Chemical Engineering - 2010-04 (April)

April
2010
www.che.com
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PAGE 38
Powder Show
Preview
Polysilicon
Production
EPC rms
On the
Road to
Recovery
Heat
Exchanger
Tubes
Industrial
Lighting
Safety
Focus on Flow
Measurement
Non-Chemical
Water Treatment
Facts at Your
Fingertips:
Replacement Seals
Particle Sizing

Across the CPI
PAGE 59
01_CHE_040110_COV.indd 1 3/25/10 11:25:47 AM
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POWDER SHOW
BOOTH #1005
COMMENTARY
5 Editors Page
Help cultivate
budding ChEs
The first National
Lab Day is May 5th.
The initiative is an
effort by a large
group of science and
technology organiza-
tions to stimulate
interest among school
children in science,
engineering and
mathematics pursuits
through hands-on
learning. See how you
can become involved
DEPARTMENTS
Letters . . . . . . . . . 6
Calendar . . . . . . 7, 9
Whos Who . . . . . 36
Reader Service
page . . . . . . . . . . 78
Economic
Indicators . . . 79, 80
ADVERTISERS
Product
Showcase . . . . . . 73
Classified
Advertising . . .7476
Advertiser Index . 77
COMING IN MAY
Look for: Feature
Reports on Hydrogen
Generation; and Wire-
less Communication
in Hazardous Areas;
an Engineering
Practice article on
Sizing Spiral-Plate Heat
Exchangers; a Solids
Processing article
on Agglomeration
Processes; Focus on
Pumps; News articles
on Petroleum Refining;
and Biofuels; Facts at
Your Fingertips on
Combustion Calcula-
tions; and more
Cover: David Whitcher
Image source: Ekato
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2010 3
66 Environmental Manager Non-Chem-
ical Water Treatment Mechanical
processes can offer an environmentally
friendly and safer option to chemical
water treatment
EQUIPMENT & SERVICES
32D-1 Powder and Bulk Solids (PTXi)
2010 Show Preview (Domestic Edi-
tion)The Powder and Bulk Solids (PTXi)
show will take place May 46, 2010 in
Rosemont, Ill. Among the products and
services on display are the following: Mini-
mize downtime with this conveyor-belt
cleaner; This box dumper creates a dust-
type seal; Combine grinding and air classi-
fication with this mill; Magnetic separator
for metal contaminants in low-density
systems; and more
32I-1 Powtech 2010 Show Preview
(International Edition) Powtech 2010
will be held April 2729, in Nrnberg,
Germany. Products and services on display
include: Bulk metering-and-discharging sys-
tems for food products; A combined cone
and bell dryer for laboratory applications;
Water and organic solvents can be used in
this spray dryer; This particle analyzer deliv-
ers data in realtime; and more
70 Focus Flow measurement Vortex
flowmeters fight corrosion with a stainless
steel shield; New product line is certified
for greenhouse gases measurement; Mon-
itor non-condensing and saturated steam
within 1%; Convert local flow signals for
long-distance transmission; and more
COVER STORY
38 Cover Story Mechanical Design
Aspects for High-Performance
Agitated Reactors An under-
standing of the mechanical design
helps in specifying, maintaining
and also revamping agitated reac-
tor systems
NEWS
11 Chementator A new gasification
process; Pilot plant to demonstrate
advanced desalination technology;
A microwave reactor produces me-
tallic nanoparticles; Catalytic process
cuts the cost of biodiesel fuel; Safer
manufacture and transport of nano-
particles; and more
21 Newsfront Polysilicon Production
Polycrystalline silicon producers are in the
midst of a capacity increase to meet the
needs of the solar photovoltaics industry.
Companies are looking to improve meth-
ods and reduce costs
28 Newsfront The Road to Recovery En-
gineering, procurement and construction
(EPC) firms are experiencing an increase
in activity due to interest in biomass and
renewable energy projects, as well as re-
vamp projects in sectors that are thriving
ENGINEERING
34 Facts At Your Fingertips Measurement
Guide for Replacement Seals This one-
page reference guide outlines the major
steps in measuring machinery for replace-
ment of seals
48 Feature Report Full-Length Sleeving
for Process Heat Exchanger Tubes
How to calculate the effects of tem-
perature when the sleeves have a higher
coefficient of thermal expansion than the
installed tubes
53 Engineering Practice A Safety-Cen-
tered Approach to Industrial Lighting
The proper design and operation of light-
ing is essential to ensure plant safety and
support good maintenance practices
59 Solids Processing Particle Size Mea-
surement A survey of modern measure-
ment technologies demonstrates how
selection criteria vary by application
I N THI S I SSUE
APRIL 2010 VOLUME 117, NO. 4
www.che.com
02_CHE_040110_TOC.indd 3 3/25/10 11:43:17 AM
In times like these, you need more than the right product in the right place. Thats
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your bottom line, well guide you in everything from correct component installation to
efcient steam systems and orbital welding. We even offer a variety of self-paced online
courses through Swagelok University, covering product and technology information
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ourselves and our customers. And its just one more way we continue to offer more than
you might expect. See for yourself at swagelok.com/training.
Because show me
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swa4778-04_ChemicalEng_AR_20090904.indd 1 9/4/09 11:18:50 AM
Editors Page
N
ext month, on May 5th, the American Chemical Society (ACS; Wash-
ington, D.C.; www.acs.org) and more than 200 other private- and pub-
lic-sector organizations representing more than 6.5 million science,
technology, engineering and math (STEM) professionals will celebrate the
first National Lab Day. At the most basic level, National Lab Day aims to in-
spire a wave of future innovators and foster U.S. competitiveness by improv-
ing the quality of STEM education in America. In a broader sense, though,
the initiative is an acknowledgement of the greater prominence that STEM
education and careers hold in some parts of the world and reminds all of us
regardless of nationality of the value in engaging our children in the
fascinating relevance of the chemical engineering profession.
As I am sure many of you can attest, children have a natural curiosity
about science and how things work. Starting at a very young age, this ap-
petite can either thrive or die, depending on how much (and how effectively)
it is fed. What the traditional system has failed to realize is that the exciting
flavor of this knowledge does not often come through in lectures or textbooks.
According to this years Lemelson-MIT Invention Index (Cambridge, Mass.;
www.mit.edu/invent/), an annual survey that gauges Americans perceptions
about invention and innovation, two-thirds of teens chose hands-on projects
as the types of classroom-based educational methods they enjoy most.
Therefore, National Lab Day is centered around hands-on learn-
ing throughout the year, culminating each May with special events. We
wouldnt teach football from a textbook, said John P. Holdren, President
Obamas science advisor, at the National Lab Day announcement ceremony
last November. It is even more important that Americas youth have the
opportunity to learn math and science by doing. In this vein, volunteers are
critical to the success of any efforts to support STEM education and careers.
Therefore, ACS has solicited the help of chemists and chemical engineers
to engage in activities that will strengthen laboratory experiences in their
local communities or in outreach to other high-need schools. ACS suggests,
for example, that volunteers might do one or more of the following:
Install software or identify useful Web resources from the ACS Educa-
tion Division and other sources
Find, donate, or repair equipment
Implement hands-on projects
Start a fund-raising effort to buy needed supplies
Help with science fairs
Mentor a student
Chaperone field trips
Provide internship opportunities
Donate materials
Help with lesson plans
Be an advisor for an after-school program like ACS ChemClubs
Your commitment could be as little as a few hours, though as ACS says for
many volunteers, National Lab Day will be just the first step if not the
next step in an ongoing involvement with local schools and teachers. The
National Lab Day Website (www.nationallabday.org)
provides a place to register as a volunteer and describe
your ideas for participation.
As Chemical Engineering has pointed out in count-
less ways over the past 108 years, the solutions to the
worlds biggest problems continue to be solved at the
hands of chemical engineers. An extension of that ac-
complishment is to make sure that there are enough
inspired hands to accept the baton tomorrow.
Rebekkah Marshall
Help cultivate budding ChEs
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Jenike & Johanson, Inc.
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Fluor Corp.
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03_CHE_040110_ED.indd 5 3/24/10 8:57:15 AM
Entrainment in kettle reboilers
I read with great interest your article, Kettle Troubleshoot-
ing (February, pp. 2633). The authors are to be congratu-
lated on a very in-depth and timely presentation on the
effects of boiling two-phase flow in kettle type reboilers.
For over 45 years, I have been engaged in the refrigeration
industry where refrigeration engineers are often challenged
in designing evaporators to avoid liquid carryover. I was
interested to learn that one criterion used in the design of
kettle reboilers in the chemical process industries is to keep
the top row of tubes in the bundle at least 12 in. or 1.31.6
times the bundle diameter (whichever is greater) above the
liquid level. In refrigeration, we allow higher liquid levels
without incurring liquid slopover, but this is likely because
we do not have the high heat fluxes that were encountered
in the articles example. On the other hand, I believe the
typical range of overall heat transfer coefficients we cal-
culate for design do not vary extensively from fluids with
similar transport properties. I would appreciate more infor-
mation about this and how it applies to the example.
Jon Edmonds
Edmonds Engineering Co., York, Pa.
Author replies:
Many thanks for
your kind com-
ments on our work
and for your valu-
able experience. The
figure here, based
on the Heat Trans-
fer Research Inc.
(HTRI) calculation,
may shed light on
your correct com-
ment regarding the
rule of thumb for
the needed spacing
above the liquid
level. Entrainment is shown as a function of foam height
above the kettle overflow baffle. As the foam approaches the
outlet nozzle, entrainment exponentially rises. For the mea-
sured ratio of 0.46 lb entrained/lb vaporized in the 195 gal/
min feed test, the foam was within 3 in. of the vapor outlet.
Entrainment falls very rapidly as the foam height declines.
Difficulties in applying the calculation are estimating
the foam height and accounting for the observed zoning in
the kettle. For this reason, the rule of thumb, conservative
as you correctly stated (we concur), keeps us on the safe
side, at least in my experience with non-foaming systems.
Henry Kister
Fluor Corp., Aliso Viejo, Calif..
Postscripts, corrections
November 2009, De-emphasize Capital Costs For Pipe
Size Selection, pp. 41-43: In equations (1), (2A) and (2B),
the addition signs in the equations should be division
symbols. A corrected version of the article is available at
www.che.com.
Letters
www.altana.com
Shaping the future means having the courage to branch
out in new directions. This is precisely the principle that
guides all our thinking and actions at ALTANA.
Specialty chemicals are our business. A business we pursue
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CEET010410Blume1-286x254SSPEN.indd 1 02.03.2010 20:55:16
Thermosiphoning Kettle Reboiler paper 2010 28
Figure 11. Calculated Entrainment Rates 195 gpm Test

2.0
1.0
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.05
0.02
0.01
10 8 6
Distance from top of foam
to top of shell, in.
2 4 6 8
Foam height above baffle, in.
4 2
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04_CHE_040110_LET.indd 6 3/25/10 9:27:36 AM
Calendar Calendar
NORTH AMERICA
Biopocess Training Academy. IBC Life Sciences
(Boston, Mass.). Phone: 800-390-4078;
Web: ibclifesciences.com.
Boston, Mass. May 34
BIO 2010, co-located with the 2010 Biosecurity
Conference. Biotechnology Industry Organization
(Washington, D.C.). Phone: 202-962-6655; Web: bio.org
Chicago, Ill. May 36
24th Coating and Drying Technology Seminar.
Edgar B. Gutoff, Consulting Engineer. Phone:
617-734-7081; Email: [email protected]
Waltham, Mass. May 36
12th International Symposium on Particles on
Surfaces: Detection, Adhesion and Removal; and
Process Cleaning Expo. MST Conferences (Hopewell
Junction, N.Y.). Phone: 845-897-1654; Web: mstconf.com
Louisville, Ky. May 46
2010 PMA/CUMA Annual Meeting and
Processing Techniques Seminar. Polyurethane
Manufacturers Assn. (PMA; Milwaukee, Wisc.) and
Candian Urethane Manufacturers Assn. (CUMA). Phone:
414-431-3094; Web: pmahome.org/annualmeeting.aspx
Las Vegas, Nev. May 811
ASME 18th Annual North American Waste-to-
Energy Conference. American Soc. of Mechanical Engi-
neers (ASME; New York, N.Y.). Phone: 973-882-1170; Web:
asmeconferences.org/nawtec18/
Orlando, Fla. May 1113
2010 Forum on Water Heating, Distribution, and
Use Efficiency. American Council for an Energy-
Efficient Economy (ACEEE; Washington, D.C.). Phone:
202-507-4035; Web: aceee.org/conf/10whforum/
Ontario, Calif. May 1214
International Conference on Thermal Treatment
Technologies and Hazardous Waste Combustors.
Air & Waste Management Assn. (Pittsburgh, Pa.). Phone:
412-904-6004; Web: awma.org/it32010/
San Francisco, Calif. May 1720
AATCC International Conference. American Assn. of
Textile Chemists and Colorists (Research Triangle Park,
N.C.). Phone: 919-549-3533; Web: aatcc.org
Atlanta, Ga. May 1820
Techtextil North America Symposium 2010. Messe
Frankfurt Group (Frankfurt). Phone: 770-984-8016, Ext.
424; Web: techtextilna.com
Atlanta, Ga,. May 1820
RadTech UV & EB Curing Technology Expo and
Conference 2010. RadTech Inernational (Bethesda,
Calendar
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*75019_5*
DOC PATH: Production:Volumes:Production:MICROSOFT:MECHANICALS:75019_Dynamics:DOCS:75019_5M_Dynamics_M8r.indd
IMAGES:
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75020_Schorr_Tag_SW300_04.psd CMYK 1175 ppi, 1109 ppi 102.05%, 108.11% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Tags:75020_Schorr_Tag_SW300_04.psd
75020_Steele_Tag_SW300_04.psd CMYK 1198 ppi, 1166 ppi 100.12%, 102.88% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Tags:75020_Steele_Tag_SW300_04.psd
75020_Price_Tag_SW300_06.psd CMYK 1200 ppi, 1304 ppi 100%, 92% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Tags:75020_Price_Tag_SW300_06.psd
75020_Desai_Tag_SW300_08.psd CMYK 1200 ppi 100% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Tags:75020_Desai_Tag_SW300_08.psd
75020_Mitsu_1Tag_Right_SW300_06.psd CMYK 1164 ppi 103.03% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Tags:75020_Mitsu_1Tag_Right_SW300_06.psd
75020_Mitsu_2Tag_Left_SW300_04.psd CMYK 1215 ppi 98.72% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Tags:75020_Mitsu_2Tag_Left_SW300_04.psd
75020_Rowe_Tag_SW300_06.psd CMYK 1407 ppi, 1204 ppi, 1437 ppi, 1281 ppi 85.24%, 99.6%, 83.49%, 93.67% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Tags:75020_Rowe_Tag_
SW300_06.psd
75020_manu_ERP_Playstead_Craig_SW300_02.psd CMYK 1538 ppi 19.5% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Manu_ERP:75020_manu_ERP_Playstead_Craig_SW300_02.psd
75020_manu_ERP_Andersen_Elizabeth_SW300_02.psd CMYK 2035 ppi 14.74% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Manu_ERP:75020_manu_ERP_Andersen_Eliza-
beth_SW300_02.psd
75020_manu_ERP_Ito_Shu_SW300_02.psd CMYK 2016 ppi 14.88% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Manu_ERP:75020_manu_ERP_Ito_Shu_SW300_02.psd
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Baltimore, Md. May 2426
Coating Process Fundamentals Short Course.
University of Minnesota (Minneapolis). Phone:
612-624-3492; Web: cce.umn.edu/coatingprocess
Minneapolis, Minn. June 810
103rd Annual A&WMA Annual Conference &
Exhibition. Air & Waste Management Assn. (Pittsburgh,
Pa.). Phone: 412-904-6020; Web: awma.org
Calgary, Alta. June 2225
7th International Symposium on Contact Angle,
Wettability and Adhesion. MST Conferences (Hopewell
Junction, N.Y.). Phone: 845-897-1654; Web: mstconf.com
Danbury, Conn. June 2325
A&WMA Second International Greenhouse Gas
Measurement Symposium. Air & Waste Management
Assn. (A&WMA; Pittsburgh, Pa.). Phone: 412-904-6020;
Web: awma.org
Washington, D.C. Sept. 810

