Ref Phy 9

3
41. Adisk of radius a/4 having a uniformlydistributed charge 6Cis placed

in the x
y plane with its centre at ( a/2, 0, 0). Arod of length a
carrying a uniformly distributed charge 8C is placed on the x-axis
fromx = a/4 to x = 5a/4. Two point charges 7C and 3C are
y
x
placed at (a/4, a/4, 0) and ( 3a/4, 3a/4, 0), respectively. Consider
a cubical surface formed by six surfaces x = a/2, y= a/2, z = a/2. The electric
flux through this cubical
surface is [JEE, 09]
(A)
0
.2C
. (B)
0
2C
. (C)
0
10C
. (D)
0
12C
.
CENTRE OF MASS
www.physicsashok.in 56
Passage Type Problems
PASSAGE
1
In a game of billiards ball A is given an initial velocity V0 of magnitude V0 =
3 m/s along line DA parallel to the
axis of the table. It hits ball B and then ball C, which are both at rest knowin
g that A and C hit the sides of the
table squarely at points A and C , respectively that B hits the side obliquely at B ,
and assuming frictionless
surfaces and perfectly elastic impacts. The motion of billiard balls are are ass
umed to be particle moving
freely in a horizontal plane rather than the rolling and sliding spheres they ac
tually are.
1. Mark Correct option:
(A) The momentum of balls system remains conserved before hitting the wall of ta
ble.
(B) The angular momentum of balls system about point O remains conserved before
striking with the walls of
table.
(C) Mechanical energy of system will remains constant.
(D) All the above.
2. A V , B V and C V represent the velocities of balls A and B with the balls hi
t the sides of the table. Then
(A) VA .VB (B) A By V . V (C) 3 B C .V .V (D) 3 A C V . .V
3. Which of following is correct relation:
(A) 3 Bx C V . .V (B) 3 A C V . .V (C) 3 A B V . .V (D) A B V .V
4. Which of following equation is correct?
(A) 20 2 78 72 0 C B V . V . . (B) 2 2 72 0 C B V .V . .
(C) 20 2 78 72 0 C C V . V . . (D) 20 78 72 0 C B A V . V . V .
PASSAGE 2
Suppose a body of mass m0 is placed on a smooth horizontal surface at rest. The
mass of the body is
decreasing exponentially with disintegration constant . .
Assuming that the mass is ejected backwards with a relative velocity 0 . .
5. The mass of body at an instant t is
(A) 0
m e..t (B) . . 0 m 1. e..t (C) . . 0 m 1..t (D) None
6. The thrust force on the body is
(A) 0 0 m . (B) 0 .. (C) 0 0
m . . e..t (D) Zero
7. The acceleration of the body is
(A) 0 . . (B) 0 .
. (C) 0
t2
. .
(D) Zero
8. The velocity - time graph is
(A)
v
t
(B)
v
t
(C)
v
t
(D)
v
CENTRE OF MASS
PASSAGE
3
A multistage rocket consists of two stages. The first stage has a total mass of
12000 kg, of which 8000 kg is
fuel. The total mass of second stage is 1000 kg, of which 600 kg is fuel. Assume
that the relative speed V0 of
ejected material is constant and neglect any effect of gravity.
(The latter effect is small during the firing period if the rate of fuel consump
tion is large).
9. Suppose the entire fuel supply carried by the two stage rocket is utilized in
a single stage rocket of the same
total mass of 13000 kg. In terms of V0, what is the speed of the rocket, startin
g from rest, when its fuel is
exhausted?
(A) 0.956 V0 (B) 1.87 V0 (C) 1.08 V0 (D) 3.74 V0
10. For the two stage rocket, what is the sped when the fuel of the first stage
is exhausted if the first stage carries
the second stage with it to this point?
(A) 0.956 V0 (B) 9.56 V0 (C) 3.74 km/s (D) 1.08 V0
11. What is final speed of the second stage?
(A) 1.08 V0 (B) 1.87 V0 (C) 9.56 V0 (D) 3.74 km/s.
12. What value of V0 is required to give the second stage of the above rocket a
speed of 7 km/s.
(A) 1080 km/s (B) 14 km/s (C) 374 km/s (D) 3.74 km/s
PASSAGE 4
A satellite travels through interstellar space. In do so, it picks up interstell
ar dust and its mass increases at
a rate
dm AV
dt
. . where A is satellite surface area, V its velocity and . the (constant) dust
density. At
t = 0, the velocity is V0 and the mass is m0. Assume that there are no external
forces.
13. The acceleration of satellite as function of velocity is
(A) AV 2
m
.
(B) AV 2
m
.
. (C) g (D)
AV
m
.
.
14. The velocity of satellite is
(A)
1
0
1 At
V m
. . . .
. . .
. .
(B) 0
V m
. At
. .
. . .
. .
(C) 0
V m
. At
. .
. . .
. .
(D) None.
Level
2
1. Find the centre of mass of the system shown in figure.
2. A uniform wire is bent into the form of a rectangle with length L and
width W. If two of the sides coincide with the +x and +y axes, where
is its center of mass ?
CENTRE OF MASS
3. The uniform solid sphere shown in the figure has a spherical hole in it.
Find the position of its center of mass.
4. A rigid body consists of a 3-kg mass connected to a 2-kg mass by a massless r
od. The 3-kg mass is
located at r1 = 2i + 5j m, and the 2-kg mass at r2 = 4i + 2j m. Find the length
of the rod the coordinates of the
center of mass.
5. A straight rod of length L has one of its ends at the origin and the other at
x = L. If the mass per unit length
of the rod is given by Ax where A is a constant, where is its center of mass ?
6. Consider the system composed of a 1-kg body and a 2-kg initially at rest at a
center-to-center distance of
1m. All numerical values quoted in this exercise are to be considered exact, and
the 2-kg body is to the right
of the 1-kg body. (A) How far is the system s center of mass from the center of th
e 1-kg body ? (B)
Beginning at t = 0s, a net rightward force of 2 N acts on the 2-kg body. What is
its resultant acceleration ?
(C) How far does the 2-kg body move between t = 0s and t = 1s ? (D) How far is t
he center of mass from the
1-kg bosy at t = 1s ? (e) How far did the center of mass move between t = 0s and
t = 1s ? (f) What is the
acceleration of the center of mass, beginning at t = 0s? (g) Suppose that all th
e mass in both objects were
concentrated at the center of mass, and the net rightward force of 2 N acted on
this concentrated mass.
What would its acceleration be ? (h) State the general theorem which is illustra
ted by the results of parts (f)
and (g) .
7. A particle of mass m moving with a speed u strikes a smooth horizontal surfac
e
at an angle .. The particle rebounds at an angle . with a speed v. Determine an
expression for v and . if the coefficient of restitution is e.
8. In the figure shown, a ball of mass m collides perpendicularly on a smooth st
ationary
wedge of mass M. If the coefficient of restitution of collision is e (< 1) then
determine the
velocity of the wedge after collision.
9. A projectile is fired from a gun at an angle of 450 with the horizontal and w
ith a muzzle speed of 1500 ft/sec.
At the highest point in its flight the projectile explodes into two fragments of
equal mass. One fragment,
whose initial speed is zero, falls vertically. How far from the gun does the oth
er fragment land, assuming a
level terrain ?
10. A machine gun fires 50-gm bullets at a speed of 1000 meters/sec. The gunner,
holding the machine gun in
his hands, can exert an average force of 180 nt against the gun. Determine the m
aximum number of bullets
he can fire per minute ?
11. A block of mass m1 = 100 kg is at rest on a very long frictionless
table, one end of which is terminated in a wall. Another block of
mass m2 is placed between the first block and the wall and set
in motion to the left with constant speed v2. as in fig. Assuming
that all collisions are completely elastic, find the value of m2
for which both blocks move with the same velocity after m2 has
collided once with m1 and once with the wall. The wall has infinite mass effecti
vely.
12. A bullet of mass 10 gm strikes a ballistic pendulum of mass 2.0 kg. The cent
er of mass of the pendulum
rises a vertical distance 12 cm. Assuming that bullet remains embedded in the pe
ndulum, calculate the
initial speed.
13. An electron, mass m, collides head-on with an atom, mass M, initially at res
t. As a result of the collision a
characterstics amount of energy E is stored internally in the atom. What is the
minimum initial velocity v0
that the electron must have ?
m
u m v
. .
Smooth Surface
m
.
v0
CENTRE OF MASS
14. Mass m1 collides head-on with m2, initially at rest, in a completely inelast
ic collision.
(A) What is the kinetic energy of the system before collision ?
(B) What is the kinetic energy of the system after collision ?
(C) What fraction of the original kinetic energy was converted into heat ?
(D) Let vcm be the velocity of the center of mass of the system.
View the collision from a primed reference framemoving with the center of mass s
o that v'1i = v1i - vcm, v'2i = - vcm.
Repeat parts (A), (B) and verted to heat the same in each case ? Explain.
15. Two small blocks A and B of masses m1= 0.5kg and m2 = 1 kg
respectively, each carryin positive charge of q = 40mC are kept
stationary on a smooth horizontal floor. When the blocks are
released, due to electrostatic repulsion, a moves towards left while
A
A B
+ +
10 cm 10 cm 10 cm
B towards right. After moving 10 cm, A comes into contact with a
massless spring of force constant K = 6750 Nm-1 while after moving 20 cm, B coll
ides nelastically with a
rigid wall as shown in fig. Calculate
(i) velocity of A when it comes in contact with the spring and
(ii) maximum compression of the spring.
16. A sphere of mass m falls with velocity v on a smooth inclined wedge of mass
M and angle . which rests on
a smooth horizontal plane. Show that the velocity of the wedge immediately after
collision is . .
.
m Mcosec2
2mvcot
.
The bodies are all perfectly elastic.
17. Show that when two identical spheres A and B with a coefficient of
restitution e = 1 collide while moving with velocity vA and vB which
are perpendicular to each other they will rebound with velocities vA
90 .
vA vB
A B
.
and vB which are also perpendicular to each other.
18. A 700 g ball B is hanging from an inextensible cord attached to a support C.
A 350
g ball A strikes B with a velocity v0 at an angle of 60 with the vertical. Assumi
ng
perfectly elastic impact (e = 1) and no friction, determine the velocity of each
ball v0
C
B
A
60
immediately after impact. Check that no energy is lost in the impact.
19. Three spheres, each of mass m, can slide freely on a frictionless,
horizontal surface. Spheres A and B are attached to an inextensible,
inelastic cord of length l and are at rest in the position shown when
sphere B is struck squarely by sphere C which is moving to the right
with a velocity v0; knowing that the cord is slack when sphere B is
A
C B
v0
./2
.
struck by sphere C and assuming perfectly elastic impact between B
and C, determine(A) the velocity of each sphere immediately after the cord becomes taut.
(B) the fraction of the initial kinetic energy of the system which is dissipated
when the cord becomes taut.
20. A 1 kg block B is moving with a velocity v0 of magnitude v0 = 2 m/s as it hi
ts the
0.5 kg sphere A, which is at rest and hanging from a cord attached at O.
Knowing that k = 0.6 between the block and the horizontal surface and e=0.8
v0 h A
x
O
between the block and the sphere, determine after impact
(A) the maximum height h reached by the sphere,
(B) the distance x traveled by the block.
CENTRE OF MASS
21. A mass M = 1kg lies on a smooth horizontal base of a
rough inclined plane at an angle 370 with the horizontal as
shown in figure. A bullet of mass m=0.1 kg. is fired
horizontally with a velocity u = 110m/s and gets embeded
in it almost immediately. The impulse imparted carries the
combined mass up the incline and finally lands on the
horizontal level with the horizontal base. If the length of the incline is l = 1
.8m and the incline offers a
coefficient of kinetic friction 0.5 to the sliding of the mass, find the horizon
tal distance from the base of the
incline to the point of landing of the combined mass. Assume the contact of the
incline with the horizontal
plane is smooth and mass is not jerked when starts up on incline plane.
22. A small ball of mass m is connected by an inextensible massless string of le
ngth l
with an another ball of mass M = 4 m. They are released with zero tension in the
string from a height h as shown in figure. Find the time when the string becomes
taut for the first time after the mass M collides with the ground. Take all coll
isions
to be elastic.
23. The figure shows the force versus time graph for a particle.
(i) Find the change in momentum .p of the particle.
(ii) Find the average force acting on the particle.
24. While waiting in his car at a stoplight, an 80-kg man and his car are sudden
ly accelerated to a speed of 5
m/s at the result of a rear-end collision. Assuming the time taken to be 0.3 s,
find (A) the impulse on the
man and (B) the average force exerted on him by the back of the seat of his car.
25. What force is exerted on a stationary flat plate held perpendicular to a jet
of
water as shown in the fig. The horizontal speed of the water is 80 cm/s and
30 cm3 of the water hits the plate each second. Assume that the water moves
parallel to the plate after striking it. One cubic centimeter of water has a mas
s
of one gram.
26. Three identical particles A, B and C lie on a smooth horizontal table,
Light inextensible strings which are just taut connect AB and BC and
.ABC is 1350. An impulse J is applied to the particle C in the direction
BC. find the initial speed of each particle. The mass of each particle is m.
3
Level
1. A cylinderical solide of mass 10-2 kg and cross-sectional area 10-4 m2 is mov
ing a parallel to its axis (the
X-axis) with a uniform speed of 103 m/s in the positive direction. At t = 0, its
front face passes the plane x
= 0. The region to the right of this plane is filled with stationary dust partic
les of uniform density 10-3 kg/m3.
