MANGT 520: Planning and Resource Management

Lesson 8: Scheduling Resources

Introduction
In this lesson we will learn about scheduling resources in projects. We will begin by discussing
the nature of resource requirements (both people and machines) and the problems associated
with managing resources in a project environment. Given the finite nature of resource
availability, a project plan may have to be modified so that it is practical. This is the major thrust
of resource planning and management. In this lesson, we will examine, at some length, the four
major stages of the resource scheduling process. These stages are resource definition, resource
allocation, resource aggregation, and resource leveling. Resource definition involves
identifying the critical resources that need to be planned and managed for the successful
completion of the project. In a multi-project environment as projects are competing for scarce
resources, resource allocation addresses the problem of the optimum use and timing of the
assignment of these resources to the various project activities. Resource aggregation involves
determining the aggregate resources that will be needed, period by period, to complete all project
activities. Having identified the necessary resource requirements, the last stage in the process is
resource leveling. In this stage, we attempt to ensure that the demand for resources does not
exceed availability. Specifically, demand for resources is smoothed to ensure that the peaks and
valleys are reduced. In this lesson, we will also learn about the "critical chain approach" to tackle
resource dependencies that occur in projects due to reduced slack. This lesson is a critical topic
in project management as careful planning and management of resources can prevent cost overruns in the future.
Objectives
After completing this lesson you should be able to:

Describe the types of project constraints.

Understand the nature of resource constraints.

Explain the steps and issues involved in scheduling resources in a project environment.

Explain the benefits of resource scheduling.

8.1 Project Constraints

In this lesson, we will discuss the essential features of resource planning and management in
projects. We begin this lesson by first understanding the different kinds of project constraints, in
particular, the types and nature of resource constraints.
The primary impact of project constraints is the likelihood of delaying the completion of the
project. There are three types of project constraints: technological, resource and physical. The
technological constraints relate to the sequence in which individual project activities must be
completed. For example, in constructing a house, pouring the foundation must occur before
building the frame. Resource constraints relate to the lack of adequate resources which may
force parallel activities to be performed in sequence. The consequence of such a change in
network relationships is delay in the completion date of the project. We will examine the nature
of resource constraints in much greater detail in the next section. Physical constraints are
caused by contractual or environmental conditions. For example, due to space limitations an
activity such as painting a wall may have to be performed by only one person (Gray and Larson,
2003).
In general, from a scheduling perspective, projects can be classified as either time constrained or
resource constrained. A project is classified as time constrained in situations where the critical
path is delayed and the addition of resources can bring the project back on schedule and the
project completed by the required date. However, the additional resource usage should be no
more than what is absolutely necessary. The primary focus, for purposes of scheduling, in time
constrained projects is resource utilization.
On the other hand, a project is resource constrained if the level of resource availability cannot
be exceeded. In those situations where resources are inadequate, project delay is acceptable, but
the delay should be minimal. The focus of scheduling in these situations is to prioritize and
allocate resources in such a manner that there is minimal project delay. However, it is also
important to ensure that the resource limit is not exceeded and the technical relationships in the
project network are not altered.
8.2 Resource Constraints

The most important resources that project managers have to plan and manage on day-to-day
basis are people, machines, materials, and working capital. Obviously, if these resources are
available in abundance then the project could be accelerated to achieve shorter project duration.
On the other hand, if these resources are severely limited, then the result more likely will be a
delay in the project completion time. Depending on the type of resources, the costs of providing
an abundance of such resources to accelerate project completion time can be very high. However,
if resources are readily available and excess premiums are not incurred to use them on the
project, then project cost should be low, as some project costs are resource related while others
are likely to be time dependent. In general, projects with a shorter duration are less expensive.
The longer the duration of the project, the higher will be overall project cost due to the increase
in fixed costs such as overheads. The reality is that as long as the work on a project is ongoing it
will continue to draw resources into its orbit. Whatever the parameters of the project, it is

unlikely that the relationship between cost and duration is linear. For any particular project, the
decision to place the project on the curve between the point of least duration with its associated
higher resource requirements and a point of increased duration with its associated lower resource
requirements depends on the particular parameters of the project.
When a project plan is first devised it is likely that the plan will identify peaks of resource
requirements. However, given the finite nature of resource availability, it may be impractical to
meet such peak resource needs. Ideally, there should be an even demand for resources over the
entire project duration, with a smooth increase at the beginning of a project and a smooth
decrease at the end. Given the limited nature of resources, thoughtful consideration should be
given to the project resource requirements; the project plan should be refined when necessary so
that it is practical. The process of refining the plan to effectively manage and schedule resources
(sometimes referred to as resource modeling) comprises four major stages: resource definition,
resource allocation, resource aggregation, and resource leveling (which includes resource
smoothing). In the subsequent sections we will discuss of these major stages