ChemInnovations 2010 Conference & Expo. Trade-
Fair Group, Access Intelligence LLC. Phone: 713-343-1879;
Web: cpievent.com
Houston, Tex. Oct. 810
EUROPE
45th Euchem Conf. on Stereochemistry.
Stereochemistry Conference Committee, University of
Geneva (Switzerland). Phone: +41 22 379 6062;
Web: stereochemistry-buergenstock.ch
Brunnen, Switzerland May 27
18th European Biomass Conference and
Exhibition. ETA Florence Renewable Energies (Florence,
Italy). Phone: +39 055 5002174;
Web: conference-biomass.com
Lyon, France May 37
Unconventional Gas 2010 Conference. Gas
Technology Inst. (Des Plaines, Ill.). Phone: 847-768-0868;
Email: gastechnology.org/gug2010
Amsterdam, The Netherlands June 1517
ASIA & ELSEWHERE
7th Middle East Refining & Petrochemical Ex-
hibit and Conference. Arabian Exhibit Manage-
ment (Manama,Bahrain). Phone: +97 317 550 033; Web:
mepetrotech.com
Manama, Bahrain May 2326
Cinte Techtextil China. Messe Frankfurt Group
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Web: techtextil.messefrankfurt.com
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R
esearchers at Texas A&M University
(College Station, Tex.; www.tamu.edu)
are poised to complete assembly of a pilot
project that seeks to demonstrate the
commercial viability of advanced vapor-
compression desalination, an updated
version of a decades-old distillation tech-
nology first developed for naval vessels.
The pilot unit is nearing completion
in Laredo, Tex., where it will produce
50,000 gal/d of potable water from the
brackish groundwater of the region.
The technology was developed by
Texas A&M chemical engineering pro-
fessor Mark Holtzapple and research
engineer Jorge Lara, and has been li-
censed to Terrabon Inc. (Houston; www.
terrabon.com), which markets it as
AdVE (advanced vapor compression
evaporation) desalination.
Like its ancestors, AdVE compresses
steam generated by heating salt water.
The compression step allows the steam
to give up its latent heat of vaporization,
as it condenses to freshwater. The heat
captured from the compressed steam is
used to generate additional steam from
the feedwater.
Process improvements developed by
the Texas A&M team have made AdVE
practical on a larger scale than its fore-
bears. For example, Holtzapple devel-
oped a high-efficiency compressor that
uses a gerotor-type (generated rotor) ar-
rangement to process gases.
A key technology component is a
novel sheet-shell heat exchanger that
increases heat transfer coefficients
dramatically. The heat exchangers are
coated with a proprietary material
that promotes dropwise condensation,
rather than condensation in sheets. The
heat exchanger, along with operation at
elevated temperatures and pressure,
allows heat transfer coefficients that
are 20 times higher than conventional
heat exchangers.
Capital costs and energy require-
ments for AdVE are similar to or less
than reverse osmosis (RO) technology,
and AdVE is more robust than RO, says
Holtzapple. AdVE isnt prone to ran-
dom shutdowns, and its less sensitive to
water chemistry, he says.
Pilot plant to demonstrate advanced vapor-compression
desalination nears completion
N
ext year IHI Corp. (IHI; Tokyo, Japan;
www.ihi.co.jp) plans to construct a dem-
onstration plant in Indonesia that will gasify
50 ton/d of lignite (brown coal) into synthesis
gas (syngas; predominantly hydrogen and
carbon monoxide) using IHIs twin-tower,
bubbling fluidized-bed gasification process.
This process has been shown to produce
1,000 m
3
of syngas for each ton of low-grade
coal at the firms 6-ton/d test plant at Yoko-
hama, Japan. Following a successful demon-
stration of the technology in the Indonesian
facility, the company anticipates commer-
cialization of units with capacities of 300 to
1,000 ton/d of coal, with the syngas used for
making fuels, methane (synthetic natural
gas) or chemicals such as methanol.
In the IHI process (flowsheet), lignite
(coarse and dry) is pyrolyzed and gasified in
a bubbling fluidized-bed reactor using sand
(for heat transfer) and steam (as an oxygen
source) at 800900C. Syngas emerging from
the top is separated from solids by a cyclone,
and the elutriated particles are returned to
the reactor. Tars, unreacted char and cooled
sand from the top of the bed are transported
into an air-blown, pneumatic-riser furnace,
where tars and char are completely burned
into CO
2
, and the sand is reheated by the
heat of combustion.
IHIs technology has the advantage of op-
erating at relatively low temperatures (com-
pared to 1,4001,500C used by entrained
gasifiers), and the use of steam instead of
oxygen is said to increase the H
2
content of
the syngas. The process also requires less
feed preparation, using coarse coal particles
instead of slurries or pulverized coal that is
needed by other gasifiers.
Note: For more information, circle the 3-digit number
on p. 78, or use the website designation.
Edited by Gerald Ondrey April 2010
A hard biomaterial
Researchers at the Fraun-
hofer Institute for Manu-
facturing Engineering and
Applied Materials Research
(IFAM; Bremen, Germany;
www.ifam.fraunhofer,de)
have developed a granu-
late form of a biomaterial
that may replace titanium
used as screws and other
hardware in medical ap-
plications. Although screws
made of polylactic acid
(PLA), for example, have
already been used in the
past for repairing broken
bones, large holes remain
in the bone after the PLA
has degraded. IFAMs new
material is a composite of
PLA and hydroxylapatite
a ceramic component of
natural bone. When screws
of this composite degrade,
the hydroxylapatite compo-
nent promotes new bone
growth into the implant. The
new material can be pro-
cessed using conventional
injection-molding methods,
without the need for any
post-processing, such as
Waste gas
Combustion
furnace
Steam
Synthetic
gas
Low-grade
coal
biomass
Char,
recycling
media
Coal biomass wastage
Gasification
furnace
Steam Air
(Continues on p. 16)
A new gasification process moves
a step closer to commercialization
06_CHE_040110_CHM.indd 11 3/24/10 11:05:39 AM
Engineering advanced
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CHEMCAD
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M
eanwhile, professor Tetsu Yonezawa
at the Materials Science Div. of Hok-
kaido University (Sapporo; labs.eng.
hokudai.ac.jp/labo/limsa/english/), in
collaboration with Arios, Inc. (Akishima;
www.arios.co.jp) and Suga (Hokuto, all
Japan; www.suga.ne.jp), has developed
a microwave-assisted device that can
continuously generate a plasma under
water. In the laboratory, Yonezawa has
shown that underwater plasma can
be used to synthesize various metal-
lic nanoparticles, without the need for
large devices such as a vacuum degas-
ifier. Potential applications for the tech-
nology include the production of metal-
supported catalyst and for performing
organic reactions.
The plasma is generated by focus-
ing microwaves through a tube onto
an electrode chip submerged in water,
which induces hot spots that cause
sputtering of the metal substrate from
the electrode. Only 1.5 kW of electric
power about twice that of a common
household microwave oven is re-
quired to create the plasma needed for
the synthesis. As a result, the research-
ers believe the process is expected to cut
plasma-generation costs to one third to
one fifth of that needed by conventional
high-pressure, pulsed-high-voltage
plasma generators.
. . . and a microwave-assisted process makes nanoparticles underwater
T
he process, developed by Masateru
Nishioka at the Research Center for
Compact Chemical Process, Institute
of Advanced Science and Technology
(AIST; Sendai; www.aist.go.jp) in col-
laboration with Shinko Kagaku (Ko-
shigaya; www.shinkou-kagaku.co.jp),
uses a microwave-assisted flow reactor
developed by AIST and IDX Inc. (Tokyo,
all Japan; english.idx-net.co.jp). The re-
searchers found that they can uniformly
heat the catalyst and reactants at the
center of the vertical tubular reactor,
and can control the reaction tempera-
ture by varying the frequency of the mi-
crowaves using a tunable, semiconduc-
tor microwave generator.
Using ethylene glycol as a solvent for
the nanoparticle synthesis, the heating
efficiency (conversion of microwave en-
ergy to thermal energy) of the system is
more than 95%, compared to around 40%
achieved by existing microwave heating
devices. The system has been demon-
strated for producing metallic nanoparti-
cles from a wide range of feed materials.
For example, gold particles with 10-nm
dia. and narrow size distribution have
been produced. The group is now devel-
oping a compact microwave generator for
manufacturing processes. The technology
is expected to be used for the production
of nanoparticles as well as for perform-
ing organic synthesis reactions.
A highly efficient microwave reactor
continuously produces metallic nanoparticles . . .
CHEMENTATOR
06_CHE_040110_CHM.indd 12 3/25/10 9:40:55 AM
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B
iodiesel fuel is being produced for
under $2/gal from product wastes in
a process commercialized by Ever Cat
Fuels (Anoka, Minn.; www.evercatfu-
els.com). This is comparable to the cost
of diesel fuel obtained from petroleum,
says Arlin Gyberg, a co-inventor of the
process and a chemistry professor at
Augsburg College, Minneapolis. Ever
Cat is a new subsidiary of SarTec Corp.
(Anoka, Minn.; www.sartec.com), which
scaled up the technology.
The plant uses a continuous process to
produce 4-million gal/yr of fuel from two
6-ft by 6-in.-dia reactors. The reaction
takes about 6 s, versus about 6 h for a
conventional batch process, says Gyberg.
The feed is a mixture of waste corn oil
from bioethanol plants and waste cook-
ing oil, although about 40 feedstocks
(animal fats and plant oils) have been
successfully pilot-tested, he says. Pre-
heated feed is introduced into the top of
a catalyst-packed column and converted
to biodiesel fuel under supercritical con-
ditions at about 350C and 200 psi.
Conversion is practically 100%, says
Gyberg, since the process performs
transesterification of triglycerides and
esterification of free fatty acids. He notes
that conventional processes do transes-
terification, but convert fatty acids to
soap. Glycerol, an unwanted byproduct
of traditional processing, is broken down
in the reactor and the small amount pro-
duced is recycled, along with alcohol.
Ever Cat has been using a zirconia
catalyst of 2-m particles since the
plant started up last fall. The catalyst
is not degraded by the process (hence
the name Ever Cat). If the column
gets plugged, the catalyst can be heated
to drive off the organics, says Gyberg,
but so far this has not been necessary.
He adds that the company will likely
switch to a catalyst of titania particles
developed by Rockwood Holdings Inc.s
Sachtleben operation (Duisburg, Ger-
many). Titania has worked as well in
tests and its cost is a fraction of that
of zirconia, he says. Ever Cat plans to
scale up production to 30-million gal/yr
within two years by adding parallel re-
actors similar to those now in use.
CHEMENTATOR
14 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2010
Catalytic process cuts the
cost of biodiesel fuel
Alcohol
Alcohol
Alcohol
+ glycerol
Glycerol
(trace)
Biodiesel
Biodiesel
Reactor
Oil or
tallow
Fatty acid
removal
polisher
Free fatty acids
06_CHE_040110_CHM.indd 14 3/25/10 9:47:00 AM
CHEMENTATOR
A
s producers continue to develop new ap-
plications for nanoparticles, the health,
safety and environmental (HSE) hazards
associated with these miniscule particles
remain uncertain and controversial. To
minimize the HSE risks for handling nano-
particles, GEA Niro, (Sborg, Denmark;
www.niro.com) has developed a contained
process that binds nanoparticles in a dust-
free, micron-sized granular form. The pro-
cess is also expected to reduce costs, be-
cause it eliminated the large expenditure
needed to set up a facility where operators
can safely work, taking into account dust
and the difficulty in handling due to the
low density, poor flowability and electro-
static nature of nanoparticles, says Jesper
Saederup Lindelv, a research scientist at
GEA. Transportation costs are also lower
for the granular form compared to com-
mon suspension form, which has the added
weight of the liquid when shipping product
to customers.
The heart of the new process (flowsheet),
developed in cooperation with 21 partners
within the EU-funded Saphir project (www.
saphir-project.eu), is a spray dryer. Slurries
of nanoparticles are injected through an
atomizer into the drying chamber, where
hot air dries the micron-sized droplets into
granules. Unlike conventional spray dryers,
which use an external bag filter to recover
products (thus adding an extra chamber
that has to be evaluated for confinement
during the risk assessment), the new pro-
cess recovers product through Niros inte-
grated Buck Hicoflex system a contain-
ment interface for safe transfer of granules.
Thus, everything nano is confined inside
the spray drying system, says Saederup
Lindelv. The researchers have also devised
a way to boost the feeds solids content to
37 wt.% through an educated selection of
dispersion agents, pH, ionic strength and
solvent type. Previously, the limit for atom-
izing viscous slurries has been 10 wt.% dry
solids, he says.
Commercial production of spray-dried
nano-hydroxyapatite has already occurred,
and Niro believes that industrial units
using the integrated filter configuration
will be in commercial production within
three years.
T
he cleanup of nuclear waste could be
simplified by a process being developed
at Northwestern University (Chicago, Ill.;
www.northwestern.edu) and Argonne Na-
tional Laboratory (Argonne, Ill.; www.anl.
gov). Nuclear waste consists mainly of non-
toxic sodium ions, but this is mixed with a
very small amount of highly radioactive ce-
sium isotopes that have proved difficult to
separate from the mix. Northwestern and
Argonne have developed an ion exchange
material that promises to solve this problem
by selectively extracting the cesium, thereby
producing a concentrated waste stream that
can be more easily treated.
The new material is a rigid, porous struc-
ture of gallium and antimony sulfides. In
laboratory tests, crystals of the material are
stirred in an aqueous solution of surrogate
cesium and sodium, potassium and calcium
ions. Cesium is trapped in the crystals, but
not the other ions, says Mercouri Kanatzidis,
a senior scientist with Argonne and a profes-
sor of chemistry at Northwestern University.
Kanatzidis compares the capture mecha-
nism to that of a Venus flytrap. The cesium
reacts with sulfur atoms in the framework,
causing the pores to narrow and trap the
cesium. The other ions, in contrast to ce-
sium, bond strongly to the water and are
thus prevented from being trapped by the
structure. Next, Kanatzidis plans to test
the process in a packed column, using ac-
tual nuclear waste.
milling. Prototype compo-
nents have a compressive
strength of 130 N/mm,
which is comprable to real
bone (130180 N/mm).
Microreactor GTL demo
A 510 bbl/d demonstration
gas-to-liquids (GTL) facility is
to be up and running by early
next year at the Petrobas
Brasileiro S.A. (Rio de Ja-
neiro) facility in Fortaleza,
Brazil. The facility, which will
incorporate a microchannel
steam-methane reformer
(SMR) and a microchannel
Fischer-Tropsch (F-T) reac-
tor based on technology of
Velocys, Inc. (Columbus,
Ohio; www.velocys.com), will
be constructed by Toyo Engi-
neering Corp. (Chiba, Japan;
www.toyo-eng.co.jp), with
support from Modec (Tokyo;
www.modec.com). Fabrica-
tion of the SMR and F-T reac-
tor will be carried out by Kobe
Steel, Ltd. (Kobe, Japan;
www.kobelco.co.jp). Follow-
ing a successful demonstra-
tion, this technology is ex-
pected to be used by Modec,
Toyo and Velocys to process
gas, which is normally fared,
into fuels on the foating pro-
duction, storage and offload-
ing vessels used in off-shore
oil-and-gas felds.
(Continued from p. 11)
Venus flytrap a new way to treat nuclear waste
Atomization gas
HEPA
Cooling
media
C
o
n
d
e
n
s
e
r
Heater Fan
Exhaust
Solvent
Drying
chamber
HEPA
Suspension
preparation and
feed system
Nanostructured granules
Buck Hicoflex
A less risky way to manufacture
and transport nanoparticle products
06_CHE_040110_CHM.indd 16 3/24/10 11:06:50 AM
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1
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3
8
T
his month, Showa Denko K. K. (Tokyo,
Japan; www.sdk.co.jp) will begin mar-
keting its carbon-nanotube (CNT) prod-
uct, tradenamed VGCF-X. The company
produces the CNTs in its new, 400-ton/yr
production plant at its Oita facility, and
plans to ramp up production to 1,000 ton/yr
over the next five years. The company says
world demand for CNTs will reach 2,000
ton/yr in 2011.
Commercial production of carbon nanotubes
A
n instrument called the Cottonscope,
which automatically measures cotton ma-
turity in 25 s, has been developed by CSIRO
Cotton Research Unit (Melbourne, Austra-
lia; www.csiro.au).
The units leader, Stuart Gordon, says the
instrument has been used to measure when
a crop was mature enough to harvest. The
instrument will also be valuable in the spin-
ning mill where it will enable more accurate
prediction of nep (clusters of fibers) creation,
dye uptake and overall quality control when
cotton bales are laid down for processing at
the mill, he says.
Cottonscope is a fully automated micro-
scope that captures color images of cotton
snippets on a glass slide. The color of each
snippet is used to calculate the maturity
ratio. The instrument combines the technol-
ogies of SiroMat and OFDA (optical-based
fiber diameter analyzer).
SiroMat, also developed by CSIRO, is an
automated version of the polarized light
microscopy Standard Test Method (ASTM
D1442.00). It uses a high-resolution color
digital camera and intensive computing
power to analyze images of mature and im-
mature fibers. OFDA, from BSC Electronics
Pty Ltd., (Western Australia), is an image
processing instrument for rapid and accu-
rate measurement of animal fibers such as
cashmere and wool.
A quick way to tell when to pick cotton
CHEMENTATOR
Making PE conduct heat
Scientists at MIT (Cam-
bridge, Mass.; www.mit.
edu) have found a way to
transform polyethylene (PE)
into a thermal conductor
while maintaining its electri-
cal insulating properties. The
material is made by slowly
drawing a PE fber from solu-
tion using the fnely control-
lable cantilever of an atomic-
force microscope. The
resulting fber is 300 times
more thermally conductive
along the direction of the
fber than normal PE. This
high, one-directional thermal
conductivity, which is better
than many metals (including
iron and platinum), has im-
plications for future polymers
replacing metals in heat
exchangers, solar-thermal
collectors and electronics.
The next step is to develop
a way to make fbers on the
macro scale.
06_CHE_040110_CHM.indd 18 3/25/10 9:52:48 AM
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cientists at Carbon Sciences Inc. (Santa
Barbara, Calif.; www.carbonsciences.
com) have successfully demonstrated a
CO
2
-to-fuel process that proceeds under
mild conditions using fluegas emissions as
a carbon dioxide source and brackish water
as a hydrogen source. The modular, three-
step process is highly scalable, says Carbon
Sciences chief technology officer Naveed
Aslam, and depends on proprietary alkali-
salt catalysts and auxiliary chemicals that
are recoverable. The possibility exists that
the carbon-negative CO
2
-to-fuel process
could allow a self-sustaining power plant
that recycles its CO
2
from fuel combustion
into more fuel.
In the first stage, CO
2
is hydrogenated
at temperatures between 40 and 85C and
pressures of 0.510 bar in the presence of
the catalyst and an auxiliary chemical. Bi-
carbonate forms, but is rapidly decomposed
into a compound with lower oxygen content.
The compound is recovered and converted
to methane by stripping its oxygen in a sec-
ond step. The third step involves synthesis
of larger hydrocarbons such, as those found
in gasoline.
Aslam says that the first step of the pro-
cess succeeded in converting 3045% of the
CO
2
into the low-grade fuel product, a total
he hopes will climb to 7075% conversion
as the process-optimization work now un-
derway at Carbon Sciences moves forward.
Among the chief strategies to improve pro-
cess performance inolves nano-engineering,
Aslam says placing catalyst molecules in-
side a nanoscale structure.
Future plans for the process include gen-
erating additional data from the bench-scale
demonstration project, then building a se-
ries of pilot plants, both in-house and with
partners. Aslam says designs for a commer-
cial-scale facility could begin in mid-2012.
Since the process is modular, the company
may commercialize individual steps along
different timetables.
Carbon Sciences is also working on a sep-
arate CO
2
-to-methanol process that works
by utilizing biological enzymes encased in
nanoscale polymer beads to recycle CO
2
.
A CO
2
-to-fuel process demonstrated
CHEMENTATOR
Monitoring gas bottles
Airgas Inc. (Radnor, Pa.;
www.airgas.com) plans
to market a wireless gas-
cylinder monitoring system
of Cypress Semiconductor
Corp. (San Jose, Calif.; www.
cypress.com). The system
includes a Wireless Gauge
Reader that clamps onto
existing gas regulators, and
wirelessly transmits pressure
readings. The system collects
gage data and enables con-
sumption trending and analy-
sis, historical tracking, excur-
sion alarming and notifcation
via e-mail or text messages.
The patent-pending tech-
nology can reduce the auto-
mation costs by 80% when
compared with conventional
approaches, which typically
involve gas-cabinet or instru-
mentation upgrades. The
system has a proven pay-
back period of less than 18
months, says Cypress.
06_CHE_040110_CHM.indd 20 3/25/10 9:53:57 AM
A
rapid and ongoing expansion of
polysilicon production capacity
will likely generate an oversup-
ply for the next several years,
driving polysilicon manufacturers to
further innovate processes and reduce
operating costs in preparation for an
impending wave of new demand. Dras-
tic price drops experienced in 2009 are
expected to continue at a slower pace in
2010, yet polysilicon producers remain
poised to supply high-purity product to
a market increasingly dominated by
solar photovoltaic (PV) cells.
By all estimates, demand for sili-
con for the solar-PV market has shot
upward over the last decade. In 2000,
demand for silicon for solar energy use
was around 3,800 metric tons (m.t.), a
total that grew to 42,000 m.t. in 2008.
Forecasts put the number well above
100,000 m.t. by 2014. Analysts expect
that while the semiconductor industry
should grow at around 59%/yr over
the next several years, growth in the
solar market could exceed 40%/yr for
multiple years, although the exact tra-
jectory is uncertain.
For the time being, though, recent
production-capacity increases ap-
pear to have overshot demand. In-
dustry analyst Richard Winegarner
of Sage Concepts Inc. (Healdsburg,
Calif.; www.sageconceptsonline.com)
is among those who think the capacity
expansion, combined with the entry
of new companies into the silicon pro-
duction industry to serve the growing
solar-PV market, will give rise to an
over-capacity for silicon at least for
the next several years.
Silicon expansion projects
The capacity increases include major
players in the polysilicon production
area, along with some smaller com-
panies. Among the announcements
was a 2009 expansion by leading sili-
con producer Hemlock Semiconductor
Corp. (Hemlock, Mich.; www.hscpoly.
com). The company began operations
of a $1-billion, two-phase expansion at
its Hemlock, Mich. headquarters that
raised its capacity to around 36,000
m.t./yr Meanwhile, Hemlock is con-
structing a new polysilicon facility in
Tennessee. Hemlock sales and market-
ing vice president Jim Stutelberg re-
ports that construction is progressing
on schedule for production to begin in
2012. Paralleling Hemlocks activities
has been German specialty chemicals
firm Wacker Chemie AG (Munich, Ger-
many; www.wacker.com). Wacker also
plans to open a polysilicon production
site in Tennessee in a few years. Last
year, Norwegian company Renewable
Energy Corp. ASA (REC; Sandvika,
Norway; www.recgroup) began oper-
ating a newly expanded polysilicon
plant in Moses Lake, Wash., and Chi-
nese solar wafer company LDK Solar
(Xinyu City, China, www.ldksolar.com)
began operating a 15,000 m.t./yr poly-
silicon plant in Xinyu.
Along with growing demand, tax
credits have helped spur expansion of
production capacity. In January, the
U.S. government handed out $1.0 bil-
lion in tax credits to the solar industry
for job creation investments. Hemlock
and its majority owner, Dow Chemi-
cal Co. (Midland, Mich.; www.dow.
com), received a total of $169 million
in tax credits for expansion projects,
while Germanys Wacker received
$128.4 million for its new production
facility in Tennessee. The U.S. arm of
REC received tax credits worth $155
million for its recent expansion project
at Moses Lake. Meanwhile, engineering
companies such as Fluor Corp. (Irving,
Tex., www.fluor.com) are having success
Newsfront
Facing over-capacity,
polysilicon makers
pursue opportunities in a
solar-dominated future
POLYSILICON
PRODUCTION
FIGURE 1. Polycrystalline silicon pro-
ducers, such as Hemlock Semiconductor
Corp., are adapting to increasing demand
from the market for photovoltaic cells.
Polysilicon used in solar cells is expected
to dwarf that used in electronics soon
Hemlock Semiconductor
07_CHE_040110_NF1.indd 21 3/25/10 10:28:29 AM
Newsfront
constructing polysilicon sites. Fluor
was involved with the construction of
the facilities for LDK Solar, REC Group
and others.
Price drops, but a sunny future
The fast-changing solar energy indus-
try and the equally fast production
ramp-up has impacted prices signifi-
cantly. Prices for purified silicon rose
sharply in 2007 and 2008 due to a
shortage of the material in 2008,
prices for polysilicon peaked above
$400/kg. Prices plummeted through-
out 2009, however, falling to about
$5055/kg on average by years end.
Prices are expected to continue to drop
over the next three years, although not
as precipitously as in 2009. By 2012,
some industry watchers think prices
could hover around $40/kg.
Although the expansion in produc-
tion capacity likely means a silicon
oversupply for the next few years, the
situation may change after that if so-
lar-PV succeeds in establishing itself
as an economically viable alternative
to conventionally derived energy. Hem-
lock is among those taking the long-
view regarding the capacity increases.
Hemlocks Stutelberg views the grow-
ing capacity as essential to move solar
energy toward grid parity. Depending
on a host of factors, grid parity for solar
energy could be reached at electricity
production costs of around $0.15/kWh.
There appears little doubt that poly-
silicon production will be dominated by
the solar PV market in years to come.
While the need for high-purity silicon
in its traditional market the semi-
conductor industry remains, most
silicon produced today is destined for
the solar photovoltaic (PV) market. By
2008, the size of the market for silicon
for the solar energy industry had over-
taken that of the electronics industry.
Industry analyst Winegarner estimates
that, in 2010, 70% of the purified poly-
silicon produced will enter the solar
market, versus 30% for semiconduc-
tors. The balance is likely to move to
90:10% in favor of solar in the next few
years, he says.
Silicon production processes
To meet the needs of a solar-dominated
future, high-purity silicon companies
are exploring process improvements
mainly for two chemical vapor depo-
sition (CVD) approaches an estab-
lished production approach known as
the Siemens process, and a manufac-
turing scheme based on fluidized bed
(FB) reactors. It appears likely that
improved versions of the two types of
processes will be the workhorses of the
polysilicon production industry for the
near future.
Siemens process The Siemens re-
actor was developed in the late 1950s
and has been the dominant produc-
tion route historically. In 2009, about
80% of the total polysilicon manufac-
tured was made through a Siemens-
type process. The Siemens approach
involves deposition of silicon from a
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P-TF-2010-Chemical Eng 3/18/10 8:58 AM Page 1
mixture of purified trichlorosi-
lane or silane gas, plus excess
hydrogen, onto hairpin-shaped
filaments of high-purity poly-
silicon crystals. Silicon growth
occurs inside an insulated
bell jar, which contains the
gases. The filaments, which are
assembled as electric circuits in
series, are heated to the vapor
deposition temperature by an
external direct current. As the gases en-
ters the bell jar, the high temperature
(1,1001,175 C) on the surface of the
silicon seed filaments, with the help of
the hydrogen, causes trichlorosilane to
reduce to elemental silicon and deposit
as a thin-layer film onto the hot seed fil-
aments. HCl is formed as a by-product.
Temperature control is critical to the
process the temperature of the gas
and filaments must be high enough for
silicon from the gas to deposit onto the
solid surface of the filament, but the
temperature cannot be so high that the
filament starts to melt. Further, the de-
position rate must not be too rapid, or
the silicon will not deposit in a uniform,
polycrystalline manner, rendering the
material of little use for semiconductor
and solar applications.
Hemlock Semiconductor has a
highly proprietary Siemens-type pro-
cess that is capable of producing silicon
of 11-nines purity for the semicon-
ductor industry and 9-nines purity
for the solar-PV market (see sidebar,
p. 25). Hemlock is working hard to
develop a portfolio of innovations on
the process, Stutelberg says.
Fluidized bed process Several
companies are developing polysilicon
production processes based on fluid-
ized bed (FB) reactors. The FB ap-
proach to polysilicon production has
its origins in a 1980s-era program
sponsored by the U.S. Department of
Energy whose goal was to devise less
energy-intensive methods for making
silicon. FB approaches to polysilicon
production offer the ability for con-
tinuous production, as opposed to the
batch production of the Siemens route.
In addition, FB polysilicon reactors
consume less energy. REC Solar, for
example, says their fluidized-bed poly-
silicon process consumes only around
10% of the energy required to run a
Siemens-type process.
In an FB process, tetrahydrosilane
or trichlorosilane and hydrogen gases
are continuously introduced to the
bottom of the reactor at moderately
elevated temperatures and pressures.
High-purity silicon particles are in-
serted from the top and are suspended
by the upward flow of gases. When
the reactor operates at high tempera-
tures (750 C), the silane gas reduces
to elemental silicon, which deposits on
the surface of the seed particles. As
the seed crystals grow, they fall to the
bottom of the reactor, where they are
removed continuously. To compensate
for the removal of silicon granules,
fresh seed crystals are injected into
the top of the reactor.
MEMC Electronic Materials (St. Pe-
ters, Mo.; www.memc.com), a silicon
wafer manufacturer, has been produc-
ing granular silicon from silane feed-
stock using a fluidized bed approach
for over a decade. Several new facili-
ties will also feature variations of the
FB. Wacker Chemie is expected to an-
nounce the operation of a fluidized bed
reactor facility using trichlorosilane
as the working fluid in mid-2010. The
plant, located in Burghausen, Ger-
many, is designed specifically to make
solar-PV material. Several major play-
ers in the polysilicon space, including
Wacker and Hemlock, are developing
FB processes, while at the same time
continuing to produce silicon using the
Siemens process as well.
New feedstock for FB process
A development-stage company called
Peak Sun Silicon Corp. (Albany, Ore.,
www.peaksun.com) is working on an
FB process using tribromosilane (TBS)
as the feedstock, rather than either si-
lane, or trichlorosilane. While TBS costs
more than its bretheren, Peak Suns
process uses less, so the feedstock costs
are even. The inclusion of massive bro-
Newsfront
FIGURE 2. Polysilicon production capacity is in
the midst of rapid expansion. An example is REC
Silicons facility in Moses Lake, Wash.
REC Group ASA
07_CHE_040110_NF1.indd 24 3/25/10 10:36:49 AM
mine atoms in the feedstock compound
offers several key advantages.
Using tribromosilane in the process
allows different operating parameters,
says Scott Schumacher, vice president
of sales and marketing at Peak Sun.
We have a much wider tolerance of
temperatures and pressures than the
tight control that must be exerted in
other processes, says Schumacher. TBS
processes also operate at lower temper-
atures, which enables energy savings.
The TBS-FB approach also helps
avoid formation of submicron-diame-
ter amorphous silicon dust through a
homogeneous nucleation route, a sig-
nificant challenge encountered by sili-
con reactor operations that use silane
or trichlorosilane as the feed gas.
Homogeneous nucleation can occur
when materials move from vapor
to solid phase and reach a critical
nucleus of solid-phase material. At
certain values of n atoms, the ther-
modynamics of the system favors
self-nucleation, rather than deposi-
tion on the surface of a seed particle.
The phase-change energy barrier is
overcome more readily at higher val-
ues of n, since surface area-to-volume
ratio decreases as particle diameter
increases. Silane and trichlorosilane
have a natural propensity for self-nu-
cleation when overcoming the phase-
change energy barrier. By virtue of its
relatively large molecular size, TBS
requires a greater n value to achieve
critical nucleus, and molecules perfer
to transition to solid phase by nucleat-
ing on an existing silicon surface. The
result is that TBS deposition favors
growth on the surface of crystalline
seed particles over formation of low-
value amorphous silicon dust.
When completed, the Peak Sun proj-
ect will be the first demonstration of a
FB silicon unit using TBS. Peak Sun
claims that its process will have lower
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POLYSILICON PURITY COULD ELEVATE PHOTOVOLTAICS
M
etallurgical-grade silicon, produced from sand, is about 99%
pure. According to generally accepted guidelines regarding
silicon purity, electronic grade material suitable for the semi-
conductor industry requires at least 99.9999999% pure material
(known as 9-nines purity), which translates to impurity concen-
trations of 0.0005 ppm. Polysilicon producers of electronic grade
material routinely achieve 11-nines purity. At present, the purity
requirement for the solar-PV market is somewhat less stringent. The
prevailing opinion is that silicon with a purity of 99.9999% (6-nines)
is the lower limit for a viable solar cell. Research in the area sug-
gests, however, that the efficiency with which solar cells convert sun-
light into electricity is correlated with material purity.
We see more and more crystalline photovoltaics companies
pushing for higher-quality material, says Hemlock Semiconduc-
tor group vice president Jim Stutelberg notes. Substantial R&D
throughout the solar industry will validate the correlation between
polysilicon purity and PV cell performance, Stutelberg remarks.
The purity-performance correlation may not be the only driver
toward higher-purity material. In the face of silicon oversupply,
prices are expected to fall throughout 2010 and the following two
years to around $40/kg. One effect the price drop may have is
to make lower-purity versions of the material obsolete. Companies
may opt for the highest-purity material possible if prices are com-
parable, Sage Concepts Winegarner suggests.
07_CHE_040110_NF1.indd 25 3/25/10 10:38:35 AM
capital costs and 25% lower operating
costs than a Siemens process unit.
Other advantages to the Peak Sun
TBS-FB process include the formation
of dense metallic beads with a narrow
particle size distribution. Silicon beads
formed by the TBS-FB process tend to
have less surface oxidation and less
gas molecule inclusions, which gives
the silicon better melt properties.
Crystallization technologies
Another key process in the manufac-
ture of high-purity silicon involves a
recrystallization step that converts
polycrystalline material to monocrys-
talline silicon. The process is more
important at present for semiconduc-
tor-grade silicon, since polycrystalline
silicon is suitable for PV cells.
Manufacturers typically use some
variation of the so-called Czochralski
process, in which a seed crystal is in-
troduced to a silicon melt and slowly
withdrawn to generate a long mass of
monocrystalline silicon.
An alternative is a float-zone process,
in which impurities are segregated dur-
ing a transition that occurs as a mass of
polysilicon passes through a radio-fre-
quency heating coil, which creates a
localized molten zone from which the
pure crystal grows.
UMG may be on the outs
One technology approach to polysilicon
production that appears to be waning is
upgraded metallurgical grade (UMG)
silicon. UMG is produced by melting
metallurgical grade silicon and slowly
and directionally recrystallizing it.
The approach would offer a less expen-
sive route to material, but the 5-nines
or 6-nines purity UMG can achieve
wouldnt be viable in an environment
where higher-purity methods are cost-
competitive. For example, metals firm
Timminco Ltd. (Toronto, Canada, www.
timminco.com) reportedly suspended its
UMG-silicon operations in March as a
result of low prices and lack of demand
for UMG material for solar cells.
Stutelberg explains that the solar in-
dustry as a whole seems to be gravitat-
ing toward higher purity silicon. Next-
generation solar components may
demand higher levels of purity than
UMG can offer, he says.
Scott Jenkins
Newsfront
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450
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WEATHER.
07_CHE_040110_NF1.indd 26 3/25/10 10:40:27 AM
Newsfront
L
ike most other businesses, engi-
neering, procurement and con-
struction (EPC) firms have felt
the pinch of the economic down-
turn. While EPCs that specialize in
building processing plants are opti-
mistic that recent global interest in
renewable and bioprocessing projects
to create alternative fuels, power and
chemicals may fill some of the void,
most say they will continue to pur-
sue work in markets where they are
already established for a variety of
reasons. Among the concerns are the
high-risk profiles and technical chal-
lenges associated with biomass and
renewable projects and the continued
need for other types of processing and
power facilities.
EPCs obviously have to push for-
ward in renewable and other emerg-
ing fields, but also keep a focus on
conventional industries, says John
Derbyshire, senior vice president of
technology with KBR (Houston) who
says his firm is tentatively looking at
increased interest in renewables as a
new source of business while continu-
ing its work in bottom of the barrel
upgrading for its refinery customers
because conventional technologies
will continue to dominate the world
energy map. If you look at the per-
centage of contribution for renewable
forms of energy over the next 10 to 20
years, it is only a couple percent, even
in the best outlook, of our total energy
needs, says Derbyshire.
Rob Smith, senior vice president of
the energy division with CH2M Hill,
Inc. (Englewood, Colo.) agrees that
renewables and bioprocessing are not
replacement areas. However, it is an
area of science that is opening up and
creating some new opportunities for
us on top of our traditional business,
he says.
Opportunity in new fields?
However, the question remains
whether more EPC opportunities will
arise as awareness in this new sector
gains momentum around the world
with interest especially strong in the
U.S. and Europe, where environmen-
tal issues are the driving force, and in
areas such as China and the Middle
East, where biomass and renewables
are viewed as potential power sources.
EPCs say they are fielding more
questions than ever about making
products such as plastics, polymers,
synthetic fibers, biofuels and chemical
intermediates from a multitude of bio-
based sources. Theres also much in-
terest in power projects using biomass
or ones that use biomass in conjunc-
tion with renewable sources such as
wind or solar power.
Although the rising cost of energy
as well as environmental interest
have been the driving source of cur-
rent projects, the market is still not
as strong as EPCs had hoped. There
have been some government stimulus
packages that have helped companies
get projects into the pipeline and in-
creased the amount of companies
moving along with these projects from
a handful about three years ago to
maybe 50 currently, says Smith. How-
ever, he quickly adds that there have
been mixed signals due to the reces-
sion, financial difficulties obtaining
funding and indecision in government
policy, all of which have created uncer-
tainty for the project flow that was ex-
Newsfront
EPCs sense a slight uptick in activity due to interest
in biomass and renewables projects, as well as
revamp projects in sectors that are still thriving
THE ROAD TO
RECOVERY
FIGURE 1. Fluor is providing EPC
services in China for LDK Solar,
whose world-class polysilicon facility
is expected to produce 15,000 metric
tons of polysilicon annually
(for more on polysilicon,
see story on pp. 2126)
Fluor
08_CHE_040110_NF2.indd 28 3/24/10 11:13:27 AM
Newsfront
pected in the areas of renewables and
bioprocessing.
What we see is a say-do ratio that
is pretty low in these areas right now,
says Derbyshire. By that he means
that throughout the Middle East,
China, Europe and the U.S., EPCs are
hearing about a lot of planned proj-
ects, but many developers and compa-
nies are still seeking finance or wait-
ing to find out what requirements new
government mandates will bring forth
before actually moving forward.
EPCs have to look for the right
combination of technology, local condi-
tions such as availability of feedstocks,
and local economic conditions to make
a project viable, says Derbyshire.
EPCs everywhere agree that the
current economic climate is one of the
greatest challenges to moving these
projects beyond the planning stage. A
lot of developers in the marketplace
have an idea for a laboratory-scale
technology that they would like to
ramp up, but funding is a key aspect
of a projects success, says Warren
Kennedy, vice president of sales and
marketing with Burns & McDonnell
(Kansas City, Mo.). The U.S. Dept. of
Energy (DOE; Washington, D.C.; www.
energy.gov) has freed up some money
to support kick starting projects such
as these, but capital is still tight.
From an EPC perspective, most of
these developers dont have much in
the way of balance sheets, so they are
looking for the EPC to take an equity
or cost risk position in the project,
notes Kennedy. When youre used to
working with a large integrated petro-
leum-oil or chemical company, that is
a significant risk structure.
Many EPCs agree, saying that even
if the technology is proven, the plants
are expensive to build and the product
may not be cost competitive with tra-
ditional fuels, power or chemicals. And
while the government may make sub-
sidies available for the first few years,
there are no guarantees that they will
continue to provide funding or legisla-
tion for future subsidies.
As EPCs get into detailed engineer-
ing and buying of equipment, we have
to make sure theres sufficient funding
to go through those stages of a proj-
ect. We cant afford to put ourselves
out in front of the client to do that,
explains Bill Wingate, vice president,
marketing and business development
with SNC-Lavalin Engineers and
Constructors (Houston). Assurance of
payment is critical, particularly where
a new company without much of a
track record is involved. He adds that
his firm, like other EPCs, is watching
its risk profile carefully.
And, for the projects that secure
enough funding to move along, find-
ing the right technology and staffing
mix can be an added hurdle. Though
most bio-based projects employ
chemical engineering units and ma-
terial handling operations familiar to
EPC staffs and the design aspects are
transferable from other projects in
their repertoires, the challenge here
lies in staying current with the latest
technology developments.
We need to determine which of the
multiple technologies out there are
proven and which can be scaled up to
a viable commercial level, says Jim
Davis, senior director midstream ser-
vices with SNC-Lavalin. A lot of the
available technologies look fantastic in
the laboratory or demonstration plant
making 12 gal/d, but when you scale
up to 10,000 or 20,000 gal/d, theres
bound to be unique challenges.
He says the engineers at SNC-Lava-
lin spend a lot of time trying to figure
out which viable technology will best
satisfy the owners requirements and
minimize the impact of scaleup, com-
plexity, cost, operating problems, insuf-
ficient yields or energy inefficiencies.
The other side of the equation is
finding the appropriate mix of staff for
new project categories. Because there
are enough skilled process and me-
chanical engineers available and the
technology is not that different from
whats already in existence within the
refining and chemical industries, there
wont need to be a massive retraining
of people, explains Davis. I liken it to a
pilot thats flying a two-engine propel-
ler plane learning to pilot a two-engine
jet, he says. He needs some retrain-
ing, but he already knows how to fly.
Instead, what is needed for many
biomass and renewable projects is a
re-bundling of skilled engineers. In
many cases there are engineers from
a variety of departments working to-
gether who may have never done so be-
fore. In the past EPCs might have had
one group of engineers who worked on
technologies related to greenhouse
gas reduction, another group famil-
iar with energy conservation, another
that looks at waste minimization, as
well as process engineers who special-
ize in chemical production. With these
new projects, EPCs have to tie these
component pieces together in a differ-
ent way so they can respond to clients
interested in renewables and biopro-
cesses in a more holistic fashion.
Thats a change for us in that be-
fore, each of these groups didnt usu-
ally work on the same project team
for the same client to solve the same
problem, notes Smith. Today we see
more merging of complex issues as cli-
ents look for a strategy to deal with a
variety of issues in a holistic way.
As an example, Smith points to
the possibility of a developer looking
to grow food in the Middle East. He
may be looking at a solar-powered de-
salination facility that can be used to
grow food in an geography that his-
torically has never done this, he says.
In the old days, they would need one
company that specializes in desalina-
tion, another in solar and one in ag-
riculture. Now they are looking for
one company that can solve all their
problems, so we have to start taking
experts from different divisions and
bundling them together to solve a va-
riety of problems on one job.
Slow but steady
Because of the many variables related
to renewable and biomass projects,
EPCs say that while they are pursu-
ing projects in these new categories,
they are reluctant to ignore projects
in traditional industry, which is just
FIGURE 2. CH2M Hill is
providing EPC services
at the Mitsubishi polysili-
con plant in Alabama
CH2M Hill
08_CHE_040110_NF2.indd 30 3/24/10 11:16:37 AM
beginning to show signs of a slow re-
bound in certain markets.
We see clients on the fringe of re-
thinking their spending plans and
looking at projects that will obtain the
best ROI, says Smith. We are seeing
a slight rebound in proposal activity
that will hopefully lead to more work
in the coming months.
Some of the areas seeing a bit of ac-
tivity include pharmaceutical revamps
in the U.S. and Europe, petrochemical
project prospects in the Middle East
and China and projects that will boost
energy efficiency and reduce process-
ing costs all around the globe.
Jeff Rozelle, associate, biotech core
team leader with Clark, Richardson &
Biskup Consulting Engineering (CRB)
(Kansas City, Mo.), which does about
85% of its business in life sciences,
says vaccine processing is in the midst
of an upswing as its been bolstered
by H1N1 and other targeted infec-
tious diseases and that biogenerics
are becoming an emerging industry as
consumers are looking to reduce their
pharmaceutical costs.
Many of the projects in the life sci-
ences are retrofits and facility modi-
fications/modernizations, which can
be a challenge for EPCs as there are
strict controls in place to protect prod-
ucts, as well as personnel. Its critical
to the success of the project to make
sure there is limited downtime and
that the plants are back up and oper-
ating safely and effectively according
to schedule, notes Rozelle.
Globalization is another issue in
these retrofit projects. In the past when
we designed a facility, we designed for
the U.S. market and its regulations,
but now during a retrofit our clients
want it designed so the products will
be in compliance with other regulating
bodies as well, says Rozelle.
Because of the multitude of compli-
ance issues, as well as patent expira-
tion issues and frequently changing
pipelines, flexibility must also be de-
signed into new and existing life sci-
ence facilities. New technologies such
as disposables have helped us find a
way to provide the additional flexibility
in a process or building while staying
within the current budget constraints,
he adds. (For more on disposable equip-
ment, see: CE, March, pp. 2124)
In the Middle East and China there
has been more petrochemical project
discussion than there was just 6 to
12 months ago, says Ivor Harrington,
senior vice president with Fluor Corp.
(Irving, Tex.). Right now we see a lot
of feasibility studies in major petro-
chemical facilities in China and the
Middle East, which we see coming into
the EPC phase in the latter part of
2011, notes Harrington. He says that
due to the geography of this activity,
Fluor has been ramping up its global
procurement capabilities for these
areas, meaning that the firm has in-
vested in key suppliers to gain access
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08_CHE_040110_NF2.indd 31 3/29/10 5:33:24 AM
to materials in an effort to reduce the
timeline and cost of these projects for
its foreign clients.
And everyone, everywhere seems in-
terested in projects that will help lower
the cost of their goods, which often in-
cludes energy efficiency projects. The
need is especially prominent in food
processing and life sciences. For this
reason, CRB has developed a process
called Future Facility, which employs
a mindset intent on closing processes,
shrinking the size of facilities, plan-
ning for flexibility and reducing energy.
If you can reduce the size of a facility
and reduce energy use, you ultimately
reduce the cost of goods, thereby allow-
ing your client to be more competitive,
notes Rozelle. Examples of Future
Facility planning includes rethinking
cleanrooms, which normally require a
lot of energy use due to the air handling,
heating and cooling requirements. But,
if you can provide better control over
processing systems through employ-
ment of closed operations and
ultimately reduce the cleanroom
space, opportunities to reduce
capital and operating expenses
can be realized.
Similarly in the food and con-
sumer good industries, which
have weathered the economic
storm better than most, there
is interest in reducing product
price per unit through energy ef-
ficiency and sustainability projects. As
a result, EPCs like Burns & McDon-
nell, find themselves developing sus-
tainability plans, working on projects
to reduce carbon footprint and to use
green energy where it makes sense to
reduce the cost of production for cli-
ents in these markets.
While projects are currently few
and far between compared to just a
few years ago, EPCs remain hopeful
that bioprocess and renewable proj-
ects will create a new market that will
compliment and bolster their existing
areas of expertise. And in the mean-
time, they are honing their knowledge
so that it may be applied to both tra-
ditional and new project categories in
the best possible way. In all cases, we
have to be aware of how to use tech-
nology to bring costs down and satisfy
government regulations around the
world, says KBRs Derbyshire. We
must lead with technology, but all the
while we must make sure we arent
trying to force technology where it flat
out doesnt fit.
Joy LePree
Newsfront
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08_CHE_040110_NF2.indd 32 3/29/10 5:37:05 AM
T
he International Powder and Bulk
Solids / Process Technology for In-
dustry International (PTXi) 2010
conference and tradeshow will be
held May 46, 2010 at the Donald Ste-
phens Convention Center in Rosemont,
Ill. The event will showcase products
from more than 300 exhibitors and
will offer educational seminars
covering a wide range of sol-
ids-processing topics. Attend-
ees at the show are invited to
visit Chemical Engineering
staff at Booth 2819. Among the
products and services on display at the
meeting are the following:
Minimize downtime with this
conveyor-belt cleaner
The Performance Duty QC#1 belt
cleaner (photo) is designed with a steel
rib that allows one-pin blade
replacement to minimize labor
and downtime. The cleaner
features a steel mainframe,
a low-maintenance spring ten-
sioner and a high-volume ure-
thane blade that contains 20%
more urethane than competing
blades. The extra material ex-
tends life while maintaining clean-
ing performance. The PDQC#1 is
suited for applications on belts
from 18 to 72 in. wide and oper-
ating speeds of up to 900 ft/min.
Booth 2245 Martin Engineer-
ing Co.; Neponset, Ill.
www.martin-eng.com
Use these cartridge lters in pro-
cess temperatures up to 5,000 F
High-efficiency pleated cartridge filters
from this company (photo) can be used
for industrial air filtration baghouses
with process temperatures up to 5,000
F. The filters are said to increase sys-
tem throughput by up to 25% compared
to alternative filters of similar diameter.
The filters feature membranes made
of expanded polytetrafluoroethylene
(ePTFE) and construction using a new
potting technology based on molten
aluminum. The membrane material
is designed to increase filtration effi-
ciency, provide better product capture
and lower emissions. Booth 1400 W.
L. Gore & Associates Inc., Newark, Del.
www.wlgore.com
This box dumper creates
a dust-tight seal
The Tip-Tite box dumper (photo) cre-
ates a dust-tight seal between boxes
and the containment hood. The device
can pivot the container to 45, 60 or 90
deg beyond horizontal, and can dis-
charge bulk material through a chute
at controlled rates. Boxes of size 3648
in. on a side and 3944 in. high can be
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2010 32D-1
Martin Engineering W. L. Gore & Associates
Flexicon
Cordano
Packaging
Engineers
Prater-Sterling
09_CHE_040110_SHOd.indd 1 3/24/10 10:42:06 AM
accomodated. Booth 1005 Flexicon
Corp., Bethlehem, Pa.
www.flexicon.com
A bag packer for high
ll-accuracy applications
The MT Series valve bag packers
(photo, p. 32D-1) are said to be ideal
for low-capacity applications requir-
ing an extremely high degree of fill
accuracy. The packers feature a three-
stage filling cycle, and can deliver 1-2
oz per bag at rates up to 200 bags per
hour. MT packers are suited to bags of
weight 20110 lb, and are combined
with one of six possible product dosing
systems. Booth 2821 Cordano Pack-
aging Engineers LLC, Cumming, Ga.
www.cordanopackaging.com
Double inline powder delivery
with this feed system
A new model in the Fastfeed powder
induction and dispersion product line
(photo) is designed to double inline
powder delivery capabilities, offer-
ing controlled feedrates from 3400
lb/min. The new Fastfeed model con-
sistently delivers powders into liquid
mixtures even as viscosity and solids
levels increase. Design features pro-
mote fast dispersal, prevent plugging
and fouling and provide the shear
forces needed for modern ingredients.
Fastfeed allows processors to add dry
ingredients to mix vessels in an er-
gonomic fashion, reducing operator
injuries. Booth 3035 Admix Inc.,
Manchester, N.H.
www.admix.com
Combine grinding and air
classication with this mill
CLM Series classifier mills (photo, p.
32D-1) combine two-stage, closed-cir-
cuit grinding and air classification in
one unit. The mill can handle difficult-
to-grind products and those requiring
a narrow particle size distribution.
Oversized particles that fail to meet
specifications are rejected by the clas-
sifier and directed to a separate part
of the grinding rotor, where they are
reground and then reclassified. The
large access door allows for inspection
and cleaning of the main rotor as well
as the classifier rotor. Booth 1405
Prater-Sterling, Bolingbrook, Ill.
www.prater-sterling.com
Handle large air volumes
with this lter
CR Filters (photo) are designed to
handle large volumes of air ranging
from 15,00050,000 ft
3
/min. The filter
features a pre-separator that can re-
move 80% of large dust particles prior
to entering the bag housing, so the filter
bags never come into contact with this
material. Also, internal baffles evenly
distribute the air and small dust parti-
cles throughout the bag chamber, which
lengthens filter bag life. Booth 2045
Kice Industries Inc., Wichita, Kan.
www.kice.com
Magnetic separator for metal con-
taminants in low-density systems
The Round Spout Pneumatic-Line
Magnet (RSPLM) magnetic separator
(photo) removes inbound tramp-metal
contaminants from high-speed mate-
rial streams in low-density, high-air
systems. Typical applications include
powder or granular materials being
transported in large-diameter lines.
Unlike conventional drawer magnets,
which are traditionally placed horizon-
tally in gravity-fed flows, the RSPLM is
situated vertically. The orientation ex-
tends magnet dwell time. The RSPLM
also features three internal magnets,
rather than one, providing a greater
gap space between magnets which al-
lows more product to come into contact
with the magnets. Booth 1023 Mag-
netic Products Inc., Highland, Mich.
www.mpimagnet.com
This solids conveyor system
offers enclosed transfer
The No-Tip Unloader Vacuum Con-
veyor (photo, p. 32D-3) offers enclosed
and sanitary product transfer. De-
32D-2 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2010
Show Preview
Admix
Magnetic
Products
Kice Industries
09_CHE_040110_SHOd.indd 2 3/24/10 10:42:52 AM
Improve your plant environment.
You need to minimize the environmental impact
of processing chemical ingredients at your facility.
So weve engineered a full range of innovative
equipment and systems to help you succeed:
Continuously convey
materials up to 50 cfm
in any direction.
Improve plant and
employee safety with
dust-free operation.
Stop and start under load.
Keep material in
and contaminants out.
Tubular drag is a completely sealed system. Nothing can
get in. No dust or fumes can get out. Using little energy,
the sprocket drive slowly pulls a heavy-duty chain through
a fully enclosed casing. As the chain moves your material
through the pipe theres less chance for dusting, explosions
or product-spoiling issues. Gently move high-moisture
ingredients, difcult-to-handle abrasive materials, blended,
friable and easy-to-compact or smear products.
One conveyor does the work of several, no problem.
You can congure your tubular drag to convey your material
vertically, horizontally, at any angle and around corners. Need
more than one inlet/outlet in your process? Add as many
as you need. Well keep your product safely contained and
owing every step of the way.
Stop
leaving your workers
in the dust.
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Perform batch, intermittent and
continuous operations.
Convey free- and non-free owing
bulk materials.
Avoid contamination and explosion hazards.
Improve labor/energy efciencies.
Operate dust free.
Discharge 100% of material.
HP00560 Tubular Drag ad-CE Mar10.indd 1 3/16/10 12:57 PM
signed with a smaller footprint, the
No-Tip Unloader eliminates material
flow issues involved when transfer-
ring powders, granules, pellets, tablets
and other bulk materials via unloading
methods that require tipping of the raw
material container. This vacuum trans-
port can supply packaging lines, mix-
ers, filling machines, tablet presses or
other process equipment. The system
features a unique lifting column that
guides the product suction device while
initially holding the product repository
liner bag in place, and then lifting it to
exhaust maximum product in the final
suction periods. Booth 2237 Volk-
mann Inc., Hainesport, N.J.
www.volkmannusa.com
This size reduction system
allows high exibility
The Universal Mill size reduction sys-
tem is designed for maximum grinding
flexibility and can generate coarse ma-
terial down to ultrafine particles. It can
work with four types of rotors (turbo,
pin, disk and cross), and has seven pro-
duction sizes. With a standard 10-bar
design, the equipment meets common
standards for explosion pressure con-
tainment. It is available in carbon or
stainless steel. Booth 1805 Bauer-
meister Inc., Memphis, Tenn.
www.bauermeisterusa.com
Use this conveyor for feeding
lighter density bulk materials
Specially designed to isolate the counter-
Show Preview
non-intrusive ultrasonic clamp-on technology
for temperatures up to 750 F
independent of process pressure
multi-beam for high accuracy
wide turn down
installation without process shut down
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no pressure loss
standard volume calculation
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1 of 1 1/13/10 9:27 PM
Volkmann
09_CHE_040110_SHOd.indd 4 3/29/10 5:44:29 AM
acting forces produced in a conventional
vibratory conveyor, the Stedi-Flex vibra-
tory conveyor (photo) is said to be ideal for
feeding lighter density bulk materials.
The low-cost Stedi-Flex conveyor fea-
tures a simple design and construction.
The company is also displaying an air-
operated vibratory feeder. Booth 1304
Dynamic Air Inc., St. Paul, Minn.
www.dynamicair.com
These buttery valves are
designed for severe applications
Series 585 (photo) and 586 are new
heavy-duty, inflatable seated butterfly
valves that are designed for the most
severe applications, including high op-
erating temperatures and pressures.
The company is also introducing the
VMAX linear air-operated vibrator,
which is designed for low noise and
high force output. Booth 1012 Posi-
flate, St. Paul, Minn.
www.posiflate.com
Minimize downtime
with this powder ow tester
This instrument, designed to deliver
quick and easy analysis of power flow
behavior, is ideal for manufacturers
seeking to eliminate the downtime
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Posi-flate
Dynamic Air
09_CHE_040110_SHOd.indd 5 3/29/10 5:46:47 AM
and expense that occur when hoppers
and silos fail to discharge. Users can
perform quality control checks on in-
coming materials, quickly characterize
new formulations and adjust composi-
tion to match the flow behavior of estab-
lished products. The flow tester features
options such as flow function, time con-
solidation, wall friction and bulk density.
Booth 2644 Brookfield Engineering
Laboratories Inc., Middleboro, Mass.
www.brookfieldengineering.com
A dryer that can be used
in mercury recovery
The Turbo Heat Treater has a propri-
etary, continuous-tray-dryer design
(photo) that consists of a stack of rotat-
ing cicular trays in a sealed enclosure.
Material to be dried is fed onto the top
tray and is wiped onto successive lower
trays after each revolution. Internal
turbo-fans circulate heated gas in the
enclosure to provide the drying medium.
The Turbo Heat Treater is the the first
thermal processor to be used
commercially in a patented
mercury recovery process.
Mercury is recovered from
powdered activated carbon
used to remove mercury from
flue gas. Booth 1000 Wyss-
mont Co. Inc., Fort Lee, N.J.
www.wyssmont.com
Reduce energy costs with
this pneumatic conveyor
The MiniVac pneumatic
conveying system (photo, p.
32D-7) has an integral regen-
erative blower that is said to
reduce energy costs by up to
30%, as well as eliminate the
need for plant air supply. The
equipment features side-door access for
filter changes and cleaning that does
not require tools. The company also
offers flexible screw and tubular drag
conveyors, as well as a range of prod-
ucts for bulk solid conveying. Booth
3553 Hapman, Kalamazoo, Mich.
www.hapman.com
Bottle labels can be
inspected from any angle
The CI Vision bottle inspection system
Show Preview
AVA-Huep GmbH u.Co.KG
Phone: +49 81 52 93 92 - 0
[email protected]
www.ava-huep.com
AVA Americas, LLC
Phone: +1(704)248-2767
[email protected]
www.ava-americas.com
Batch dryers
Batch mixers
Continuous mixers
Conical dryers
Continuous dryers
Conical mixers
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Nuremberg, 27. - 29.04.2010
Hall 9, Booth-No 9-314
Wyssmont
09_CHE_040110_SHOd.indd 6 3/29/10 5:50:00 AM
allows bottle labels to be inspected from
any angle, eliminating the need to ori-
ent the product.The 360-deg, full-view
bottle inspection system produces a
seamless and complete image of full or
empty bottles of plastic or glass in vari-
ous sizes up to 1.5 L at line speeds of up
to 400 bottles per min. This company
is also showcasing a new serialization
solution for pharmaceuticals, as well as
a metal detector for inspecting tablets
and capsules. Booth 2673 Mettler-
Toledo, Solon, Ohio
www.mt.com
A ller that combines high output
rate with weighing accuracy
The model 4192 Twin Auger open-
mouth bag filler is designed to provide
high output rates while maintaining
effective product control and weighing
accuracy. It can achieve filling rates of
710 50-lb bags per minute and accu-
racies of 0.2 lb from the target weight.
The 4192 can handle a wide range of
materials from fine and aerated pow-
ders to sticky, hard-to-feed solids.
The filler offers the ability to execute
dribble or bulk feeds through PLC and
VFD control of the augers. Booth 1636
Chantland MHS, Humboldt, Iowa,
www.chantland.com
An initiative to supply sustain-
able lter technology
This manufacturer has established a
sustainability initiative to help cus-
tomers implement their own sustain-
ability program. The companys en-
vironmental engineers will provide
technical expertise and innovative
filter technology to its customers to
redesign production processes. The
campaign is designed to increase par-
ticipation in sustainable practices, and
to raise money for nonprofit organiza-
tions that fight climate change. Booth
1038 Midwesco Filter Resources
Inc., Winchester, Va.
www.midwescofilter.com
Manage multiple-cell scales with
this fast weighing system
The iQUBE2 is said to be the fastest
available commercial equipment for
managing multiple-cell weighscale sys-
tems, boasting the ability to update up
to 500 times per second. The iQUBE2 is
billed as an intelligent digital junction
box that can be used to help ensure ac-
curacy and reproducibility, monitor drift,
test for linearity and identify noise. A key
component is a load-cell emulation fea-
ture that allows the iQUBE2 to calculate
accurate weights in the event of a mal-
functioning cell. Calculations are based
on comparisons to functioning cells,
making it suitable for mission-critical
applications. Booth 2629 Rice Lake
Weighing Systems, Rice Lake, Wisc.
www.ricelake.com
5X faster blending with this
alternative to ribbon mixer
The OptimaBlend fluidizing paddle
blender (photo, p. 32D-8 ) offers mix-
ing five times faster than ribbon blend-
ers. The blender is designed to balance
mixing speed and efficiency with low
equipment cost and consumed power.
The blender is suitable for traditional
ribbon blender applications and can
handle diverse ingredients with high
efficiency. Units are available in car-
bon steel, stainless steel and sanitary
construction for a wide variety of solids
to solid and solids-to-liquid blending
applications. Booth 3541 American
Process Systems, Gurnee, Ill.
www.apsmixers.com
Centrifuge & Drying
Technologies
Inverting Filter Centrifuge
Cutting edge centrifuge technology for
ltration, washing and drying of solid/liquid
suspensions
Widest range of applications - hardest to
easiest ltering products can be handled
No residual heel for exact repeatable
batches and no loss of product
PAC technology allows drying of the
product inside of the centrifuge
Thin cake ltration operation allows for
improved quality and production rates
Full containment eliminates operator
exposure
Effective automated CIP
Kilo-Lab Conical
Vacuum Dryer-Mixer
Advanced technology
for real Kilo size
drying research
and development
Utilizes interchangeable agitator systems
either orbiting arm screw or central shaft
Flexible small scale volume of 150ml to
1500ml
Plastic view through vessel available
Designed for real laboratory requirements
of size, with full instrument & data
recording
Direct scale up to production or pilot size
units
Horizontal & Vertical
Centrifuges
Size ranges from 200mm to 1800mm
Wide range of standard & custom designs
Laboratory size equipment
Lab Testing Available
Rental & Lease Machines Available
www.heinkelusa.com
Tel: 856-467-3399
Revise #1 - 2/4/10
6:00 PM
Hapman
09_CHE_040110_SHOd.indd 7 3/29/10 5:51:44 AM
Show Preview
Mesh laminates that optimize
stability, ow and ltration
This line of multi-layer woven wire-
mesh laminates is designed to achieve
an optimum combination of stability,
fine filtration capabilties, flowrate
and backwash properties. The mesh
laminates are diffusion-bonded and
sintered, and are appropriate for chro-
motography bed supports as well as
other applications, such as aeration
beds, air-gravity conveyors and more.
They are available in square sheets of
48 in. per side. Booth 2010 G. Bopp
USA Inc., Wappingers Falls, N.Y.
www.bopp.com
Combustible dust hazard
training is online
These online training modules are de-
signed to train employees on important
concepts in identification and remedia-
tion of situations involving combus-
tible dust clouds in process vessels,
dust collectors and powder transfer
equipment, as well as possible igni-
tion sources, such as electrical sparks,
static electricity and friction. The on-
line training system automatically
tracks employees progress and quiz
scores. Booth 2531 Chilworth Global
Online Training, Plainsboro, N.J.
www.chilworth.com
Accomplish test sieving in less
time with this analyzer
The CPA 2-1 photo-optical particle
size and shape analyzer is designed
for laboratory use, measuring dry,
free-flowing, non-agglomerating par-
ticles. The CPA 2-1 performs an anal-
ysis in an average of 35 min, com-
pared to 1520 min on a traditional
test sieve and shaker apparatus. The
CPA 2-1 is also capable of accurate,
realtime counting of individual parti-
cles, rather than relying on calculat-
ing percentages of a representative
sample. Its accompanying software
correlates raw particle count data
with the sieving distribution curve.
Booth 4034 W.S. Tyler, St. Catha-
rines, Ontario, Canada
www.wstyler.com
These feeders are approved for
hazardous environments
This line of small vibratory feeders
feature a unique electromagnetic drive
circuit that is approved for Class II,
division I, groups F and G hazardous
environments. They also are designed
for tool-less removal of covers and
screen inserts for trays. Other feeders
are available for Class II hazardous
environments. Booth 1629 Eriez,
Erie, Pa.
www.eriez.com
These blowers have high-
efciency intake lters
Available in bi-lobe and tri-lobe pack-
ages, these blowers (photo) are equipped
with a high-efficiency integrated intake
filter/silencer and feature oversized cy-
lindrical roller bearings, piston-ring
air seals, and washable polyurethane
filter media. Both the bi-lobe and tri-
lobe series are rated for pressures of 15
psig and provide air flows up to 3,950
ft
3
/min. Both series have integral-shaft
ductile iron impellers and vibration
dampeners. Booth 1223 Eurus Blow-
ers, Suffolk,Va.
www.eurusblowers.com
A cleaner that ts
most cartridge lters
The Green Filter Cleaning Machine is
a standalone cleaner that adjusts to fit
most cylindrical cartridge-filter sizes.
It cleans by releasing shop air through
a rotating air jet that is driven up and
down in a spiral motion inside the
filter cartridge. The fully automated
cleaning cycle lasts for five min. The
equipment can accommodate filters
with inner diameter sizes from 614
in. Booth 3504 Diversi-Tech Inc.,
Lachine, Quebec, Canada
www.diversitech.ca
Improved pressure and ow
from this blower system
The new IQ blower delivers pressures
to 15 psig, vacuum to 16 in. Hg and
air flows from 2001,400 ft
3
/min. The
50100 hp blower features a sound-
reducing design, digital monitoring,
a removable discharge silencer and a
variable frequency drive for optimiz-
ing efficiency. Booth 1721 Gardner
Denver Inc., Quincy, Ill.
www.gardnerdenver.com
Scott Jenkins
American
Process
System
Eurus Blowers
09_CHE_040110_SHOd.indd 8 3/24/10 10:44:48 AM
N
early 700 exhibitors and 15,000
visitors are expected to partici-
pate in Powtech 2010 The
International Trade Fair for
Mechanical Processing Technologies and
Instrumentation (Nrnberg, Germany;
April 2729; www.powtech.de). Decision-
makers from around the world use this
forum to learn the latest innovations in
size reduction, milling, screening and
mixing. Simultaneously and at the same
venue, is TechnoPharm 2010, the Interna-
tional Trade Fair for Life Science Process
Technology (www.technopharm.de).
In addition to the exhibition, visitors
can also participate in a number of
additional activities during the show,
including the World Congress on Par-
ticle Technology, supported by Partec.
Several events related to explosion is-
sues, with updates on current knowl-
edge and source information about
innovations in safety and explosion
protection will also be offered. These
include the seminar Industrial explo-
sion protection and tests to the Ger-
man Health & Safety Act Practical
Examples, organized by the VDI Wis-
senforum (www.vdi.de/explosion), and
the Index Safety Congress, which is
devoted to industrial explosion protec-
tion (www.ind-ex.info). What follows
is a selection of some of the products
being exhibited at Powtech.
Finding the optimal mill param-
eters without trial and error
Thanks to the introduction of a new
generation of conical sieve mills
(photo) and a technical center with
an analytical laboratory, this firm
has done away with trial-and-error
methods for mill optimization. This
conventional method has been re-
placed with statistical design of ex-
periments, which makes it possible to
look for patterns in the available data.
The results of this analysis have been
incorporated into a guideline, which
is available for users to meet their
product and process specifications as
close as possible to the specifications
and process variables chosen in the
preliminary phase of product devel-
opment. Hall 9, Stand 320 Frewitt
S.A., Granges-Paccot, Switzerland
www.frewitt.com
Bulk metering-and-discharging
systems for food products
Along with its comprehensive product
line for powder and bulk metering and
discharging, this firm will be launch-
ing the new gravimetric metering
feeders from the companys Food Line
(photo). Developed in close coopera-
tion with a leading food company, the
new product line comprises hygienic
designs of a variety of well-known me-
tering feeders, including the FlexWall
Plus Feeder, with its paddle-agitated
flexible hopper, loss-in-weight scales
with screw feeders, vibrating-tray
loss-in-weight feeders and weight-
belt feeders. Thanks to this diversity,
the Food Line offers suitable metering
feeders for virtually all bulk ingredi-
ents commonly metered in the food in-
dustry. Hall 7, Stand 164 Brabender
Technologie KG, Duisburg, Germany
www.brabender-technologie.com
A combined cone and bell dryer
for laboratory applications
The new 4-L laboratory-scale Type
BD 4-L dryer (photo) extends the ex-
isting BD Series, which combines the
advantages of a cone dryer and a bell
dryer. Suitable for small amounts of
product, the 4-L Series can be used for
design tests at a user site or in this
firms test center. The dryer features a
patented combination of a cone dryer
with hemispherical base and an effi-
cient agitator design, which means the
drive shaft undergoes small deflection
with a close clearance. The removable
drive shaft offers a high degree of flex-
ibility by selecting various agitator de-
signs that are customized to the prod-
uct characteristics. A glass lid allows
the course of the process to be moni-
tored. Hall 9, Stand 242 KMPT AG,
Vierkirchen, Germany
www.kmpt.com
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2010 32I-1
Frewitt
Brabender
Technologie
KMPT
Retsch
10_CHE_040110_SHOi.indd 1 3/24/10 10:53:24 AM
32I-2 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2010
Show Preview
A new mill for different
and difcult tasks
The new SM 300 cutting
mill (photo; p, 32I-1) com-
bines powerful size reduc-
tion with easy handling.
Its variable speed (700 to
3,000 rpm) and very high
torque enable the mill to
be adapted to many dif-
ferent and difficult tasks,
including grinding hetero-
geneous sample mixtures.
The grinding chamber is
easy to access for cleaning;
its housing is simply folded back and
the push-fit rotor removed, without
tools. The mill can be equipped with
a range of accessories, including a
version for heavy-metal-free sample
preparation. Hall 7, Stand 340
Retsch GmbH, Haan, Germany
www.retsch.com
Water and organic solvents can
be used in this spray dryer
This firm will be exhibiting one of its
smallest spray dryers, the SDMicro
(photo). This laboratory-scale spray
dryer is equipped with a two-fluid
nozzle for atomization that can be
used for both water- and organic-sol-
vent-based formulations. The system
is designed with the smallest possible
spray-drying chamber that allows for
retaining the same air flow pattern as
a large-scale spray dryer. This makes
it possible to conduct realistic tests at
a very small scale and produce small
quantities of powder for product and
concept evaluation. Hall 1, Stand 115
GEA Niro, Sborg, Denmark
www.niro.com
A split buttery valve for
contained transfers
The Mller Containment Valve (MCV;
photo, p. 32I-4) is a stable and ro-
bust split butterfly valve that is also
pressure tight, making it suitable for
transferring highly potent or toxic
substances. The seal around the valve
disk has been made very small to re-
duce costs, and the valve disk can be
exchanged in less than 5 min. The
MCV is suitable for OEB 4 (OEL 110
m/m
3
), is GMP compliant and is avail-
able in sizes of DN 100, 160, 200 and
250. The valve is dust and liquid tight
at pressures up to 2 barg, with higher
pressures possible upon request.
Product-contacted components are in
AISI 316L stainless steel (or Hastel-
loy upon request), with a PTFE seal.
Hall 9, Stand 316 Mller GmbH,
Rheinfelden, Germany
www.mueller-gmbh.com
This particle analyzer
delivers data in realtime
Laser-diffraction-based Insitec par-
ticle analyzers (photo) are designed
specifically for use in the process set-
ting. The realtime data they deliver
transform process control and enable
manufacturers to operate plants at
optimal performance: better capital
utilization, lower energy consump-
tion and reduced waste. In cement
production, for example, the instal-
lation of Insitec systems drives down
specific energy consumption and im-
proves product quality and consis-
tency, thereby enabling greater use of
cost-efficient, environmentally benign,
replacement materials. Hall 9, Stand
306 Malvern Instruments Ltd.,
Malvern, U.K.
www.malvern.com
Inline particle analysis,
even in hazardous areas
This firm is presenting its latest de-
velopment, the Inline Particle Probe
IPP 70-SLe (photo, p. 32I-4). The
probe adds to its Series of ATEX-
certified probes, enabling particle
measurements in Zone 0 through
Zone 20. The new probe is especially
suited for applications in mixing and
granulation processes in the chemi-
cal and pharmaceutical industries.
As with all probes in the IPP Series,
this latest version covers the mea-
surement range from 50 to 6,000 m.
Hall 7, Stand 551 Parsum GmbH,
Chemnitz, Germany
www.parsum.de
Measure particle concentration
and size with this analyzer
The new welas digital 2000/3000 light-
scattering spectrometer system (photo;
p. 32I-8) determines particle concen-
tration and particle size precisely and
reliably. For particle size measure-
ment, up to four measurement ranges
can be selected from a single device,
covering the measurement range from
0.2 to 105 m. Particle concentration
can be measured from less than 1 par-
ticle/cm
3
up to 106 particles/cm
3
. The
sensor operates at temperatures from
90 to 70C, with options to handle
250C and pressures to 10 bar. The
fiber-optics-based system uses a 35-W
Xenarc lamp, incorporates a 20 MHz
GEA Niro
Malvern Instruments
Haver & Boecker OHG
10_CHE_040110_SHOi.indd 2 3/24/10 10:55:47 AM
SINCE 1921...
AND WE
STILL LOVE IT
Costacurta S.p.A.-VICO
via Grazioli, 30
20161 Milano, Italy
tel. +39 02.66.20.20.66
fax: +39 02.66.20.20.99
Management systems
certified by LRQA:
ISO 9001:2008
ISO 14001:2004
OHSAS 18001:2007
www.costacurta.it