When a dust particle collides with the face of the cylinder, it sticks to its su
rface. Assuming that the
dimesions of the cylinder remain partically unchanged, and that the dust sticks
only to the front face of
the cylinder, find the x-coordinate of the cylinder at t = 150 s. [JEE 1993]
2. A small sphere of radius R is held against the inner surface of larger sphere
of
radius 6R (as shown in the fig.). The masses of large and small spheres are 4M
and M respectively. This arrangement is placed on a horizontal table. There is

no friction between any surfaces of contact. The small sphere is now released.
Find the coordinates of the centre of the large sphere, when the smaller sphere
reaches the other extreme position. [JEE 1996]
F
O 0.2 0.4 t(s)
100 N
.
M
m
CENTRE OF MASS
3. A large open top container of negligible mass and uniform cross-sectional are
a A has a small hole of croos
-sectional are A/100 in its side wall near the bottom. The container is kept on
a smooth horizontal floor and
contains a liquid of density . and mass m0. Assuming that the liquid starts flow
ing out horizontally through
the hole at t = 0, calculate
(i) the acceleration of the container, and
(ii) its velocity when 75% of the liquid has drained out. [JEE 1997]
4. A particle of mass m1 is moving in a circular path of radius R with a constan
t
speed v2 is located at point (2R,0) at time t = 0 and a man starts moving with a
velocity v1 along the positive y-axis from origin at time t = 0. Calculate the
linear momentum of the particle w.r.t. the man as a function of time. [JEE 2003]
5. Two point masses m1 and m2 are connected by a spring of natural length l0. Th
e spring is compressed
such that the two point masses touch each other and then they are fastened by a
string. Then the system
is moved with a velocity v0 along positive x-axis. When the system reaches the o
rigin the strings breaks (t
= 0). The position of the point mass m1 is given by x1 = v0t - A (1-cos .t) wher
e A and . are constants. Find
the position of the second block as a function of time. Also find the relation b
etween A and l0.
6. Acart ismoving along +x directionwith a velocity of4m/s.Aperson in the cart t
hrows a stonewith a velocity
of 6m/s relative to himself. In the frame of reference of the cart the stone is
z planemaking an
thrown in y
angle of 30with the vertical z-axis.At the highest point of its trajectory, the s
tone hits an object of equalmass
hung verticallyfrombranch of a tree bymeans ofa string of lengthL.Acompletelyine
lastic collision occurs, in
which the stone gets embedded in the object. Determine
(a) the speed of the combinedmass immediatelyafter the collisionwithrespect to a
n observer on the ground.
(b) the lengthLof the string such that the tensionin the string becomes zero whe
n the string becomes horizontal
during the subsequentmotion of the combinedmass. [JEE, 97]
7. Two blocks ofmass 2kg andMare at rest on an inclined plane and are separated
by a
distance of 6.0mas shown. The coefficient of friction between each of the blocks
and
the inclined plane is 0.25. The 2kg block is given a velocity of 10.0m/s
6.0m
2kg
M
up the inclined plane. It collidieswithM, comes back and has a velocity of 1.0m/
swhen
it reaches its initialposition. The other blockMafter the collisionmoves 0.5mup
and comes to rest. Calculate
the coefficient of restitution between the blocks and themass ofthe blockM.
[Take sin. . tan ..= 0.05 and g = 10m/s2] [JEE, 99]
8. Acar P ismoving with a uniformspeed of 5(31/2)m/s towards a carriage of
mass 9 kg at rest kept on the rails at a point B as shown in fig. The heightAC
is 120m. Cannon balls of 1 kg are fired fromthe car with an initial velocity
100m/s at an angle 30with the horizontal. The first cannon ball hits
C
A B
P
the stationary carriage after a time t0 and sticks to it. Determine t0.At t0, th
e
second cannon ball is fired.Assume that the resistive force between the rails
and the carriage is constant and ignore the verticalmotionof the carriage throug
hout. If the second ballalso hits
and sticks to the carriage.What will be the horizontalvelocity of the carriage j
ust after the second impact ?
[JEE, 01]
9. There is a rectangular plate ofmassMkg of dimensions (a b). The plate is held
inhorizontalpositionbystriking n smallballs eachofmassmper unit area per unit
time.These are striking inthe shaded halfregionofthe plate.The balls are collidi
ng
elasticallywith velocity v.What is v ? [JEE, 06]
a
b
It is given n = 100, M = 3 kg, m= 0.01 kg; b = 2m; a = 1m; g = 10 m/s2
CENTRE OF MASS
Answer Key
Assertion-Reason Type
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Ans. B C D A A B
Match the Column
1. [(A Q), (B P), (C R), (D S)]
2. [(A R), (B P), (C S), (D Q)]
3. [(A Q), (B P), (C R), (D S)]
4. [(A Q), (B P), (C S), (D R)]
5. [(A P), (B Q), (C R), (D R)]
Level
1
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Ans. B A C D A B CD A B
Q. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Ans. C B BD CD C A C ABCD B
Q. 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
Ans. AB ACD B A B C C A C
Q. 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Ans. C C A A B C A C A
Q. 37 38 39 40 41
Ans. AC C C A A
Passage Type Problems
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Ans. D B A C A C A A C
Q. 10 11 12 13 14
Ans. A B D B A
Level 2
1. 0.167 L 2. 2
, W
2
L
3. 3 3
3
R a
a b
. 4. 3.71 m 5. L
3
2
6. (a) 2/3 m, (b) 1 m/s2 (righwards) (c) 0.5 m (d) 1 m (e) 1/3 m (f) 2/3 m/s2 ri
ghtwards (g) 2/3 m/s2 (right wards)
(h) 2/3 m/s2 (right wards
CENTRE OF MASS
7. . . tan.1.e tan.., v . u cos2 . . e2 sin2 . 8.
. .
. .
. .
2
0
M msin
1 e mv sin
9. 1.1 105 ft
10. 216 bulltes/min. 11. m1/3 12. 310 m/s 13.
1/ 2
Mm
2E (M m)..
.
..
. .
14. (a) 2
m1v1i
2
1
(b) (m m )
m v
2
1
1 2
2
1 1i
. (c)
1 2
2
m m
m
. (d) 2c
2 m
2c
1i cm m
2i
1 m v
2
(m v v v v ) 1
2
1 . . . , zero, 10%, no
15. (i)12m/s (ii) 10cm. 17. 25m/s, 36.9, 43.3 m/s 53.1
18. vA = 2.73 m/s; vB = 3.78 m/s
e)/2 , VB = V0 (1 + e)/2 (b) VB = V0(1
19. (a) VA = V0 (1
(c)
20.
.
23.
24.
7m
2
J ,
7m
10
J,
VC = V0 (1 + e)n
1/2n 1 (d) 0.881 V0
(a) 0.294 m (b) 0.0544 m 21. 8.787m. 22. 2gh
(i) 20 N-S (ii) 50 N
1330 N 25. 0.024 N 26.
e2 ) 4, VC
= V0 (1 + e)2/4
7m
3
J
Level
3
1. 105m 2. (L + 2R, 0) 3. (i) g/50 (ii) 2A.
m0g
4. ..
.
..
.
..
.
..
. . . ..
.
..
. . j
t v
R
v cos v i
t
R
m v sin v 1
2
2
2
2 5. x2 = v2t +
2
1
m
m
A(1
cos.t), 1 A
m
m
2
1
0 . ..
.
. ..
.
. . .
6. 2.5 m, 0, 319 m 7. 0.84, 15.12 kg 8. 12 sec., 15.75 m/s 9. 10 m/s
X X X X
FLUID MECHANICS
DHANALAKSHMI NAGAR
NEAR ANNAMAIAH CIRCLE,
TIRUPATI.
PH NO. 9440025125
FLUID MECHANICS
DEFINITION OF A FLUID
The substanceswhich floware called fluids. Both liquids and gases come in this c
ategory.The science of
fluids at rest is called fluidstatics,while that ofmoving fluidshydrodynamics.Fl
uidstatics involveshydrostatics
pressure, floatation, Pascal s lawandArchimedes principle. Hydrodynamics involves co
ntinuityequation,
Bernoullis s principle andTorricelli s theorem.
DENSITY AND PRESSURE
With fluids,we aremore interested inthe extended substance rather than smallpiec
e of the substance and
in properties that can varyfrompoint to point in that substances. It ismore usef
ul to speak of density and
pressure.
Density
Density (.) of any substance is defined as themass per unit volume or
. =
Mass
Volume
or . =m/V
Regarding densityfollowing points areworthnoting :
C1: Density of a bodymeans the ratio ofmass of a bodyto the volume ofthe bodywhi
le densityof a substance
means the ratio ofmass of substance to the volume occupied bythe substance. Thus
, for a solid body,
Density of body=Density of substance
While for a hollowbody, densityof bodyis lesser than that of substance because v
olume of hollowbody is
greater than volume of substance.
C2: In case of a liquid, sometimes an another termrelative density(RD) is define
d.
RD =
Density of substance
Density of water at 4C
RDis a pure ratio. So, it has no units. It is also some times referred as specif
ic gravity.
Note : Density of water at 4C in CGS is 1 g/cm3. Therefore, numerically the RD an
d density
of substance (in CGS) are equal. In SI units the density of water at 4C is 1000 k
g/m3.
C3: If two liquids ofdensities .1 and .2 havingmassesm1 andm2 aremixed together,
then the densityofmixture
willbe
. =
Total mass
Total volume = 1 2
1 2
(m +m )
(V +V )
. = 1 2
1 2
1 2
(m +m )
. m m .
. . . . . . .
Ifm1 = m2, . = 1 2
1 2
2. .
. . . =Harmonic mean
C4: If two liquids of densities .1 and .2 having volumesV1 andV2 aremixed, then
the densityofthemixture is,
. =
Total mass
Total volume = 1 2
1 2
(m +m )
(V +V )
FLUID MECHANICS
. = 1 1 2 2
1 2
V V
V V
. . .
.
If V1 = V2, . = 1 2
2
. . .
=Arithmeticmean
C5: If the temperature of a liquid is increased, themass remains the samewhile t
he volume is increased, then
density of the liquid decreases
1
V
... . .. .. . Thus,
V
V
.
.
.
V V
V V V V
.
. .
. . . . ...
or
1
1
.
.
. . ...
Here, . = thermal coefficient of volume expansion and .. = rise in temperature
. .1 .
1
.
. . . . ...
. ...
.
C6: With increase in pressure due to decrease in volume, densitywill increase, i
.e.,
. .
V V V
V V V V P /B V
.
. . .
. . . . .
or
1
1 P / B
.
.
. . .
Here, .P = charge in preseure
andB =bulkmodulus of elasticityof the liquid
Therefore, . .
1 P
1 P / B B
. . . . . . .. . . . . . .
.
Example 1. Aking orders for a gold crown having a mass of 4 kg.When it arrives f
romthe goldsmith, the
volume of the crown is found to be 100 cm3.What is your opinion about the crown
if the density of pure
gold is 8 103 kg/m3 ?
Sol. The densityof crown
.crown = 6
mass 4
volume 100 10. .
.
.crown = 4 104 kg/m3
which is just half that of pure gold.
There are two possibilities about this deviation :
(a) The crown contains impurities of lightmetals decreasing itsmass for a given
volume and so the density.
(b) The crown contains cavities increasing its volume for a givenmass and so dec
reasing the density.
FLUID MECHANICS
C7:. Relative density of an oil is 0.8. Find the obsolute densityof oil inCGS an
d SI units.
Sol. Density ofoil (inCGS) = (RD) g/cm3
= 0.8 g/cm3
= 800 kg/m3
Example 2.When equal volumes of two metals are mixed togethers, the specific gra
vity of alloyis 4.When
equalmasses of the same twometals aremixed together, the specific gravity of the
alloy is 3.Calculate the
specific gravityof eachmetal.
Sol. In case of two metals
. .
. .
1 2
1 2
m m
V V
.
. .
.
So, when equal volumes are mixed, V1 =V2 =V and m1 = V.1 and m2 = V.2, then
1 2 V V
V V
. . .
. .
.
or 1 2 4
2
. . .
. . . ...(1)
When equalmasses are mixed,m1 =m2 =mandV1 = (m/.1) andV2 = (m/.2), then
1 2
m m
m/ m/
.
. .
. . .
or 1 2
1 2
2
3
. .
. . .
. . . ...(2)
Solving Eqs. (1) and (2) for .1 and .2, we find specific gravities ofmetals are
2 and 6.
CONCEPT OF PRESSURE
Theword pressure is linkedwith pressing . Two surfaces incontact exert on eachother norm
al contact
force .With this force they press each other.
w w
A A
w
N
...... ..
N w
N
...... ..
N
A A
In the figure ananvilofweightWis placed on a horizontalsurfacemaking contact ina
reaAorA.The free
body diagramshows that contact forceNis equal toW, because anvil is not accelera
ted along vertical.
N = W
In the two cases surface have different intensity of pressing. How much intense
is the pressing ? This is
described by a termpressure.
In the figure same contact forceNis distributed over large areaA in one case and
smaller areaAis other.
We define pressure as themagnitude of normal contact force per unit area. Thus,
pressure for areaAis
P | N |
A
.
..
and that for areaA is
FLUID MECHANICS
P | N |
A
.
..