8.3 Resource Definition

The first step in resource modeling is to decide exactly what resources are considered important
enough to be modeled. While most resource modeling is concerned with people or workers (such
as welders or computer programmers), it may also include other resources such as machines
(such as a computer of a particular specification), or space on a project where space is restricted
and where this restriction limits the amount of other resources which can be deployed at any one
time. Often resources are specified in terms of the number of units of resource required, e.g., 5
welders or 3 computer programmers. Alternatively, resources may be specified in terms of the
hours or days that a specific resource is required, e.g., 40 welder hours or 24 computer
programmer days. Resources may be considered as consumable, such as materials that may be
used once and once only, or non-consumable, such as people, which may be used again and
again. The way in which consumable resources are used is not critical as long as they are used
efficiently. However, the way in which non-consumable resources are used can have a significant
impact on the project. For example, there is a significant difference between requiring 16 units of
a non-consumable resource for one week, thus requiring 16 units to be made available at that
time, and requiring 1 non-consumable unit for 16 weeks, thus only requiring 1 unit which can be
reused 16 times.
Resource modeling is therefore mainly concerned with non-consumable resources with an
important caveat. It should never be assumed that the quantity of resources deployed and the task
duration are inversely related. Thus one should never automatically assume that the work that
can be done by one man in 16 weeks can actually be done by 16 men in one week. Furthermore,
there are many situations in which tasks may have to be carried out in a serial fashion, while in
other situations, only one or two persons can be usefully employed due to a limited number of
workers. Understanding the nature of the job and the size of the work team needed to do the job
is an essential aspect of resource modeling. Resource definition may also include the creation of
resource profiles which show how many units of each resource are available for use in the

project at any given time. In multi-project situations, this is not an easy matter, as resources may
be required to work on several projects simultaneously and there determination of the resources
required for one project must also consider the use of the same resources for other projects.
8.4 Resource Allocation

Resource allocation, also called resource loading, is concerned with assigning the required
number of those resources identified in the previous step to each activity identified in the plan.
More than one type of resource may be attributed to a specific activity. For example, fixing the
plates on a ship's hull may require 10 fitters, 20 welders, 15 laborers and a certain type of
welding machine. From a practical standpoint, resource allocation does not have to follow a
constant pattern; some activities may initially require fewer resources but may require more of
the same resources during the later stages of the project. At this stage, the impact of any resource
allocation decision is not known and we cannot yet answer questions such as:

Is lack of resources on this particular activity having an adverse effect on the duration of
the whole project? Such an activity is more likely to be on the critical path.

By excessive use of resources are we completing this activity more quickly than
necessary in terms of the overall project duration? Such an activity is not likely to be on
the critical path.

These questions will be answered later in the resource modeling process, specifically during the
resource leveling and smoothing stage.
.5 Resource Aggregation

Resource aggregation, or resource loading, is simply the summation, on a period-by-period basis,

of the resources required to complete all activities based on the resource allocation carried out in
the previous stage. The results are usually shown graphically as a histogram. Such aggregation
may be done on an hourly, daily, or weekly basis, depending on the time unit used to allocate
resources. When a bar chart is used as the planning tool, the resource aggregation is fairly simple
and straightforward. For a given bar chart, there is a unique resource unit aggregation chart
which can be drawn underneath the bar chart. However, a separate graph will be required for
each resource unit. An example is shown in Figure 8.1 below, where, for a particular resource,
the required resource units for each time period are annotated on the bar chart. The total number
of resource units for each time period can then be summed and a resource aggregation or load
chart can be produced.