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For more than eighty years, we at Costacurta have
been constantly and resolutely committed to the
development and manufacture of special steel wire and
plate components used in many different industrial
processes. Every day at Costacurta, we work to
improve the quality of our products and services and the
safety of all our collaborators, paying ever-greater
attention to the protection of the environment.
Within the wide range of Costacurta products you will
also find some, described below, that are used specifically
in the oil, petrochemical and chemical industries:
- RADIAL FLOW AND DOWN FLOW REACTOR INTERNALS;
- GAS-LIQUID AND LIQUID-LIQUID SEPARATORS;
- ARMOURING OF REFRACTORY, ANTI-ABRASIVE AND
ANTI-CORROSIVE LININGS.
For more information visit our website or contact the
division 'C' components for the oil, petrochemical
and chemical industries at [email protected].
Gas-liquid and liquid-liquid separators
Pag. 10 ing 21x28 23-12-2009 12:27 Pagina 1
Show Preview
digital processor and a USB interface.
Palas GmbH, Karlsruhe, Germany
www.palas.de
This combined classier and mill
is designed to save energy
The Mikro ACM SD air-classifying
mill (photo) is said to save not only
power, but also costs, space and main-
tenance. Only one motor is used in
combination with a spring-pulley
belt drive. The motor shaft drives
belt pulleys for both air classifier and
mill. The speed of the air classifier is
infinitely variable; for the ACM size
40, it is from 820 to 3,500 rpm. In the
regenerative operation of the classi-
fier, the energy gained is thus made
available for the milling. As a result,
electricity consumption, manufactur-
ing costs, and space and maintenance
are reduced. Hall 7, Stand 360
Hosokawa Micron GmbH, Cologne;
a branch of Hosokawa Alpine AG,
Augsburg, Germany
www.hosokawamicron.de
Convert products into dust-free
pastilles with this process
Each of the nine members of the Ro-
toform family of steel-belt pastillation
systems has been designed to meet
specific process requirements in the
oil, chemical, plastics and food indus-
tries. At the heart of the system is a
special drop depositor the Rotoform
itself that feeds droplets of the mol-
ten product onto a continuously run-
ning steel belt. The product is rapidly
solidified as the belt is cooled by water
from beneath, then discharged in the
form of dry, uniform, free-flowing and
dust-free pastilles. The highly flexible
process handles molten product at
temperatures of up to 320C and vis-
cosities up to 50,000 cP. Depending on
the system used, pastilles can be pro-
duced with diameters of 1 to 30 mm.
Hall 7, Stand 425 Sandvik Pro-
cess Systems, Div. of Sandvik GmbH,
Fellbach, Germany
www.sandvik.com
The latest developments in
particle-size standards
A new silver-coated opaque particle
standard covers the size range from 19
to 190 microns. It has been analyzed
within the Quality Audit Scheme of
independent company LGC Standards,
and has produced the best ever re-
peatabilities seen by laser diffraction
analyzers, says the manufacturer. The
firms managing director will be dis-
cussing the latest trends in particle size
standards during the World Congress
on Particle Technology, which takes
place alongside Powtech. Whitehouse
Scientific Ltd., Waverton, U.K.
www.whitehousescientific.com
Cyclone separation gets even
more efcient
Mechanical ReCyclone Systems con-
sist of batteries of Hurricane Cyclones
and particle separators (recirculators)
Parsum
Mller
Hosokawa
Micron
10_CHE_040110_SHOi.indd 4 3/29/10 5:58:02 AM
located downstream of the cyclones.
The recirculator reintroduces the
fine, non-captured particles into the
cyclone. The tangential gas stream
becomes enriched with particles
while the axial gas-stream exhausted
to the stack is clean. A ReCyclone MH
is said to reduce emissions of a stand-
alone Hurricane Cyclone by 4060%,
says the manufacturer. The Hurri-
cane (photo, p. 32I-8) is claimed to be
the most efficient cyclone on the mar-
ket for the same pressure drop. Hall
6, Stand 202 Advanced Cyclone
Systems, S.A., Porto, Portugal
www.acsystems.pt
A clever measurement system
for bulk solids ow
The C-Lever direct (photo, p. 32I-7)
achieves an optimum accuracy in
measuring bulk flow regardless
of density, friction, particle type and
flowrate. The device has no mechani-
cal parts and offers up to 0.2% of the
volumetric range with a turndown
ratio of five-to-one. Bulk materials can
be viewed through the units window,
and an exhaust air-cleaning system
can also be retrofitted. The C-Lever
direct permits easy cleaning in case
of product change, such as color pig-
ments or other problematic materials.
Hall 6, Stand 240 Rembe GmbH
Safety + Control, Brilon, Germany
www.rembe.de
Standard and customized piping
components on display here
This firm will demonstrate the variety
and possibilities provided by its easy-
to-install, modular pipework system.
Serial and connection options for di-
ameters of 60 to 800 mm are avail-
able. Additions to the product range
on display include two-way distrib-
utors, shutoff valves, pipe regula-
tors and gates, and also an innova-
tion regarding system components
that are certified shock-explosion-
proof to 10 bar overpressure. The
complete modular range includes
wall thicknesses of 1 to 3 mm, and
alternative surface options, includ-
ing conductive powder coating,
galvanized or stainless steel. Hall
6, Stand 222 Fr. Jacob Shne
GmbH & Co., Jacob Pipework Sys-
tems, Porta Westfalica, Germany
www.jacob-rohre.de
Save time, space and money with
this modular ltration system
ProJet mega is a standardized filtra-
tion system based on prefabricated
components and modular design for
applications with capacities of 2-mil-
lion m
3
/h. The cleaning system is
combined with the most modern fil-
tration media and handles filter bags
of 8 m and longer. ProJet mega can
be adapted to all the local standards,
systems and processes, and requires
less space for installation. The system
is also designed to reduce transporta-
tion costs and minimize installation
costs. Hall 9, Stand 105 Intensiv-
Filter GmbH & Co. KG, Velbert-Lan-
genberg, Germany
www.intensiv-filter.com
Removing iron from powders
gets cleaner with these magnets
Both the standard and rotating clean-
flow magnets do not include welded
seams in the new design, which allows
for a very smooth finish and excludes
the formation of bacteria. Ra values
between 0.05 and 0.3 ensure that even
the finest iron dust will be removed
from powders. The door construction
has also changed to include a quick
release between the extractor and
magnets, as a result of which the for-
mer will always be pulled outwards as
well. A new seal makes it possible to
work with a high overpressure, which
is an important factor for filling pres-
sure-sensitive bags. Hall 9, Stand 322
Goudsmit Magnetic Systems B.V.,
Waalre, the Netherlands
www.goudsmit-magnetics.nl
HAVER & BOECKER
The Solution
Provider
HAVER & BOECKER, Germany
Phone: +49 2522 30-271
www.haverboecker.com
The designation indicates a registered trademark
of HAVER & BOECKER OHG in Germany. Several
indicated designations are registered trademarks
also in other countries worldwide. M 914-E4
The cost-saving
packing system
HAVER
FFS DELTA NT
Filling of free-flowing
granular, micro-granular or
powdery bulk materials into
plastic tubular film bags
made of PE or PP
M 914-E4 FFS DELTA NT CE.QXD:FFS DELTA NT 07.
POWTECH 2010
April 27-29
Hall 9, Stand 526
Goudsmit Magnetic Systems
10_CHE_040110_SHOi.indd 5 3/29/10 6:00:41 AM
0Irectory of ChemIcal
Producers
5morl keseorch. 5morl Business.
plunl silos & compunios
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iolotmo|ioo o6ou| chomico| moouloc|utots, |hoit p|oo| |oco|ioos ooJ chomico| ptoJuc|s.
Tho DCP hos 6ooo ptoviJiog comptohoosivo, occuto|o ooJ |imo|y covotogo ol |ho chomico|
ioJus|ty sioco 11. l| is 6ockoJ 6y |ho ox|oosivo tosoutcos ol out sis|ot pu6|ico|ioos-
Chomico| Ecooomics HooJ6ook, Chioo kopot|, Spocio||y Chomico|s UpJo|o Ptogtom, ooJ
Wot|J Po|tochomico|s.
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This diroclory includos.
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3,88C Cbomicol monooclorinq silos
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orqonic inlormooiolos, inorqonic cbomicols, olymors ono ioors
New |n Ih|s ed|I|cn: kuss|c
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wbicb rovioos lbo convonionco o oos|lo occoss or mollilo osors
MENLC PAPK HCUSTCN 8El1lNG NEW DELHl PlYADH SECUL TCKYC ZPlCH
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This conveyor is easy
to access and maintain
The ProClean Conveyor permits eas-
ier maintenance and filter replace-
ment via its freely accessible cover;
theres no need to disassemble con-
nections. For the first time, it is pos-
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ing level directly through a sight glass
in the housing cover. A vacuum/pres-
sure display simplifies parameter set-
tings in order to achieve the desired
conveying modes from dilute phase
to plug conveying. An additional inlet
at the cover permits contamination-
free addition of further products via
the same connection. Hall 9, Stand
431 Hecht Technologie GmbH,
Pfaffenhofen, Germany
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This machine puts powder
into lots of PE bags
The Integra and Rotoseal packaging
systems meet the demands for higher
speeds, cleanliness, weighing accuracy,
high-level product protection and ease
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it is also possible to fill powder-type
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The Benjamin has one to four spouts,
making it suitable for medium-sized
capacities. Hall 9, Stand 526 Haver
& Boecker OHG, Oelde, Germany
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A reactor-dryer system for
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When products have to be heated
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The newest edition of the TM-MM-
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The device measures the level of ma-
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www.techmark.de
A new instrument
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The Belsorp-max is a static volumet-
ric sorption instrument for measuring
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analyses include specific surface area
(BET), pore size distribution, vapor
adsorption and chemisorption. Hall
6, Stand 451 Rubotherm GmbH,
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www.rubotherm.de
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32I-8 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2010
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R82-355_Combo:Chemical Engineering 2/15/10 3:24 PM Page 1
Department Editor: Scott Jenkins
Measurement guide
for replacement
seals
M
echanical seals play a pivotal role in the chemical
process industries (CPI). As the sealing interface
between rotating process equipment and the
materials contained inside, these devices prevent
product leakage and fugitive emissions, while per-
mitting process machines, pumps and compressors
to operate at ever-increasing pressures, vacuums,
temperatures and speeds. Even the most basic
mechanical seal is a complex assembly.
Correct measurement of the machinery for
replacement seals can be an underappreciated
aspect of maintenance planning.
The following steps outline basic procedures and
considerations involved in measuring machinery for
replacement seals.
MEASURING FOR SHAFT SEAL REPLACEMENT
Step 1. Shaft diameter
Measure the shaft diameter () where the replacement seal will
be installed. Its important to actually take a measurement of
the shaft and sleeve, rather than relying on dimensions from the
machinerys blueprints.
The shaft diameter can vary slightly at different points along
its length, so take the measurement where the seal will be
positioned. This may mean removing the existing seal, or at least
sliding it out of the way.
The shaft may be worn or fretted, so obtain an average
measurement of the shaft. This can be accomplished by taking
several measurements with a micrometer or caliper, then averag-
ing them. An alternate way to get an average measurement of
the shaft is to use a diameter-reading tape measure. These are
precision tapes with a vernier scale, which allows you to mea-
sure shaft diameters to within 0.001 in.
After taking the most precise measurement possible of the
shaft and the sleeve, if any, it may be useful to take a photo-
graph of the shaft if it is fretted or worn. Your seal supplier can
be a resource for more information.
Step 2. Radial clearance
Using a rule or tape measure, measure the radial clearance around
the shaft and identify the nearest radial obstruction. If more than
one obstruction exists, measure and mark all on a sketch.
Step 3. Axial clearance
Measure the axial clearance to the rst obstruction. This is usu-
ally the distance from the seal mounting point to the bearing or
drive assembly. There may, however, be other closer obstruc-
tions, such as shaft couplings. A sketch can be helpful in com-
municating your needs.
Step 4. Seal mounting
Determine how the existing seal is mounted. For example, are
there bolts or studs fastening it in place? If so, how many are
there, what size are they, and how are they distributed around
the diameter of the shaft?
Start by measuring the distance between the centers of each
pair of adjacent bolts (X). Take this measurement for every pair
of bolts bolt spacings may not be equal around the circle.
See the accompanying illustrations for how to convert com-
mon bolt patterns to a mounting bolt circle (MBC). You can
check your work by measuring from the shaft outer diameter to
each bolt center. Twice this distance, plus the shaft diameter,
should also equal the MBC dimension. Careful attention is
important here because the shaft may not be centered exactly
within the bolt circle.
If studs are used for fastening, determine their lengths. Measure
lengths and provide details of thread length, as well as whether or
not the studs are welded onto or threaded into the machine.
Step 5. Mounting surface
Check the surface on which the seal
will be mounted. Is it at or perpendic-
ular to the shaft? Use a straightedge
and a machinists square to verify this
information, which will be important
when mounting a new seal.
Note that some equipment has a
machined recess around the shaft
cutout, where a boss on the seal is
intended to t for centering purposes.
If there is such a recess, measure
both the diameter and the depth.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Material for this months Facts at Your Fingertips was provided by Woodex Bear-
ing Co. (Georgetown, Maine; www.mecoseal.com) general manager Starkey
Steuernagle, and seal designer Matt King.
Radial space available
around shaft
Shaft
center line
to top of
bearing
Tap depth
or stud
length
Sleeve length
from mounting
surface
Distance to
bearing from
mounting surface
Bearing
shelf
to shaft
center
line
Bearing
height
Bolt/stud
pattern
Recess
depth
(if any)
Bolt/stud
circle
Bearing
diameter
Shaft/sleeve dia.
Shaft length
from mounting
surface
Vessel
I.D.
Recess
diameter
(if any)
X
MBC
MBC = X
Verify MBC = + 2(Z)
Z
X
Y
MBC = X
2
+ Y
2
Verify MBC: if Z1 = Z2 = Z3 = Z4
then MBC = + 2(Z)
Z1
Z2
Z3
Z4
MBC
X
MBC = X / cos 30 deg
Verify MBC = + 2(Z)
Z
MBC
X
MBC = 2(X)
Verify MBC = + 2(Z)
Z
MBC
X
MBC = 2(X)
Verify MBC = + 2(Z)
Z
sin 67.5 deg
sin 45 deg
MBC
11_CHE_040110_FAC.indd 34 3/24/10 10:23:59 AM
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People
Richard Seale is promoted to presi-
dent of the Automation and Control
business unit of Mustang (Houston).
Mike Mason, executive vice-president
of the Fisher Div. of Emerson Process
Management has been elected chair-
man of the Valve Manufacturers
Assn. of America (Washington, D.C.).
Michael Rosenberg is now vice-
president of business development
for OPX Biotechnologies (Boulder,
Colo.), a renewable biochemical and
biofuel company.
Matcor, Inc. (Doylestown, Pa.), a
cathodic protection and corrosion-
prevention firm names Jeffrey Stello
president and CEO.
BASF Catalysts (Iselin, N.J.) names
Rui-Artur Goerck group vice-
president, mobile emissions catalysts,
and Hans-Peter Neumann group vice-
president, process catalysts
and technologies.
EagleBurgmann USA (Houston), a
maker of mechanical seals and pack-
ings, names Dow Secrest global key
account manager, and Andy Martin
communications manager.
Joerg Riesmeier is named managing
director and chief operating officer of
Direvo Industrial Biotechnology
GmbH (Cologne, Germany).
Ken Yarosh, global service line man-
ager for Dow Cornings Specialty
Chemicals Business, has been elected
vice-chairman of the board of direc-
tors for the American Soc. of Test-
ing and Materials (Washington).
Suzanne Shelley
Seale Yarosh Goerck Stello
WHOS WHO
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12_CHE_040110_WW.indd 36 3/29/10 7:03:46 AM
T
he stirred tank reactor with ro-
tating mixers remains the back-
bone of the chemical process in-
dustries (CPI). While mixing is
considered a mature technology, it is
clear that continued technological de-
velopment is necessary to achieve the
state-of-the-art design demanded by
ever-increasing efficiency needs.
As worldwide competition forces
the CPI to increase the profitability of
their production plants, it is even more
important for process developers and
plant design engineers to understand
the mechanical design aspects of agi-
tated reactors. Process design is often
an interactive procedure of chemical
and thermodynamic requirements on
the one hand, and plant or mechanical
restrictions on the other. Chemical and
mechanical engineers work together
to reach the common goal of optimum
reactor design. And, this knowledge is
also important for plant operators and
maintenance engineers. Often there
is a need to boost the plant capacity
and process efficiency by revamps and
modifications of the reactors. Only an
awareness of the mechanical condi-
tions in the existing reactor will pre-
vent expensive failures.
This article gives an overview of the
mechanical design aspects of agitated,
high-performance reactors that will
help in endeavors to specify, maintain
and also retrofit equipment. The ar-
ticle is addressed to process develop-
ers, plant designers, plant operators
and maintenance engineers. First,
the agitator and its components are
illustrated, and then the dy-
namic forces created by the
agitator are explained
those forces that act on the
agitator itself, on all reactor
internals and on the vessel,
including its steel structure.
In addition, the article ex-
plains resonance and vibra-
tion phenomena and how
these are considered. Mechanical seals
play a critical role, resulting in safe
and economic operation of pressur-
ized reactors. Their detailed descrip-
tion, however, would exceed the scope
of this article (for more on mechanical
seals, see Mechanical Seals, Chem.
Eng., December 2004, pp. 3642).
Process intensification
Higher productivity in the CPI can be
defined as higher output per plant vol-
ume, less energy and raw material con-
sumption together with reduced wastes,
and better product quality. In addition to
these points, focus is also being given to
reducing investment and maintenance
costs. Bigger plants for bulk chemicals
provide economies of scale, and a more
sophisticated design of the equipment
leads to reduced maintenance. Apart
from these needs, specialty chemicals
producers also expect high flexibility
in production for faster time to market.
The solutions of the equipment manu-
facturers to fulfill these requirements of
the process industry can be summarized
as process intensification.
Considerable progress in process
intensification for mixing has already
been achieved and is still ongoing [1].
One example is in agitated gas-liquid
reactors [2]. Bulk chemical reactors
often convert gases with inert compo-
nents, such as oxidizers with air, and
require large reactors with a capacity
in excess of 1,000 m
3
. Their continu-
ous operation requires precise tuning
of the interaction between agitation
hydrodynamics and the superim-
posed liquid- and gas-feed and outlet
streams with the reaction kinetics for
optimum process results.
For a successful reactor design,
consideration has to be given to the
relationship between all relevant pa-
rameters. This includes not only the
operating conditions, such as tem-
perature, pressure and fluid proper-
ties, but also tank size and shape, all
internal components (such as baffles,
feed and outlet pipes, spargers, and
heating-and-cooling equipment) and
structural components (such as steady
bearings), as well as power input or
agitation intensity. Agitation not only
defines the process results, but is also
the source of all dynamic loads that
must be considered for the design of
the reactor unit. It is obvious that the
Feature Report
Cover Story
M. Stadtaus, H.-J. Weiss, W. Himmelsbach and J. Smith
Ekato
An understanding of the mechanical design
helps in specifying, maintaining and
revamping agitated reactor systems