We define presure at a point by taking a small area .Aaround the point.Themagnit
ude ofnormal contact
force over this area is | .N |
..
. Then pressure at the point is limiting value of | .N | / .A |
..
, where .Atends
to zero.That is,
A 0
P lim | N|
. . A
.
.
.
..
P dN
dA
.
SI. Unit : The unit of pressure is just unit of force divided by unit of area; N
m 2 in SI.We cal 1 Nm 2 = 1 Pa
(pascal).
Dimensional Formula :
[MLT 2/L2] = [ML 1 T 2]
Example 3. Asample ofmetal gasket is placed between flat narrowends of two conic
al diamond anvils and
compression of 50 kN is applied. The diameter of the end faces is 5.0 10 3 m., Cal
culate how much
pressure is existing on the sample.
50 kN 50 kN
Diamond Cone
(Metal Gasket)
Sol. As anvils are unaccelerated, the contact forceNis equal to the applied forc
e F.
Thus N= F = 50 kilo newton.
F
N
A
N
A
acceleration = 0
This force is distributed over the contact area. The gasket is slightlyprotrudin
g outside hence thewhole end
area of anvils are in contact. Thus, areaAof contact is given by
A = .D2/4
A =
3.141
4 (5.0 10 3)2 m2
Pressure existing at the face of sample is given by
P N
A
.
3
3 2 2
P 4 50 10 N
(3.141) (5.0 10. ) m
. .
.
. .
P = 2.5 1011 Pa.
FLUID MECHANICS
PRESSURE DUE TO FLUID COLUMN (AT REST)
One of the interesting things is the pressure at the surface of the earthexerted
by air surrounding it. This is
known as atmospheric pressure at the surface.
How does it arise ? It is due to collision of gas
molecules (see kinetic theory of gases). We can,
however, find itsvalue byconsidering statics ofa fluid
column at rest.
We knowthat themagnitude ofnormal contact force
per unit area of contact surface is equal to pressure.
Hence we calculate the contact force by assuming
vertical acceleration ofair column to be zero. This is
known as hydrostatic condition in aninertial frame.
Adz g
(P+dP)A
PA
z (up)
dz
z
z = 0
The figure shows anair columnofcross-sectionalarea acceleration = 0
A, extending verticallyalong Z-axis.
At a height zwe take an elementaryheight dz.The volume ofthis elements isAdz.mul
tiplyit bydensityof
air at this level, ., and gravitationalfield intensityg.We get pulldue to theEar
th. Let Pbe pressure at z and
P + dPat z + dz. The free body diagramof the fluid element is shown.We have
PA= (P + dP)A+Adz .g
0 = dP + dz .g
dP
g
dz
. ..
This is the fundamental equation oflapse rate of pressure in fluid of density..T
here are severalimplications
of this equation.
C8: Ifwemove along z= constant ina homogeneous fluid (horizontallevel)we get
dP = 0 or P =constant. Thus pressure at points in the same horizontal level is
the same in a homogeneous fluid at rest in an inertial frame
C9: Ifwemove along a pathpassing through heterogeneous fluid, pressure in the
same horizontallevel is not the same. In the figure pressure at Aisnot equal to
pressure at B, because the pathACB is passing from A to C and C to B
through liquids ofdifferent densities (hetergeneous).
2 g
1
A B
Z
C
C10: In the same liquid, the pressure decreaseswith height because dP/dZ is nega
tive. Inotherwords, pressure
increaseswith depthin a fluid.
g Z0
Z-axis
P0
Z0 h
Z = 0
To see the above fact, let P0 be pressure at the surface of a liquid of density.
.The pressure at depth hmay

be found using the equation dP/dz =
We have, dP = . g dz.
.g.
FLUID MECHANICS
Let us take z-coordinate at the top as z0.At z = z0 (top of liquid) the pressure
is due to air. Let it be denoted
by P0. Thenat depth h, the z-coordinatewillbe h less than z0, i.e., z0
h.Hence i
ntegrate L.H.S. fromP to
P0 and R.H.S. fromz0 h to z0. That is,
0 0
0
P z
P z h
dP g dz
.
. . . . .
P0 P =
..g. [z0
(z0
h)]
P = P0 + .gh
This formula can bemore easilyderived as below.
A
P0A(force due to pressure)
Ah g(weight of column)
PA(force due to pressure)
Consider the vertical equilibriumof fluid column of height h. acting on if force
s the area as shown in the
figure.
P0A+Ah .g = PA
P = P0 + h.g
Aswe go in the depth, pressure increases.
Here P0 is atmospheric pressure. Using this formulawe cannot knowPwithout knowin
g P0.Abarometer
does the job ofmeasuring atmospheric pressure P0.
C11: AU-tube of uniformcross section (see Fig.) is partially filledwith a liquid
I.Another
liquid IIwhich does notmixwith liquid I ispoured into one side. It is found that
the liquid
levels of the two sides of the tube are the same, while the level of liquid I ha
s risen by
2 cm. Ifthe specific gravity of liquid I is 1.1, the specific gravity of liquid
IImust be
II I
(A) 1.12 (B) 1.1 (C) 1.05 (D) 1.0
Sol. [B]
The level of liquid is same in both the limbs. Pressure in limbs I at B= Pressur
e of limb II atA
h II h I
A B
P2 P1
h.1g = h.2g
.1 = .2
FLUID MECHANICS
Variation of pressure at two points when fluid is in horizontal acceleration :
When a fluid is subjected to a constant acceleration, different elements of the
fluid orient themselves so as
to obtain a newequilibriumpositionwith respect to the vessel. Since the fluid pa
rticles are relativelyat rest
with respect to one another, therefore, the laws of fluid statics area applicabl
e but in themodified formto
take into account the effect of acceleration.
Consider a horizontallyaccelerating container with liquid in it. Take two
pointsA and B at ahorizontal distancel (along the line of acceleration a).
Take a horizontal cylinderwithin the two areas .S containing pointsAand
B. Let pressure atAis PA&at B is PB.
l
hB hA
S
A B a
The forces along the lineAB are PA .S towards right and PB.S towards
left. Under the action of these forces the element is accelerating.
thus, PA .S
PB .S = ma
or (PA PB) .S = (.S)l .a
or P1
P2 = l.a
i.e., two points in same horizontal leveldo not have equalpressure for a fluid a
ccelerating horizontally. If
atmospheric pressure is P0 then, PA = P0 + hA .g and PB = P0 + hB .g, as there i
s no vertical acceleration.
hA and hB are the depths of pointsA&B fromfree surface.
. h1 .g h2 .g = l .a
or 1 2 h h a
g
.
.
l
or
tan a
g
. .
where ..is the inclinationof the free surfacewith the horizontal.
Example 4. Avessel containing water is given a constant acceleration a towards t
he right along a straight
horizontalpath.Which of the following diagrams in Fig. represents the surface of
the liquid ?
(A) a (B) a (C) a (D) none of these
Sol. [C]
A
D
B C
(dx)
Let us consider a small dotted segment of thickness dxfor observation.
Since this segment is accelerated towards right, a net force is acting in this s
egment towards right fromthe
liquid towards the left ofABCD.According to Newton s third Law, the segmentABCDwil
l also apply a
force on the previous section creating a pressure on it whichmakes the liquid ri
se.
FLUID MECHANICS
Variation of pressure at two points when fluid is in vertical acceleration:
Consider pointAandB inside liquidwith a vertical separation hwhere the
liquid is accelerating upward. Consider a vertical cylinder of length hwith
boundaries atA&B. .S is the surface area of flat boundaries. Let PA&
PB are the pressures at A& B respectively. Thus, forces acting on the
cylinder arePA .S upward PB .S downward andW=(.S)h.gdownward.
Under the action of these forces liquid cylinder is accelerating upwardwith
acceleration a .
B
A
h
a
Thus, PA .S
PB .S
mg = ma
or (PA PB) = . (g + a) h
Special cases :
(i) If a is ( )ve i.e. the vessel is accelerating downward then, (PA
PB) = .(g
h
(ii) If a is zero then pressure is equal everywhere inside the liquid.
(iii) If a is greater than g then fluid occupies the upper part of the container
.
Example 5. Abucket containswater filled upto a height = 15 cm. The bucket is tie
d to a ropewhich is passed
over a frictionless light pulleyand the other end ofthe rope is tied to aweight
ofmasswhich is halfof that of
the (bucket +water). Thewater pressure above atmosphere pressure at the bottomis
(A) 0.5 kPa (B) 1 kPa (C) 5 kPa (D) None of these
Sol. The acceleration of bucket is
a 2mg mg g
3m 3
.
. . downward
. P = P0 + .(g a) h
. 0
P P 1000 10 10 0.15
3
. . . . . . .. ..
0
P P 1000 20 0.15
3
. . . .
P P0 = 103 N/m2 = 1 kPa Hence option (B) is correct.
Variation of pressure when fluid is under both horizontal and vertical accelerat
ion :
Whena fluid is accelerating inarbitrarydirectionthenpressurevaries bothhorizonta
llyand verticalseparately
for horizontaland vertical component ofacceleration respectively.
Here, x y
a . a i . a j
.
and ax = a cos . & ay = a sin .
Now, difference inpressure at two points insame horizontallevelat a separation
l is given by
x .P . l .a . l .a cos .
ay
ax
a
a)
Andsimilarlyfor two points insameverticallinewitha separationh, thepressure

difference is
y .P . .(g . a )h . (g . a sin .)h
Inclination of the free surfacewith respect to the horizontalis given by
x
y
tan a
g a
. .
. ;
tan a cos
g a sin
.
. .
. .
FLUID MECHANICS
Example 6.Atrolleycontaining a liquid of density..slides downa smoothinclined
plane ofangle ..with the horizontal.Determine the angleof inclination ..ofthe
free surfacewith the horizontal.
Sol. The acceleration of the trolleyalong the inclined plane is
a = g sin .
ax = a cos . = g sin . cos .
ay = a sin . = g sin2 .
The inclination ofthe free surface is
x
2
y
tan a gsin cos tan
g a g(1 sin )
. .
. . . . .
. . .
=
ax
ay
a=gsin
or . = .
Note : That the free surface becomes parallel to the inclined plane. It is
because the net effective gravity inside the trolley is perpendicular to the
inclined plane.
Example 7. Afluid container is containing a liquid of density ..is accelerating
upwardwith acceleration a long the inclined place of inclination . as shown.
Then the angle of inclination ..of free surface is :
a
(A) tan 1 a
g cos
. . .
. . . . .
(B) tan 1 a gsin
g cos
. . . . .
. . . . .
(C) tan 1 a gsin
g(1 cos )
. . . . .
. . . . . .
(D) tan 1 a g sin
g(1 cos )
. . . . .
. . . . . .
Sol. . N cos . = mg cos .
and N sin . = ma + mg sin .
.
tan a gsin
g cos
. .
. .
.
N cos N N sin
ma+mg sin
mg cos
. tan 1 a g sin
g cos
. . . ..
. . . . . . .
Hence option (B) is correct.
Variation of pressure when a fluid is rotating :
Whena liquidcontainer is rotatingwithconstant angular velocity, liquid
particles orient themselves to a newequilibriumposition at which no
relativemotion exists between different parts of the liquid. Consider
the container is rotated about its axiswith constant angular speed ..
Consider a small fluid elementwhichis under the actionof two forces,
horizontal centrifugal reaction due to rotation and down-ward force
due to gravity.
2rm
mg
y
O r
The slope of the free surface at the position ofelement is
dy 2r tan
dr g
.
. . . or
2r dy dr
g
.
.
FLUID MECHANICS
Integratingwe get, y = y0 +
2
r2
2g
.
where y0 is the integration constant which depends upon the initialvalues.
Let Ris the radius of the cylinder and h0 is the height of the liquid before the
start of rotation then
at r = R, y = ymax = y0 +
2R2
2g
.
at r = 0, y = ymin = y0
Here originalheight of the liquid is themean ofmaximumandminimumheights.
So,
2 2
max min
0 0
h y y R y
2 4g
. .
. . .
or
2 2
0 0
y h R
4g
.
. .
.
2 2
max 0
y h R
4g
.
. .
2 2
min 0
y h R
4g
.
. .
and
2 2 2 2
0
y h R r
4g 2g
. .
. . .
Note : The above equation shows that the free surface of liquid is that of a par
aboloid.
Example 8. Acylinder of radius R = 1mand height H= 3m, two-third filled
withwater, is rotated about its vertical axis, as shownin figure.Determine
the speed of rotationwhen h=(2/3)H
H
R
(i) Thewater just starts spilling over the brim,
(ii) The point at the centre of the base is just exposed.

Sol. (i)We knowthat
ymax = H = 3 ; H = 2/3 H = 2 m;
R = 1 m; g = 10 ms 2.
Thus 2 2
4g(H h) 4(10)(3 2)
R 1
. .
. . .
. . 40 rad s.1
(ii) We knowthat
y = H
R
2
0
y r y
2g
.
. .
Here, y = H = 3m; y0 = 0; r = R = 1m
g = 10 ms 2
2 2
2gH 2(10)(3)
R 1
. . . ; . . 60 rad s.1
FLUID MECHANICS
Example 9. Figure shows a three armtube inwhich a liquid is filled upto levels
ofheight l. It isnowrotated at anangular frequency. about anaxis passing
through armB. The angular frequency ..at which level of liquid in arm
B becomes zero. l l
A B C
l l
(A)
2g
3l (B)
g
l (C)
3g
l (D)
3g
2l
Sol. 0 0
P P g 3 P 3 g
2 2
. . . . . . . . . . . .
l l
. . . . 2
0 P P S S
2
. . . l l .
