiied Index June 2016
Hayward Industrial
Products, Inc. .........................39
1-888-429-4635
Heat Transfer
Research, Inc. (HTRI) .............47
Ika-Werke GmbH & Co. KG ...70

Industrial Cooling
Tower Services, Inc. ................71
1225-261-3180
Kelvion Holding GmbH ........... 15

Land Instruments
International Ltd .....................33
1-412-826-4444
Advertiser
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June 2016; VOL. 123; NO. 6
Chemical Engineering copyright @ 2016 (ISSN 0009-2460) is published monthly by Access Intelligence, LLC, 9211 Corporate Blvd., 4th Floor, Rockville, MD, 20850-3245. Chemical Engineering Executive, Editorial, Advertising and Publication Offices:
40 Wall Street, 50th Floor, New York, NY 10005; Phone: 212-621-4674, Fax: 212-621-4694. Subscription rates: $149.97 U.S. and U.S. possessions, $197.97 Canada, and $299 International. $20.00 Back issue & Single copy sales. Periodicals
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JUNE 2016
75
Economic Indicators
2014
2015
2016
Download the CEPCI two weeks sooner at www.chemengonline.com/pci
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT COST INDEX (CEPCI)

625
(1957-59 = 100)
CE Index ______________________________________________
Equipment ____________________________________________
Heat exchangers & tanks _________________________________
Process machinery _____________________________________
Pipe, valves & fittings ____________________________________
Process instruments ____________________________________
Pumps & compressors ___________________________________
Electrical equipment ____________________________________
Structural supports & misc ________________________________
Construction labor _______________________________________
Buildings _____________________________________________
Engineering & supervision _________________________________
Mar. '16
Prelim.
Feb. '16
Final
Mar.'15
Final
533.9
635.5
538.7
644.0
800.3
383.2
969.7
508.3
697.4
323.9
538.5
316.8
533.9
637.0
546.2
648.6
791.2
378.9
972.2
506.7
700.0
319.5
536.9
315.8
568.6
688.1
624.5
672.2
858.5
404.0
953.5
513.5
745.9
321.8
545.3
319.0
Annual Index:
2008 = 575.4
600
2009 = 521.9
2010 = 550.8
575
2011 = 585.7
2012 = 584.6
550
2013 = 567.3
2014 = 576.1
525
2015 = 556.8
500
Starting with the April 2007 Final numbers, several of the data series for labor and compressors have been converted to
accommodate series IDs that were discontinued by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
CURRENT BUSINESS INDICATORS
LATEST
PREVIOUS
YEAR AGO
CPI output index (2012 = 100) ____________________________________________________

CPI value of output, $ billions _____________________________________________________
CPI operating rate, % __________________________________________________________
Producer prices, industrial chemicals (1982 = 100) ____________________________________
Apr.'16
Mar.'16
Apr.'16
Apr.'16
=
=
=
=
102.0
1,742.1
75.0
221.6
Mar.'16
Feb.'16
Mar.'16
Mar.'16
=
=
=
=
102.2
1,704.3
75.2
219.2
Feb.'16
Jan.'16
Feb.'16
Feb.'16
=
=
=
=
101.9
1,713.4
74.9
221.7
Apr.'15
Mar. '15
Apr.'15
Apr.'15
=
=
=
=
101.3
1,902.6
75.0
245.5
Industrial Production in Manufacturing (2012=100)* ____________________________________

Hourly earnings index, chemical & allied products (1992 = 100) ____________________________
Productivity index, chemicals & allied products (1992 = 100) ______________________________
Apr.'16
Apr.'16
Apr.'16
=
=
=
103.4
161.9
102.5
Mar.'16
Mar.'16
Mar.'16
=
=
=
103.1
160.1
102.6
Feb.'16
Feb.'16
Feb.'16
=
=
=
103.4
158.6
101.9
Apr.'15
Apr.'15
Apr.'15
=
=
=
102.9
158.1
102.5
CPI OUTPUT VALUE ($ BILLIONS)
CPI OUTPUT INDEX (2000 = 100)

110
105
CPI OPERATING RATE (%)
2300
80
2200
78
100
2100
76
95
2000
90
74
1900
85
72
1800
80
75
70
1700
J F M A M J
J A S O N D
J F M A M J
J A S O N D
J F M A M J
J A S O N D
*Due to discontinuance, the Index of Industrial Activity has been replaced by the Industrial Production in Manufacturing index from the U.S. Federal Reserve Board.
For the current months CPI output index values, the base year was changed from 2000 to 2012
Current business indicators provided by Global Insight, Inc., Lexington, Mass.
CURRENT TRENDS
T
EXCLUSIVE AD SPACE AVAILABLE!
Feature your marketing message
The Economic Indicators department includes current industry

trends and the Plant Cost Index. As one of the most valued sections
in the magazine, your ad is guaranteed to reach decision makers
each month. Contact your sales representative to secure this spot.
JASON BULLOCK
[email protected]
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[email protected]
DAN GENTILE
PETRA TRAUTES
[email protected] [email protected]
76
chemengonline.com/mediakit
he March 2016 preliminary value for

the CE Plant Cost Index (CEPCI; top;
the most recent available) stayed even
with the value from the previous month,
with the Construction Labor, Buildings
and Engineering & Supervision subindices all rising, while the Equipment subindex dipped slightly. The preliminary
March 2016 CEPCI value is 6.1% lower
than the corresponding value from March
last year. This is again a smaller yearover-year difference than in the preceding several months. Meanwhile, the latest
Current Business Indicators (CBI; middle)
for April 2016 showed small decreases in
the CPI output index and the CPI operating rate compared to the previous month.
Producer prices edged higher in April,
after a series of recent decreases.
JUNE 2016
Thursday, September 15, 2016 | The Warwick Rittenhouse Square | Philadelphia
BULK SOLIDS HANDLING WORKSHOP

Best Practices for Challenges, Safety & Solutions
Solids handling problems can be difficult to solve without some understanding of why they
occur. This one-day seminar tackles the basics of several key areas, including the flow of solids,
characterization of solid particles, safety concerns for combustible dust, and fundamentals of
pneumatic conveying.
Join industry experts to learn the fundamentals of solids handling.
Register by July 8 for $695! A $100 savings!

chemengonline.com/bulksolids
27888
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