Process requirements,
material properties
Expert
system
Process
database
Pilot test
(CFD
optional)
Pilot
test
Standard
process
Corrosion
date
p,T
Maintenance
GMP
CIP/SIP/sterile
restart in
sediment
and others
Hydraulic
loads, natural
frequencies
(shaft, blades,
tank and so on)
tank internals
optional FEA
Analysis of
basic mixing task
Impeller selection,
number
Size, power, speed
Material
Mechanical seal
Manufacturing, shipping,
commissioning
Design details,
finish
Shaft diameter, bearings,
agitator nozzle
Mechanical Design Aspects for
High-Performance
Agitated Reactors
FIGURE 1. Many factors are involved with design-
ing an agitator system for a given application
13_CHE_040110_DL.indd 38 3/24/10 10:12:13 AM
conditions of intensified processes
need a new, integrated approach for
reactor design, which considers the
agitator and vessel as one unit.
Design of agitated reactors
The design of agitators and reactors
starts by defining the process per-
formance and operating conditions
(Figure 1). The results are the basic
engineering data for the reactor and
agitator including the main dimen-
sions of all components, impeller type,
number of impellers, size and speed or
power input respectively as described
in detail in several references [13].
These data are the input for the design
work of the mechanical engineers.
The next step is to find the ideal
balance between the process require-
ments and an economical, mechanical
solution of the vessel-agitator system.
As the agitator is connected via the ag-
itator mounting flange, the vessel and
agitator cannot be treated as separate
units because their designs mutually
influence each other. Figure 2 shows
an overview of the general reactor lay-
out and lists its key components.
In addition to these key agitator
components, a variety of ancillary
equipment also needs to be consid-
ered. For example, vessel supports
could take the form of a skirt, bracket
or leg design. Heat exchangers can
be divided into external and internal
types. The design of an internal heat
exchanger can be classified as plate,
coil or tube bundle. There are many
more aspects to be considered. If the
diameter of the manhole is restricted
by mechanical or structural needs, for
example, this would have a direct im-
pact on the impeller design to ensure
that the impellers could be inserted
into the reactor. If the manhole is too
small, the impeller hubs can be of a
split-clamped design or the blades
may be bolted.
Computer-aided engineering
The use of computers for engineering
purposes has developed rapidly over
the last two decades and has now be-
come an indispensable tool for the me-
chanical design of agitated reactors and
internal components. Therefore, the use
of numerical simulations, for example
computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
and finite element analysis (FEA), has
become mandatory (see box, p. 40).
The complex flow pattern in agitated
reactors can be computed and visual-
ized with CFD calculations. Not only
does this facilitate the understand-
ing of hydrodynamic mechanisms,
but CFD data can also be used for the
determination of the heat transfer
coefficients of complex heat exchang-
ers. Hydraulic loads, such as pressure
distributions and forces based on local
flow velocities, are calculated by CFD
and then used as input for FEA.
The mechanical behavior of a struc-
ture, such as natural frequencies,
stresses and deformations, can be
ascertained with FEA. The general
advantages of numerical simulations
include the following:
Reduced development time, for
faster time to market
Application specific dimensioning
of vessels and their components for
savings in time, energy and money
Improvement of plant safety
Increased reliability and operational
safety; better planning of shutdown
and maintenance intervals
Prevention of potential safety and en-
vironmental risks at an early stage