2
3 g S S 2
2 2
. .
. . l l
3 2
g
2 2
.
. l
.2 . 3g
l
.
. . 3g
l Hence option (C) is correct.
Example 10. Length of a horizontal armof aU-tube is l = 21 cmand ends of
both of the vertical arms are open to surroundings of pressure 10500
Nm 2.Aliquid of density . = 103 kgm 3 is poured into the tube such that
liquid just fills horizontal part of the tube. Now, one of the open ends is
sealed and the tube is then rotated about a vertical axis passing through the
other vertical armwith angular velocity .0 = 10 radians/sec.
a = 6 cm
l = 21cm
If length of each vertical armbe a = 6cm, calculate the length of air column in
the sealed arm.
Sol. When tube is rotated, liquid starts to flowradiallyoutward and air in seale
d armis compressed. Let the shift
of liquid be x as shown in figure.
Let cross-sectional area of tube be S. Initialvolume of air,
V0 = Sa and initial pressure P0 = 10500 Nm 2
Finalvolume, V = S (a x)
. Finalpressure, 0 0 0 P V P . a
P
V (a x)
. .
.
a x
(l x)
x
A
x
B
or pressure at B, P2 = P + x.g = 0 P a
(a . x) + x.g
Centripetal force required for circularmotion ofvertical column of height x of l
iquid isprovided byreaction
of the tubewhile that to horizontal length (l
x) is provided byexcess pressure a
t B.
Force exerted bypressure difference is
FLUID MECHANICS
F1 = (PB
PA) S = (P2
P0) S = 0 P x
x g
(a x)
. .
. . . . . . .
S
Mass ofhorizontal armAB of liquid is,
m= S(l x).
Radius of circular path traced by its centre ofmass is r = x+
x x
2 2
. . . . . . . . .
l l
. Centripetal force, F2 = m.0
2r
But F2 = F1 or {S .(l
x)} 2 0
0
x P x x g S
2 (a x)
. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .
l
or x = 0.01 m = 1 cm
. Length of air column in sealed arm= (a x) = 5 cm.
BAROMETER
We canmeasure atmospheric pressure P0 using a liquid column in a tube. This arra
ngement is shown in the
figure and is called barometer. (There are several othermodifications).Mercuryis
filled in a tube of length
about 1m. Itsmouth is covered (by thumb, say) and inverted into a vessel contain
ingmercury. It is held in
position bya stand andmouthis nowuncovered.
h h
Z0 h
A gh
P1A
z0
Z
P0A
It is observed that somemercurycomes out in the vessel.Avacant space is created
at the top (closed) end.
This space is historicallycalledTorricelli s vacuum, although samemercurry vapour
is present in it.
If pressure at the top ofmercurry column be P1, we have, for equilibriumof colum
n,
P1A+A.0gh = P0A.
Here P1 ismercurryvapour pressurewhichwe generally ignore. Then
P0 = .0gh
The atmospheric pressure is, thus,measured if h bemeasured.
The normal density (.0) ofmercuryis 13.6 g cm 3 and g = 981 cms 1. For a given place
and temperature,
these data are fixed. Hence directly h can be used to showpressure.One atmospher
ic pressure is a unit of
pressure equal to 76 cmofHg.
Example 11.Amercurybarometer reads h0 as pressure of air in a closed lift at res
t. If the lift accelerates up at
g/2,whatwillbe :
(a) atmospheric pressure in the lift; and
(b) the reading of the barometer ?

Sol. (a) The air enclosed in the lift will have the same temperature and volume.
Its pressurewill be the same as
P0 = h0.g. Here ..is the densityofmercury in barometer.
FLUID MECHANICS
(We shall see in the kinetic theoryof gases that pressure is arising due to coll
ision ofmolecules.)
(b) When the lift accelerates,mercurycolumn also accelerates. Let h be the lengt
hofmercurycolumn now, and
a (= g/2) be the acceleration.Then, usingNewton s second lawofmotion,
P0A hA.g = (hA.)a
= hA.g/2
P0 = 3/2 h.g
Nowwe compare it with h0.
h Ag
P0A
a
P0 = .gh0
. h0 = 3/2h
h = 2/3 h0 (reading)
The reading of barometer falls, although pressure in the lift remains the same.
Gauge Pressure : The pressure in excess of atmospheric pressure is called gauge
pressure. P
P0 = .gh is the
gauge pressure. It ismeasured byamanometer.
P
P0
h g
manometer
If the pressure be lower than atmospheric, we define vaccumpressure as the defic
iencyin pressure.
Variation of pressure in air with height
The pressure decreases as we go up in the atmosphere as the temperature and dens
ity of air at different
heights is not the same.Arough estimate shows that at constant temperature, pres
sure falls exponentially
withheight.
Other pressure units :
1.013 105 Pa = 1 atm.
105 Pa = 1 bar
1.013 bar = 1 atm.
1 mmofHg = 1 torr = 133 Pa.
Example 12. Find the absolute and gauge pressures of the gas
above the surface of the oilin the tank shown in the figure.
Take the densityofoil as 800 kg/m3, densityofmercuryas
13.6 103 kg/m3, atmospheric pressure as 1.0 105
N/m2 and g = 10 m/s2.
1.0 cm
2.0 cm
1.5 cm
A B
Oil
Gas
Sol. As the pointsAand Bare at the same horizontal level in
mercury, the pressure at these points is the same. Now, if Pis the absolute pres
sure of the gas and P0 is the
atmospheric pressure, then pressure atAis
FLUID MECHANICS
PA = P + (1.5 + 2.0) 800 10
PA = P + 0.28 105 N/m2
Similarly pressure at B is
PB = P0 + (1.0 + 2.0) 13.6 103 10
PB = P0 + 4.08 105 N/m2
Using PA = PB
Gauge pressure
we get P
P0 = 3.8 105 N/m2
andAbsolute Pressure
P = (1.0 105 + 3.8 105) Pa
P = 4.8 105 Pa.
PASCAL S LAW
(i) The pressure in a fluid at rest is the same at the same height (or depth rel
ative to top surface).
A B
h
Let two pointsAand B at the same depth h fromthe top surface.We consider a narro
w tube of fluidAB
between pointsAand B. Let . be its cross sectional area. Force at endAis PA . an
d that at end Bis PB..
Since the tube is not accelerating horizontally,
PA PB
these forcesmust be balanced. Thus,
PA . = PB .
PA = PB.
This proves the Pascal s observation.
(ii) The change in pressure at anypoint in a closed liquid is totallytransmitted
to all the points of the liquid.
We can show this by using P = P0 + .gh.
Let P0 be changed by p. Then, the pressure at depth h is given by
P = (P0 + p) + . gh.
. P P = p.
This does not contain h. Hence the change in pressure at the top is transmitted
to all the points totally.
(iii) Pressure at a point does not depend upon orientation of the surface (area)
used to define it.
To showthiswe take a small prismof liquid around the observation point O. Let N1
, N2 andN3 be normal
forces acting on faces of the prismhaving areaA1,A2 andA3.
Now P1 = 1
1
N
A , P2 = 2
2
N
A and P3 = 3
3
N
A .
FLUID MECHANICS
Since the prismis at rest,
N1
A1
A2
A3
O
N2
N3
N1 . N2 . N3 . 0
.. .. ..
Resolving forces,
N2 = N1 sin . ...(1)
N3 = N1 cos .
Also A1 cos . =A3
A1 sin . =A2 ...(2)
. P1 = 1
1
N
A
P2 = 2
2
N
A = 1
1
N sin
A sin
.
. = 1
1
N
A
P3 = 3
3
N
A = 1
1
N cos
A cos
.
. = 1
1
N
A
Thus, P1 = P2 = P3.
This also distinguishespressure fromnormalstress.Although theyare dimensionallyt
he same, normalstress
changes by changing the orientation of surface whereas pressure remains the same
. Pressure is a scalar
quantity.
APPLICATIONS OF PASCAL S LAW
Since the change in pressure at anypoint in a liquid is transmitted to allpoints
of the liquid,we can obtain
larger force by using larger contact area. This is the principle of hydraulic li
ft or hydraulic brakes.
Hydraulic Machines
Figure shows a horizontal cylinderwitha piston and three vertical tubes. Liquid
has the same level inall the
three tubes.This shows that pressure is the same at their bases.Nowwe push the p
iston andwait.We find
that the level is raised but by the same height in the all the tubes. Thus the c
hange in pressure has been
transmitted to all the pointswithout any decrease. (This isPascal s lawof transmis
sion of pressure).
This is the principle of hydraulicmachines.
Example : Hydraulic lift
Figure shows two pistons of areasA1 andA2. They are connected by a liquid. If we
apply a force F1 a
change in pressure F1/A1 is produced. This, according to Pascal, is transmitted
to allthe points ofthe liquid,
and hence also at the base of right piston (of areaA2). Corresponding to the cha
nge in pressure, there is
produced a force F2, acting over areaA2, such that
F2 = (change is pressure) A2
F2 = 1
1
F
A
. .
.. .. A2.
FLUID MECHANICS
A1
F1
F2
A2
AsA2 >A1, the force F2 is larger than the applied force F1.
Mechanical advantage of amachine is defined as the ratio of load (F2) to effort
(F1). There (A2/A1) is equal
to (F2/F1), themechanical advantage of hydraulic lift.
the large force F2maybe used to press a drumof rotatingwheel, acting as brake. T
his is the principle of a
hydraulic brake.The force F2maybe used to press big bundles into smallfor typing
Brahma press is such
a device.
Example 13. The area of cross-section of thewider tube shown infigure is
800 cm2. If a mass of 12 kg is placed on the massless piston, the
difference in heights h inthe level ofwater inthe two tubes is :
12 kg
(A) 10 cm (B) 6 cm (C) 15 cm (D) 2 cm
Sol. Pressure in horizontal pipe at both sides are same.
. P0 + .gh + .gH 0
P mg gH
A
. . . .
.
gh mg
A
. .
. 4
h mg m 12
gA A 1000 800 10. . . .
. . . .
.
h 12 m 3 100 15 cm
80 20
. . . . Hence option (C) is correct.
FORCES ACTING ON SOLID BOUNDARIES
(a) Whenever a fluid comes in contact withsolid boundaries it exerts a force on
it.
(b) This forceonaparticular bounarymaybeobtainedbyintegrating thepressure
over the entire area of the boundary.
(c) The variation of liquid pressure acting at base, verticalwall and inclined
wall are shown in the figure.
Force at the base :
As the pressure is uniformat the flat base, therefore, force acting at the base
is
F = P (area of the base)
F = .gh (lb)
P = gh
. F . .g (hlb)
where ..is the densityof liquid, h is the height of the liquid column, l&b are t
he length and breadthof the
base.
FLUID MECHANICS
C12: Abeaker of circular cross-section of radius 4 cmis filledwithmercury upto a
height of 10 cm. Find the
force exerted by the mercury on the bottom of the beaker. The atmmospheric press
ure = 105 N/m2.
Density ofmercury= 13600 kg/m3. Take g= 10 m/s2.
Sol. The pressure at the surface
= atmospheric pressure
= 105 N/m2.
The pressure at the bottom.
105 N/m2 + h.g
= 105 N/m2 + (0.1 m) 3 2
13600 kg 10 m
m s
. . . .
.. .. .. ..
= 105 N/m2 + 13600 N/m2
= 1.136 105 N/m2.
The force exerted by themercuryon the bottom
= (1.136 105 N/m2) (3.14 0.04 m 0.04 m) = 571 N.
Example 14. The vesselshownin the adjoiningfig. is filledwithwater of density
.w = 103 kgm 3.
(i) Find the net force acting at the base of the vessel.
(ii)What is theweight ofwater in the vessel ?
1 cm
5 cm
= 10 cm2
A2= 50 cm
Sol. (i) Pressure at the base of the vessel is
P = .w gh = (103) (10) (6 10 2) = 600 Pa
. F = .A = (600) (50 10 4) = 3 N
(ii)Weight ofwater in the tube is
W= .wg (A1h1 +A2h2)
or W= (103) (10)[(10 10 4) (5 10 2) + (50 10 4) (1 10 2)]
W = 1 N
Example 15. A U tube having horizontal armof length 20 cm, has uniformcross-sectio
nal area = 1 cm2. It is
filledwithwater of volume 60 cc.What volume of a liquid of density4 g/cc should
be poured fromone side
into theU tube so that nowater is left in the horizontal armof the tube ?
(A) 60 cc (B) 45 cc (C) 50 cc (D) 35 cc
Sol. P0 + .l gh0 = P0 + .. gh
4 h0 = 60
0
h 60 15 cm
4
. .
h0 h
. Volume of liquid pushed =A(h0 + 20) = 1 (15 + 20) = 35 cm3.
Hence option (D) is correct.
Force on the vertical wall
Pressure acting on the verticalwall is not uniformbut increases
linearlywith depth.
Let us take an element dy of the boundary at a depth y fromthe
free surface. Ph = gh
Py = gy
h
y
FLUID MECHANICS
. Pressure at depth y, Py = .gy
Force acting on the element dy of breadth b is
dF = Py (bdy) = .gb ydy
. Total force on thewall,
h 2
0
F dF gbydy 1 gbh
2
. . . . . . .