Figure 8.1 Resource Unit Aggregation Chart Derived from a Bar

However, when a network is used for planning, the resource aggregation procedure is not so
simple or straightforward. As the network is not drawn to a time-scale, there is not a direct link
between the network and the demand for resources. Therefore, a schedule must be prepared
which tabulates activities in terms of time. However, this highlights another difficulty, namely
that those activities which are not on the critical path do not have fixed starting and finishing
times but are constrained by the earliest and latest starting and finishing times. However, this
seeming difficulty offers the planner considerable scope for adjusting the demand for resources.
This will be discussed in more detail later, but the limits within which resources can be adjusted,
without extending the overall project duration, are the resource requirements between the earliest
starting times and the latest starting times. This is illustrated in Figure 8.2, which shows the
differing resource requirements that arise when both earliest and latest start times are considered
and also highlights the resource requirements for those activities which are on the critical path.

Figure 8.2 Resource Unit Aggregation Chart Showing Resource Requirements Associated
with Earliest and Latest Start Along with Highlighted Resource Unit Requirements for
Critical Path Activities

8.6 Resource Leveling

Having established the resource requirements through resource allocation and aggregation, we
will now examine the next phase of the planning and resource management process--resource
leveling. We will now compare those requirements with resource availability by developing
resource profiles. Disregarding factors such as economic considerations, if sufficient resources
are available so that supply always exceeds demand then, we should have no problem. However,
the most likely scenario is that, at some point, demand will exceed supply. Such a scenario is
illustrated in Figure 8.3.

Figure 8.3 Resource Demand Compared to Resource Availability

Resource leveling is the process that ensures resource demand does not exceed resource
availability. The ideal scenario would be a build up of resource usage at the beginning of the
project and a reduction at the end of the project. However, the approach to resource leveling will
also depend on whether resources are dedicated to a particular project or shared across several
projects and whether there is a need to keep all resources fully utilized.
We will begin by analyzing the issues involved in resource leveling for a situation where a bar
chart has been used as the primary planning technique for a simple project. The reason for this is
that resource leveling must be considered within a time framework and bar charts are drawn to a
time scale while networks are not. Examine Figure 8.1 shown on the previous page. In this
figure, the time-scale for the activities comprising the project are shown in a bar chart, which
also shows resource requirements for one particular resource unit. An examination of the bar
chart and its associated resource chart in Figure 8.1 shows that improvements can be made to the
level of resource requirements by:

Delaying or bringing forward the start of certain activities

Extending the duration of certain activities and so reducing the demand for resources
over the duration of the activity or by a combination of both of these adjustments

However, there are problems with using the simple bar chart as a tool for resource leveling. For
example, we do not have any information about the interdependency of tasks. Therefore, if we
delay a task by starting later than originally planned or by extending the duration of the task, we
cannot evaluate the exact impact this will have on the overall project. Referring to Figure 8.1
again, if we assume that the maximum amount of resource availability is 14 units, then we have a
problem in week 2 because 18 units of resources are required in that week. In order to reduce the
resource demand in week 2, we may have to extend Activity A into week 3 (if this is possible)
and spread the resource demand over three weeks, or delay the commencement of Activity B.
However, the exact impact of these changes on the overall project duration cannot be easily
determined.
Another issue is that the critical path(s) cannot be easily determined, although we may be able to
deduce which activities are critical by inspection. Clearly, if we do not wish to extend the overall
duration of the project we must avoid extending or delaying activities which are on the critical
path. Finally, the availability of slack or float is not clear. Knowing this is important because it is
this attribute that can be utilized to adjust our resource requirements.
Resource leveling can be accomplished more easily if resource requirements to complete an
activity are expressed in terms of hours or days required. The definition of resource requirements
using such units of measure can help us determine if an activity should be completed in a short
time through the use of many resources or over a longer period of time through the use of fewer
resources. In practice, however, there is a limit to the number of resources that can be deployed
and, therefore, a limit to the amount by which any activity duration can be shortened.
We will now examine situations where networks are used as the primary planning method.
Generally, there are two approaches to leveling and smoothing the resources required:

Time-limited resource considerations

In this case emphasis will be placed on completing the project within a specified time.
This time will usually have been determined by network analysis. Adjustments in the
timing of any activity, and the resources required at a given time, must be undertaken
within the float (slack) available. Obviously there can be no adjustment of activities
which are on the critical path.

Resource-limited resource considerations

In this case the project must be completed with the resources available even if this means
extending the project duration. If the total resource demand exceeds the resource
availability at any time then some of the activities must be delayed until there is sufficient
resource availability.