Agitator
Motor
Gearbox
Bearing lantern
Shaft seal
Mounting flange
Bearing shaft
Agitator shaft
Flange couplings
Impellers / Turbines
Reactor
Vessel shell
Vessel jacket
Vessel support
Agitator flange
Nozzles / Manhole
Baffles
Heat exchanger
Feed pipes
Spargers
Interfaces
Agitator flange
Baffles
Feed pipes
Heat exchanger
Bottom steady
bearing
Intermediate steady
bearing
FIGURE 2. This overview of a general reactor layout shows the
main components of agitated reactors and their interfaces
FIGURE 3. CFD can be used to calculate the fow patterns
and velocities around a fat-blade disc turbine
FIGURE 4. Torque (M
t
) and hydraulic radial force (F
r
) are
functions of the tangential forces (F
t,i
, left). Derivation of the
hydraulic force (F) is shown on the right
13_CHE_040110_DL.indd 39 3/24/10 10:12:50 AM
Cover Story
Loads acting on the system
Every mechanical design starts with
the evaluation and definition of the
relevant loads acting on the structure.
This is especially true for mixing, a
highly dynamic process in which, be-
sides the static loads, considerable dy-
namic forces can also have significant
effects on the vessel structure.
Fundamental for a reliable design
is the exact knowledge of the number
and nature of the static and dynamic
forces and momentums acting on the
vessel and its internal components
(baffles, heat exchangers, feeding de-
vices, and so on) and on the agitator
itself. Typical static loads are weight,
vessel pressure and the reactor tem-
perature with its thermal expansion.
The dynamic hydraulic forces are
generated by the agitator itself, actu-
ally at the impeller blades. Depending
on the blade geometry, which defines
the flow direction, there are three
major groups of impeller types:
Those with axial flow direction
Those with radial flow direction
Those with both axial and radial
flow direction
Figure 3 shows a CFD-calculated
snapshot of the flow pattern around a
flat-blade dis turbine. To understand
the dynamic nature of mixing, con-
sideration has to be given to the fact
that the turbulent flow characteris-
tic is a function of time and is not
rotationally symmetric; or in other
words, the forces acting on each indi-
vidual blade are not identical.
The result of this unequal flow is
shown on the left side of Figure 4 for
a three-bladed impeller. The
difference of the tangential
forces (F
t,i
) at each blade (at
time t) leads to a resulting ra-
dial force (F
r
). With the known
lever of radial force (l), which
is the distance between impeller and
shaft bearing, the bending moment
(M
b
) can be calculated by the follow-
ing equation:
M
b
= F
r
l (1)
The sum of all tangential forces in
turn generates a torque (M
t
) around
the agitator shaft:
M
t
= F
t,i
r (2)
For axially pumping impellers, an
axial force (F
ax,i
) arises at each blade,
leading to an overall axial thrust de-
fined as the following:
F
ax
= F
ax,i
(3)
The results from a laboratory-scale
force measurement, using appropriate
scaleup criteria or CFD are then used
as the input for the subsequent analy-
sis of the full-size design.
Figure 5 depicts a laboratory-scale
impeller shaft, which is equipped with
strain gauges for bending moment
and torque measurement. The force
coefficients can be obtained by using
dimensionless coefficients.
The force coefficients (C
F
) are in-
dividual for each impeller type and
quantify the magnitude of axial, tan-
gential and radial forces, independent
of the impeller diameter. It is common
to use the following terms:
Radial force coefficient (C
r
)
Axial force coefficient (C
ax
)
Tangential force coefficient (C
t
)
Radial force and torque are the pri-
mary input data for the calculation of
the shaft diameter.
Large shaft diameters, as well as
large and expensive mechanical seals,
bearings and other items may be re-
quired in the case of long and over-
hung agitator shafts, depending on
the properties of the structural mate-
rial. To eliminate these disadvantages,
the use of a bottom steady bearing
which is an additional bearing at the
shaft end in the tank, lubricated by
the process fluid can be considered.
The cost advantages of a bottom
steady bearing are illustrated in
Table 1. For example, for a 10-m-long
shaft, the manufacturing costs for the
complete agitator can be reduced by
approximately 35%. Savings can be
achieved by the reduction of the shaft
diameter from 240 mm to 180 mm,
compared to a 5-m shaft which would
only provide a 10% saving. The appli-
cations that easily benefit from steady
bearings include both large and tall
reactors, such as bulk chemical reac-
tors, bioreactors and large slurry stor-
age tanks.
While a bottom steady bearing offers
commercial advantages for the equip-
ment cost there are other aspects to
consider, including the following:
FIGURE 5. Force coefficients are determined in
pilot tests with a laboratory-scale shaft equipped
with strain gauges
FIGURE 6. Local pressure distribution on a baffle
section due to turbulent fow is indicated by color
CFD AND FEA
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and finite element analysis (FEA) are
important simulation tools that enable fast, economical and innovative design
and development of vessels, agitators and their interfaces. Compared to a
traditional approach based solely on experiments, simulation offers a number
of advantages including the following:
Numerical simulation improves the understanding of important process
details and their mutual influences
Parameter studies are facilitated, as numerical solutions reduce the
number of tests needed
Trial and error calculations are reduced
Numerical simulation allows an extrapolation of experimental experi-
ence and empirical data
Numerical simulation makes inaccessible process steps transparent and
allows innovative developments in virtual reality, saving material, man-
power and energy
These numerical simulation tools should not be used alone, but should be
combined with experiments for validation.
13_CHE_040110_DL.indd 40 3/24/10 10:13:33 AM
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Cover Story
A bottom bearing is a wearing part
Higher cost of ownership (mainte-
nance, spare parts and so on)
Wearing part material selection has
to be carefully considered
The vessel design must withstand
the induced forces
A high level of precision is required
for the alignment of the bearing to
the agitator shaft axis
The vessel shell and the reactor inter-
nals are exposed to considerable hy-
draulic loads. In turbulent conditions
these forces can be calculated by the
following equation:
F = c
w
v
2
A (4)
Where c
w
is the drag coefficient, is
the liquid density, A is the projected
area of interest (baffle, feed pipe or
other) and v is the flow velocity. The
determination of v is conducted by
measurements together with CFD
computations. Figure 6 illustrates the
pressure distribution on a baffle sec-
tion calculated from the velocity field.
The results of such calculations and
experiments are the basic input for the
subsequent mechanical dimensioning
of a vessels internal components.
The hydraulic forces acting on all
reactor components are primarily
generated by the agitator. Excessive
vibrations, stresses and deformations
of internal components and their sup-
ports can be caused by a weak vessel
structure and by insufficient sizing.
The following topics discuss opportu-
nities to reduce these risks.
Vibration and resonance
When existing reactors are upgraded
to reach higher productivity, it is criti-
cal to ascertain the resonance-free
dimensioning of the vessel-agitator
system for a high level of operational
safety. Careless modifications can
shift the natural frequencies into the
critical range and result in operational
problems. First the relevant excita-
tion spectra must be clearly known,
as excitation can be caused either by
shaft speed, passing blades or a tur-
bulent vortex spectrum. Resonance
effects are often the reason for noise
and unacceptable vibrations that lead
to structural damage of components.
This can result in costly, unplanned
plant shutdowns and could also have
an impact on health, safety and envi-
ronmental issues.
Blade passing frequencies are de-
fined by impeller type and shaft speed.
The vortex excitation frequencies, the
so-called Karman vortex detachment
frequencies (f
k
; Figure 7, left) are far
more difficult to determine. The vortex
frequency is described by the Strouhal
number (S) in Equation (5).
f
k
= S d/ v (5)
Pilot-scale measurements can, once
again, provide data for the local ve-
locities (v), but CFD simulations give
a more comprehensive and differenti-
ated picture of the entire flow pattern,
as shown in Figure 7 (right).
Even if the excitation frequencies
are well known, the design engineer
has to decide which type of excitation
is relevant or dominant for a specific
component. This decision has to be
made on a case-by-case basis, with
care to avoid any resonance caused
by coincidence of excitation with nat-
ural frequencies.
Vibrations, which are caused
by the dynamic nature of the mix-
ing process, are inevitable and not
detrimental as long as they do not
exceed the calculated, acceptable in-
tensity level. This is ensured when
the systems natural frequencies are
sufficiently distanced from the rel-
evant excitation spectra. The differ-
ence between the natural frequency
and excitation frequency is f. In
the field of machine dynamics an
acceptable margin is f > 1520%
[4, 5].
If this condition is not fulfilled,
resonance (f = 0%) or resonance
effects amplify even small dynamic
forces drastically. The most impor-
tant natural frequency for agitators
is the 1st bending mode of the agita-
tor shaft, which is the critical shaft
speed (N
c
).
For a free overhung shaft with one
single impeller, the shaft length (L)
and the impeller mass (m) are the
dominating parameters influencing
the shaft critical speed:
TABLE 1. SUMMARY OF COST SAVINGS ACHIEVED BY INSTALLATION OF
A BOTTOM STEADY BEARING FOR TWO VESSEL-AGITATOR DESIGNS
Design 1 Design 2
Reactor diameter (T) mm 5,000 5,000
Reactor height mm 5,000 10,000
Length of agitator shaft (L) mm 5,000 10,000
Number of impellers 2 4
Impeller diameter (D) mm 2,500 2,500
Motor power (P
Mot
) kW 130 260
Shaft speed (N) rpm 53 53
Shaft torque (M
t
) Nm 23,400 46,800
Material of construction 316 L 316 L
Vessel pressure (p) bar 10 10
Shaft diameter (d
S
) with bottom bearing 160 mm 180 mm
overhung 180 mm 240 mm
Relative agitator price for
each layout
with bottom bearing 90% 65%
overhung 100% 100%
Cost savings 10% 35%
FIGURE 7. Distinctive vortices around vessel internals (baffles) can be seen as a
schematic (left) and as calculated, fow velocity felds (right)
13_CHE_040110_DL.indd 42 3/24/10 10:14:40 AM
(6)
Correlation (6) shows that even minor
changes to the shaft length or impeller
position can lead to a dramatic change
of the shafts natural frequency. Far
more sophisticated calculation meth-
ods are required to determine the
exact N
c
when designing complex
shaft systems, such as multiple im-
pellers, multi-shouldered or stepped
shafts, and bottom-bearing or hollow
shaft sections.
Operating below or above the shaft
critical speed is possible. An overcriti-
cal operation is technically feasible
because the dynamic force decreases
again after passing through the criti-
cal speed. An agitator designed to
operate above its shaft critical speed
expands its operating range, which re-
sults in increased productivity. When
overcritical operation is required,
it must be ensured that the critical
speed is passed through very quickly.
This is achieved when using a stan-
dard 3-phase-a.c. motor with appro-
priate power margins.
The shaft critical speed is only one of
a large number of natural frequencies
that are present in agitated vessels.
The whole vessel-agitator system, in-
cluding internal components, has to be
considered with regard to resonance.
Figure 8 shows measured natural fre-
quencies of a heat exchanger. The in-
dicated peaks, or critical frequencies,
must not be excited by the agitator.
The natural frequencies are nu-
merically determined when using
FEA, however the accuracy of the
results is totally dependant on the
accuracy of the input data. The nu-
merical model must take all different
operating conditions into account. For
example, during a mixing operation,
a vessel is filled with the material to
be mixed. Depending on the filling
level, this can significantly decrease
the vessels natural frequencies by up
to 40% (Figure 9).
The same principle applies to in-
ternal components when they are
submerged by liquid or simultane-
ously carry fluid. This is the case with
heating and cooling coils, and feed
pipes, where a significant decrease of
natural frequencies can be expected
and a purely structural, mechanical
approach would fail. Such operating
conditions are considered by fluid-
structure interaction (FSI) analy-
sis, based on the wave equation of
acoustics [7]. All relevant factors in-
fluencing the vibration behavior can
be taken into account by this type of
multiphysical approach.
If scaling or product particles accu-
mulate on the surface of an internal
component, the overall mass of this
component will increase. This mass in-
crease leads to a decrease of the natu-
ral frequencies, which can change the
operating conditions during produc-
tion over a period of weeks or months.
FIGURE 8. In measured natural frequencies of a heat exchanger, peaks indicate
critical frequencies that must be avoided for a reliable operation
FIGURE 9. The decrease of the vessels natural frequency during the flling process
could lead to resonance effects with the shaft speed
FIGURE 10. This sketch shows a typi-
cal, 50-m
3
continuously operated hydro-
genation reactor
13_CHE_040110_DL.indd 43 3/24/10 10:15:19 AM
Cover Story
Table 2 shows the influence of dif-
ferent operating conditions that result
in the decrease of natural frequencies
for individual components.
Natural frequencies and relevant ex-
citation spectra must be calculated ac-
curately to avoid any resonance effects.
In conjunction with safety factors, any
inaccuracies can lead to a restriction of
the operating speed range, which could
lead to process inefficiency.
Fatigue-proof design
At least 90% of failures in mechani-
cal engineering are due to fatigue,
and only 10% are due to static over-
load. This means that mechanical
breakdowns can occur even though
the static strength of the compo-
nent, or the yield strength, has not
been reached. The common cause for
this type of failure is microcracking,
which is caused by cyclic loading. The
overall stress level will not cause a
component to fail, but a frequently
repeated, stress intensity range
which can be caused when operating
in resonance conditions will.
Dynamic loads are induced as a
result of agitator rotation in nearly
every structural component of an agi-
tated reactor. With regard to fatigue,
the interface between the agitator and
reactor (the agitator mounting flange),
or the connections between the vessel
shell and the support of all internal
components are critical.
In these critical areas, such as the
agitator flange, tank lid or internal
components like baffles or heat ex-
changers, the stress intensity is, again,
determined by using FEA. These com-
puted results define the parameters
for a fatigue-proof-component design,
taking into account the highly dy-
namic character of mixing processes.
The design must then be verified as
compliant with international codes,
such as ASME.
Practical examples
Hydrogenation reactor. Figure 10
shows a reactor type that is typically
used for the reduction of nitro-groups
to make toluene diamine, aniline and
other compounds. The vessel is a con-
tinuously operated, 50-m
3
hydrogena-
tion reactor with a combined gassing
agitator. The gas feed is efficiently dis-
persed by the bottom impeller, which
is a concave turbine. The hydrogen,
which is not instantaneously dissolved
and converted, rises to the head of
the reactor and accumulates. Hence
it must be permanently re-circulated,
which is achieved by a self inducing
turbine via holes in the flange coupling
and a hollow shaft. The liquid feed also
enters directly into the suction slots of
this turbine, thus leading to an instan-
taneous micromixing of dissolving hy-
drogen and the liquid reactants. Such
reactions are highly exothermic, there-
fore a sufficient heat exchanging area
is provided by six to eight tube bundles.
The intense flow off the impellers into
these bundles leads to nearly isother-
TABLE 2. DECREASE OF THE 1ST NATURAL FREQUENCY DUE TO SPECIFIC
OPERATING CONDITIONS (TYPICAL VALUES)
Component Operating Condition 1st Natural Frequency
(Relative Values)
Vessel Empty 1
Filled 0.6
Baffle Empty vessel 1
Filled vessel 0.4
Feed pipe Without scale on surface 1
With 5-mm scale on surface 0.7
Heat exchanger Vessel and pipes empty 1
Vessel and pipes filled 0.3
FIGURE 11. Dynamic loads on the heat exchanger bundle are examined from the
initial design (left) to the numerical computer model (middle) and the fnal results
(right). The colors indicate the local defection
FIGURE 12. A fnite element (FE) model, and calculated deformations and stresses
of a double-coil heat exchanger, including baffles and supports are shown
13_CHE_040110_DL.indd 44 3/24/10 10:16:30 AM
mal conditions throughout the overall
reactor. A specific power input between
5 and 10 kW/m
3
is required to achieve
a conversion of over 99% in such a
single-stage continuous reactor. For a
50-m
3
reactor volume, this equates to
250 to 500 kW shaft power.
This high power level creates re-
spectively high loads, acting as forces
on the impellers and shaft, that must
be accommodated by the agitator
flange and vessel head. The shafts in
this typical reactor are of a overhung
design and not supported by steady
bearings, which are prone to abrasion
by solids typically catalysts, such
as Raney nickel. In addition to the
high power level, an intense fluid flow
is generated, which in turn imposes
dynamic loads on the heat exchanger
bundle and its individual tubes.
The general approach to character-
izing these loads for the mechanical di-
mensioning of the heat exchanger bun-
dle can be seen in Figure 11. The first
stage (left side) shows a conceptual de-
sign of the heat exchanger. A layout is
usually rebuilt in virtual reality by re-
moving all irrelevant and unnecessary
details. These simplifications enhance
the stability of the analysis and the
quality of the results, thereby reducing
computation time considerably. This
pre-processing transfers the initial de-
sign into an adequate numerical com-
puter model (Figure 11, middle). Tak-
ing into account all relevant boundary
conditions (constraints, loads, and so
on) the model is capable of calculat-
ing natural frequencies, stresses and
deformations. The results of a modal
analysis are shown on the right side
of Figure 11.
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FIGURE 13. The flling level infuences natural frequencies of a submerged baffle.
Shown here as computed by fnite element fuid-structure-interaction (FSI) analysis, a
dramatic decrease of up to 43% can be expected for a baffle that is totally surrounded
by fuid (right) as compared to a baffle in air (left)
13_CHE_040110_DL.indd 45 3/29/10 8:18:56 AM
Double-coil heat exchanger. An-
other example is given in Figure 12,
which illustrates the model and the
results of an analysis of a double-coil
heat exchanger with baffles. In this
study, the deformation behavior and
the stress distribution of the coils is
simulated. These results provide valu-
able information for this complex con-
struction, determining the number of
needed heat-exchanger supports and
their dimensions.
Vessel filling and emptying. This
example illustrates why giving con-
sideration to a purely structural
design is not sufficient, because the
vibration behavior is influenced con-
siderably during filling and empty-
ing of the vessel. Figure 13 shows
the influence of the filling level, at a
certain density and temperature, on
the baffles natural frequencies. This
highlights the risk of neglecting these
aspects. An optimum mechanical de-
sign requires a detailed knowledge of
the process parameters.
The effect of the vessel fill-height
on the natural frequencies has an
even greater impact on heat exchang-
ers. The surrounding liquid and the
fluid inside the heat exchanger it-
self increase the exchangers mass
while lowering its natural frequency.
These influences are accurately man-
aged by the FEA and FSI methods.
However, in some cases an advanced
procedure combining both CFD and
FEA tools is necessary. This is achieved
by using compatible software that re-
quires adequate computing power [6].
Such simulations transfer the results
of a CFD calculation to a subsequent
FEA and vice versa.
The agitator flange
The agitator flange, together with
its supporting structure (usually the
vessel top head), represents the most
critical interface between agitator and
vessel and hence requires special at-
tention during the design phase. If the
vessel heads thickness is undersized,
this may result in costly plant shut-
downs for reinforcement work or, in
the worst case, a failure of the whole
vessel-agitator system.
Different criteria are applied to pro-
vide an optimal interaction between
the vessel and the agitator. A well
proven empirical rule is the value of
the maximum allowable angular de-
flection of the agitator flange, which
incorporates the maximum dynamic
loads generated by the agitator. An
experienced designer knows practical
values for the maximum allowable
deflection (
ad
) to ensure a sufficient
stiffness of the agitator flange and
the vessel.
The manufacturing costs of a vessel
can be significantly reduced by a tai-
lored optimization of the vessel head
using stiffeners. This is illustrated in
Table 3, where four different designs
of a vessel head are compared with
regard to stiffness and relative manu-
facturing costs. In this example, the
third design (eight stiffeners) offers
the best compromise between cost and
structural strength a reduced wall-
head thickness which results in the
reduction of material costs.
TABLE 3. OPTIMIZATION OF THE MANUFACTURING COSTS
OF A 50-M
3
REACTOR WITHOUT AFFECTING
THE OVERALL STIFFNESS OF THE STRUCTURE
(all designs offer the same stiffness of the vessel head)
Number of
stiffeners
0 4 8 12
Head thick-
ness, mm
30 20 13 10
Costs high moderate very low low
Rating ++ +
FIGURE 14. Titanium and titanium al-
loys are welded in a clean room to avoid
contamination by ferrous particles
References
1. Himmelsbach, W. and others, Mixing Sys-
tems: Design and Scale Up, Chem. Eng., pp.
4653, April 2006.
2. Himmelsbach, W. and others, Increase Pro-
ductivity through better Gas-Liquid Mixing,
Chem. Eng., pp. 5058, October, 2007.
3. Ekato, Handbook of Mixing Technology,
Ekato Rhr- und Mischtechnik GmbH,
Schopfheim, Germany, 2000.
4. Astashev, V. K. and others, Dynamics and
Control of Machines, 1st ed., Springer,
2000.
5. Cleghorn, W.L., Mechanics of Machines,
Oxford University Press, 2005.
6. Users Manual Rev. 11, 0, Swanson Analysis,
Ansys Inc., Canonsburg, Pa., 2008.
7. Kinsler, E. L. and others, Fundamentals of
Acoustics, 4th ed., John Wiley and Sons,
2000.
NOMENCLATURE
A m
2
projected area
c
w
- drag coefficient
C - force coefficient
(general)
C
ax
- axial force coefficient
C
r
- radial force coefficient
C
t
- tangential force coef-
ficient
d m main dimension of
internal component
D m impeller diameter
d
S
m shaft diameter
f % difference of natural
frequency to excitation
frequency
p N/m
2
pressure difference
f
k
1/s vortex frequency
F N hydraulic force (gen-
eral)
F
ax
N axial force
F
ax,i
N axial force per blade
F
r
N radial force
F
t,i
N tangential force per
blade
ad
deg angular deflection of
the agitator flange
H m liquid level
l m lever of radial force
L m length of agitator shaft
m kg impeller mass
M
b
Nm bending moment
M
t
Nm shaft torque
N 1/s shaft speed
N
c
1/s critical shaft speed
p bar vessel pressure
P
mot
kW motor power
r m lever of tangential
force
kg/m
3
density of product
S - Strouhal number
T m reactor diameter
v m/s local flow velocity
13_CHE_040110_DL.indd 46 3/24/10 10:17:09 AM
Materials of construction
A careful choice of materials for the
construction of the reactor is of great
importance, and the material choice
should take into consideration a
wide range of chemicals with their
different properties, the process con-
ditions, hydraulic loads, tempera-
tures, wear and corrosion. Ferrous
materials, such as carbon or stain-
less steels, are not suited to all oper-
ating conditions and in these situa-
tions, non-ferrous materials, such as
nickel-based alloys or titanium, may
have to be specified.
The handling and manufacturing
methods of non-ferrous materials re-
quire a special quality-assurance rou-
tine, and also specialist expertise. The
welding of titanium, for example, re-
quires approved welders and a clean
room to avoid contamination from
ferrous particles, as well as strict
separation from all ferrous materials
(Figure 14).
The optimal selection of the mate-
rial of construction and customized
dimensioning prevents unnecessary
investment and also decreases manu-
facturing costs effectively. This is es-
pecially valid for applications that
require high grade materials, such as
titanium, tantalum and zirconium,
where a cost saving potential would
become even more evident.
Edited by Dorothy Lozowski
Authors
Marc Stadtaus is a senior
mechanical engineer in Ekato
RMTs mechanical design de-
partment (Schopfheim, Ger-
many; Phone: +49 7622 29523;
Fax: +49 7622 29395; Email:
[email protected]). He has over
10 years experience in the field
of numerical simulation and
structural mechanics. Stadtaus
has previously worked for the
University of Braunschweig as
a research associate. He holds an M.S. in mechani-
cal engineering from the Technical University of
Braunschweig (Germany).
Hans-Juergen Weiss is the
vice president engineering
of Ekato RMT (Schopfheim,
Germany; Phone: +49 7622
29285; Fax: +49 7622 29395;
Email: [email protected]). He
has over 20 years experience
in development, design, engi-
neering and manufacturing
of mechanical, process plant
equipment. Weiss holds a
B.S. in mechanical engineer-
ing from the Baden-Wuerttemberg Cooperative
State University (Germany).
Werner Himmelsbach is
Ekato RMTs vice president
R&D (Kppelemattweg 2,
79650 Schopfheim, Germany;
Phone: +49 7622 29227; Fax:
+49 7622 29454; Email: him@
ekato.com). He has over 25
years experience in process
design and development,
plant design and mainte-
nance. Himmelsbach previ-
ously worked for major inter-
national manufacturers of specialty chemicals
and pharmaceuticals. He holds an M.S.Ch.E.
from the University of Karlsruhe (Germany) and
is member of VDI/ProcessNet.
John Smith is managing
director of Ekato Mixing
Technology Ltd. in the U.K.,
(Phone: +44 1235 227354; Fax:
+44 1235 227355), a wholly
owned subsidiary of Ekato
Process Technology GmbH. He
has 20 years experience with
the international petrochemi-
cal industry and the sales
of process plant equipment
worldwide.
13_CHE_040110_DL.indd 47 3/29/10 8:22:31 AM
A
s heat exchangers age, their tube
thickness decreases because of
erosion, corrosion or a combi-
nation of both. Installing thin
sleeves in tubes in which the tube walls
have become so thin that failure is im-
minent is a maintenance technique use-
ful for extending heat exchanger life.
One should consider sleeving when:
(1) it would be very costly to replace
aged exchangers because of the instal-
lation position or the shutdown time
required to remove the existing one
and install a replacement exchanger
or tube bundle; (2) replacement tubing
delivery is so long that unscheduled
shutdowns for plugging failed tubes
become so frequent as to cause seri-
ous loss of production; and (3) some
decrease in the effective heat transfer
surface is acceptable.
Background information
The power generation industry has
long used sleeving of tubular heat ex-
changers to extend the life of steam
surface condensers and closed feed-
water heaters. The thermal- and
pressure-loss effects of sleeving closed
feedwater heaters has been discussed
in Ref. 1, which provides equations for
calculating the effects of sleeving with
short sleeves, sleeving with full-length
sleeves and in either case sleeving only
some tubes (partial sleeving). Spread-
sheets for performing such calcula-
tions are also available for download
[1]. These calculation methods may be
adapted for process heat exchangers
with some modifications.
A detailed discussion about sleeving
tubes to extend process heat exchanger
life can be found in Ref. 2, and briefly
in Ref. 3. (See also the box on p. 49 for
a note on ferrules and sleeves.) This
article discusses some of the factors to
examine when considering full length
sleeving for process- and power-plant
heat exchangers.
Sleeving process
In sleeving, the thin sleeve is inserted
into the tube with as close a fit as is
practical. The sleeve is then expanded,
usually hydraulically, but sometimes by
other means, using special tools (Figure
1). The expanding pressure used is just
sufficient to create enough residual
interfacial pressure between the tube
inside diameter (I.D.) and the sleeve
outside diameter (O.D.) to maintain in-
timate contact between the sleeve O.D.
and tube I.D. This is different from ex-
panding tubes into tubesheets where
the process has to create sufficient
interfacial pressure between the tube
and surrounding ligament to provide
pullout and pushout strength under all
conditions of operation.
Thermal effects of sleeving
Sleeving introduces an additional re-
sistance to heat flow called contact
resistance. There is always an oxide
layer present on tube and sleeve sur-
faces. These oxide layers resist the
transmission of heat. The contact re-
sistance is the sum of the resistance to
heat transfer of the oxide layers on the
outside surface of the sleeve and the
inside surface of the tubes. As a rule of
thumb, the effect of the barrier to heat
transfer is a reduction of the effective
heat transfer area by approximately
30%. However, if the original thermal
design calculations are available, you
can make a much closer estimate using
the spreadsheets referred to above and
the authors list of estimated barrier
resistances provided in Ref. 1.
The smaller flow channel of the
sleeve causes the tube-side flow ve-
locity to increase, which results in an
increase in pressure drop through the
tubes and a slight increase in the tube-
side film coefficient of heat transfer.
For the circumstance in which all
the tubes are sleeved for their full
straight length, if the original thermal
design calculations are available, add
the interfacial barrier resistance to the
resistances of the original calculation
to obtain the sum of all resistances
as shown in Equation (1). Invert the
sum to obtain the reduced overall co-
efficient of heat transfer as shown in
Equation (2). Using the calculated
log-mean temperature difference, cal-
culate the new overall coefficient of
heat transfer as shown in Equation
(3). Calculate the duty of which the
exchanger is capable after sleeving as
shown in Equation (4).
(1)
Where S
r
= the sum of various resis-
tances, r, (see below), m
2
-C/W (h-ft
-
-F/Btu)
, W/m
2
-C (Btu/h-ft
2
-F) (2)
(3)
These variables are defined as follows:
r
fo
= Fouling resistance on the outside
of the tube
r
o
= Film resistance of thin film of
fluid on tube exterior
r
b
= Resistance of the contact oxides
on the tube I.D. and sleeve O.D.
r
ms
= Resistance of the sleeve metal
r
mt
= Resistance of the tube metal
r
s
= Film resistance of the thin film of
fluid on the sleeve interior
r
fs
= Fouling resistance on the inside
of the sleeve
U = Overall heat-transfer coefficient
A = Heat transfer surface area, m
2
(ft
2
)
Q = Heat duty, W/h (Btu/h)
Feature Report
Feature Report
How to calculate the effects of temperature when
the sleeves have a higher coefficient of thermal
expansion than the installed tubes
Full-Length Sleeving for
Process Heat Exchanger Tubes
Stanley Yokell
MGT Inc.
14_CHE_040110_GSO.indd 48 3/24/10 9:28:39 AM
DT
m
= Log-mean temperature differ-
ence, C (F)
It is conventional in heat transfer
calculations to adjust the resistances
by referring them to the tube O.D. to
adjust for the difference between the
surface inside and outside the tube,
that is, by multiplying the resistances
by the ratio of inside surface area to
outside surface area.
Pressure loss due to sleeving
You can calculate the new pressure
loss in the conventional way based
upon the flow regime, which is usually
turbulent, but may be viscous or in the
transition zone. For a quick conserva-
tive guess you can calculate the veloc-
ity of the fluid flowing through the
tubes before and after sleeving. Then
you can multiply the known (usually
measured) pressure drop before sleev-
ing by the ratio of the after-sleeving
velocity to the before-sleeving velocity
squared as shown in Equation (4).
(4)
Where, in consistent units,
Dp
s
= Pressure drop after sleeving
Dp
n
= Pressure drop before sleeving
s
= Velocity through the sleeved tubes
after sleeving
n
= Velocity through the tubes before
sleeving
Mechanical effects of sleeving
Some mechanical effects of sleeving
are obvious; others are not. The follow-
ing discusses the mechanical effects.
Effect of pressure. During the design
of a new heat exchanger according to
the rules of the ASME Boiler and Pres-
sure Vessel Code, the designer must
investigate not only the capability of
the tubes to withstand the design in-
ternal pressure at the design tempera-
ture, but also whether the tubes can
resist the shell-side pressure at design
conditions. For the latter purpose, the
rules of the codes Section VIII Divi-
sion 1 Paragraph UG-28 apply.
Although the ASME Codes ju-
risdiction ends when the manufac-
turer ships the exchanger, the rules
of UG-28 are useful in determining
whether the thinned tubes are capa-
ble of withstanding the shell-side (ex-
ternal) pressure and whether sleeving
enhances this capability sufficiently
to permit continued operation without
downgrading the shell-side pressure.
If the system is designed so the
tube-side pressure will always be
higher than that of the shell side and
to not allow application of the shell-
side pressure when the tube side is
not under pressure, you need to con-
sider only the capability of the sleeved
tubes to bear the internal pressure.
But if the system is not so designed,
investigate the sleeve-tube capability
for withstanding the maximum exter-
nal pressure to be applied.
This calculation involves calculat-
ing the ratios L/D
o
and D
o
/t where
in consistent units, L is the length of
the tube, D
o
is the tube O.D. and t is
the tube thickness. Using these ratios,
determine Factor A from Figure G in
Subpart 3 of Section II Part D of the
Code, and determine Factor B that
the tube can withstand. Usually, Fac-
tor B cannot be read directly from the
printed curves. In such cases calcu-
late the permissible external pressure
using Equation (5).
(5)
Where
P
a
= Allowable external pressure,
kg/cm
2
(psi)
E
t
= Tube modulus of elasticity at the
design temperature, kg/cm
2
(psi)
Effect of differential thermal ex-
pansion between tube and sleeve.
In the process of expanding the sleeve,
FIGURE 1. Sleeving consists of expanding thin tubes (sleeves) into the tubes of heat exchangers. One
method for sleeving involves the use of special tools, such as those shown here, which apply hydraulic
pressure to force the sleeves into a tight ft. For more on sleeving methods, see Ref. 2
(Photos courtesy of HydroPro, Inc.)
A NOTE ON FERRULES AND SLEEVES
T
here seems to be considerable confusion about what ferrules and sleeves are and
how they are used in heat exchangers. This short note aims to clarify the differences
between ferruling and sleeving.
Ferrules are used: to protect tube ends from the effects of turbulence; to bring a hot tubeside
fluid past the inner face of the tubesheet; and to carry tubeside fluid through a ceramic or
heat resistant tubesheet coating.
In just about every application, the end of the ferrule that is exposed is flared or flanged
over to a small amount less than half the ligament width. Sometimes the flared-over end is
welded to the ligament. And in some rarer applications, the inner end of the ferrule is welded
to the tube I.D. In almost all applications, the ferrule is expanded to intimate contact with the
tube preferably hydraulically but often by roller expanding.
Short sleeves, on the other hand, were developed in the power generation industry to
cover discrete tube wall penetrations inside surface condenser tubes. The penetrations may
be a considerable distance in from the inlet tube end. So the short sleeve was slid into the
condenser tube so as to cover the perforation and expanded to intimate contact, sometimes
with the sleeve ends welded to the tube to make sure there was no leakage between sleeve
and tube.
Consequently, the definition of a ferrule is a short sleeve, flared or flanged at the tubesheet
end and always installed in the tube inlet.
Full length sleeving was developed to accomplish the following:
Restore plugged tubes to approximately 70% usefulness by effectively restoring the tubes
integrity. The effective loss of surface results from the increased wall thickness and resistance
to heat flow across the interface boundary of sleeve and tube
Restore so-called insurance plugged tubes to service. In the power generation industry,
where it is common to monitor the wall thickness of feedwater heater tubes and other tubular
equipment tube walls, it is common practice to insurance plug tubes with walls thinner than
can safely operate without the risk of failure, or if a tube has failed, to plug the surrounding
tubes to make sure that jets of high-pressure water escaping through a tube wall penetration
has not damaged an adjacent tube. Here again, restoration is only about 70% because of
increased wall thickness and the interfacial barrier to heat flow.
For more information on sleeving, see Ref. [2]
14_CHE_040110_GSO.indd 49 3/24/10 9:30:23 AM
EXAMPLE CALCULATION
Data U.S. Metric
Service Temperatures F C
*Tubes (estimated average be-
tween in and out)
779 415
Shellside 487.4 253
*Estimated average tube metal
temperature, rounded
760 404.4
T
a
= Ambient temperature 70 21.1
Existing Tubing Material of Construction SA-213 T12
1 Cr-1/2 Mo Alloy K11562
Yield at 68F (20C); psi, kg/cm
2
32,000 2,250
Yield at 668F (334C); psi, kg/cm
2
23,994 1,687
Tensile at 68F (20C); psi, kg/cm
2
60,000 4,218
Tensile at 663F (334C);
psi, kg/cm
2

57,700 4,057
Tube O.D., in. (cm) 1.669 4.24
Tube thickness, in. (cm) 0.173 0.44
Tube length, in. (cm) 310.6 788.9
Tube cross-sectional area, in.
2

(cm
2
)
0.813 5.24
a
t
,Tube/sleeve thermal coefficient
of expansion from 68F (20 C);
in./in./F (cm/cm/C)
6.53E06 3.63E06
E
t
, Tube modulus of elasticity 68F
(20C); psi (kg/cm
2
)
3.06E+07 2.15E+06
E
t
, Tube modulus of elasticity 668 F
( 334C); psi (kg/cm2)
2.70E+07 1.90E+06
Sleeving with SA-213 T12
Sleeve O.D. = Tube O.D. (2x tube
thickness), in., (mm)
1.323 3.362
Sleeve thickness, in. (cm) 0.02 0.0508
Sleeve cross-sectional area, in.
2

(cm
2
)
0.082 0.529
Residual interfacial pressure at assembly was not esti-
mated
Equation (7), (A
t
E
t
A
s
E
s
)(T
o
T
a
)(a
t
a
s
)/(A
t
E
t
+ A
s
E
s
)
= 0, consequently no change from production interfacial
pressure. Tube & sleeve are not in creep range
Sleeving with Hastelloy C-276 SB 622/622B UNS10276
Yield at 68F (20C); psi (kg/cm
2
) 40,000 2,812
Yield at 663F (334C); psi,
(kg/cm
2
)
26,222 1,844
Tensile at 68F ( 20C); psi,
(kg/cm
2
)
100,000 7,031
Tensile at 668F (334C);
psi (kg/cm
2
)
88,460 6,219
a
s
, Sleeve thermal coefficient of ex-
pansion from 68F (20C), in./in./F
(cm/cm/C)
7.13E06 3.96E06
E
s20
, Modulus of elasticity at 68F
(20C); psi (kg/cm
2
)
2.98E+07 2.10E+06
E
s334
, Modulus of elasticity at 668 F
(334 C); psi (kg/cm)
2.71E+07 1.91E+06
Sleeve O.D., in. (mm) 1.323 3.362
Sleeve thickness, in. (mm) 0.02 0.0508
Sleeve cross-sectional area, in.
2

(mm
2
)
0.082 0.529
*These estimates have been made without having the
original exchanger data sheets or thermal design calcu-
lations, which were not available as of the date of
calculations.
Interfacial pressure change calculation
Residual interfacial pressure after sleeving at ambient was
not estimated.
Calculation of DP, change in interfacial press resulting
from temperature change calculation of unit load on
sleeve exterior, F
For Equation (7):
A
t
E
t
= 8.39E+09 1.50E+09
A
s
E
s
= 2.22E+06 1.01E+06
A
t
E
t
A
s
E
s
= 1.86E+16 1.50E+15
A
t
E
t
+ A
s
E
s
= 8.39E+09 1.50E+09
A
t
E
t
A
s
E
s
/(A
t
E
t
+ A
s
E
s
) = 2.22E+06 1.01E+06
a
t
= 6.53E-06 3.63E-06
a
s
= 7.13E-06 3.96E-06
a
t
a
s
= 6.04E-07 3.36E-07
T
o
T
a
= 690 383.3
(A
t
E
t
A
s
E
s
)(T
o
T
a
)(a
t
a
s
)/(A
t
E
t

A
s
E
s
), lb (kg)
925.4 129.5
Calculation of pressure on unit length of sleeve, Equation
(8)
Increase in interfacial pressure at
optimum temperature, DP = F/D
o
,
psi (kg/cm
2
)
222.6 15.65
Total external pressure at tempera-
ture
222.6 15.65
(Calculated using American Standard units and converted
to metric)
Calculation of allowable interfacial pressure on the Hastel-
loy 276 sleeves
In accordance with Section VIII Div. 1 Par. UG-28 ASME
Code
Sleeve length L, in. (cm) = 310.6 788.92
Sleeve O.D., D
o
, in. (cm) = 1.323 0.343
L/D
o
= 234.7
D
o
/t = 66.2 6.8
A = Factor from Fig. G in Subpart 3
Section II Part D =
0.00017
P
a
= Allowable external pressure
[Equation (5)] = 2AE
t334
/3(D
o
/t)=
46.4 3.25
Conclusion. The effect of the difference between the
thermal expansion of the Hastelloy C-276 sleeves inside
the SA213TP12 tubes is to create more external pressure
than the sleeves can sustain and would lead to the sleeves
collapsing when the tube/sleeve metal temperature ap-
proached the working temperature. This might not apply
to short sleeves
14_CHE_040110_GSO.indd 50 3/24/10 9:31:02 AM
Feature Report
the sleeve is strain hardened. When
the expanding pressure is released,
the sleeve relaxes but not to its origi-
nal diameter. This produces a resid-
ual interfacial pressure between the
sleeve and parent tube. The residual
contact pressure is just sufficient to
maintain contact between the sleeve
and tube.
For most applications, sleeve mate-
rial and tube material have the same
specification. Therefore, the increase
from the ambient temperature at
which the sleeves are installed does
not cause substantially different ra-
dial-expansion rates in the sleeve and
parent tube. Only the creep proper-
ties of the sleeve and tube limit the
temperature at which the sleeved ex-
changer can function with the sleeve-
tube interface intact.
However, it may be desirable to use
a sleeve material that is more resis-
tant to corrosion and erosion than the
parent sleeve material. When this is
the case, you must investigate the fea-
sibility of using a different metal to es-
timate the increase in interfacial pres-
sure between the sleeve and tube that
occurs at operating conditions to make
sure that the sleeve can withstand the
external pressure generated.
You can calculate the increase in
external pressure that results from
heating the sleeve-tube combination
using simple strength of materials cal-
culations for shrink fitting a tube on
a tube. Here you calculate the radial
force created by the differential ther-
mal expansion and divide it by a unit
of tube surface area.
The following parameter will be
used in the next equations presented:
A
t
= Tube cross-sectional area, m
2
(ft
2
)
A
s
= Sleeve cross-sectional area, m
2

(ft
2
)
A
o
= Surface area per unit of tube
length, cm
2
(in.
2
)
E
t
= Tube elastic modulus, kg/cm
2

(psi)
E
s
= Sleeve elastic modulus kg/cm
2

(psi)
F = Force per unit of tube length cre-
ated by the difference in thermal coef-
ficient of expansion between the tubes
and sleeve when heated to the operat-
ing metal temperature, kg (lb)
L = Tube length, cm (in.)
T
o
= Calculated metal operating tem-
perature of the sleeve-tube structure
determined from the heat transfer re-
sistances, shell side average fluid tem-
perature and tube side average fluid
temperature, C (F)
T
a
= Ambient temperature during as-
sembly, C (F) assumed to be 20 C
(70 F)
a
t
= Tube thermal coefficient of expan-
sion at the calculated metal tempera-
ture, cm/cm/C, in./in./C
a
s
= Sleeve thermal coefficient of ex-
pansion at the calculated metal tem-
perature, cm/cm/C, in./in./C
d
t
= Radial deflection of tube result-
ing from temperature increase from
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14_CHE_040110_GSO.indd 51 3/29/10 8:36:44 AM
Feature Report
assembly temperature to tube metal
temperature at operating conditions,
cm (in.)
d
s
= Radial deflection of sleeve result-
ing from temperature increase from
assembly temperature to tube metal
temperature at operating conditions,
cm (in)
Equation (6) describes the equilib-
rium condition at the metal operating
temperature.
(6)
This leads to Equation (7)
(7)
And the pressure of the tube on the
sleeve per unit length is then as shown
in Equation (8).
(8)
An example makes it clear
The box on p. 50 presents an example
of a calculation using the equations
discussed above. The calculations
make use of English units because
of the unavailability of some metric
units and to avoid conversion errors.
However, metric dimensions and tem-
peratures have been converted to Eng-
lish units.
Edited by Gerald Ondrey
References
1. Andreone, Carl F. and Yokell, Stanley, Effects
of Sleeving Feedwater Heaters, Power, April
2004. (A pdf version of this article is avail-
able for download at www.mgt-inc.com)
2. Yokell, Stanley, Get More Life Out of Heat Ex-
changers, Chem. Eng., January, 2005, pp. 6467.
3. Yokell, Stanley, Maintaining and Repairing
Heat Exchanger Tubes, Chem. Eng., March,
2008, pp. 6067.
Acknowledgement
The author is indebted to Russell Wasson of Hy-
droPro, Inc. for his review of this work.
Author
Stanley Yokell, P.E., is presi-
dent of MGT Inc. (F201 970
Aurora Ave., Boulder, CO
80302-7299; Phone: 303 494
9608, Mobile: 303-817-1721; Fax:
303-499-1849; Email: syokell@
mgt-inc.com; Website: www.mgt-
inc.com), a consulting engineer-
ing firm. Previously, he was pres-
ident of PEMCO, a subsidiary
of Ecolaire Heat Transfer and,
before that, founder and head of Process Engineering
and Machine Co. He is author of A Working Guide
to Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers (McGraw-Hill,
1990), coauthor of Tubular Heat Exchanger Inspec-
tion, Maintenance & Repair (McGraw-Hill, 1997),
and author or coauthor of numerous journal articles.
He has presented over 100 offerings of a course,
Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers Mechanical
Aspects, in Canada, Denmark, the Netherlands
and the U.S., plus many offerings of other courses on
tubular exchangers and closed feedwater heaters. A
Fellow of the American Soc. of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME), he has been a member of the subgroup
on Heat Transfer Equipment, formerly the Special
Working Group on Heat Transfer Equipment of Sub-
committee VIII of the ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code Committee, and is a member of AIChE,
the National Soc. of Professional Engineers and the
American Soc. for Nondestructive Testing. He holds
a B.Ch.E. from New York University and has done
graduate work at Newark College of Engineering.
14_CHE_040110_GSO.indd 52 3/29/10 8:38:20 AM
Engineering Practice
T
he use of appropriate hazardous-
area lighting in the chemical
process industries (CPI) is a key
factor when it comes to improv-
ing overall plant safety and worker
productivity, and supporting the best
maintenance practices. The poten-
tially hazardous conditions associ-
ated with many industrial settings
place high demands on the lighting
fixtures, and it is essential that path-
ways, walkways and stairways in
multi-level platforms or facilities be
properly illuminated.
This article discusses the impor-
tance of using the most effective
lighting practices in hazardous envi-
ronments, and presents a conceptu-
ally new lighting approach dubbed
safety-centered lighting that seeks
to help facility operators choose and
install the best hazardous-area light-
ing throughout the facility by combin-
ing knowledge of human physiology
with the latest advances in lighting
technologies, area-illumination tech-
niques and installation practices.
Todays lighting fixtures based
on light-emitting-diode (LED) tech-
nology offer significant improve-
ments over conventional options
for hazardous-area lighting such as
incandescent, fluorescent or high-
pressure sodium (HPS) lamps. As
discussed below, LED fixtures can
provide direct improvements in
overall safety, while reducing main-
tenance and energy requirements,
as well.
A better approach
An appropriately de-
signed industrial light-
ing program requires
a keen understanding
of both the human fac-
tors that dictate how a
person processes visual
cues and lighting, and
the nature of the lighting scenario
itself. Today, sufficient data are avail-
able to substantiate that proper light-
ing is a key contributing factor to over-
all plant safety, and that well-lighted
facilities tend to have better safety
and productivity records compared to
poorly lit ones.
Unfortunately, while chemical
plants, petroleum refineries and other
types of CPI facilities often expend sig-
nificant time and effort to incorporate
improved operating practices that are
intended to keep their workers safe,
opportunities to improve the type and
nature of the lighting throughout the
facility are often overlooked.
One of the reasons for this dilemma
is that conventional lighting fixtures
have limitations in terms of how the
light fixures function and how the re-
sulting light is perceived by the end
user. For instance, incandescent or
fluorescent lamps are commonly used
to identify the locations of emergency
safety systems, such as industrial
showers and eyewash stations. How-
ever, these fixtures provide practically
no useful signaling during the day be-
cause the lighting blends into sunlight.
This has potentially serious implica-
tions in industries where employees
may be exposed to hazardous chemi-
cals or fire, because workers who may
be inadvertently exposed to chemical
compounds in the workplace must be
able to get to the emergency eyewash
or safety shower as quickly as possible
to wash the affected areas.
Because the first few seconds after
exposure to a hazardous substance
are critical to avoid more severe injury
or permanent scarring, eyewashes
and safety showers must not only be
located within reach of employees,
but they must be easily identified and
properly illuminated and accessible
during both daytime or nighttime con-
ditions, so that affected workers can
reach them without hesitation.
As discussed below, LED-based
lighting can deliver an immediate
and valuable benefit over prevailing
incandescent or fluorescent fixtures
during the precious seconds needed to
locate safety showers and eyewashes,
because LED-based fixtures are bet-
ter able to focus the light at an op-
timal, targeted color range, making
the safety shower or eyewash loca-
The proper design and operation of lighting
is essential to ensure plant safety and
support good maintenance practices
A Safety-Centered Approach
To Industrial Lighting
B
C
E D
F
G
Coverage
Longevity Integrity
Configuration
Candela Color
Human
factor
A
FIGURE 1. When devising the best lighting scenarios
for CPI facilities, all of these factors which infuence
the true impact that the selected lighting options will
have in the workplace must be considered
Boris Viner
Humatrack SafeLight
15_CHE_040110_EP_SAS.indd 53 3/23/10 4:12:57 PM
tion light visible at any time of the
day or night.
Meanwhile, with regard to area-illu-
mination lighting, it has been widely
accepted that where artificial light is
used, lighting level calculations could
ignore the color of the light source.
As a result, HPS light sources (whose
light falls on the yellow portion of the
spectrum) are popular in industrial fa-
cilities, even though they emit rather
poor quality of light at night.
By contrast, the newer, LED-based
lighting technologies are better able
to provide appropriate lighting that
takes advantage of the capabilities
and limitations of the human visual
system. The remainder of this article
presents a new seven-point lighting
profile that provides a unique per-
spective on the complex interactions
between the human visual system and
key aspects of artificial industrial-illu-
mination and signal-lighting options.
A new lighting profile
As shown in Figure 1, the seven-point
lighting profile presented here con-
sists of the following measurable at-
tributes: a) human factor, b) color, c)
candela, d) coverage, e) configuration,
f) longevity, and g) integrity. Each is
discussed below.
Human factor. As the biggest part of
the puzzle, the human factor is dis-
cussed first and at the greatest length,
because ultimately, many of the driv-
ers for developing the most physi-
ologically appropriate lighting relate
to the human eye. In essence, the best
lighting technologies those that
contribute greatly to overall facility
safety are those that are optimized
for the human eye.
It is important to realize that all
forms of artificial light are not the
same, and different types of light are
interpreted in different ways as a
function of the complex physiology of
the individual viewer. For instance,
the retina acts like a light-sensitive
screen at the back of the eye, and it
has many light receptors that convert
light into electrified signals sent to the
vision centers of the brain. Because of
their shapes, the two major categories
of light receptors are called cones and
rods. Cones are responsible for day vi-
sion, rods play an important role in
nighttime vision, and therefore the
sensitivity of the individual human
eye varies at different light levels.
The very central part of the retina,
the fovea, contains only cones while
the rest of the retina contains both
rods and cones. Cones are active at
high light levels and are most densely
situated in the central part of the field
of view, so when we look directly at an
object, we are using our cone recep-
tors. Cone-activated vision is defined
as photopic (day vision).
The rods are responsible for human
vision at low light levels, and are prev-
alent in the peripheral field of view,
away from our direct line of sight.
Rod-activated vision is defined as sco-
topic (night vision).
Both in theory and in practice, the
10
0
10
-1
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
300
Lm/W = Luminous efficacy, which is the light output of a light source divided by the
total electrical power input to that source, expressed in lumens per watt
nm = nanometers; All wavelengths in the color spectrum, as perceived by human
sight, are expressed in nm
The V () function represents therelativeeye sensitivity, in terms of the wavelength
of the color produced by the light
400 500
Wavelength, nm
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