Thus, total force acting per unit width of the verticalwall
F 1 gh2
b 2
. .
The point of application (or centre of force) of the total force fromthe free su
rface is
h h h 2
0 0 0
e h h h
0 0 0
ydF y gbydy y dy
h
dF gbydy ydy
.
. . .
.
. . .
. . .
3
e
2
1 h 2 h 3 h 1 h 3
2
. .
. e
2
h h
3
.
i.e., the total force acts at a depth of 2/3 h fromthe free surface.
Force on an inclined wall :
We knowpressure always acts normal to a surface, and it depends upon
the depth y of the point fromthe free surface.
The horizontal force Fx acts on the verticalprojection of the inclinedwall
h
P = gh
h/sin
Fx =
1
2
.gbh2
And the vertical force Fy acts due to theweight of the liquid supported by thewa
ll,
Fy =
1
2
.gb (h) (h cot .) =
1
2
.gbh2 cot .
. 2 2 2 2
x y
F F F 1 gbh 1 cot
2
. . . . . .
or F 1 gbh2 . 1
2 sin
. .
.
or
F 1 h2 g
b 2 sin
. .
.
FLUID MECHANICS
Example 16. Some liquid is filled in a cylindrical vesselof radiusR. Let F1 be t
he force applied bythe liquid on
the bottomofthe cylinder. Nowthe same liquid is poured into a vesselof uniformsq
uare cross-section of
side R. Let F2 be the force applied by the liquid on the bottomof this newvessel
. (Neglect atmosphere
pressure) Then :
(A) F1 = .F2 (B) F1 = F2/. (C) F1 = . F2 (D) F1 = F2
Sol. V = .R2h = R2H
H = .h
F1 = .gh .R2
F2 = .gH R2 = .g .R2h = F1
Example 17. Aliquid ofmass 1 kg is filled in a flask as shown in figure. The for
ce
exerted by the flask on the liquid is (g = 10 m/s2) [Neglect atmospheric
pressure] :
(A) 10 N (B) greater than 10N
(C) less than 10 N (D) zero
Sol.
Fx
Fx
Fy
ghA
Force diagram
mg of liquid
Fy + .ghA= mg = 10 N Hence option (A) is correct.
Example 18. Aheavy hollowcone of radiusRand height h is placed on a horizontal t
able surface,with its flat
base on the table. Thewhole volume inside the cone is filledwithwater of density
.. the circular rimof the
cone s base has a watertight seal with the table s surface and the top apex of the c
one has a small hole.
Neglecting atmospheric pressure find the total upward force exerted bywater on t
he cone is
(A) (2/3).R2h.g (B) (1/3).R2h.g (C) .R2h.g (D) None
Sol. Byforce diagramof liquid :
Fy + .gh .R2 = mg
. Fy = mg .gh .R2
Fy =
1
3
.R2h .g .gh .R2 Fx
Fx
Fy
gh R
mg
2
Fy =
2
3
.R2h .g
Hence upward force exter on come bywater is
2
3
..R2hg. Hence option (A) is correct.
BUOYANCY
(a) If a bodyis partially orwhollyimmersed in a fluid, it experiences anupward f

orce due to fluid surrounding
it. The phenomenon of force exerted byfluid on the bodyis called buoyancyand the
force is called buoyant
force.
FLUID MECHANICS
(b) Whena solid bodyis immersed ina liquid, it displaces the liquid, partiallyor
completelyof itsvolume.While
doing so it pushes or applies a downward force on the liquid, hence, in accordan
ce to newton s third law,
the liquid also exerts an upward force (equal to theweight ofthe displaced liqui
d)
Archimedes principle
It states thatwhen a bodyis particallyor fullydipped into a fluid at rest, the f
luid exerts anupward force of
buoyancyequal to theweight ofthe displaced fluid.
IfVbe the volume of displaced fluid of density . then, buoyant force, FB =V.g
NOTE :
1. Buoyant force arises because the pressure in the fluid is not uniform but inc
reases with depth.
2. Buoyancy force acts through the centroid of the displaced fluid.
3. Buoyant forcemay be different fromtheweight of the displaced fluid in non-ine
rtial frame of reference.
Flotation
(a) Whenthe force of buoyancyis equal to theweight of the dipped (partiallyor co
mpletely) solid, the solidwill
remain in equilibrium.This is called flotation.
(b) When the overalldensityof the solid is smaller thanthat of fluid, the solid
floatswith a part of it in the fluid.
The fraction dipped is such, that theweight of the displaced fluid equals thewei
ght of the solid.
(c) APPARENTWEIGHT :Asolid of volumeVs is dipped inside a liquid, where it displ
aces the liquid by a
volumeVl. If .s and .l be the density of solid and liquid respectively then, app
arent weight of the solid is,
Wa = Vs .s g Vl .l g
or Wa . (Vs .s . V . )g l l
For completely submerged solid, Vl =Vs andwe have
Wa =Vs (.s .l)g
(a) Stabilityof floating bodydepends on the effective point of application ofthe
buoyant force inrelation to the
point of applicationof itsweight.
(b) Theweight of a body acts through its centre of gravityGand the buoyant force
acts through the centre of
mass/buoyancyB ofthe displaced liquid.
(A) STABILITY OF COMPLETELY SUBMERGED BODY
(a) Neutral equilibrium : When a homogeneous cylinder is
completelyimmersed in a liquidGandBcoincidewitheach other.
Then allpositions are equilibriumposition. B
W
G B
F
(b) Unstable equilibirum :When an additionalweight is placed on
top of a homogeneous cylinder so that Glies above B. Then by a
slight disturbance the cylinder topples.
W
B
G
B
FB
B W
G
(c) Stable equilibrium :When an additionalweight is placed at the
bottomof a homogeneous cylinder so that Glies belowB.Aslight

disturbance in the cylinder produces restoring couplewhich tries
to bring the cylinder in earlier position. W
B
G
FB
W
G
FB
B
FLUID MECHANICS
(B) STABILITY OF PARTIALLY SUBMERGED BODY
(a) For partically submerged body under certain condition may be
stable even ifGlies above B. B
W
G
FB (b) It is because a slight rotation in the bodymay cause a sufficient
shift inthe positionofcentre of buoyancy(as shape ofthe displaced
liquid changes)whichmayprovide a restoring couple.
(c) The bodyremains in stable equilibriumas long asBremains below
themeta centreM(point of enter section of shifted line to original
line of actionof buoyant force)
W
G
B
FB
M
C13:Abodyfloats in a liquid contained in a beaker.Thewhole systemas shown in
Figure falls freelyunder gravity.The upthrust onthe body is
(A) zero
(B) equal to theweight ofthe liquid displaced
(C) equal to theweight of the body in air
(D) equalto theweight ofthe immersed portion of the body
Sol. [A]
Thewhole systemfalls freelyunder gravity
Upthrust =weight of fluid displaced
= (mass of fluid displaced) g
For a freely falling body, g = 0
. Upthrust = 0.
C14: The spring balanceAreads 2 kgwith a blockmsuspended fromit.Abalance
B reads 5 kg when a beakerwith liquid is put on the pan of the balance. The
two balances are nowso arranged that the hangingmass is inside the liquid in
the beaker as shown in the figure. In this situation :
m
B
A
(A) the balanceAwillreadmore than 2kg
(B) the balance B will readmore than 5 kg
(C) the balanceA will read less than 2 kg and B will readmore than 5 kg
(D) the balanceAand B will read 2 kg and 5 kg respectively
Sol. [BC]
When the block ofmassmis arranged as shown in the figure, an upthrust
FT will act on themasswhichwilldecrease the reading onA. but according
to Newton s second law, to each and every action, there is equal and
opposite reaction. So FT will act on the liquid of the beaker which will
increase the reading inB. F
B
A
T FT
Example 19.Avesselcontains oil (density=0.8 gm/cm3) overmercury(density=13.6 gmc
m3).Ahomogeneous
sphere floatswithhalfits volume immersed inmercuryand the other half inoil.The d
ensityofthematerialof
the sphere in gm/cm3 is
(A) 3.3 (B) 6.4 (C) 7.2 (D) 12.8
FLUID MECHANICS
Sol. [C]
Wt. of sphere =Uptrust due to Hg +Upthrust due to oil
Hg oil
Vdg V d g V d g
2 2
. . .
Oil
Mercury
Hg oil 3 d d 13.6 0.8
d 7.2 g / cm
2 2
. .
. . .
Example 20. In English the phrase tip of the iceberg is used tomeana smallvisible
fraction of something that
ismostlyhidden. For areal icebergwhat is this fraction ifthe densityof seawater
is 1.03 g/cc and that of ice
is 0.92 g/cc ?
Sol. In case of floatation,weight =upthrust, i.e.,
mg =Vin.g, i.e., V. =Vin. [as . =m/V]
or Vin =
.
. V so Vout = V
Vin = V 1
. .. . . . . ..
or out
out
V 0.92 0.11 f 1 1
V 1.03 1.03
. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .
fout = 0.106 or 10.6%
Example 21. Acork of density 0.5 gcm 3 floats on a calmswimming pool. The fraction
of the cork s volume
which is underwater is
(A) 0% (B) 25% (C) 10 % (D) 50%
Sol. mg = .Vg
.V0g = .Vg
0.5 V0g = 1 Vg
0 V V
2
.
Fraction = 50% Hence option (D) is correct.
Example 22. Asmallwooden ballof density . is immersed inwater of density ..to de
pth h and then released.
The height Habove the surface ofwater up to which the ballwill jump out ofwater
is
(A)
.h
. (B) 1 h
. . .
. . . . . . (C) h (D) zero
Sol. When ball is insideswater :
The acceleration of ball insidewater is
0
a Vg mg
m
. .
.
. 0
a Vg Vg 1 g g
V
. .. . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The velocityof ball at the surface is
v0
2 = 2a0 h
FLUID MECHANICS
. v2 = v0
2 2 gH
or 02 = v0
2 2gH
.
2
H v0 2a0h a0h
2g 2g g
. . .
. H h 1 h
. . . .. . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . Hence option (B) is correct.
Example 23. Asphere of radiusR andmade ofmaterial of relative density ..has a co
ncentric cavity of radius
r. It just floatswhen placed in a tank fullofwater. The value of the ratio R/rwi
ll be
(A)
1/3
1
. . .
.. . . .. (B)
1/3 . . .1.
.. . .. (C)
1/ 3 . . .1.
.. . .. (D)
1/ 3 1
1
. . . .
.. . . ..
Sol. Since, sphere just floats,
. mg = .Vg
or 3 3 3
0
4 R 4 r g 4 R g
3 3 3
. . . . . . . . . .. ..
But 0 .
. .
.
. . (R3
r3) = R3
or
3
3
1 r 1
R
. .
.. . . . . . or
3
3
r 1
1
R
. .
.
or
3
3
1 r
1
R
. .
. or
3
3
1 r
R
. . . . . . . . . .
or
1/ 3 R
r 1
. . . . . . . . . . Hence option (A) is correct.
Example 24. Acubical block ofwood 10 cmon a side and of density 0.5 g/cm3 floats
in a jar ofwater. Oil of
density0.8 g/cm3 is poured on thewater untilthe top of the oil layer is 4 cmbelo
wthe top of the block. (a)
How deep is the oil layer ? (b)What is the gauge pressure at the lower face of t
he block ?
Sol. (a) Let the oil layer be x cm deep. Then weight of block = weight of oil di
splaced + weight of water
displaced.
x) 1
or (103)(0.5) = 102 (x) (0.8) g + 102 (6
or x = 5 cm.
(b) Gauge pressure at the lower face of the block
4 cm
x cm
Oil (10 4 x)cm
water
= 5 0.8 98 + 1 1 980
= 4900 dynes/cm2.
FLUID MECHANICS
Example 25. Acone of radiusRand heightH, is hanging inside a liquid of density
. by means of a string as shown in the figure. The force, due to the liquid
acting onthe slant surface of the cone is (neglect atmosphere pressure)
H
R
(A) ..gHR2 (B) ..HR2
(C) 4/3 ..gHR2 (D) 2/3 ..gHR2
Sol. . Fy = P.R2 = .Vg = Buoyancy force
or Fy + .gh.R2 = .
1
3
.R2hg
. Fy =
1
3
..R2hg
.gh..R2
Fy
Fx
Fx
mg
T
P R2
Fy =
2
3
..R2hg
Hence Fy =
2
3
..R2hg in downward direction.
Example 26. A dumbbell is placed in water of density .. It is
observed that byattaching amassmto the rod, the dumbbell
floatswiththe rod horizontalonthe surface ofwater and each
sphere exactlyhalfsubmergedas shoninthe figure.The volume
of themassmis negligible. The value oflength l is
M,V 2M,V
d
l
Water
(A)
d( V 3M)
2( V 2M)
. .
. . (B)
d( V 2M)
2( V 3M)
. .
. . (C)
d( V 2M)
2( V 3M)
. .
. . (D)
d( V 2M)
2( V 3M)
. .
. .
Sol. For equilibrium,

Mg + 2Mg + mg = .
V
2 g + .
V
2 g ...(i)
Taking torque about massm,
V g Mg .d . V g 2Mg
2 2
.. . . . . .. . . .. .. .. .. l l ...(ii)
From(i) and (ii)
d( V 2M)
2( V 3M)
. .
.
. .
l Hence option (B) is correct.
Example 27. Arod oflength 6mhas amass of 12 kg. It is hinged at one end
at a distance of 3 mbelowthewater surface.