For both of the above approaches, information concerning the earliest and the latest start times
and slack will be used to level resources.
8.6.1 Resource Smoothing

Resource smoothing is part of the resource leveling process. In itself, resource smoothing is the
process that, not withstanding any constraints imposed during the leveling process, attempts to
determine a resource requirement that is "smooth" and where peaks and troughs are eliminated.
For example, even if 7 units of a given resource are available at any one time, utilizing 5 of these
units each week is preferable to 4 one week, 7 the next, 2 the next and so on. Even if there is no
limit to the amount of any one resource available, it is still desirable that resource usage is as
smooth as possible. Given that the resource requirements of those activities on the critical path
are fixed, some order or priority needs to be established for selecting which activity and which
particular resource associated with this activity should be given priority in the smoothing
process. In determining which activity should be given priority, a subjective judgment should be
made about the type of resource (or resources) associated with each activity; priority should be
given to the activities whose resources are considered to be most important. Beyond this
consideration, activities should be ranked in order of total work content and total float or slack
available for that activity. A useful device for prioritizing is to consider the ratio of total work
content/total float remaining and give priority to activities with the highest value of this ratio.
Solving the resource scheduling problem for optimal solutions is extremely complex, particularly
for large project networks with many different resource types. However, several heuristics are
available to solve such problems. These heuristics allocate resources to activities to minimize
project delay based on certain priority rules. The two most commonly used heuristics are the
serial and the parallel methods. In the serial method of resource allocation, activities are sorted
into a list and resources are allocated to each of these activities one at a time until resources are
allocated to all activities. In the parallel method, however, resources are allocated on a period by
period basis rather than each activity. In this method only those activities whose preceding
activities have been completed will be considered. If two or more activities compete for the same
resources, then allocation of resources is based on certain prescribed priority rules. Compared to
the serial method, the parallel method has been the most widely used heuristic. The following
priority rules, in the order presented, have been found to be the most effective in minimizing
project delay.

Minimum slack

Smallest duration

Lowest activity identification number

Regardless of the scheduling heuristic used, the primary impact of resource constrained
scheduling is the loss of flexibility due to the reduction in slack. Furthermore, the reduction in
slack also increases the number of critical or near-critical activities.
8.8 Computerized Resource Scheduling

The resource scheduling examples that we solved above used the manual approach. For large
networks, however, this is not a feasible approach. Fortunately, all the better quality computer
packages for project management, besides network analysis, also feature the ability to schedule

activities taking into account resource constraints. Thus for most people engaged in project
management today, a computerized approach is preferred. While a full description of the way in
which current packages perform resource scheduling is beyond the scope of this topic, these
packages commonly use the serial scheduling and parallel scheduling algorithms. The basic
features of both these algorithms were described earlier in this lesson, even though the computer
packages use more sophisticated versions of these algorithms. Given the nature of the resource
constraints, each method may produce a feasible schedule; however, the schedules need not
necessarily be the same. Furthermore, if the same problem is solved by two different project
management packages, different schedules may be generated. A computer demonstration of
resource constrained scheduling is also presented in your textbook.

8.9 Benefits of Resource Scheduling

The process of scheduling resources before the project begins provides the following benefits:
1. If project delay is unacceptable, it allows sufficient time for considering alternatives such
as cost-time trade-offs and changing of priorities.
2. Provides information to prepare time-phased work package budgets with dates
3. Enables project managers to determine the amount of flexibility they have over certain
resources.
8.10 The Critical Chain Approach

A project network may be constrained by both resource and technical dependencies. The critical
chain approach proposed by Eliyahu Goldratt provides an alternate approach to managing slack
and dependencies and developing strategies for accelerating project completion. An overview of
this approach is presented in a chapter appendix in your textbook.
We have now reached the end of Lesson 8. By now, you should have a clearer understanding of
the issues involved in scheduling projects. You should also have completed your reading
assignment as specified on your syllabus. At this time, return to your syllabus and complete any
activities for this lesson. In the next lesson, we will look at project management and control-specifically, the use of charts and S-curves to monitor projects.
References

Gray, C. L., and Larson, E. W. (2003). Project Management: The Managerial Process. 2nd Ed.
Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.