e
y
e

s
e
n
s
i
t
i
v
i
t
y
,

V
(
)
600 700 800
0.1
1
E
f
f
i
c
a
c
y
,

I
m
/
W
10
100
680
V
i
o
l
e
t
B
l
u
e
G
r
e
e
n
Mesopic
LED HPS
Y
e
l
l
o
w
O
r
a
n
g
e
R
e
d
507 nm
Night
555 nm
Day
FIGURE 2. This chart shows relative eye sensitivity as a function of light wavelength,
and can be used when evaluating competing industrial area-illumination options. The
goal is to maximize effective lumens (those that can be appropriately utilized by the
human eye). Note that the optimum wavelength selection for safety showers would be
green location lights, since the wavelength falls in the mesopic region between peak
sensitivity for both day and night vision
FIGURE 3. LED-based location lighting is useful for signaling the location of safety
showers and eyewashes, since they remain visible in daylight conditions
15_CHE_040110_EP_SAS.indd 54 3/23/10 4:15:30 PM
determination of lamp lumens involves
knowing both the spectral power dis-
tribution (SPD) of the lamp and the vi-
sual response of the eye. Interestingly,
it is not simply defined as a form of
energy in the same way as other forms
of radiation; rather, it is defined as en-
ergy as evaluated by the human eye (a
reflection of the visual effect which
differs by individual that is created
by that light energy source).
Color. When it comes to how the eye
responds to color, vision scientists
have known for most of the twentieth
century that lighting conditions play
a big part. While its been widely ac-
cepted that the cones in the eye handle
day vision and the rods are designed
for night vision, up until now light-
ing manufacturers have continued
to rely on light meters to measure a
lamps lumen output that is calibrated
by examining the eyes sensitivity to
only cone-activated (photopic) vision
completely ignoring the effect of
rod-activated (scotopic) vision. Unfor-
tunately this approach represents a
gross oversimplification of how human
vision works, and signals a missed op-
portunity in terms of optimizing in-
dustrial lighting options.
This is perhaps one of the most fas-
cinating and important subjects to be
addressed for efforts to improve in-
dustrial lighting in recent years. In
the past, it has been widely accepted
that under virtually all circumstances
where artificial light is used, light-
ing level calculations could ignore
light source color, relying only on a
certain lamp lumen rating (usually
as provided by the manufacturer). In
these instances, calculated values of
candelas, lumens, or lux (lumens per
square meter) are not dependent upon
whether the light source is white, blu-
ish white, yellow or pink in nature.
However, published research in-
dicates the importance of lamp SPD.
It is only recently that the lighting
industry has begun to acknowledge
the magnitude of the color effects in-
volved, and to show serious interest in
considering the true properties of the
light. With this in mind, some light-
ing experts have started to use the
term effective lumens to define the
modified lumen output of a lamp, tak-
ing into account the shifting color sen-
sitivity of the eye at low light levels.
For example, until recently the
lumen has been defined as the amount
of light as perceived by the eye under
photopic (day) conditions. Based on
this definition, HPS lamps tend to
have high lumen ratings.
However, due to the yellow color
of the source light produced by HPS
lamps, at least half of the light cant
be effectively utilized by human eyes
at night. So, it is not as important that
the sodium lamp produces a high out-
put of energy, but rather that its en-
ergy peak is near the maximum pho-
topic sensitivity wavelength of the eye
(see Figure 2, yellow region).
As a result, one should really deter-
mine the effective lumens of the HPS
light source at scotopic (night) levels.
To do this, the lamp power at each
wavelength would need to be multi-
plied by the scotopic eye sensitivity
at each wavelength, and the values
summed. The effective lumens value,
therefore, will be different from the
conventional lumens value (which, as
noted, is considered only under photo-
pic or daytime conditions).
Because a relatively small portion of
the overall energy output of the HPS
lamp occurs at wavelengths shorter
than the peak, the effective lumens
available for scotopic (night) condi-
tions is greatly reduced. This shows
that sodium lamps (being a source of
yellow light) produce relatively little
useful light (effective lumens) for
nighttime conditions, and therefore
their effectiveness under low light lev-
els when it is essential to have ad-
equate industrial lighting is drasti-
cally reduced.
By contrast, for a white light source,
such as that produced by an LED-
based fixture, the energy output lies in
the high-sensitivity region of the eye
for low light levels (Figure 2).
As a result, the effective lumens in-
crease as the light level is reduced at
night and the eye shifts to a greater
blue/green peak sensitivity.
As shown in Figure 2, the peak sen-
sitivity of the human eye for night vi-
sion is a wavelength of 507 nanome-
ters (nm), and the peak sensitivity of
the human eye for daytime vision is a
wavelength of 555 nm. The region be-
tween these two peaks is referred to
as mesopic viewing conditions. Even
under mesopic viewing conditions,
yellow light sources have reduced ef-
fectiveness, while LED sources have
superior overall effectiveness.
To provide a mechanism to deter-
mine the true quality of light, the
author proposes the concept of a ratio
called the Quality of Light Factor
(QLF) to determine a rating for the
illumination provided by a fixture that
reflects actual lumens utilized by the
human eye. The author proposes that
the value of QLF can be simply defined
as a mininum ratio value for com-
parative purposes. For instance, if an
HPS lamp is rated with a QLF equal
0.0-0.5
0.5-1.0
1.0-1.5
1.5-2.0
2.0-2.5
2.5-3.0
3.0-3.5
3.5-4.0
4.0-4.5
4.5-5.0
5.0-5.5
5.5-6.0
6.0-6.5
6.5-7.0
7.0-7.5
7.5-8.0
8.0-8.5
8.5-9.0
9.0-9.5
9.5-10.0
10.0-10.5
10.5-11.0 3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 -2 -2.5 -3
-0.5
-1
Ratio of distance to mounting height
Isofootcandle chart, 8-ft mounting
R
a
t
i
o

o
f

d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

t
o

m
o
u
n
t
i
n
g

h
e
i
g
h
t
The isofootcandle chart is derived from the candlepower data, and shows exact plots
of equal footcandle levels on the work plane when the fixture is at a designated mounting height.
The color legend represents the intensity (candelas) of a cross-sectional photometric distribution
curve.Isofootcandle chart, 8-ft mounting
FIGURE 4. The photometric data shown here for an LED-based fxture installed at
an 8-ft (2.4-m) mounting height demonstrate how such fxtures can effectively focus
artifcial, industrial white lighting on straight lines and avoid spillage, thereby contrib-
uting to optimum illumination, especially in multi-level platforms
15_CHE_040110_EP_SAS.indd 55 3/23/10 4:16:29 PM
to one, then the QLF of the LED lamp
would need to be rated as a minimum
of 2, as the strength of the scotopic eye
sensitivity of LED light would be a
number of times greater than the sco-
topic eye sensitivity of HPS source.
It is beyond the scope of this article
to recommend actual QLF values that
should be used for different sources
under different conditions. Nonethe-
less, as a general rule of thumb, the
strength of the scotopic eye sensitivity
of an LED is a number of times higher
than that of an HPS source. Thus,
when purchasing industrial lighting
systems, the QLF of an LED-based
system should be rated much higher
than the QLF of a conventional system,
such as one based on HPS lamps.
When it comes to safety shower and
eyewash locations, lights must be visi-
ble under both daytime and nighttime
conditions. The color chart provided
in Figure 2 shows that the best type
of lights for signaling safety showers
and eyewashes are those that provide
a wavelength in the mesopic range (as
described above). As shown in Figure
3, an LED-based light fixture is per-
fectly visible during daytime condi-
tions.
Candela. Candela is a measure of the
intensity of a light source. It relates
to the light focusing capabilities
of a given light fixture and is thus a
function of the light fixtures optical
design.
Coverage. Coverage is a measure of
the amount of effective light that is
spread out for the intended area-illu-
mination application. Adequate cover-
age is achieved through optical design
of the LED fixture, to ensure optimum
light distribution for industrial white
lighting (Figure 4).
Configuration. The configuration
of a balanced lighting layout refers
to the exact positioning of the fix-
tures (Figure 6). Proper configuration
within the industrial space is essen-
tial, and it is achieved by proper spac-
ing between the stanchion mounts of
industrial lights. The goal is to ensure
optimum area illumination that usu-
ally contributes to safety.
Longevity. Longevity is a measure
of how long-lasting a light source is,
and it is a direct contributing factor
to overall facility safety, since it re-
duces the need for maintenance
personnel to climb structures to
maintain or repair light fixtures
or replace bulbs. With this in mind,
the use of state-of-the-art light fix-
tures, such as those based on LED
technology, which tends to have
longer service life compared to
other types of conventional lamp
sources (incandescent, fluorescent
and HPS), typically translates
into improved safety and reduced
maintenance and lifecycle costs.
LED-based lights also tend to have
reduced energy requirements com-
pared to conventional lamp types,
and this helps to provide a rapid
return-on-investment.
Integrity. The integrity of the cho-
sen lighting solution relates to a
fixtures optimized mechanical and
electrical design. For instance, LED
fixtures provide greater integrity
thanks to several modernizing ad-
vances that are now widely available,
such as universal input voltage capa-
bilities and much cooler temperature
ratings. Both of these aspects contrib-
ute to greater integrity, multi-applica-
tion capabilities and improved safety.
LED fixtures are also particularly
useful as a robust light source be-
cause they have no filaments, which
makes them particularly well-suited
for areas that may be exposed to
high vibration.
Additionally, in an LED system,
lumen maintenance is directly propor-
tional to thermal management. LED
systems are typically designed with
cooling fins to compensate for heat
buildup during use (Figure 5).
Recommended practices
Given the discussion presented above,
the author offers the following rec-
ommendations for optimizing light
source efficiency using LED-based
fixtures for hazardous-area illumina-
tion. Although the example discussed
below focuses on a flare-gas-recovery
plant, the following recommendations
can be considered by most chemical
plants, petrochemical units and other
CPI plants.
LED technology provides better
directional control of light than is
possible using conventional incan-
descent, fluorescent or HPS lighting
options. This is important in appli-
cations such as gas-recovery units
where numerous railings straight
walkways and multi-level structures
need to be properly illuminated. Un-
like conventional lights, some of to-
days patented LED fixtures contain
several reflectors to further optimize
light distribution. The ability to ef-
fectively focus the light on straight
lines where it is needed helps to
reduce spillage of light beyond the
target focus area to just a few feet.
LED fixtures also require lower
wattage than conventional lighting
compared to incandescent, fluores-
cent or HPS lighting options
The functional advantages described
above also enable LED lights to be
spaced at a greater distance than
what would be required using con-
ventional light fixtures. As a result,
the use of LED fixtures can help
users to reduce the number of light-
ing fixtures required to illuminate
the same area by as much as 50%
compared to the use of conventional
lighting options. The ability to use
fewer lights reduces capital costs,
installation time and costs, mainte-
nance costs and overall energy re-
quirements
Unlike conventional lights, todays
LED fixtures can easily be installed
using multiple mounting options
(that is, they can be wall-mounted or
stanchion-mounted and can be used
as side-by-side modules (Figure 6).
FIGURE 5. Todays LED-based industrial
lighting fxtures typically include cooling
fns to help disseminate heat buildup during
operation
Dialight
15_CHE_040110_EP_SAS.indd 56 3/23/10 4:17:21 PM
Large facilities often stock a few
dozen types of lighting fixtures to
be used at different locations, so the
ability to standardize on such multi-
purpose LED fixtures can drasti-
cally reduce the amount of inven-
tory the facility must manage while
still providing the desired lighting
at different locations throughout
the facility
Appropriate lighting plays a critical
role in supporting overall industrial
safety (Figure 7). Understanding the
complex properties of the human vi-
sual system provides us with the an-
swers we need to develop better and
safer lighting fixtures that will have
significant impact on overall facility
safety throughout the CPI.
The lighting profile discussed here
which considers the complex inter-
actions between competing lighting
options and the human eye pro-
vides a new methodology for evaluat-
ing and selecting competing lighting
options that are most appropriate for
industrial applications under both
daytime and nighttime applications.
With the introduction of new LED
lighting technologies in recent years,
it is now possible to provide an ideal
light source one that is designed to
take advantage of maximum retinal
efficiency in the human eye.
The recommendations provided
here aim to help CPI facilities to em-
ploy optimum color and light sources
that would be most compatible with
the physiology and functionality of the
human eye under daytime and night-
time conditions. As discussed, choos-
ing the most appropriate color during
the selection of visual signal lights can
ensure that workers will have clear
and easy access to safety showers and
other critical safety systems at any
time of the day or night.
LED lighting technology lends itself
well to industrial applications that are
considered classified hazardous areas.
A well-designed LED fixture takes
advantage of the directional charac-
terization of the LED and will deliver
more effective lumens to the targeted
application, therefore increasing the
overall system efficacy for area illumi-
nation at CPI plants.
The practical examples presented
demonstrate how the new LED light-
ing technologies in conjunction with
the QLF can contribute to improve-
ment in safety and maintenance and
save energy.
Edited by Suzanne Shelley
Acknowledgement
The author wishes to thank Dialight
Corp. (Farmingdale, N.J.; dialight.
com) for its assistance during the de-
velopment of this article.
Author
Boris Viner is president of
Humatrack SafeLight (P.O,
Box 107, Avon, CT 06001;
Phone: 860-673-3498; Email:
[email protected]).
He has worked in the light-
ing industry for more than
25 years. He holds a Masters
degree in electrical engineer-
ing and a Masters degree
in management Rensselaer
Polytechnic Inst. (RPI; Troy,
N.Y.). Viner has presented numerous papers at
technical conferences and engineering seminars,
and is a hazardous-area-lighting consultant
to industrial lighting company Dialight Corp.
(www.dialight.com).
FIGURE 6. Shown here is the appropriate positioning of LED-based light fxtures
throughout a typical fare-gas-recovery unit at a petrochemical facility
FIGURE 7. As seen in this photo, taken in the feld at a gas-recovery unit, the use of
new LED-based lighting technologies can lead to tremendous visual acuity improve-
ments at petrochemical facilities by providing adequate light where it is needed the
most (throughout the multi-level platform). Notice that the penetration of the light
from the higher elevation of the structure down to the lower foor, and the distribution
of light throughout the entire structure provides optimum overall illumination
Note: Luminaire refers to a lighting fxture that is complete with installed lamps and other accessories
15_CHE_040110_EP_SAS.indd 57 3/23/10 4:18:37 PM
October 19 - 21, 2010
Reliant Center, Hall E HOUSTON, TEXAS
cpievent.com
Chemicals & Petrochemicals. Petroleum Rening.
Pulp & Paper. Nonferrous Metals.
Stone, Clay, Glass & Ceramics. Food & Beverages. Rubber.
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P
articulate systems are every-
where; they are responsible
for bright red sunsets, the tex-
ture of chocolate and the rate
of drug delivery in the human body.
Particulate processing and size control
originated back in prehistoric times
where mixtures of pigments were
finely pulverized and used in the paint-
ing of cavern walls. From those primi-
tive beginnings, the use and processing
of particulate matter has grown to be
of paramount importance in virtually
all modern industries. For example, the
flow of granular materials, the sinter-
ing behavior of metallurgical powders,
the combustion efficiency of powdered
coal, and the hiding power and gloss
of aluminum pigments [1] are all par-
ticulate systems that are heavily in-
fluenced by particle size and shape.
Meanwhile, the past decade has seen
rapid evolution and growth of applica-
tions in nanosized particulate materi-
als, signaling that the increasing im-
portance of particle characterization is
set to continue [25].
A particle can be defined as single
unit of material having discrete physi-
cal boundaries that define its size,
usually in micrometers, m (1 m =
110
4
cm = 110
6
m). Particle sci-
ence is typically limited to particu-
late systems within a size range from
10
3
to 10
4
m, thereby encompassing
seven orders of magnitudes.
In an attempt to meet the challenge
of these remarkably wide particle
characterization requirements, from
nanosize to millimeters, a consider-
able number of technologies have been
developed over the years to measure
the size of particles.
Because of the remarkably wide
diversity of technologies for particle
sizing applications, each of which
explores the size distribution from
a different perspective, the size dis-
tributions as generated by different
methods generally do not agree. A
careful evaluation of the particulate
system to be evaluated must first be
carried out before a particular family
of technology and specific instrument
can effectively be selected. It is impor-
tant to clearly define which param-
eter (such as median, concentration
of fine particles, distribution standard
deviation, aspect ratio, and so on) is
of importance in the measurement,
along with the required precision and
accuracy needed for each identified
parameter. Items that will affect the
choice of instrumentation and need
to be considered are the working size
range, accuracy, detection limits, and
resolution of any particular technol-
ogy (Table 1). Other important items
are initial instrument cost, operational
cost, throughput, reliability, and qual-
ity of the maintenance program from
the manufacturer. Measurement vali-
dation is a must prior to committing to
any particular technology.
Effects of particle shape
When it comes to particle character-
ization, we do not live in a spherical
universe, and therefore, particle shape
issues are a leading cause of disagree-
ments between instruments. The prob-
lem with a simple linear dimensional
descriptor, such as diameter, is that it
is difficult to adequately and uniquely
specify a size for irregular shaped par-
ticles. For example, what is the size of
the particle at the center of Figure 1?
The answer depends on how you mea-
sure it. It is common practice to describe
a non-spherical particle to be equivalent
in diameter to a sphere having the same
mass, volume, surface area, settling ve-
locity (uniquely defined parameters) or
Solids Processing
Remi Trottier, Shrikant Dhodapkar and Stewart Wood
The Dow Chemical Co.
Solids Processing
Sphere with
same volume
Sphere with same
projected area
Sphere passing
the same sieve
aperture
Sphere having
same surface
area
Sphere with
same maximum
length
Particle Sizing
Across the CPI
This survey of modern measurement
technologies demonstrates how
selection criteria vary by application
FIGURE 1. Non-spherical particles can be assigned a
number of different diameters depending on which
parameter is used in the measurement process
0
1 10 100 1,000
2
4
6
8
10
Wood flour measured using an optical counter
Diameter, m
V
o
l
u
m
e
,

%
Wood flour -
less than 63 micron fraction
50 m
63 m
FIGURE 2. Different techniques measure different aspects of non-spherical par-
ticles. For example, elongated wood four particles that can pass through a sieve
along their length (left), will be reported (right) as larger particles using a technique
measuring the equivalent projected area of the particles
16_CHE_040110_SP.indd 59 3/23/10 10:49:48 AM
Solids Processing
other defined parameters as the particle
in question. For example, laser diffrac-
tion instruments report the size of irreg-
ular shaped particles as the diameter of
spherical particles having a similar dif-
fraction pattern as the particles being
analyzed. Given the wide choice of mod-
ern particle-sizing technologies that
are available, therefore, the reported
particle-size distribution often becomes
dependent on the particular brand of in-
strumentation used for measurements.
As an example, Figure 2 illustrates
the size distribution of wood flour that
passed through a 63-m sieve. The ver-
tical line on the graph represents the
63-m dia., which corresponds to the
sieve aperture. How can particles up
to 200 m pass through a 63-m aper-
ture? The answer is that different tech-
niques measure different size parame-
ters of the particles. While the <63-m
sieve dia. measurement is relatively
straightforward, the remarkably larger
particle size corresponds to a projected
surface-area diameter as measured
using an optical particle counter. There-
fore, when reporting particle size data,
it is necessary to specify the method by
which the data were generated.
Overview of technologies
A wide variety of particle measure-
ment technologies has evolved to meet
the almost endless variability of in-
dustrial needs, including both labora-
tory and online applications. Although
there has been a big push in recent
years to develop online technologies,
the vast majority of characterization
is performed in the laboratory. Taking
the laboratory to the process is prov-
ing to be a particularly challenging
problem. As we will see, some labo-
ratory technologies lend themselves
better than others for online applica-
tions.
All of the modern particle-sizing
technologies can be classified into
three broad classes:
Fractionation techniques: Tech-
nologies that fractionate particles ac-
cording to size prior to detection and
measurement
Stream counting techniques: Tech-
nologies that rapidly count and mea-
sure particles individually
Ensemble techniques: Technologies
that have the ability to measure a large
number of particles simultaneously
Depending on the type of informa-
tion that needs to be extracted from
the size analysis, one type of technol-
ogy may be advantageous over an-
other. For example, particle or stream
counters offer the ultimate resolution,
but may suffer from poor counting sta-
tistics for wide distributions. Ensem-
ble techniques offer high precision,
but can suffer from lack of accuracy
for multi-modal, or more complex dis-
tributions. Fractionation techniques
offer fairly high resolution and high
accuracy, but generally lower through-
put especially for wide distributions.
Every method, with the exception
of imaging technologies, provides the
measurement of an equivalent spheri-
cal diameter in one form or another.
The spherical diameter information can
be deduced indirectly from the behav-
ior of the particles passing through re-
stricted volumes or channels under the
influence of gravity or centrifugal force
fields, and from interaction with many
forms of radiation, or ultrasonic waves.
In addition to size information, image
analysis is the sole technology that can
also provide reliable shape information.
Fractionation techniques
This family of techniques includes
several distinct technologies in which
particles are separated by size before
being measured. Among the most com-
mon of these techniques are sieving,
sedimentation, hydrodynamic chro-
matography and field flow fraction-
ation. Some fractionation techniques
make use of models that are based on
first principles of physics and there-
fore do not need calibration, while
others do require calibration. Both the
dynamic range and the resolution of
these techniques are governed by the
efficiency of the separation process
they utilize. The resolution is typically
better than ensemble techniques, but
below that of counting methods. The
dynamic range depends on the partic-
ular technique being utilized; wet and
dry sieving can be used for measuring
particles in the size range from five to
several thousand microns; centrifugal,
and gravimetric sedimentation is use-
ful for particles from about 0.05 to 100
m; and hydrodynamic chromatogra-
phy and field flow fractionation are
typically used for particles smaller
than a few microns. The fractionation
family of methods does not lend itself
to online or in situ applications, and
therefore has not been developed for
in-process measurement.
Sieving. Sieve analysis is the work-
horse of the mineral processing indus-
try to assess ore crushing for mineral
release; in heavy construction work
to evaluate soils, sand, and gravel
for foundation stability; in powder
metallurgical operations for porosity
control; and in agriculture for grad-
ing seed quality and uniformity. One
major advantage of sieving is that it
is straightforward and low cost. How-
ever, analysis must include attention
to details, or erroneous results can
ensue. The finer mesh sieves can be
easily damaged by careless handling
and tend to become clogged with ir-
regular shaped particles. Regular in-
spection and maintenance is a must
when using sieves. Many practitioners
tend to forget that a sieve is a preci-
sion instrument and should always be
treated as such. Sieves are available
with openings from approximately 5
m upward in several series of sizes in
geometric progression (square root of
2 or 4th root of 2). Wire woven sieves
have approximately square openings;
and electroformed sieves have round,
square, or rectangular openings. Wire
0
140 160 180 200 220
10
20
30
40
Diameter, nm
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
,

a
r
b
.

u
n
i
t
s
Inflow
Field
Separated
bands
Outflow
D
A
FFF
channel
Field
Parabolic
flow profile
Accumulation
wall
B
B
C
C
W
W
Duke 150
d = 149 1 nm
Duke 150
d = 201 1 nm
FIGURE 3. Field-fow fractionation is carried out in ribbon-shaped channels from
50 to 500 m thick, where particles are separated in size bands traveling at different
velocities. The graph here shows the separation of a latex particle sample consisting
of a mixture of 150 and 200 nm populations
16_CHE_040110_SP.indd 60 3/23/10 10:57:27 AM
woven sieves tend to be sturdier and
less expensive than electroformed
sieves, and have a greater proportion
of open area. They are much more
frequently employed than their elec-
troformed counterparts except in the
very-fine particle range where only
electroformed sieves are available.
Dry sieving is typically performed by
shaking the stack manually, or using a
mechanical vibrator, or with air pulses
of sonic frequency. In another device,
agitation on the sieve is provided by
a rotating air jet [6]. In wet sieving,
water or another liquid that does not
dissolve the material, is continually
applied to facilitate particle passage.
A detergent is frequently added to
promote particle dispersion during
wet sieving, and antistatic additives
have been used to help fractionate
systems of larger particles that have a
high level of static cohesive forces. The
sieve diameter of a particle is there-
fore defined as the size of the sieve
aperture through which the particle
in question just passes through. Mass
fractions of the particles are then pre-
sented in tabular or graphical form.
Sedimentation. Sedimentation anal-
ysis is suitable for a wide variety of
materials and is used for both qual-
ity control and research work, such
as agglomeration studies, and gives
well-defined, relatively high resolu-
tion results. The technique has been
employed in the evaluation of soils,
sediments, pigments, fillers, carbon
black, phosphors, clays, minerals, pho-
tographic halides, as well as organic
particles. Measurement of the settling
rate for particles under gravitational
or centrifugal acceleration in a liquid
provides the basis of a variety of tech-
niques for determining particle sizes.
Gas-phase sedimentation has been in-
vestigated [7], but difficulties achiev-
ing adequate particle dispersion and
the effect of electrostatic charging
have restricted this application. In liq-
uid-phase sedimentation, the particles
initially may be distributed uniformly
throughout a liquid (homogeneous
start) or concentrated in a narrow
band or layer at the liquids surface
(line start). The particle movement is
monitored using light or x-ray beams.
The particle size determined by sedi-
mentation techniques is an equivalent
spherical diameter, also known as the
equivalent settling diameter, which is
defined as the diameter of a sphere of
the same density as the particle that
exhibits an identical free-fall velocity.
The terminal velocity of the particle is
determined from Stokes law, given by
Equation (1):
(1)