(i) What weight must be attached to the other end so that 5 mof the rod is
submerged ?
W
F B
O
O
12kgf
C
b
3m
H A
(ii) Find the magnitud and direction of the force exerted by the hinge on the N
rod. The specific gravity of thematerial of the rod is 0.5.
Sol. Mass per unit length of the rod is 2 kg.Therefore,mass of the submerged por
tion of the rod is 10 kg and its
volume =
10
500 m3
FLUID MECHANICS
(using the simple formule, volume =
mass
density and density= specific gravity 1000 kgm 3). Therefore,
buoyant force,
Fb =
10
500 1000 = 20 kgf
Let N and H be the vertical downward and horizontal reactions of the hinge on th
e rod. Considering
horizontal and vertical translational equilibriumof the rod, N+ 12 +W= 20 (where
Wis theweight to be
attached andH= 0).N
+ W= 8 and H = 0
Considering the rotational equilibriumof the rod aboutA
20 g 2.5 cos . + 12 g 3 cos . + W 6 cos . = 0
6W= 50 g
36 g = 14 g
W 7 g 7 kgf
3 3
. .
N 8 7 17 kgf
3 3
. . .
Example 28.Awoodenplank of length 1mand uniformcross-sectionis hinged at
one end to the bottomofa tank as showninfigure. The tank is filledwithwater
up to a height of 0.5m. The specific gravity of the plank is 0.5. B
C
F
A mg O
l
Findthe angle . that theplankmakeswiththeverticalintheequilibriumposition.
(Exclude the case . = 0).
Sol. The forces acting on the plank are shown inthe figure. The height ofwater l
evel is l = 0.5m. The length of
the plank is 1.0m= 2l.Theweight of the plank acts through the centreBof the plan
k.We haveOB= l.The
buoyant force F acts through the pointAwhich is themiddle point of the dipped pa
rt OCof the plank.
We have
OA OC
2 2cos
. .
.
l
Let themass per unit length of the plank be ..
Itsweightmg = 2l.g.
Themass of the part OC of the plank = cos
. .
.. ...
l
..
The mass ofwater displaced =
1 2
0.5 cos cos
.
. .
. .
l l
.
The buoyant force F is, therefore, F =
2 g
cos
.
.
l
.
Now, for equilibrium, the torque ofmg about Oshould balance the torque ofF about
O.
So, mg (OB) sin . = F (OA) sin .
or
(2 ) 2
cos 2cos
. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ..
l l l l
or cos2. = 1/2
or cos. =
1
2 , or . = 45
FLUID MECHANICS
Example 29.Asolid rodof lengthLcross-sectionalareaAand density. is suspended fre
elyin awide tank filled
with a liquid of density .0 to a height h = L/. (where ..> 1). The lower end of
the rod touches the base of
the tank.
(i) Determine the angle of inclinationof the rodwith the horizontal inthe equili
briumposition.
(ii) Determine the normal reaction between the rod and the base of the tank.
Sol. In the figure shown, let us assume
L= length of the rod
l = immersed length of the rod
. = angle of inclination of rodwith the horizontal.
(i) If the rod is in equilibrium, then the net torque about the pointAis zero, i
.e.
A 0
( ALg) L cos ( A g) cos 0
2 2
. . . . . . l l . .
or
2
0
2
L .
.
l .
B
A
FB
W 0
N
h=L/
Now, sin h L 1 0
.
. . . .
l .l . .
(ii) UsingNewton s second law
N = W FB = .ALg
.0Alg
or N ALg 1 0
L
. . .
. . . . . . . .
l
or N ALg 1 0
. . .
. . . . . . . .
FLUID DYNAMICS
Blowing air, water flowing in a river, liquid flowing in a tube, blood flowing i
n vein are examples of fluid
motion.
The studyoffluid inmotion is known as fluid dynamics.
Types of fluid flow
Afluid element is a smallvolume of fluid containing a large number ofmolecules.D
uringmotion, this fluid
element may be observed moving in various fastion as decided by the forces actin
g on it. These define
various types of fluid flow.
Compressible flowis defined as that iswhich the density of fluid changes during
the flow.
Incompressible flowis that inwhich fluid densitydoes not change during the flow.
The flowof liquids is
generally incompressible and that of gases is compressible (at lowspeeds).
Afluid elementmay be rotatingwhile flowing. This is known as rotational flow. Ir
rotational flowis that is
which a fluid element does not rotatewhilemoving. Ifwe look at various points of
space inwhich fluid has
irrotational flow, velocityvectors of fluid elements at various points of space
(at a giventime) have their line
integral in a closed path equal to zero :
. v . d . 0
. ...
. l (irrotationalflow)
FLUID MECHANICS
During flow heat exchange or work exchange maytake place between fluid and its s
urrounding. In such a
flow, we define isothermal flow as that in which temperature of fluid element re
mains the same during the
flow.Adiabaticflowisthatinwhichnoheatexchangebetweenfluidelement andsurroundingi
sallowed.
Real fluid have fractional motion. The name of fluid friction is viscosity. If v
iscous forces are
considerable the flow is called viscous flow . If the, viscous force has negligible
effect, the flow is idealised
as non-viscous flow .
uncertain type of motion
Streamline flow
Turbulent flow
Figure shows water tap turned on slowly. Water flow in upper part looks smooth w
hile in lower part (larger
speed) the flow is not smooth (it is zig-zag). The reason for such a look is tha
t flow at low speed is
streamline while at large speed it is turbulent.
Steady or Streamline flow
The flow of fluid in which every fluid element crosses a given point of space wi
th the same velocity as its
predecessor, is known as steady flow. Thus, at a verygiven point of space we hav
e a vector of velocity. We
have a velocity field, just like electrostatic fleid or gravitational field.
The path followedbyallthe particles offluid passing through
a point is the same. This path is streamline . hence we
also call the steady flow a streamline flow.Astreamline is
analogous to electric lines of force. Velocity at a point is
tangent to streamline passing through that point.
V
V
A
B
Streamlines
The magnitude of velocity is proportional to the density of streamlines (per uni
t area normal to velocity
vector). In the figure same number of streamlines are spaced more closely at Ath
an at B and hence velocity
at Ais larger then that at B :
V > V
Two streamlines never cross each other because that would mean two directions of
velocityat the crossing
pointwhichisnotpossibleinasteadyflow.
v1
A1
Flowpipe
A2v2
The lineintegralof velocityina closed pathiszero is steady
flow. The velocityfield here is anexampleofa conservative
field.
We can always imagine a pipe of flow constituted by
streamlines. Fluid in this pipe flows in a disciplined way,

never crossingits wall.Aflow pipe or flow tube is a bundle
of streamlines.
The figure shows a flow tube. Its cross-sectionalarea isnon-uniform. In a unifor
mvelocityfield, streamlines
are parallel and equispaced. We have in that case cross-sectional area as the sa
me every where for a flow
tubeandfluidelementshaveequalvelocityat allsectionsat atime.
FLUID MECHANICS
In the case of non-uniformsteady flow, larger area means rarefied streamlines an
d hence low speed of
particles. In a flow tube the same number (N) of streamlines are crossing differ
ent areas (A). Hence, by
definition ofstreamlines,
V N
A
.
V k N
A
.
VA= kN = constant.
The product of flowtube area and fluid velocityat each cross-section of a flowpi
pe remains the same. This
is the constant of equation of continuity(describing continuous flow) :
A1V2 =A2V2 = ...........
We can showthat equation of continuityis based a conservation offluidmass during
flow.The productAv
is, in fact, volume of fluid per unit time passing through surface normal toV..
. Ifwemultiply it bydensity.,
we get the rate ofmass flow. Ifmass is neither created nor destroyed, this rate
must be the same. Hence
AV..= constant.
For incompressible flow, ..is also constant. ThenAV= constant.
Narrower the flowtube, faster the flow.
C15: Froma tube of inner radius 4 cm, water is flowing at an average speed of 2m
/sec. Calculate the rate of
flow.
Sol. Q =Rate of flow
Q= volume of liquid flowing per sec. = area of cross-section velocity
. Q = A v = .r2v
=
22
7 (4)2 2 100 c.c./sec. = 10053.09 c.c./sec.
C16: The rate of flowin a tube of inner radius 4 cmis 36 litre/hour. Calculate t
he speed of thewater inthe tube.
Sol. Q =Av = .r2v
or 36 1000 22 (4)2 v
60 60 7
.
.
.
v = 0.198 cm/sec.
C17:Ahorizontalpipe having a constriction is shown in the figure.The radius atMa
ndNare respectively8 cm
and 4 cm. Calculate the velocity at Nif velocity ofwater atMis 16 cm/sec.
Sol. We have A1v1 = A2v2
.r1
2v1 = .r2
2v2
M N
r =4cmv1 1
r2 =8cm
v2
2
2
1 2
1
v r v 64 cm/ sec.
r
. .
. . . . . .
BERNOULLI S THEOREM
DenielBernoulli (1700
1782) studied flowof fluids using energymethod. Ifwe apply
conservation of
energyofsteadyflow,we get anequationknown asBernoulli s equation(representingBerno
ulli s theorem).
It relates velocityof flow, elevation of flowing fluid and pressure.
FLUID MECHANICS
The sumof kinetic energy per unit volume, gravitational potential energy per uni
t volume and pressue,
remains constant at all the points ofa streamline.This isBernoulli s theorem.
P
v
Y
Stream line
Reference land
(y = 0
If a fluid of density ..be flowing with speed V along a streamline, and P be the
pressure and y be height
relative to a reference line, then
kinetic energyper unit volume =1/2 .V2
gravitationalpotentialenergyper unit volume= .gy.
The sumis .gy+ 1/2 .V2 + p.According to Bernoulli s theorem
p + .gy+ 1/2.V2 = constant.
This isBernoulli s equation.
To prove it,we consider a flowpipe and fluid contained in the pipe between secti
ons a and b(see fig.)The
pressure p1 causes a force p1A1 at section-a and pressure p2 causes a force p2A2
at section-b. Due to
velocity the section-amoves by v1dt and section-b by v2dt. The fluidwe considere
d as (i) in the figure,
acquires the position(f) in time dt.
Work done on the fluid is W = p1A1V1dt p2V2V2dt.
Thismust be equal to change inmechanical energy, .E. (i)
a
a
(f)
v2 dt
v1 dt
p A a 1 1
p2A2
b Now .E = .U + .K.
where .Uis the change in gravitational energy, and .Kis
the charge in kinetic energy of the fluid lying, between
section-a and section-b.
During motion section-a goes to a and b to b. the fluid
between aand b has the same kinetic energyand potential
energy in the states i and f. Hence
.K = (Kab + Kbb )
(Kaa + Kab)
.K = Kbb Kaa
.K =
1
2 (A2V2dt .) V2
2
1
2 (A1V1dt .)V1
2
.U = (Uab + Ubb )
(Uaa + Uab)
.U = Ubb Uaa
.U = (A2V2dt .) gy2
(.A1V1dt)gy1
Therefore using .E =W, we have
1
2 (A2V2dt .) V2
2
1
2 (A1V1dt .)V1
2 + (A2V2dt .) gy2
(A1V1dt.)gy1
= p1A1V1dt p2A2V2dt
Now, A1V1 = A2V2
.
1
2
.V2
2
1
2
.V1
2 + .gy2
.gy1 = p1
p2
FLUID MECHANICS
Arranging subscripts-1 onRHS and subscripts-2 on LHS,
1
2
.V2
2 + .gy2 + p2 =
1
2
.V1
2 + .gy1 + p1
The sumofpressure (p), kinetic energyper unit volume (1/2 .V2) and gravitational
potentialenergyper unit
volume (.gy) has the same value at section-1 as at section-2.This is true for an
yother section also.AreaA1
orA2 ofthe flowtube are small enough so that unique velocitycan be taken. Hence
the result is truewhen
pipe becomes very narrow, i.e., a streamline.
TheBernoulli s equation
p + .gy+
1
2
.V2 = constant
must be used for ideal flowonly. By thiswemean incompressible, non-viscous, irro
tational and streamline
flow.
In the special case of hydrostatics, (we take v = 0). This gives
p + .gy= constant.
As y decreases, p increases, i.e. hydrostatic pressure increaseswith depth.
C18: Thework done in pushing 10 cubicmetre ofwater ina pipe of diameter 8 cmis 1
6000 joule. Calculate the
difference in the pressure at the two ends of the pipe.
Sol. We have, work done
W= (P1 P2)V
. 2
1 2
P P W 16000 1600 N /m
V 10
. . . .
Example 30.Water flows in a horizontal tube as shown in figure. The
pressure ofwater changes by 600N/m2 betweenA and B where
the areas of cross-section are 30 cm2 and 15 cm2 respectively.
Find the rate of flowofwater through the tube.
A B
Sol. Let the velocityatA= vA and that at B = vB.
Bythe equation of continuity,
2
B
2
A
v 30 cm
2
v 15 cm
. .
ByBernoulli s equation,
PA +
1
2
.vA
2 = PB +
1
2
.vB
2
or PA
PB =
1
2
..(2vA)2
1
2
.vA
2 =
3
2
.vA
2
or 2
2 3 A
600 N 3 1000 kg v
m 2 m
. . . .. ..
or 2 2
A v . 0.4 m / s . 0.63m/ s
The rate of flow = (30 cm2) (0.63 m/s) = 1890 cm3/s
FLUID MECHANICS
Example 31. Aliquid of density 0.83 g/cm3 is contained in a vessel under a total
internal pressure of 3 atm.