Where: v is the terminal velocity of
the particle, g is the gravitational con-
stant, d is the particle diameter,
p

is the particle density, is the liquid
density and is the liquid viscosity.
One of the key implications of
Stokes law is that the larger par-
ticles settle at a faster rate, which
is proportional to the square of the
diameter (v d
2
). Therefore, the set-
tling rate of a 10 m particle will be
100 times that that of a 1 m parti-
cle. This square relationship implies
good separation efficiency on the
basis of particle size, which in turn
gives sedimentation methods their
relatively high resolution.
Field-flow fractionation. Field-flow
fractionation (FFF) has been widely
used in characterizing the size of
biological materials and in the paint
and pigment industry. It is a separa-
tion technique where a field is applied
perpendicular to a particle suspen-
sion flowing through a micro channel
(Figure 3). The applied field pushes
the particles toward the bottom of
the channel while diffusion works to
oppose the applied field to form a bal-
ance where particles of different sizes
are confined to specific regions of the
channel. Since a parabolic flow ex-
ists within the channel, the particles
that are confined to a region close to
the center of the channel will travel
faster than those that are confined to
a region near the bottom of the chan-
nel thereby separating the particles.
A number of fields have been success-
fully applied, namely gravitational,
centrifugal, magnetic, thermal and
cross flow.
Hydrodynamic chromatography.
Capillary hydrodynamic fractionation
(CHDF) and hydrodynamic chroma-
tography (HDC) are two other sepa-
ration techniques that make use of
microchannels. In these techniques,
particles carried in an elution fluid are
separated in a microchannel (Figure
4a) or a column packed with spherical
material (Figure 4b). Since the larger
particles are excluded from the bound-
ary layers as the result of their size,
they travel in the central regions of
the eluent flow where the velocities
are higher. Smaller particles gravitate
to the slower flows near the wall of
the micro channels and as a result ex-
perience lower eluent velocities. This
size-dependant flow sampling creates
a fractionation where large particles
elute from the microchannels first and
smaller particles last. The composi-
tion of the eluent is carefully chosen
to control the attraction of the particu-
late to the microchannel surface. The
various size species eluting from the
microchannels are detected using an
optical detector. Instruments are cali-
brated with a series of standards of
known sizes. This technology has been
used for measuring the size distribu-
tion of colloidal systems such as latex,
organic pigments, carbon black, emul-
sions and liposomes.
Stream counters
In stream counters, also referred to as
particle counters, the particles to be
analyzed are moved through a sens-
ing zone where they are detected and
analyzed one at a time, thus produc-
ing a number-based size distribution.
Several of those methods do not oper-
ate on first principles of physics, and
therefore need to be calibrated. They
offer the ultimate in resolution, but
can suffer from poor counting statis-
tics when the data are converted from
a number distribution to a mass or vol-
ume distribution where the size range
is greater than a factor of 50 (the ratio
between the smallest and largest pos-
sible values). In an effort to increase
the dynamic range of these techniques,
most of the modern instruments come
equipped with multiple sensors, or
magnifying optics. Some of these tech-
niques have been successfully used in
online or at-line applications.
b) a)
y
x z
2r
eff
u
max
h
u(
1
/
2
h-r
eff
)
FIGURE 4. In CHDF (a) and HDC (b), the larger particles are
excluded from the boundary layers, thereby experiencing a
larger velocity (u) than the smaller particles
16_CHE_040110_SP.indd 61 3/23/10 11:04:31 AM
Solids Processing
Dynamic image analysis.
Particle characterization by
image analysis consists of ex-
amining and measuring the size
or shape of particles that have
been optically magnified. The
pioneering studies of particle
characterization by imaging tech-
nologies were carried out in the late
1960s and early 1970s. The projected
area of the profiles were estimated
by direct comparison with sets of ref-
erence circles, known as a reticule,
engraved on the eyepiece of the mi-
croscope. The ever-increasing power
of data processing capability, coupled
with the high performance and fall-
ing costs of television cameras and
scanners has led to the development
of highly sophisticated and powerful
image processing and analysis sys-
tems, which emerged in the 1980s
and early 1990s. Further advances in
microelectronics, such as faster image
capture and processing, have led to
the transformation of the highly so-
phisticated modern image analyzer
into a much faster particle-size and
shape analyzer. This new breed of in-
struments (Figure 5) has gained con-
siderable popularity within the past
decade. The particles to be analyzed
are dynamically presented to the in-
strument as dry particles carried in a
gas stream, or falling from a vibration
feeder, or as liquid dispersions mov-
ing through thin flow cells. This type
of dynamic image analysis system is
normally used for particles greater
than 5-m dia. The transformation
in technology has made it possible to
move from image analysis systems
that gave a lot of information about
few particles, to systems that quickly
give a lot of information on a lot of
particles.
Imaging technology has also been
used for online applications in the
chemical, pharmaceutical and oil-
and-gas industries.
Optical particle counters. Another
stream counter uses the principle of
light blockage to count and measure
the size of individual particles. These
instruments are widely used for mon-
itoring contamination levels in oil,
hydraulic fluids, water treatment fa-
cilities, and any other low level partic-
ulates in liquids. As a particle passes
through the sensing zone (Figure 6),
it projects a shadow onto the detector
Flow
Zoom
lens
CCD
Particles flowing
through the focal plane
of the receiving optics
Strobe light
Magnification of
the sensing zone
FIGURE 5. This dynamic
image-analysis confguration
uses strobe illumination to
freeze fast moving particles
within the focal plane of the re-
ceiving charge-coupled device
(CCD) camera. The sheath fow
can take the form of a dry aero-
sol dispersion or a wet disper-
sion fowing through a fow cell
TABLE 1. APPLICABILITY OF VARIOUS MEASUREMENT TECHNOLOGIES
Method Dynamic
Range, m
Pros Cons Medium Distribution
Type
Resolu-
tion*
Preci-
sion**
Accu-
racy***
F
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
a
t
i
o
n

t
e
c
h
n
i
q
u
e
s
Sieving
Wet / Dry
5 5,000 Low cost. No composition information
required.
Not automated. Low throughput. Shape
dependent
Wet / Dry Mass Poor Good Good
Sedimentation
/ gravitational /
centrifugal
0.05 100 Can analyze complex distributions,
Large representative sample (10
9

particles). PSD calculations simple
Stokes' Law
Limited dynamic range. Single density
samples. Longer analytical time for wide
distributions
Wet Mass Excellent Good Good
Field flow
fractionation
0.01 10 Can analyze complex distributions. Large
representative sample (10
9
particles).
No composition information required
Calibration needed. Correction for
detector response required.
Wet Mass Excellent Good Good
Hydrodynamic
chromatography /
Capillary
hydrodynamic
chromatography
0.01 2 Works well for complex distributions.
Large representative sample (10
9

particles)
Calibration needed. Particle deposition
in packed columns. Detector response
correction needed. Band broadening
correction needed. Fractionation can be
composition dependent
Wet Mass Good Good Good
S
t
r
e
a
m

c
o
u
n
t
i
n
g

t
e
c
h
n
i
q
u
e
s
Dynamic image
analysis
2 5,000 Visual representation. Shape charac-
terization possible. Rapid analysis. Can
analyze complex distributions
Limited dynamic range for each magnifi-
cation a factor of one hundred
Wet / Dry Number Excellent Good Excellent
Optical counters 0.5
5,000
Rapid analysis. Can analyze complex
distributions. Quantitative particle con-
centration. Can measure extremely low
concentration. No knowledge of compo-
sition required
Requires extensive dilution of concen-
trated dispersions. Requires refractive
index difference between particle and
suspending medium. Requires calibration
Wet / Dry Number Excellent Good Good
Electrozone
counters
0.4 600 Rapid analysis. Can analyze complex
distributions. Quantitative particle con-
centration. Can measure extremely low
concentration. No knowledge of compo-
sition required
Requires extensive dilution of concen-
trated dispersions. Limited dynamic
range per aperture. Aperture plugging.
Calibration required. Conductive solution
required
Wet Number Excellent Good Excellent
E
n
s
e
m
b
l
e

t
e
c
h
n
i
q
u
e
s
Laser diffraction 0.04
2,000
Simple operation. High throughput.
Capable of dry and wet analysis. No
calibration
Complex deconvolution algorithms. Less
accuracy for complex distributions. Re-
fractive indices necessary for accuracy
Wet / Dry Volume Good <
500 m;
> Poor
Excellent Good;
Complex
distribu-
tions poor
Dynamic light
scattering
0.01 1 Simple operation. High throughput. No
calibration required
Complex deconvolution algorithms. Less
accuracy for complex distributions
Wet Volume Poor Good Good
Acoustic
spectroscopy
0.1
1,000
High concentration. Well suited for on-
line applications
Complex deconvolution algorithms. Di-
minished accuracy for complex distribu-
tions. Much sample information required
Wet Volume Good Good Good
*Resolution: Poor = Differentiates between dp (particle size) of X and 2X; Good = Differentiates between dp of X and 1.5X; Excellent = Differentiates between dp of X and 1.1X
**Precision: Poor = Coefficient of variation (of reported size parameter) >0.1; Good = Coefficient of variation from 0.1 to 0.02; Excellent = Coefficient of variation <0.02
***Accuracy: Poor = Measured value differs (from true value) by >20%; Good = Measured value differs by 220%; Excellent = Measured value differs by <2%
16_CHE_040110_SP.indd 62 3/23/10 11:05:31 AM
which in turn produces a pulse that
is proportional to the amount of light
blockage. The pulse height is com-
pared to a calibration curve generated
from uniform particles of known size,
typically latex standards. A highly di-
luted particulate dispersion is a must
to avoid coincidence counting (mul-
tiple particles in the sensing zone).
Coincidence will affect the accuracy
of the measurement in two ways: the
particle count or concentration will be
underestimated, and the particle size
distribution (PSD) will be overesti-
mated. It is therefore important to re-
main within the concentration limits
of the instrument, as recommended
by its manufacturer.
Optical counters have been used on-
line for monitoring particulate levels
of clean liquids and gasses, well below
the parts-per-million (ppm) level. For
higher concentration slurries, a pre-
cise sample volume is extracted from
the process, injected into an autodilu-
tion system, and analyzed for size and
concentration analysis.
Electrozone counters. Another in-
strument that was introduced in 1954
by Wallace H. Coulter uses the prin-
cipal that when particles dispersed in
an electrolyte move through a small
orifice, the electrical resistance of a
current flowing through the orifice
changes. Furthermore, the change in
electrical resistance is proportional
to the volume of electrolyte displaced
by the particle. The basic principle
behind this instrument is illustrated
in Figure 7. This technology can be
found in virtually all hospital labora-
tories for analysis of complete blood
count (CBC), and has also be used ex-
tensively in the paint, ceramics and
glass industries.
Nano tracking analysis. A technique
has recently been developed where the
positions of individual nanosize par-
ticles undergoing Brownian diffusion
are tracked in realtime using a charge-
coupled device (CCD) camera mounted
on a microscope. A tracking image-
analysis software package measures
the displacement of the particles in a
two-dimensional plane using a series
of successive images and calculates the
diffusion coefficient from which the hy-
drodynamic diameter of the particle can
be evaluated. Since the particles being
tracked are too small for direct obser-
vation, a highly focused laser beam is
used to illuminate the particles, which
in turn scatter light towards the micro-
scope objective. The lower limit of this
technique is dependent on the optical
properties of the particles, and range
from 10 to 35 nm. The upper limit is
around 1 m.
Ensemble techniques
Although ensemble methods are the
least accurate and suffer from the low-
est resolution as compared to the other
classes of techniques especially in
cases of non-spherical particles and
wide distributions they are the
most widely used within virtually all
industries. Despite the inherent dis-
advantages, ensemble measurement
techniques are popular because they
are typically simple to use, offer high
throughput, have the ability to gener-
ate high-precision data and generally
do not require calibration. Very often,
in quality control, precision is the most
important attribute of a measurement
to insure consistency in the product.
Ensemble techniques have been the
most popular choice for online appli-
cations, with and without dilution.
Laser diffraction. Particle sizing by
laser diffraction is the most popular
method of particle size analysis today
and models are available from many
vendors. In laser diffraction, size dis-
tribution of a population of particles
in suspension is measured from the
angular variation in the intensity of
light scattered by the particles. Mod-
ern instruments are equipped with
modules for liquid dispersion as well
as aerosol dispersion for wet or dry
analysis. A particle with a diameter
much larger than the wavelength of
light scatters predominantly in the
forward direction (Fraunhoffer dif-
fraction), while a particle with a di-
ameter that is of the same order as
the wavelength will scatter more ef-
ficiently at wider angles. Figure 8 il-
lustrates the basic principle behind
laser diffraction instruments for the
determination of particle size distri-
bution. As an electromagnetic wave
encounters a particle, a number of
processes can occur, depending on
the size and optical properties of the
particle. Light and particle interac-
tion can take place through external
reflection, internal reflection, absorp-
Detector
Detector
output
Laser
FIGURE 6. An optical particle counter
can measure both the size and concen-
tration of particle dispersions. Laser di-
odes and incandescent light bulbs have
been used as the source of illumination
Red light
source
Back scatter detectors
Fourier
lense
Large angle detectors
Focal plane
detector
FIGURE 8. In a laser-diffraction-based size analyzer, the size distribution of a particle
population is calculated from the group diffraction pattern projected onto the detector
array. The large angle detectors are used to extend the lower limit of the size measure-
ment. Laser diffraction is the most popular method of particle size analysis today
FIGURE 7. In a resistazone coun-
ter, a pressure differential drives a
suspension of particles through a
small orifce where an electrical cur-
rent fows from one side to the other.
The volume of electrolyte displaced
within the orifce, which corresponds
to the volume of the particle, is mea-
sured electronically from the change
in resistance through the orifce
16_CHE_040110_SP.indd 63 3/23/10 11:07:08 AM
tion and diffraction. If the particle
diameter is large compared to the
wavelength, (particle diameter > 20
m) diffraction is the only significant
phenomenon that needs to be con-
sidered. If the particle diameter is of
the same order as the wavelength, a
more complex scattering theory (Mie
scattering) is applied where all light-
particle interactions need to be con-
sidered. As a result, the reliability of
laser diffraction instruments will be
highly dependant on the optical sys-
tem implemented and the robustness
of the scattering models used when
analyzing particles in the size range
below a few microns in diameter.
Over the past decade, there have
been developments that extend the
application of laser diffraction tech-
nology into in-process monitoring for
both dry and wet applications. For dry
applications, a side stream from the
process line is drawn and diluted with
clean air if necessary and delivered to
the sensing zone of the instrument.
To insure representative sampling,
automated samplers (Figure 9) have
been designed to draw a small sample
throughout the cross section of a pro-
cess pipe. This technology has been
successfully utilized for online moni-
toring of grinding and air classifying
of powders, and has been used exten-
sively in the cement industry.
For wet analysis, the key is to ex-
tract a representative sample from the
process, dilute the sample and deliver
it to the analyzer. Heavy dilution on
KEY QUESTIONS TO ASK FOR SELECTION OF PARTICLE SIZE ANALYZERS
1. What is the expected size range of particles in the sample? The
applicability of various analyzers for different size ranges is shown
in Table 1. It is better to chose an instrument such that the measured
size distribution is in the mid-range of instrument capability. Avoid
measuring near the upper or lower size limits of instruments where
the resolution and accuracy are usually lower.
2. What particle size parameter appropriately describes the
process characteristics or the product quality? Measured particle
size should be relevant to the system characteristics of interest. For
example, projected area diameter is relevant in coating applica-
tions, whereas surface-volume diameter is relevant for fluidization
applications. While numerical conversions between number, sur-
face and volume distributions can be performed, the conversions
are not accurate when the distribution is wide or when the shape
deviates from spherical. Measure what you really want, especially
when the particle shape is not spherical or the particle size range
spans more than a factor of ten.
3. Is the shape information desired as the output? If shape is
desired, imaging technology must be used.
4. Parameter of distribution of interest to be measured: a) distri-
bution tails coarse or fines; b) width of distribution; c) multi-
modal distribution. If size distribution spans less than a factor of
ten, most instruments are suitable. For multimodal distributions or
skewed distributions, avoid using laser diffraction techniques (un-
less validated). Use particle counters or fractionation techniques
instead. For wide distributions (spanning greater than a factor of
1,000 of particle size range), nothing works well. In that case,
sample must be fractionated into various cuts and then the distribu-
tions on each cut can be measured.
5. Is the absolute value of PSD important or is the change in PSD
(QC objective) important? For quality control (QC) applications,
laser diffraction is usually a good choice. It should be validated
that the instrument is capable of adequate response to control the
process proper detection of important features in a distribu-
tion (detection limit or resolution). When measurement accuracy
is desired, especially for extreme shapes (fibers, platelets, highly
irregular particles), use image analysis. For bulky materials, laser
diffraction or dynamic light scattering may be a good choice for
simple distributions; other fractionation methods may be more ap-
propriate for multi-modal or skewed distributions.
6. Does the application require online measurement? For online
measurement, a technology that can measure at process concen-
tration must be chosen or one that can auto-dilute the sample. For
measurement at high concentrations, use ultrasonic spectroscopy,
for moderate concentrations use laser diffraction, and dynamic
image analysis, and use optical counters for low concentration.
7. What are your data quality objectives (accuracy, precision and
resolution)? See Table 1.
8. What is the size of available sample? If sample size is limited, in-
struments requiring only the smallest sample are advantageous, but
if large samples are readily available, instruments using larger sam-
ples reduce sampling errors. Optical counters require the smallest
sample size and can detect and count every particle in the sample.
9. Is the native sample in dry state or in liquid dispersion? If
dry, can it be dispersed in some liquid without dissolution,
agglomeration, swelling, settling and attrition? If the sample is
in a dry and free-flowing state, preferably use a dry measure-
ment. If sample is in a wet dispersion, use a wet method. Use
proper dispersing forces to measure individual particles without
breaking them. Sample dispersibility, dilution and dispersion
stability are critical factors. Sample delivery system must bring
a representative sample to the measuring zone no settling or
segregation of larger particles. All fractionation techniques, ul-
trasonic spectroscopy and dynamic light scattering are suitable
for wet analysis. Dynamic image analysis and laser diffraction
can be performed in both wet and dry modes.
10. Is the sample composed of a single component or multiple
components with different physical properties (differing in opti-
cal properties or densities)? Any optical detectors will be affected
by multicomponent systems having different indices of refraction.
Multicomponents with different densities will cause errors in sedi-
mentation techniques. If particles are transparent and are a close
match to the refractive index of the suspending medium, particles
will be difficult or impossible to detect.
11. Is the suspending medium transparent? All optical devices
need a transparent medium. For opaque medium, consider ultra-
sonics and x-ray detection or wet sieving. Sample dilution is an-
other possibility.
12. How reliable is the technology? Consider a) frequency of
calibration requirements and cost, and ease of calibration; b)
extent of automation; c) operator dependence; d) mean time
between failures. Calibration is usually not a big issue mod-
ern instruments do not need frequent calibrations. All instru-
ments need frequent verification using commercial or in-house
standards. Most modern instruments are automated. Ensemble
instruments (such as laser diffraction) tend to be simpler to use
and have higher throughput. Most modern instruments are reli-
able and can operate a long time between failures.
13. What is the cycle time (which includes sample preparation,
analysis and cleaning)? Most ensemble techniques perform auto-
matic rinsing and cleaning. Single particle counters are more dif-
ficult to rinse because a higher degree of cleanliness is necessary.
Fractionation technology tends to have a longer analytical time for
wide distributions. Fractionation is slower than an ensemble ap-
proach but offers higher resolution.
14. Is the technique capable of handling hazardous samples and
limiting potential operator exposure to hazards during prepara-
tion, analysis and cleaning? Ask for special provision to handle
hazardous materials. Most particle size analyzers are not designed
for handling highly hazardous materials. Specified modifications
must be made, such as, a closed sample loop, isolation in an en-
closed space or hood, or special ventilation.
16_CHE_040110_SP.indd 64 3/23/10 11:10:11 AM
the order of 1,000:1 is sometimes per-
formed using multistage samplers.
Dynamic light scattering. Another
ensemble technology for measuring
colloidal systems that has become
popular over the past decade uses the
Brownian diffusion of the particles
to deduce the size distribution. This
technology is known as dynamic light
scattering, photon correlation spec-
troscopy or quasi-elastic light scat-
tering. As a beam of laser light shines
through a colloidal dispersion, a large
number of small particles encountered
by the beam will scatter light in all di-
rections. Careful monitoring of the in-
tensity of this scattered light reveals
fluctuations in its intensity over time.
Those fluctuations, in which the size
information of the particles is buried,
are caused by the random Brownian
motion of the particles. The higher
diffusivity of the smaller particles
generates higher frequency fluctua-
tions, while the larger particles gen-
erate lower frequency fluctuations. A
signal processing technique known
as autocorrelation is typically used to
extract the particle size information.
This technique is suitable for any col-
loidal dispersion ranging in size from
about 0.005 to 1 m, is very reliable
for unimodal distributions, and has
been used extensively for the study of
microemulsions, liposomes and latex.
For suspensions having broad distri-
butions, or for multimodal distribu-
tions, the extraction of the particle size
distribution from the autocorrelation
function becomes extremely difficult,
and is therefore unreliable.
Acoustic spectroscopy. Recently,
a technique has been developed to
probe particles suspended in a liquid
medium using ultrasound, thereby
exploiting the inherent advantage
that sound can propagate through
opaque, high-concentration disper-
sions. Furthermore, sound waves in-
teract with particle sizes ranging from
0.01 to 1,000 m, thereby covering a
remarkably broad range. A sonic wave
is sent through the dispersion, which
is mechanically agitated to maintain
a homogeneous suspension, and its
attenuation is measured. The dis-
tance traveled by the sonic wave is
accurately known. The attenuation
measurement resulting from the vari-
ous extinction mechanisms (viscous,
thermal, scattering and diffraction)
is repeated for a series of frequencies
ranging from 1 to 150 MHz.
Two distinct approaches are being
used to extract particle size data from
the attenuation spectrum: an empiri-
cal approach based on the Bouguer-
Lambert-Beer law and a more fun-
damental or first-principles approach
[8]. The first-principle approach im-
plies that no calibration is required,
but certain physical constants of both
phases such as speed of sound,
density, thermal coefficient of expan-
sion, heat capacity, thermal conduc-
tivity, attenuation of sound, viscosity
for fluid phase and shear rigidity for
solid phase are required for accu-
rate measurements. Ultrasonic spec-
troscopy technology, developed in the
early 1990s, is proving useful in the
lubricant and food industries for mea-
surement of oil-in-water emulsions at
process concentrations. As this tech-
nology further develops and matures,
it is anticipated that it will find a
wider range of industrial applications,
especially for online applications.
Edited by Rebekkah Marshall
Process pipe
Sampling
tube
Sample outlet
Sample inlet
Spiral path of
sample tube inlet
100
100
50
50 50
100
100
50
FIGURE 9. This au-
tomated sampler is
capable of extracting
representative sam-
ples for dry material
being transported
through pipes. The
sampled material
is transported from
the sample outlet
and delivered to
the instrument for
analysis
Authors
Remi Trottier is a senior
specialist in the Solids Pro-
cessing Discipline of Engi-
neering & Process Sciences
at The Dow Chemical Co.
(Phone: 979-238-2908; Email:
[email protected]). He re-
ceived his Ph.D. in chemical
engineering from Loughbor-
ough University of Technol-
ogy, U.K,, and M.S. and B.S.
degrees in Applied Physics
at Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ont. He has
more than 20 years of experience in particle char-
acterization, aerosol science, air filtration and sol-
ids processing technology. He has authored some
20 papers, has been an instructor of the course
on Particle Characterization at the International
Powder & Bulk Solids Conference/Exhibition for
the past 15 years, and has authored an article on
particle characterization for the Kirk-Othmer
Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology.
Shrikant V. Dhodapkar
is a fellow in the Dow Elas-
tomers Process R&D Group
at The Dow Chemical Co.
(Freeport, TX 77541; Phone:
979-238-7940; Email: sdhod-
[email protected]). He received
his B.Tech. in chemical en-
gineering from I.I.T-Delhi
(India) and his M.S.Ch.E. and
Ph.D. from the University of
Pittsburgh. During the past
20 years, he has published numerous papers on
particle technology and contributed chapters to
several handbooks. He has extensive industrial
experience in powder characterization, fluidiza-
tion, pneumatic conveying, silo design, gas-solid
separation, mixing, coating, computer modeling
and the design of solids processing plants. He is
a member of AIChE and past chair of the Par-
ticle Technology Forum.
Stewart Wood is a research
scientist in the Analytical Sci-
ences Laboratory at The Dow
Chemical Co. (Midland, MI
48667; Phone: 989-636-5555;
Email: [email protected]). He
received his M.S. and B.S.
degrees in Chemistry from
Clarkson University, Potsdam,
N.Y. He has more than 26 years
of experience in the areas of
particle-, spray- and fluid-flow
characterization technologies. He has been an in-
structor for more than six years at an ACS course
on modern methods of particle size characteriza-
tion and has authored a chapter on particle size
measurement in The Handbook of Instrumental
Techniques for Analytical Chemistry.
Source: Sympatec GmbH
References
1. Rolles, Rolf, and Luyk, Kenneth, Chapter 2:
Aluminum Pigments and Aluminum-Pig-
mented Coatins, in Treatise on Coatings, Vol. 3
Pigments Part I Myers, Raymond, and Long,
J.S. eds., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1975.
2. Allen, T., Particle Size Analysis 4th ed.,
Chapmann and Hall, London, 1992.
3. Provder, T., ed. Particle Size Analysis ACS
Symposium Series 332, American Chemical
Soc., Washington, D.C., 1987.
4. Weiner, B.B., Chapter 3: Particle Sizing
Using Photon Correlation Spectroscopy in

Modern Methods of Particle Sizing, Barth,
H., ed., Wiley Interscience, New York, 1984.
5. Trottier, Remi and Wood, Stewart, Particle
Size Measurement, in Kirk Othmer Ency-
clopedia of Chemical Technology, Wiley In-
terscience, New York, 2005.
6. Wahl, B. J. and Larouche, P., Am. Ceram. Soc.
Bull., 43, 377, 1964.
7. Eadie, F. S. and Payne, R. E., Iron Age, 174,
99, 1954.
8. F. Alba, C. L. Dobbs, and R. Sparks, Proc.
SPIE-Int. Soc. Opt. Eng. 1430. 36 (1991).
16_CHE_040110_SP.indd 65 3/23/10 11:20:36 AM
N
on-chemical methods for
conditioning water for use
in cooling towers and boilers
have been investigated, mar-
keted and installed for over 100 years.
In light of the recent incentives to go
green, these methods offer engineers,
operators and owners the option of
replacing corrosive, toxic chemicals
with physical or mechanical processes
that claim to produce the same or
superior results to those obtained by
traditional chemical treatment meth-
ods often without many of the at-
tendant environmental, health and
safety concerns.
Because of the growing interest in
conserving water, reducing discharge
of chemicals into the environment,
limiting exposure of workers to haz-
ardous chemicals, and the ever-pres-
ent need to save energy, engineers are
once again reviewing the benefits of
non-chemical water treatment meth-
ods. A review of the literature along
with many years of experience indi-
cates that some of these methods pro-
duce results as promised by the manu-
facturer, whereas others fall short of
this goal.
The array of non-chemical water
treatment equipment is impressive.
And the assertions for the benefits
derived from using these devices are
equally impressive. A simple, but not
all-inclusive, list of equipment types is
as follows:
Magnetic
Electrostatic
Ultrasonic
Galvanic or cathodic
Electro-chemical
Electro-deposition
Electro-deionization (EDI)
Membrane separation
Ozone
Ultraviolet
The claims made for these devices in-
clude the prevention of scale in boilers
and heat exchangers and the control of
corrosion on steel, copper, galvanized
steel and other alloys. In the case of
cooling tower operation, certain non-
chemical methods are claimed to re-
duce bacterial growth that produces
biofilms on system components.
This article offers an unbiased pre-
sentation and discussion of the claims
made for the various non-chemical
water treatment methods, a scientific
explanation for how they work (or
dont work), and recommendations for
the selection and use of non-chemical
water-treatment equipment in utility
and process applications.
Magnetic field devices
Magnetic fields created by permanent
and electromagnets are incorporated
into many water conditioning devices.
As early as 1873, A.T. Hay was issued
a patent for the use of an electromag-
netic field to prevent scale in steam
locomotives. Since then, permanent
magnets have been mounted inside
pipe sections and reaction chambers
or clamped to the outside of pipe runs
to cause the water to be conditioned as
it flows through the magnetic field.
More recently, induction coils (sole-
noids) producing anywhere from 0.060
to 100-kHz electromagnetic fields
have been used to condition water.
The coil is wrapped around a length of
PVC or stainless-steel pipe to form a
reaction chamber as shown in Figure
1. The strength of the magnetic field
is proportional to the current flowing
through the coil and the number of
turns of the wire.
The manufacturers of this equip-
ment claim that it controls scale in
heat exchangers by modifying the sur-
face charge on particulate matter in
the water. This allows scale-forming
ions, such as calcium and carbonate,
to react on the surface of the particu-
late or colloidal matter resulting in the
formation of calcium carbonate powder
Environmental Manager
William F. Harfst
Harfst and Associates, Inc.
FIGURE 1. The efficacy of magnetic
felds for reducing scaling, such as
those produced by passing current
through coils wrapped around a pipe,
has been controversial for many years
Non-Chemical
Water
Treatment
E
0
Reaction chamber
Water
in
Water
out
Mechanical
processes can offer
an environmentally
friendly and safer option
to chemical water
treatment
17_CHE_040110_EM.indd 66 3/24/10 9:42:35 AM
that preferentially settles out in
the tower basin or is removed by
a sidestream separator instead of
forming hard, calcite scale in the
heat exchanger.
The magnetic field is also said
to control bacteria populations by
electroporation. By this method,
bacteria cell walls are ruptured
by exposure to electromagnetic
fields that vary in strength over
time.
A major disagreement and de-
bate exists in the literature and
amongst consultants on the efficacy
of magnetic water-conditioning
equipment. Most of the research
on this subject has been conducted
in the former Soviet Union with very
favorable results. These devices are
reported to be used with great success
and economic advantage.
The results of independent inves-
tigations performed in the U.S., how-
ever, are almost universally negative.
In a well-publicized paper presented
in 1958 at the AWWA Annual Confer-
ence by Eliassen, Skrinde and Davis of
the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology [1], the conclusions reached by
these researchers indicated that mag-
netic water conditioners produced no
measurable or permanent change in
the physical or chemical properties
of water in terms of the ability of the
magnetic field to alter scale forma-
tion or inhibit corrosion. The effect,
if any, of the magnetic field would be
limited to the residence time inside
the reaction chamber. The magnetic
field does not impart any permanent
alteration of the chemical properties
of the water.
This is not to say that electromag-
netic devices do not have their ardent
supporters. Very favorable results have
been reported by investigators, but
these are generally based on empirical
evidence, visual inspections and testi-
monials from satisfied users. Typically,
the research is conducted using proto-
cols established by the manufacturers
of the equipment who have a financial
interest in the outcome of the evalu-
ation. Clearly, further research by an
independent, unbiased organization
is required to verify and substantiate
the claims made by the marketers of
magnetic water conditioners.
Electrostatic devices
Another class of non-chemical water
conditioning devices focuses on pass-
ing the water through an electrostatic
charge. These are designed with a
positively charged insulated, central
electrode that is inserted into the
center of a grounded cylindrical cas-
ing, which serves as the negative elec-
trode. The application of high voltage
on the central electrode produces an
electrostatic charge across the annu-
lar space between the electrodes. The
water is conditioned as it flows rapidly
through the electrostatic field.
These units operate at 110120 V
(60 Hz), but typically draw a very low
current of about 0.1 A. This suggests
that very little work is done since the
power requirement is only 1 to 2 W.
These devices are said to work by
virtue of the water molecules being
rearranged into an orderly array be-
tween the electrodes. This causes the
scale-forming ions, such as calcium
and magnesium, to be surrounded by
a cloud of water molecules, thus pre-
venting scale formation. The device is
also claimed to remove old scale de-
posits by promoting increased solubil-
ity through reduced surface tension of
the water.
In addition to scale prevention, the
manufacturers of electrostatic water-
conditioning equipment claim that bac-
teria are controlled by disruption of the
charged surfaces of the cell wall. This
interferes with the organisms ability
to absorb nutrition and reproduce.
Like with the magnetic water con-
ditioners, little independent evidence
exists in the U.S. to support the
claims made by the electrostatic
equipment manufacturers beyond
testimonials and subjective visual
inspections of plant equipment.
Several of these devices were ac-
tively marketed in the 1970s by
reputable industrial-equipment
manufacturers, but have since been
discontinued.
Ultrasonic water treatment
Ultrasonic water treatment is pri-
marily targeted at preventing or
controlling bacterial growth in
water-using systems. Sound waves
outside the range of human hear-
ing are produced by a low power,
high-frequency generator inside a re-
action chamber. The microorganisms
are destroyed by the ultrasonic wave
energy that causes fatal changes in-
side the bacteria cells.
The medical literature indicates
that high-energy ultrasonic genera-
tors have been shown to be effective in
killing bacterial and viral organisms.
However, this requires high power and
a prolonged contact time. Sizing a unit
for a typical industrial cooling tower
that is capable of providing sufficient
power (kilowatts) at the design flow-
rate is a challenge.
Notwithstanding the size of the unit,
the antibacterial properties of the ul-
trasonic device are limited to killing
organisms that are free-floating in
the water (planktonic). The ultrasonic
waves produce no residual effect and
are, therefore, incapable of controlling
or limiting the growth of biofilms (ses-
sile organisms) and algae.
Electrochemical methods
Several classes of water treatment
equipment are designed around the
fundamental scientific principles of
electrochemistry. These rely on an
anode (+), a cathode (-), a current path,
and an electrolyte (in this case water).
A simple illustration of an anode/cath-
ode cell is depicted in Figure 2.
Sacrificial anodes and cathodic
protection: Corrosion is consid-
ered to be an electrochemical pro-
cess whereby current flows from the
anode to the cathode. A chemical re-
action (oxidation) occurs at the anode
causing metal to be dissolved into
E
0
e- e-
Current flow
Anode Cathode
FIGURE 2. Electrochemical cells can be used
to generate small quantities of chlorine or bro-
mine for water treatment
17_CHE_040110_EM.indd 67 3/24/10 9:43:04 AM
Environmental Manager
the water; that is, corrosion occurs at
the anode. A complementary chemi-
cal reaction (reduction) occurs at the
cathode. No corrosion occurs at the
cathode as it is protected by the cur-
rent that flows onto the metal surface
from the anode.
If two dissimilar metals are coupled
together in an anode/cathode cell, the
less noble or less stable metal will
become the anode. The anode is sac-
rificed thereby protecting the more
noble metal, which functions as the
cathode. Thus, if zinc is coupled with
steel, for example, the zinc anode will
be consumed as current flows from the
zinc onto the steel. The higher the cor-
rosion current, the faster the anode
will be consumed. Galvanized steel is
thus protected by virtue of the 34 mil
zinc coating being slowly sacrificed to
protect the underlying steel.
It is possible to enhance the corro-
sion protection by impressing a d.c.
current from either a battery or rec-
tifier. In this case, the impressed cur-
rent flows from the anode through
the water and onto the cathode. Suf-
ficient overvoltage must be applied
to establish a current density on the
metal surface that is sufficient to
maintain passivation of the metal to
be protected. The negative terminal of
the rectifier must be connected to the
structure to be protected, otherwise
it will be established as the anode (+)
and corrode. This corrosion control
method is used to protect buried and
underwater structures, gas pipe lines,
ship hulls and water towers through-
out the world.
Electrolysis: Direct current (d.c.) elec-
tricity is used to produce oxidation/re-
duction chemical reactions in a variety
of chemical processes. Chlorine, caus-
tic soda, aluminum, magnesium and
copper are made or refined industri-
ally in large electrochemical cells.
On a smaller scale, electrolysis can
be used to generate chlorine and bro-
mine on site from an electrolytic cell
that uses sodium chloride salt or a
mixture of sodium chloride and so-
dium bromide salts as the feedstock.
In this case, a prepared 34% brine
solution is used to produce chlorine at
the anode with hydrogen and hydrox-
ide produced at the cathode. The chlo-
rine is mixed with water to produce a
0.40.8% sodium hypochlorite
solution that is either stored
in a holding tank for future
use or dosed directly from the
generator into the tower. The
hydrogen is vented to the at-
mosphere.
Onsite electrochemical chlo-
rine generators eliminate the
need to store gaseous chlorine,
which is a regulated substance,
and 12% liquid chlorine, which
is corrosive and tends to slowly
decompose during storage.
Electro-deposition: One of the
fundamental goals in cooling
tower operation is to prevent
scale deposition on heat trans-
fer surfaces due to the precipi-
tation of sparingly soluble salts
of calcium carbonate, magne-
sium hydroxide and silica. This
is traditionally accomplished by
the judicious control of tower
bleed to limit the cycles of concentra-
tion. Chemical scale inhibitors are also
routinely used to enhance the solubil-
ity of these scale-forming salts.
More recently, a new method of
scale control has been introduced that
removes these scale forming impuri-
ties by the electrochemical deposition
of calcium and magnesium (and other)
salts at the cathode of an electrochem-
ical cell. Direct current is applied to
the cell at a rate sufficient to drive the
precipitation reactions at the cathode.
These devices are electro-synthesis
cells that produce a buildup of calcium
hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide and
other salts at the cathode. These insol-
uble salts are then removed to allow
the continued flow of current from
anode to cathode.
The driving force for the electro-
chemical cell reaction is determined
by the voltage applied between the
electrodes. The total voltage is de-
termined by the theoretical voltage,
which is the sum of the anode and
cathode half-cell voltages; the over-
voltage required to achieve the de-
sired production level; and the elec-
trolyte resistivity (water resistivity).
This determines the total cell voltage
required to drive the reaction.
The current requirement can be es-
timated from a formula worked out by
Faraday that expresses the quantity
of electric charge required to produce
the desired yield of precipitated salt.
This is the product of the electric cur-
rent and the length of time it flows
through the cell. The estimated power
requirement is determined by multi-
plying the voltage times the current
flow to yield the kilowatt-hour per
kilogram of salt produced. Because of
the high electrical resistance of water,
the power cost for this process can be
significant over traditional chemical
treatment methods.
Other factors that should be re-
viewed with this process include the
cost for equipment maintenance, sol-
ids disposal and electrode replace-
ment. As with all electrochemical pro-
cesses, the selection and durability of
the anode is important.
Microbiological control
Ozone: Ozone is second only to fluo-
rine as an oxidizing agent. As such,
ozone functions as a very strong oxi-
dizing biocide in cooling towers and
drinking water systems. It has been
marketed as an alternative to other
oxidizing biocides, such as chlorine
and bromine, for bacteria and algae
control in cooling towers since 1970.
Ozone is produced in a corona dis-
charge generator by passing a stream
of dry air through an electric arc to
yield O
3
. The generators come in vari-
A
n
o
d
e

(
+
)
C
a
t
h
o
d
e

(
-
)
Feedwater in
Purified water stream
Concentrated reject stream
FIGURE 3. Electro-deionization is similar to
reverse osmosis in that it utilizes ion exchange
membranes and resins to separate the feedwater
into a purifed water stream and a concentrated
brine stream
17_CHE_040110_EM.indd 68 3/24/10 9:43:42 AM
ous output capacities depending on
the rated capacity of the cooling tower
and microbiological demand. Typi-
cally, 0.5 to 1.0 lb of ozone per 100 tons
of air conditioning is employed. The
power consumption is about 15 kWh
per pound of ozone produced.
Most experts agree that ozone is very
effective in controlling microbiological
growths in cooling towers. However,
additional claims by ozone proponents
that it conserves water, prevents scale
deposition and mitigates corrosion
are in dispute. Some ozone programs
have been applied with no tower bleed
resulting in the deposition of a white
sludge in the tower basin and low flow
areas of the system. Because it is such
a strong oxidizing agent, ozone tends
to attack materials of construction if
overly applied or poorly controlled.
Ultraviolet light: Ultraviolet (UV)
lamps produce light with a wave-
length of 254 nm. When bacteria are
exposed to UV radiation, the organ-
isms are rendered unable to reproduce
and thus considered dead. This pro-
cess is most effective in water that is
relatively clean and pure to minimize
the absorption of light by suspended
solids and other debris.
The UV dosage required to destroy
microorganisms is measured in micro-
watt-seconds per centimeter squared
(Ws/cm
2
). Depending on the organ-
ism (bacteria, yeast, mold, viruses,
algae), this can vary from 2,500 to
over 26,000 Ws/cm
2
.
Ultraviolet light is only lethal dur-
ing the time that the organism is ex-
posed directly to the light. It produces
no residual effect in the water and
therefore, does not kill biofilms that
form on surfaces not exposed to the
UV radiation.
Membrane separation
Another class of non-chemical water
treatment methods that have come
into their own in the last 30 years is
reverse osmosis (RO) and electro-de-
ionization (EDI). These processes re-
move over 99% of the dissolved solids
present in the raw feedwater to pro-
duce a purified water stream.
Reverse osmosis (RO): RO utilizes
a pressure differential across a semi-
permeable membrane to reject dis-
solved salts at the membrane surface
while allowing the purified water to
permeate through the pores of the
membrane. These membrane separa-
tors have been fabricated in a vari-
ety of configurations including spiral
wound and hollow fiber modules. (For
more information, see: Strategies for
Water Reuse, CE, September 2009, pp.
3439.)
The RO process produces a concen-
trated brine stream that is typically
25% of the feedwater flow. As such,
reverse osmosis has a lower recovery
rate of 75% as compared to ion ex-
change. Unless a use for the RO reject
is found, reverse osmosis will consume
more fresh water than ion exchange.
On the positive side, RO is a contin-
uous process that doesnt require the
use of regeneration chemicals like con-
centrated acid and caustic soda that
are used in the batch regeneration of
ion exchange demineralizers.
Electro-deionization (EDI): This
process is similar to RO in that it uti-
lizes ion exchange membranes and
resins to separate the feedwater into
a purified water stream and a concen-
trated brine stream. Instead of pres-
sure differential, however, this is done
in conjunction with an electric field
produced by the potential difference
between an anode (+) and cathode
(). The potential difference between
the electrodes creates the driving
force across the membrane. Positively
charged ions selectively pass through
the membrane and are attracted to
the cathode. Negatively charged ions
are separated by the membrane and
move toward the anode. The result is
a final product stream of de-ionized
water as illustrated in Figure 3.
Reverse osmosis and electro-deion-
ization are used in many applications
to replace more traditional ion-ex-
change processes. When used in place
of ion exchange demineralizers, for
example, the acid and caustic regen-
eration chemicals can be eliminated.
This limits worker exposure to these
chemicals, reduces the amount of acid
and caustic discharged to waste, and
eliminates the need to purchase, ship,
store and handle corrosive chemicals.
Concluding remarks
The non-chemical water treatment
methods discussed in this article
share one thing in common. They uti-
lize electric current in one fashion or
another to condition water. Instead
of buying, shipping, storing and feed-
ing chemicals to prevent scale, miti-
gate corrosion, and control microbio-
logical growths, these devices simply
plug into the wall. This feature offers
many benefits at a time when plants
are seeking ways to decrease worker
exposure to hazardous chemicals and
reduce waste disposal costs.
However, as indicated, some of
these devices make claims that are
difficult to substantiate based on
independent, unbiased, scientific
evaluation. As expected, the manu-
facturers of this equipment offer tes-
timonials and case studies to support
their claims. Notwithstanding claims
to the contrary, many cases have been
reported where the equipment failed
to perform as advertised, resulting in
equipment damage and unscheduled
downtime. For this reason, it is best
to seek the advice of an unbiased,
knowledgeable expert when consider-
ing the application of non-chemical
water treatment methods.
The good news is that when prop-
erly applied, many of the non-chem-
ical technologies discussed in this
article help plants conserve water,
reduce chemical consumption, mini-
mize waste, and save energy. This is
not only good for the environment, but
good for business, too. n
Edited by Gerald Ondrey
Reference
1. Eliassen, R., Skrinde, R. T., Davis, W. B., Ex-
perimental Performance of Miracle Water
Conditioners, J.Am. Water Works Assoc., Vol.
50, No. 10, October 1958.
Author
William Harfst is president
of Harfst and Associates, Inc.,
an independent water man-
agement consulting firm (P.O.
Box 276, Crystal Lake, Ill.
60039; Phone: (815) 477-4559;
Email: [email protected]; Website:
www.harfstassociates.com).
He has over 36 years of water
treatment experience help-
ing industrial, institutional,
commercial and government
clients select, apply and control water treatment
programs for boiler, cooling and wastewater ap-
plications. He graduated from the University of
Illinois with a B.S. in Chemistry cum laude in
1972 and went on to hold various technical and
management positions with three major water
treatment companies before starting his con-
sulting practice in 1991. His current focus is on
helping clients conserve water, reduce chemical
consumption, minimize waste and save energy.
17_CHE_040110_EM.indd 69 3/24/10 9:44:19 AM
Flowrate totalizer
simplies the sums
Specifically designed for computing
and displaying flowrates and totals
from flowmeters with pulse, sine-wave
or frequency outputs, the RT20 Rate
Totalizer (photo) can be battery or ex-
ternally powered and features a large
six-digit LCD total, eight-digit cumula-
tive totalizer and five-digit rate display.
The instrument displays resettable
(batch) total, cumulative total and in-
stantaneous flowrate in engineering
units as programmed by the user. A
robust IP66/67-NEMA 4X aluminum
field and panel mountable housing
makes the unit suitable for the most
rugged applications. It also features a
backlit panel enabling distance viewing
at night when de-powered. The RT20 is
designed for simple PIN protected flow-
chart programming with English lan-
guage prompts guiding users through
the programming routine thereby re-
ducing the need to refer to the instruc-
tion manual. Trimec (Europe) Ltd,
Haywards Heath, West Sussex, U.K.
www.trimec-europe.com
Vortex owmeters ght corro-
sion with a stainless steel shield
The Rosemount 8800D Series of vortex
flowmeters (photo) has recently been
expanded to include stainless-steel
transmitter housings, which are often
required for applications in corrosive
environments. The new housing in-
creases the reliability and longevity of
the transmitter in these environments,
greatly reducing the overall cost of
ownership. Typical applications for the
non-clogging, minimal leak-point de-
sign include food, beverage and life sci-
ence applications, where the numerous
chemical processes and clean-in-place
solutions can result in corrosion and
premature failure, plus offshore oil
and gas applications and high pressure
gas or water injection for enhanced oil
recovery. Emerson Process Manage-
ment, Baar, Switzerland
www.emersonprocess.eu
New product line is certied for
greenhouse gases measurement
This new line of GHG mass flowme-
ters (photos, top right) is certified by
the manufacturer for compliance with
the U.S. EPAs recent greenhouse gas
(GHG) reporting rule (40 CFR Part 98;
for more see CE, March, p. 17). Certified
mass flowmeters provide an economi-
cal way to totalize methane or natural
gas burned, enabling the calculation
of CO
2
equivalent emissions, says the
manufacturer. Meanwhile, models are
available for producing highly accurate
and repeatable results for CH
4
as well
as N
2
O, SF
6
, HFCs, PFCs and CO
2
,
as called out in the EPA mandate. To
make it easier for customers facing this
measurement challenge, a team of flow
application and service engineers has
been trained in the EPAs
GHG reporting rule and
is available to answer cus-
tomer questions. Sierra
Instruments, Monterey, Calif.
www.sierrainstruments.com
Monitor non-condensing and
saturated steam within 1%
Designed for boiler monitoring and
other energy-related uses, RNS Series
(insertion) and RWS Series (wafer)
vortex steam flowmeters are suitable
for measuring non-condensing steam
and saturated process steam at pres-
sures up to 150 psi. The meters have
no moving parts and are virtually
maintenance-free, working in operat-
ing temperatures of 20 to 366F. The
units can compensate for changes in
temperature and pressure, achieving
accuracies of 1% of reading and re-
peatability of 0.5%. Racine Feder-
ated, Racine, Wisc.
www.racinefed.com/vortex.cfm
Dust-proof, water-proof and suit-
able for hazardous environments
Designed according IP65 requirements
for dust- and water-proof operation,
the new In-Flow CTA mass flowme-
ters (photo) work on the basis of direct
through-flow measurement (no bypass),
following the constant-temperature-
anemometer principle. The modular,
rugged construction contains no mov-
ing parts and has no obstructions to the
flow path, which makes the instruments
Trimec
FOCUS ON
Flow Measurement
Sierra Instruments
Emerson Process Management
18_CHE_040110_CUS.indd 70 3/24/10 11:41:05 AM
ideal for low pressure-drop applications
and virtually insensitive to moisture
or particulates. ATEX approval covers
use in Category 3, Zone 2 hazardous
areas. The flowmeters can be combined
with integrated or close-coupled control
valves to form compact, digital mass-
flow controllers, covering the range of
10200 mL/min up to 505,000 L/min.
Bronkhorst High-Tech B.V., Ruurlo,
The Netherlands
www.bronkhorst.com
Convert local ow signals for
long distance transmission
Signet 8550 Meters (photo) convert the
signal from a Signet flow sensor into a
420-mA signal for long distance trans-
mission. Features include single or
dual input/output, two optional relays
for process control, and scalability for
virtually any flow range or engineer-
ing unit. Suitable applications include
flow control, monitoring and leak detec-
tion of water and wastewater and other
chemical process applications. The 8550
is available in three packaging options
for maximum configuration flexibility:
integral-pipe, universal field mount or
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sein knnen. Schwerbehinderte Bewerberinnen und Bewerber werden bei ansonsten im
Wesentlichen gleicher Eignung bevorzugt eingestellt.
Die Technische Universit t Mnchen hat sich in der Exzellenzinitiative des Bundes und der L
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erhhen. Wissenschaftlerinnen werden deshalb nachdrcklich um ihre Bewerbung gebeten.
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The TECHNlSCHE UNlvERSlTT MNCHEN is creating a new core competence in its strategic
development through trans-disciplinary teaching and research activities. New professorships are being
created to stimulate activity across the faculties. To this end, these professorships will require teaching and
research in two or more faculties.

TUM Center for E|ectr|ca| Mob|||ty
Cha|r for Techn|ca| E|ectrochem|stry

A research center for electrical mobility is being developed in the MUNlCH SCHOOL OF ENGlNEERlNG with
the participation of several faculties of engineering and natural sciences. ln this context a new chair for
Technical Electrochemistry will be created under the leadership of the faculty for chemistry. A complete
concept for an economically and technologically promising electric vehicle of the future will be developed in
the Center for Electrical Mobility.

The scientific emphasis of the professorship will be the fundamentals of electrochemistry, in particular in the
development of new electrochemical storage for electrical mobility. The professorship is intended to
strengthen existing activities in storage cell technology by improving the current technologies as well as
developing completely new storage systems. We are looking for an internationally distinguished individual
with research achievements in the area of electrochemical systems.

The teaching activity will cover the complete range of electrochemistry as well as energy sciences. The
professorship will also include participation in the planned master course of studies for electrical mobility, as
well as related courses of studies which will be set up. Appointment is planned at the level of Full Professor
(W3j.

Formal requirements for the professorship are a university diploma, teaching qualifications and a PhD
degree. Excellent research accomplishments are obligatory; these may have been gained outside of
academia. Postdoctoral teaching experience or a formal lecturing qualification is required. Applicants should
not have passed the age of 52 at the time of their nomination. Well justified exceptions to the age limit are
possible.

Persons with disabilities will be given preference over other applicants with comparable qualifications.

The TECHNlSCHE UNlvERSlTT MNCHEN is striving to increase the proportion of women in research and
education. Female scientists are therefore especially encouraged to apply for this position.

Applications including Cv, credentials, publication list, a short overview of research interests and relevant
documents should be sent by September 30, 2009 to Prof. Dr. Thorsten Bach, Dean of the Facu|ty of
Chem|stry, TECHNISCHE UNIVERSITT MNCHEN, L|chtenbergstr. 4, D-85747 Garch|ng, Germany.
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CLASSI FI ED ADVERTI SI NG THAT WORKS
Advertisers Index
Advertiser Page number
Phone number Reader Service #
* A Box 4 U 2
1-877-522-6948
ABB Automation
Technology Products AB 41
Aggreko 32
1-800-348-8370
Altana AG 6
Argonide Corporation 71
1-407-322-2500
Arizona Instrument LLC 72
1-800-528-7411
AVA Huep 32D-6, 32I-8
49 8152 9392-0
AZZ/Rig-A-Lite 52
BASF Catalysts 13
Beumer
Maschinenfabrik GmbH 9
Bronkhorst High-Tech BV 32I-7
Buss-SMS-Canzler GmbH 32I-4
49 60 33-85-0
BWB Technologies 51
44-1787-273-451
Chemstations, Inc. 12
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Costacurta SpA Vico-Italy 32I-3
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Dow Fluids SECOND COVER
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* Endress + Hauser FOURTH
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* Fike Corporation 14
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Fischer Piping
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Flexicon 1
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Flexim Americas 32D-4
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Flexitallic 26
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Franken Filtertechnik KG 31
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GEA Niro A/S 35
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GEA Westfalia Separator AG 7
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GIG Karasek GmbH 24
001-630-305-8556
Hapman 32D-3
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Harrington Industrial
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Haver & Boecker 32I-5
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Heinkel USA 32D-7
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KMPT AG 47
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Load Controls 32D-5
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Magnetrol 33
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Midwesco Filter Resources 18
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Mller GmbH 45
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Paratherm Corp. 23
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Pompetravaini SpA 27
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Rembe GmbH Safety
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Ross, Charles
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ROTEX Global, LLC 25
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Solutia, Inc. 37
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SoundPLAN LLC 71
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SRI Consulting 32I-6
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Sturtevant 45
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Swagelok Co. 4
Tranter International AB 32I-7
Travaini Pumps USA 27
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Uhde GmbH 19
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Vac-U-Max 22
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Watts Regulator 51
* Western States
Machine Co. 32D-4
1-513-863-4758
Wyssmont 32D-6
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International Section
* Additional information in
2010 Buyers Guide
See bottom of next page for advertising sales representatives' contact information
Avery Filter Company 75
201-666-9664 adlinks.che.com/29249-246
CU Services 73
847-439-2303 adlinks.che.com/29249-202
Doyle & Roth 73
212-269-7840 adlinks.che.com/29249-201
Equipnet 76
781-821-3482 adlinks.che.com/29249-250
e-simulators 75
480-380-4738 adlinks.che.com/29249-242
Heat Transfer
Reasearch, Inc. 75
979-690-5050 adlinks.che.com/29249-241
HFP Acoustical Consultants 75
713-789-9400 adlinks.che.com/29249-243
Indeck 76
847-541-8300 adlinks.che.com/29249-249
Intelligen 74
908-654-0088 adlinks.che.com/29249-240
Midwesco Filter
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800-336-7300 adlinks.che.com/29249-203
Plast-O-Matic Valves, Inc. 73
973-256-3000 adlinks.che.com/29249-205
Pulsair Systems 73
425-455-1263 adlinks.che.com/29249-206
The Western States 75
513-863-4758 adlinks.che.com/29249-245
The Western States 76
513-863-4758 adlinks.che.com/29249-247
University of Munich 75
Wabash Power
Equipment Company 76
800-704-2002 adlinks.che.com/29249-251
WBL Engineering 76
973-762-1238 adlinks.che.com/29249-248
WOODEX Bearing
Company 73
800-526-8800 adlinks.che.com/29249-204
Xchanger Inc. 76
952-933-2559 adlinks.che.com/29249-252
Advertisers Product Showcase . . 73
Computer Software . . . . . . . . . 74-75
Consulting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Equipment, Used or
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Classifed Index - April 2010 (212) 621-4958 Fax: (212) 621-4976
Send Advertisements and Box replies to: Helene Hicks
Chemical Engineering, 110 William St. 11th Floor, New York, NY 10038
20_CHE_040110_AD_IND_RS.indd 77 3/29/10 1:17:58 PM
FREE PRODUCT INFO
(please answer all the questions)
YOUR INDUSTRY
01 Food & Beverages
02 Wood, Pulp & Paper
03 Inorganic Chemicals
04 Plastics, Synthetic Resins
05 Drugs & Cosmetics
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09 Agricultural Chemicals
10 Petroleum Refning,
Coal Products
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46 Piping, Tubing, Fittings
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& Systems
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Equipment
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52 Tanks, Vessels, Reactors
53 Valves
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Fax this page back to 800-571-7730
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Economic Indicators
April 2010; VOL. 117; NO. 4
Chemical Engineering copyright @ 2010 (ISSN 0009-2460) is published monthly, with an additional issue in October, by Access Intelligence, LLC, 4 Choke Cherry Road,
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FOR ADDITIONAL NEWS AS IT DEVELOPS, PLEASE VISIT WWW.CHE.COM
PLANT WATCH
Outotec to deliver a copper
smelter for plant in China
March 16, 2010 Outotec Oyj (Espoo, Fin-
land; www.outotec.com) has been award-
ed a contract by Tongling Non-Ferrous Met-
als Group for the design and delivery of a
new copper smelter to be built in Jinchang
in Anhui province, China. The new plant will
have a capacity of 200,000 metric tons per
year (m.t./yr) of copper. The capacity will
be expanded to 400,000 m.t./yr in a second
phase with minor adjustments. The new
smelter is scheduled to start up in mid-2012.
Air Liquide to build ASU in China
for steel producer
March 16, 2010 Air Liquide (Paris; www.
airliquide.com) has signed a longterm con-
tract, by which it will invest about 40 million
in Yichun, Heilongjiang Province (northeast-
ern China), to supply Xilin Steel Group with
oxygen, nitrogen and argon. A 1,200 m.t./d
air separation unit (ASU) will be designed
and built by Air Liquide Hangzhou, the engi-
neering teams of Air Liquide in China, and
will be commissioned in 1st Q 2012.
Lanxess to expand capacity of high-
performance rubber
March 9, 2010 Lanxess AG (Leverkusen,
Germany; www.lanxess.com) has plans to
expand the global capacity of Neodymium
Polybutadiene (Nd-PBR). Lanxess will invest
about 20 million to increase production
by an additional 50,000 m.t./yr at its sites in
Dormagen,Germany; Orange, Tex.; and Ca-
bo, Brazil. The extra capacities will go onstream
between the 1st Q of 2011 and 1st Q of 2012.
Outotec also to supply sinter
plant to South Africa
March 8, 2010 Outotec Oyj has an agree-
ment with South African Kalagadi Manga-
nese Pty. Ltd. for the design and delivery of a
manganese sinter plant to be built in Hotazel
in the countrys Northern Cape Province. The
new plant will ultimately produce 2.4-million
m.t./yr of sinter. The plant commissioning is
scheduled for March 2012.
Linde strengthens specialty gases
capabilities in Africa
March 8, 2010 Linde Gases, a division of
The Linde Group (Munich, Germany; hiq.
linde-gas.com), has announced that it is
making a 1.2-million investment in expand-
ing and upgrading its specialty gases plant
in Johannesburg, South Africa. The new plant
will enable Linde to produce a greater range
of specialty gases mixtures onsite. While most
of the outlay will be capital expenditure for
new equipment, a significant amount has
been invested in making the plant more en-
vironmentally friendly. This includes silencers
for noise-pollution mitigation as well as scrub-
bers to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Total announces plans to repurpose
its Dunkirk refinery site
March 8, 2010 Total (Courbevoie, France;
www.total.com) has presented a plan to
permanently shut down refining operations
at its Dunkirk site. Under the plan, the Flan-
dres refinery, which reported a loss of more
than 130 million in 2009, will shut down, re-
sulting in a gradual dismantling of units that
could continue to 2013. The refinery will be
repurposed as an industrial and technical
facility engaged in three new activities: a re-
fining operations support center; a refining
training center; and a logistics depot.
Uhdes Prenflo process to be part of joint
R&D project BioTfueL in France
March 8, 2010 BioTfueL is a new joint proj-
ect launched by five French partners and
Uhde GmbH (Dortmund, Germany; www.
uhde.eu). BioTfueL integrates the various
technology stages of the so-called biomass-
to-liquid (BTL) chain. The overall budget for
the BioTfueL project is 112.7 million, which
includes the construction and operation
of two pilot plants in France to produce
biodiesel and biokerosene based on bio-
mass gasification using Uhdes Prenflo-PDQ
process. The plants are scheduled to go into
operation in 2012.
MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONS
Eastman Chemical to acquire
Genovique Specialties
March 17, 2010 Eastman Chemical Co.
(Kingsport, Tenn.; www.eastman.com)
has entered into an agreement to acquire
Genovique Specialties Corp., a global
producer of specialty plasticizers, benzoic
acid, and sodium benzoate. Following the
completion of the transaction, Genovique
Specialties will become part of Eastmans
Performance Chemicals and Intermediates
segment. The acquisition is expected to
be completed after receipt of required
regulatory approvals and satisfaction of
other customary closing conditions. Terms of
the transaction were not disclosed.
Bayer MaterialScience acquires
Artificial Muscle
March 9, 2010 Bayer MaterialScience LLC
(BMS; www.bayermaterialscience.com), a
subsidiary of Bayer AG (Leverkusen, Germa-
ny; www.bayer.com), has acquired Artificial
Muscle, Inc. (AMI; Sunnyvale, Calif.). AMI is a
pioneer in the field of electroactive polymers
for the consumer electronics industry. The
purchase price is being kept confidential.
Toyo, Modec and Petrobras cooperate to
verify small- and medium-scale GTL plant
March 8, 2010 Toyo Engineering Corp.
(Toyo; www.toyo-eng.co.jp) and Modec,
Inc. (both Tokyo, Japan; www.modec.com),
which have been working together on the
development of gas-to-liquids (GTL) tech-
nology, concluded a cooperation agree-
ment with Petroleo Brasileiro S.A. (Petrobras;
www2.petrobras.com.br) to construct a veri-
fication facility. This facility will be construct-
ed within the Petrobras refinery, located in
Fortaleza, Ceara, Brazil (for more, see p. 16).
Construction is due to finish at the begin-
ning of 2011 when the verification operation
will take place, and data will be collected
for designing commercial plants. The new
GTL process will enter the commercialization
phase by the end of 2011.
Merck KGaA plans to
acquire Millipore
March 1, 2010 Merck KGaA (Darmstadt,
Germany; www.merck.de) and Millipore
Corp.; Billerica, Mass.; www.millipore.com)
have entered into a definitive agreement
under which Merck KGaA will acquire all out-
standing shares of common stock of Millipore,
for a total transaction value, including net
debt, of approximately 5.3 billion ($7.2 billion).
The transaction was approved by the boards
of directors of both companies. Merck plans to
maintain Millipores headquarters in Billerica
and combine it with Mercks U.S. chemicals
headquarters. Completion of the acquisition
requires the approval of Millipore shareholders.
Merck anticipates that the transaction will be
completed in the 2nd half of 2010.
Evonik acquires catalyst business
from H.C. Starck
March 1, 2010 Evonik Industries AG (Essen,
Germany; www.evonik.com) has acquired
the catalyst business of H.C. Starck GmbH
(Goslar, Germany). Following a transition
phase, Evonik will produce the Amperkat
catalysts in Hanau, Germany.
Dorothy Lozowski
BUSINESS NEWS
FOR MORE ECONOMIC INDICATORS, SEE NEXT PAGE CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2010 79
21_CHE_040110_EI.indd 79 3/25/10 11:39:46 AM
Economic Indicators
CURRENT BUSINESS INDICATORS
LATEST PREVIOUS YEAR AGO
CPI output index (2000 = 100) Feb. '10 = 95.6 Jan. '10 = 95.9 Dec. '09 = 95.3 Feb. '09 = 91.7
CPI value of output, $ billions Jan. '10 = 1,629.0 Dec. '09 = 1,616.8 Nov. '09 = 1,587.0 Jan. '09 = 1,427.8
CPI operating rate, % Feb. '10 = 71.1 Jan. '10 = 71.1 Dec. '09 = 70.6 Feb. '09 = 66.8
Producer prices, industrial chemicals (1982 = 100) Feb. '10 = 265.7 Jan. '10 = 260.1 Dec. '09 = 254.9 Feb. '09 = 224.1
Industrial Production in Manufacturing (2002=100)* Feb. '10 = 99.1 Jan. '10 = 99.3 Dec. '09 = 98.4 Feb. '09 = 97.7
Hourly earnings index, chemical & allied products (1992 = 100) Feb. '10 = 151.2 Jan. '10 = 150.8 Dec. '09 = 150.9 Feb. '09 = 145.8
Productivity index, chemicals & allied products (1992 = 100) Feb. '10 = 137.6 Jan. '10 = 134.3 Dec. '09 = 134.1 Feb. '09 = 129.1
60
65
70
75
80
85
70
80
90
100
110
120
1000
1300
1600
1900
2200
2500
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D
CPI OUTPUT INDEX (2000 = 100) CPI OUTPUT VALUE ($ BILLIONS) CPI OPERATING RATE (%)
2010 2009
400
450
500
550
600
650
J F M A M J J A S O N D
DOWNLOAD THE CEPCI TWO WEEKS SOONER AT WWW.CHE.COM/PCI
1320
1335
1350
1365
1380
1395
1410
1425
1440
1455
1470
1485
1500
1st 2nd 3rd
Quarter
4th
Annual Index:
2002 = 1,104.2 2004 = 1,178.5 2006 = 1,302.3 2008 = 1,449.3
2003 = 1,123.6 2005 = 1,244.5 2007 = 1,373.3 2009 = 1,468.6
CURRENT TRENDS
C
urrent Business Indicators
continue to improve, and
according to the American
Chemistry Councils 1st
Quarter Outlook, global
chemical output is expected
to rise 6.5% in 2010, and
expand further in 2011 and
2012. The report concludes
that the U.S. recession, which
officially began in December
2007, ended in the summer
of 2009 and has since fol-
lowed a V-shaped growth
trajectory.
Meanwhile, the 2009
overall average for capital
equipment prices (as re-
flected in the CE Plant Cost
Index) hit its lowest level in
more than two years.
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT COST INDEX (CEPCI)
(1957-59 = 100) Jan. '10
Prelim.
Dec. '09
Final
Jan. '09
Final
CE Index
532.9 524.2 539.6
Equipment 631.8 618.4 642.4
Heat exchangers & tanks 572.0 554.2 603.4
Process machinery 601.9 597.9 620.0
Pipe, valves & fittings 794.5 776.3 781.8
Process instruments 419.7 417.5 389.6
Pumps & compressors 903.0 895.2 902.1
Electrical equipment 469.2 467.2 457.9
Structural supports & misc 640.2 620.0 671.5
Construction labor 330.8 331.2 324.5
Buildings 494.7 494.6 500.0
Engineering & supervision 342.4 343.2 350.3
Starting with the April 2007 Final numbers, several of the data series for labor and compressors have been
converted to accommodate series IDs that were discontinued by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
Annual Index:
2002 = 395.6
2003 = 402.0
2004 = 444.2
2005 = 468.2
2006 = 499.6
2007 = 525.4
2008 = 575.4
2009 = 521.9
MARSHALL & SWIFT EQUIPMENT COST INDEX
(1926 = 100) 1st Q
2010
4th Q
2009
3rd Q
2009
2nd Q
2009
1st Q
2009
M & S INDEX
1,448.3 1,446.5 1,446.4 1,477.7 1,487.2
Process industries, average 1,510.3 1,511.9 1,515.1 1,553.2 1,561.2
Cement 1,508.1 1,508.2 1,509.7 1,551.1 1,553.4
Chemicals 1,481.8 1,483.1 1,485.8 1,523.8 1,533.7
Clay products 1,496.0 1,494.3 1,495.8 1,526.4 1,524.4
Glass 1,403.0 1,400.1 1,400.4 1,439.8 1,448.1
Paint 1,515.1 1,514.1 1,515.1 1,554.1 1,564.2
Paper 1,416.4 1,415.8 1,416.3 1,453.3 1,462.9
Petroleum products 1,615.6 1,617.6 1,625.2 1,663.6 1,668.9
Rubber 1,551.0 1,560.5 1,560.7 1,600.3 1,604.6
Related industries
Electrical power 1,389.6 1,377.3 1,370.8 1,425.0 1,454.2
Mining, milling 1,552.1 1,548.1 1,547.6 1,573.0 1,567.5
Refrigeration 1,772.2 1,769.5 1,767.3 1,807.3 1,818.1
Steam power 1,475.0 1,470.8 1,471.4 1,509.3 1,521.9
Source: Marshall & Swifts Marshall Valuation Service manual. Reprinted and published with permission of Marshall &
Swift/Boeckh, LLC and its licensors, copyright 2010. May not be reprinted, copied, automated or used for valuation with-
out Marshall & Swift/Boeckhs prior permission.
21_CHE_040110_EI.indd 80 3/25/10 12:29:39 PM
www.sticoosu||iog.com/PEP
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