Neglecting viscosity, calculate the speedwithwhichthe liquidwill escape froma sm
allholemade inthe side
wallofthe vessel.
Sol. 2 2
1 1 2 2
P 1 v P 1 v
2 2
. . . . .
Here P1 = 3 atm
P2 = 1 atm
v1P = 0 1
v2P
2
v1 = 0
. 1 2
2
v 2(P P )
.
.
.
5
2 3
v 2 2 1.013 10 22.1m/ s
0.83 10
. . .
. .
.
Example 32. Anon-viscous liquid of constant density1000 kg/m3 flows in a
streamlinemotion along a tube of variable cross-section. The tube is kept
inclined in the vertical plane as shown in the figure. The area of crosssection
of the tube at the points PandQat heights of 2metre and 5metre
are respectively 4 10 3m2 and 8 10 3m2. The velocity of the liquid at
point Pis 1m/s.
P
2m 5m
Q
Find thework done per unit volume by the pressure and the gravityforces
as the fluid flows frompoint Pto Q. Take g = 9.8m/s2.
Sol. Given : A1 = 4 10 3 m2,A2 = 8 10 3 m2, h1 = 2 m, h2 = 5 m, v1 = 1 m/s and . = 1
03 kg/m3
Fromcontinutiyequation,we have
A1v1 = A2v2
or 1
2 1
2
A
v v
A
. .
. . . . .
or . .
3
2 3
v 4 10 1m/ s
8 10
.
.
. . .
. . . . . .
h1
h2
2
1
A1
v
v
A
2
2
2
v 1 m/ s
2
.
ApplyingBernoulli s equation at section 1 and 2,
2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
P 1 v gh P 1 v gh
2 2
. . . . . . . . .
or 2 2
1 2 2 1 2 1
P P g(h h ) 1 (v v )
2
. . . . . . . ...(1)
(i) Work done for unit volume bythe pressure as the fluid flows fromPto Q
W1 = P1
P2
W1 = .g(h2 h1) + .(v2
2 v1
2) [fromeq. (1)]
FLUID MECHANICS
3 3
1
1 1
W (10 )(9.8)(5 2) (10 ) 1
2 4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
J/m3 = {29400
375} J/m3
or W1 = 29025 J/m3 Ans.
(ii) Wor done per unit volume by the gravity as fluid flows fromP to Q.
W2 = .g(h2
h1) =
(103)(9.8)(5
2) J/m3
or W2 = 29400 J/m3 Ans.
Example 33. Asiphon tube is used to remove liquid froma container as
shown in fig. In order to operate the siphon tube, itmust initiallybe filled
withthe liquid.
(i) Determine the speed of the liquid through the siphon.
(ii) Determine the pressure at the point C.
H
h
y
B
Datum A
C
Sol. (i)Applying bernoulli s equation at pointsAandD, we get
pA +
1
2
.vA
2 + .gyA = pD +
1
2
.vD
2 + .gyD
Assuming datumfor potential energy at the free surface, we have
yA = 0; yD = (h + y); pA = pD = patm vA
2 . 0 ; vD = v
patm + 0 + 0 = patm +
1
2
.v2 = .g[ (h + y)]
or v . 2g(h . y)
(ii) Applying Bernoulli s equation atAandC,we get
pA +
1
2
.vA
2 + .gyA = pC +
1
2
.vC
2 + .gyC
Here, yC = +H; vC = v (according to the continuity equation)
. patm + 0 + 0 = pC +
1
2
.v2 + .gh
or patm = pC + .g (h + y) + .gh
or pC = patm .g (h + H + y)
Example 34. The figure shows a siphon in action. The liquid flowing
through the siphon has a densityof 1.5 g/cc. Calculate the pressure
difference between (a) pointsAandD, and (b) points B andC.
200 cm
20 cm
A
B C
D
Sol. (a)AtAandDthe pressure is atmospheric, therefore,
PA
PD = 0
(b) PA
PB = 1.5 980 20 dynes/cm2
PD PC = 1.5 980 (200
20)
As PA = PD ; PA
PC
PA = 1.5 980 (200
20)
PA = 26400 dynes/cm2.
FLUID MECHANICS
Example 35. Aliquid flows out of a broad vessel through a narrowvertical pipe.
Howare the pressure and the velocityofthe liquid in thepipe distributedwhen
the height of the liquid level in the vessel isH fromthe lower end of the pipe
and the length of the pipe is h ?
1
2 h
x
Sol. Let us consider three points 1, 2, 3 in the flowofwater. The positions of t
he
points are as shown in the figure.
Applying Bernoulli s theoremto points 1, 2 and 3
2
0 2 2
1 2
p 1 v gH p 1 v g(h x)
2 2
. . . . . .
. .
0 2
3
p 1 v 0
2
. . .
.
Bycontinuityequation
v1 A1 = A2v2 = A2v3
SinceA1 >>A2, v1 is negligible and v2 = v3 = v (say)
. 0 2 2 0 2 p p 1 p 1 gH v g(h x) v
2 2
. . . . . . .
. . .
. v . 2gH ...(i)
and 0 2 p p . gH . . gH . g(h . x)
. .
p0 = p2 + .g (h x)
p2 = p0 .g (h
x) ...(ii)
Thus pressure varieswith distance fromthe upper end of the pipe according to equ
ation (ii) and velocity is
a constant and is given by (i).
Applications of Bernoulli s theorm
Avarietyof phenomena involving ideal fluid flow, or approximately ideal flow, co
uld be explained using
Bernoulli s theorem.
1. Speed of efflux : Torricelli s law :
Ifwe puncture anopen tank filledwithwater, (or anyliquid)water (withliquid)willf
lowout ofthe pin hole.
This hole of very small radius is called on orifice. The speed of outflowis call
ed speed of efflux .
Torricelli observed that speed of efflux at the orifice is equal to the speed of
freely falling stone released fromthe top of liquid surface. This is known as
Torricelli s theorem. If h be the depth of the orifice fromfree surface, the
speed of effluxwill be 2gh .
Reference level
y = 0
y axis
y = h
h
Let us consider a streamline joining orifice to the top of the liquid. Let the
reference level for gravitational potential energybe at the levelof orifice.
Pressure at the top of liquid is atmospheric pressure P0 and also at the
point where orifice ismade. The speed at the top is negligible as area here
is verylarge. Hence
p0 + . gh + 0 = P0 +
1
2
.v2.
FLUID MECHANICS
Solving itwe get
v . 2gh .
In certain situations the tank is not open. The pressure above the liquid top is
not equal to pressure at the
orifice. In that case
P1 + . gh + 0 = P0 + 0 +
1
2
.v2.
In rockets, the inside pressure ismuch larger and the .gh - termis ignored.
C19: Atank containswater upto a height H. There is a very narrowhole at a depth
h belowthe levelofwater
in the tank.At what distance the streamofwater coming out fromthe orifice in the
wallwillstrike the floor
?
Sol. Water coming out fromthe orifice has a horizontalvelocity
v . 2gh
Let in time t thewater strikes the floor.Then
H h 0 1 gt2
2
. . .
.
t 2(H h)
g
.
.
Therefore horizontaldistance travelled
x vt 2gh 2(H h) 2 (H h)h
g
.
. . . . .
C20: In the above problemat what depththe hole should be so that the streamofwat
er coming out fromit may
strike the floor atmaximumdistance fromthe tank.
Sol. We have, x . 2 (H. h)h
h)h
. x2 = 4(H
or x2 = H2 H2 + 4(H
h)h
Clearly xwill bemaximum, if (H 2h)2 = 0
Hence,
h H
2
.
C21: In the above problemcalculate themaximumdistance fromthe tankwhere the stre
amofwater will strike
the floor.
Sol. We have, x2 = H2 (H 2h)2
Clearlyxismaximum,
when (H
2h)2 = 0
Hencemaximumvalue of x=H.
C22: Atank containswater upto height H.What should be the position of two differ
ent holes in itswall so that
water streamcoming out fromthemmaystrike the ground at the same point ?
FLUID MECHANICS
Sol. The height ofsecond hole fromthe bottommust be equalto the depth of the 1st
hole fromthe level of the
surface.
For same range we have x1 = x2
. 2 (H . h)h . 2 (H . h1)h1
h1
h
h
H
x1 = x2
or H
h1 = h
C23: There are two narrow holes in thewall of a vessel filled withwater at a dis
tance of 50 cm. The area of
cross-section ofeach hole is 0.2 sq. cm; calculate the distance of the point of
intersection of their streams if
140 cm3 ofwater is filled in the vessel in every second.
Sol. LetMand N be the two holes.
1 2 v . 2gh, v . 2g(H. h)
If x is the distance of the point of intersection then,
x = v1t1 = v2t2
It can be shown that
h
2
x
V
V1
H=50cm
M
2 2
2
2 2
x 1 V H 2g 120 cm
2 2g V
. . .
. . . . . . . .
Example 36.An opentank is filledwith two immiscible liquids of densities .1 and
.2 as inthe figure. Determine the speed of efflux.
h
v
h2
1 1
2
Sol. AsTorricelli s theoremis applicable to open tank, single densitysystem, we
shalluseBernoulli s theoremfor lower liquid. Pressure at the junctionofliquids
is P0 + .1 gh1 and presure at the orifice is P0. Hence
(P0 + .1gh1) + .2gh2 + 0 = P0 + O +
1
2
.2V2
1 1 2 2
2
2( gh gh )
V
. . .
.
.
1
2 1
2
V 2gh 2 gh
. . .
. . . . . . .
NOTE : That it depends upon (.1/.2), whereas in single liquid system it
does not depend upon the type of liquid.
Example 37. Acylindrical tank having cross-sectionalareaA= 0.5m2 is filled
with two liquids of density .1 = 900 kg m 3 and .2 = 600 kg m 3, to a
height h = 60 cmeach as shown in figure.Asmall hole having area a = 5
cm2 ismade in right verticalwall at a height y = 20 cmfromthe bottom.
Calculate
( 2 )
( 1 )
h
h
F y
(i) velocityofefflux,
(ii) horizontal force Fto keep the cylinder instatic equilibrium, if it is place
d on
a smoothhorizontalplane and
(iii) minimumandmaximumvalues ofFto keep the cylinder instatic equilibrium, ifco
efficient of friction between
the cylinder and the plane is = 0.01. (g = 10ms 2)
FLUID MECHANICS
Sol. Since area of hole is very small in comparison to base areaAof the cylinder
, therefore, velocity of liquid
inside the cylinder is negligible.
Let velocity of efflux be v and atmospheric pressure P0.
Consider two pointsA(inside the cylinder) andB(just outside the hole) inthe same
horizontal line as shown
infigure.
Pressure atA, PA = P0 + h.2g + (h
y).1g
Pressure at B, PB = P0 2
1
A
B
According toBernoulli s theorem,
pressure energyatA
PA = pressure energy at B + kinetic energy at B
. PA = PB +
1
2
.1v2
. v = 4 ms 1 Ans.
When cylinder is on smooth horizontalplane, force F required to keep cylinder st
ationaryequals horizontal
thrust exerted bywater jet. But that is equal tomass flowing per second x change
in velocityof thismass.
. F = (av .) (v
0) = a.v2
or F = 7.2 N Ans.
Totalmass of the liquid in the cylinder is
m=Ah.1 +Ah.2 = 450 kg
Limiting friction=mg = 45N
Fmax 7.2 N
N
N
mg
. F< Limitingfriction, therefore,minimum
force requied is zero. Ans.
Consider free body diagramformaximumvalue of force.
Considering vertical forces,
N = mg
Nowconsidering horizontal forces,
Fmax = F + N
or Fmax = 52.2 N Ans.
Position of Liquid level in tank
LetAbe the area of the top ofliquid and y be its position relative to the hole.T
hen in a time dt, the levelwill
fall by| dy |, expelling a volumeA| dy | through the hole. If x be area of the h
ole andyVbe the velocity of
efflux, volume expelled in time dt is .Vdt. Hence
A | dy | = . V dt ...(1)
using Torriceli s theorem(for . <<A), we have
V . 2 gy ...(2)
|dy|
y
Thus,A| dy | = . 2 gy dt
As yis decreasing,
| dy | = dy ...(3)
Thus, Ady = . 2 gy dt
dy 2g dt
y A
.
. .
Integrating LHS fromy=Hto y and t = 0 to t, we get
FLUID MECHANICS
y t
H 0
dy
2g dt
y A
.
. . . .
2. y H. 2g t
A
.
. . .
g
H y t
A 2
.
. .
g t
A 2
.
.
This gives position y ofthe equal level of time t.
Solving this
t A 2 . H y.
g
. .
.
Example 38. Atank ofcross-sectional areaAfilledwith a liquid to a heightHhas
a smallhole a its base ofarea a (a <<A). Find the time duringwhich the liquid
level falls to a height h =H/. (where . > 1)
A
a
H
Sol. Let h be the instantaneous height ofliquid in the tank.Then, the instantane
ous
velocityof flowthrough the hole is
v . 2gh
Using the equationof continuity,we have
A dh av a 2gh
dt
. . . . . . . . .
or
H/ t
H 0
dh a
2g dt
h A
.
. . . .
v
h
or
2 H H a 2gt
A
. .
. . . . . . .
or
t A 2 H H
a g
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example 39. Acylindrical tank of base area A has a small hole of area a at the bott
om.At time t = 0, a tap
starts to supplywater into the tank at a constant rate .m3/s.
(a) what is themaximumlevelofwater hmax in the tank ?
(b) find the timewhen level ofwater becomes h(< hmax).
Sol. (a) Levelwillbemaximumwhen rate of inflowofwater = rate of outflowofwater
i.e. . = av
or max . . a 2gh
FLUID MECHANICS
2
max 2 h
2ga
.
.
A
h
a
v = 2gh
Rate = ms
3
(b) Let at time t, the level ofwater be h. Then
A dh a 2gh
dt
. . . . . .. ..
or
h t
0 0
dh dt
a 2gh A
.
. . . .
Solving this,we get
A a 2gh t ln 2gh
ag a
.. ... . .. . . . . . . . .. .. . .. ..
Ans.
Example 40. Curved surface of a vessel has shape of a truncated cone having semi
-vertex angle . = 37. Top
and bottomradii of the vessel are r1 = 3 cmand r2 = 12 cmrespectivelyand height
is h= 12 cm.The vessel
is full ofwater (density . = 1000 kgm 3) and is placed on a smooth horizontal plan
e invacuum. Calculate
(i) mass of the liquid in the vessel,
(ii) force on the bottomof the vessel.
(iii) resultant force on curvedwalls.
Ahole having area S = 1.5 cm2 ismade in curved wall near the bottom.
Calculate
(iv) velocityofefflux,
(v) horizontal range ofwater jet, and
(vi) horizontal force required to keep the vessel in static equilibrium.Neglect
atmospheric pressure.
(g = 10 ms 2)
Sol. The vesselismade froma cone having axial length (h+ h
= 16 cm) and semivertex angle 37 by cutting top 4 cmof
its lengthas shown in figure. Therefore, volume ofvesselis
V =
1
3
.r2
2 (h + h)
1
3
.r1
2h
V = 756 ..cm3
or V = 756 . 10 6 m3
37
h = 4 cm
h=12cm r1 =3cm
r2 =12cm
. Mass ofwater in the vessel isM=V.
M = 0.756 . kg Ans. (i)
Force on bottomof the vessel is due to pressure exerted bywater and this pressur
e is
P = h.g = 1200 Nm 2
Area of the bottomisA= .r2
2 = 0.0144 .m2
. Force on bottom is F = P.A= 17.28 .N Ans. (ii)
Let resulant force exerted by curved walls on water
body be F (vertically down-wards)
Considering free body diagramofwater body (figure).
F + mg = F
mg
F
or F = F
mg F
F = 9.72 ..N
FLUID MECHANICS
According to Newton s third law, water exerts an equal but opposite force on vesse
l s curved walls.
Hence, this force is numerically equal to F but upwards.
. Resultant force on curvedwalls
= 9.72 . N (upwards) Ans. (iii)
Velocity of effulx is v0= 2gh (Normal to curvedwalls)
v0 = 2.4 ms 1 at angle 37 to horizontal Ans. (iv)
Nowwatermoleculesmoves under gravity like a free projectile.
Hence, horizontal range ofwater jet isR =
20
v sin 2
g
.
or R = 0.2304 m or 23.04 cm Ans. (v)
Vessel experiences a force at hole, due to rate of change ofmomentumofwater. Thi
s force is equal to
(Mass flowing per second) (change in velocityof thismass)
Hence, this force is equal to (Sv0.) (v0
0) = S . . v0
2 = 0.36N (normal to the wall)
Its vertical component is balanced by floor reaction, while horizontal component
(0.36 cos .) is to be
balanced byapplying a horizontally rightward force on vessel.
. Horizontal force required to keep the vessel stationary is
0.36 cos . = 0.288 N Ans. (vi)
2. Venturimeter :
The flowspeed of incompressible fluid (or ideal fluid) can bemeasured using a ho
llowtube having broad
diameter (section) and a small constriction (section-2).These two regions are co
nnected by amanometer.
Thewhole arrangement is shown inthe adjoining figure.
h
density =
density =
V
a
A
V0
1
2 1
manometer
Let . be the fluid density, V0 be the flow velocity.We insert veturimeter with h
orizontal axis. The flow
velocitynear the broad ends is almost V0 but at constriction (a narrowopening) t
he speed is larger (V). The
pressures at section-1 and section-2 are P1 and P2. Then using Bernoulli s theorem
,
P1 +
1
2
.V0
2 = P2 +
1
2
. V2.
Equation ofcontinuitygives
AV0 = aV ...(1)
0
V A V
a
. . . .. .. ...(2)
The pressure difference P1
nsity of liquid in the
manometer.That is,
P2 ismeasured bymanometer. It equals .ghwhere . is de
FLUID MECHANICS
P1
P2 = ..gh ...(3)
Fromequations (1), (2) and (3) V0 can be calculated.
we have, P1
P2 =
1
2
.(V2 V0
2)
2
2
1 2 0 0
P P 1 A V V
2 a
... . .. . . ... . . . ... . ..
2
2
1 2 0 2
P P 1 V A 1
2 a
. .
. . . . . . . .
2
2
0 2
gh 1 V A 1
2 a
. .
. . . . . . . .
0 2
2
V 2( / )gh
A 1
a
. .
.
. .
. . . . .
Thus, flowspeedV0 could be determined.
Example 41. The figure shows a venturimeter tube. It is a device
used to measure the velocity of a fluid through a pipe. The
cross-sectional area of the pipe at positions 1 and 2 areA1
and A2 respectively. An U-tube manometer with a fluid of
density . is used to measure the pressure difference between
the points 1 and 2. If the density of the flowing fluid be .0,
then determine the velocityof flowat position 1.
h
A
1 0 2
1 A2
Sol. Using the equation of continuityat position 1 and 2,we get
A1v1 =A2v2 or v2 = 1
2
A
A
. .
.. .. v1 ...(1)
ApplyingBernoulli s equationat position 1 and 2, we get
p1 +
1
2
.0v1
2 + .0gy1 = p2 +
1
2
.0v2
2 + .0gy2
Assuming datumfor potential energy at the axis of the pipe, we get
y1 = y2 = 0
. v2
2 v1
2 = 1 2
0
2(p . p )
.
Substituting the value of v2,we get
2
2 1 1 2
1
2 0
v A 1 2(p p )
A
.. . . .
.. . . . . ... . .. .
...(2)
FLUID MECHANICS
The pressure difference (p1
p2)maybe obtained bywriting themanometric equation.
p1 + .0gh .gh = p2
or p1 p2 = (.
.0)gh
Substituting the value of (p1
p2) in equation (2),we get
2
2 1
1
2 0
A
v 1 2gh 1
A
.. . . . . .
.. . . . . . . . ... . .. . . .
or
0
1 2
1
2
2gh 1
v
A 1
A
. . .
. . . . . .
.
.. . .
.. . . . ... . ..
Example 42. The area of cross-section of a large tank is 0.5m2. It has an openin
g near the bottomhaving area
of cross-section 1 cm2.Aload of 20 kg is applied on thewater at the top. Find th
e velocity of the water
coming out ofthe opening at the timewhen the height ofwater levelis 50 cmabove t
he bottom.Take g= 10
m/s2.
Sol. As the area of cross-section of the tank is large compared to that of the o
pening, the speed ofwater in the
tankwillbe verysmall as compared to the speed at the opening. The pressure at th
e surface ofwater in the
tank is that due to the atmosphere plus due to the load.
2
2
A 0 2 0
(20kg)(10m/ s )
P P P 400N/m
0.5m
. . . .
At the opening, the pressure is that due to the atmosphere.
UsingBernoulli s equation,
2 2
A A B B
P gh 1 v P 1 v
2 2
. . . . . . .
or P0 + 400 N/m2 + (1000 kg/m3) (10 m/s2) (0.2m) + 0
A
B
= P0 +
1
2 (1000 kg/m3) vB
2
or 5400 N/m2 = (500 kg/m3) vB
2
or vB . 3.3m/s.
Some applications of Venturimeter
Carburetor ofan automobile uses a venturi channel(nozzle) formixing airwith gaso
line (petrol) in correct
ratio for combustion.We know that higher the speed smaller the pressure along a
horizontal streamline.
Hence byforcing air flowthroughnozzle, lowpressure is generated.This cause petro
lto be sucked upward
andmixwith flowing air.
motion
air
nozzle
air + petrol
petrol
FLUID MECHANICS
Aspray gun, a filter pump, aBunsenburner or an atomiser use the principle ofvent
urimeter. Flowing fluid
generates lowpressurewhich is used to such fluid andmix it with the flowing flui
d.
The blood pressure (B.P.) :
The flowof blood and its the pressure are better understood byapplyingBernoulli s
theorem.
Circulatorysystemin animals are tubes throughwhich fluid called blood is circulate
d bya pumping system
called heart. In some animals like human or giraffe, the flowcan take place agai
nst gravitywhile in some
others like snakes, rats, rabbits, the flowagainst gravityis not possible byveno
us system.Arteries are tubes
throughwhichthe blood flows.
Arteriesmayget constricted (narrowboring) due to deposition of plaque on innerwa
lls. In order to force
the blood incorrect amount through these narrowed tubes, velocityofflowhas to be
increased (product of
area and velocity is the volume rate of flow, which will be constant if narrower
tubes have larger flow
speeds).Higher the flowspeed, lower the fluid pressure (Bernoulli s theorem).The v
iscous effect ismasked
by the flowspeed and arterieswith constriction attain lowpressure.
But arteries are surrounded byothermaterials that press it to balance the inside
normalpressure.Nowthat
pressure inside has decreased while outside pressure is the same, amechanical co
nstriction is produced.
The heart has to exertmore to open the arteryand hence activityofheart suddenlyi
ncreases. Thismaylead
tomalfunctioning of the heart, heart attack and even death. Bychemicalmeanswe tr
y to dissolve plaque or
take such a food and do exercises as to reduce the deposition of plaque.
Blood pressure in arteries is an indicator of howhealthythe arteries are. The pr
essure at various points of
arteries in the body is not indentical; it depends on posture.
Figure shows average guage pressure (above atmospheric pressure) averaged over o
ne cycle action of
heart.
y
13.3 kPa Heart
= 100 torr
= 100 mm of Hg
26.8 kPa Feet
9.3 kPa Brain
2
Bernoulli's theorem gives
P + 1 .V +.gy = constant
2
Here V constant.Hence higher the
point, lower the pressure.
.
13.2 kPa 13.3 kPa 13.1 kPa
FLUID MECHANICS
Blood pressure can be measured by an instrument called sphygmomanometer, usually
available with a
medicalpractioner.
Dynamic Lift :
If the flowof fluid across a body is such that pressure across it become unequal
, a net force is generated
fromregion of high pressure to lowpressure.This forcemaylift a bodyagainst gravi
ty. It is called dynamic
lift. Sucha lift if observed, for example, in the following situation.
(a) Aballmovingwith spin feels a sideways force. This is calledMagnus Effect aft
er GustavMagnus who
studied the effect in 1850s.
(b) Airplanewing or hydrofoilmoving in fluid feels a force normal towing.
(c) Rotatingwing ofhelicopter gets lifteed.
To see howMagnusEffect arises,we useBernoulli s equationto fluid in the vicinityof
a ballinmotionwith
spin.
v
FD
Ball inmotion without spin Fluidmotion relative to ball.
Let us first consider a ballmovingwithout spin. The fluidmoves past the ballwith
equal speed as seen from
balls frame. Onlya dragging (FD) acts on the ball.
Now we consider spin also. The air in contact with the surface of the spinning b
all (boundary layer) is
dragged alongwith the surface.As a result, the relative speed of air past the ba
ll is reduced on one side and
increased on the other side.
v FL
FD
Low speed
High speed
Streamlines get denser on one side
Spin causes dragging of
fluid in contact
v
FL
According to Bernoulli s theorem, lower speedmeans higher pressure. Hence a force
(FL) acts on the side
fromlowspeed to high speed region. This force is along . . v
.. .
.
In a cricket match or base ballmatch, one enjoys everymuch the
motionof spinned ball that poses trouble for batsman.Magnus effect
is central to curving of the ball in flight.
The force of dynamic lift acting on the wing of an aeroplane or
helicopter arises due to shape ofwing.
FL
High speed
Low speed
Thewing s section is such that speed ofwind past thewing is larger Dynamic lift on
a wing or airfoil
on upper side than lower side. This causes an upward lift (FL).
FLUID MECHANICS
Example 43. Studythe structure in the figure.Air is blown inthe tubeT
which outlets radially between discs Dand D.As a result, D is
being pulled upward. If the flowspeed in the gap between disks is
v,what is the dynamic lift onD ?Area ofD is . and densityof air
is ..
Disc being lifted
air in
D
V
D
air out
T
Sol. Let Pbe the pressure in the gap.Then, usingBernoulli s theorem,
P +
1
2
.v2 . P0 + 0
P0 P =
1
2
.v2 ...(i)
The net force due to fluid on diskD is (P0 .
P . .) upward. That is,
FL = (P0 P). ...(ii)
From(i) and (ii)
P
P0
D
FL =
1
2
.v2.
Herewe have ignored variation of vwith radial distance.
FLOW OF VISCOUS FLUID
Uptillnowwe studied fluid inmotionwithout frictional effects.Thiswas an idealcas
e just likemotionof a
block on a smooth table.Nowwe consider real fluidmotionwhich involves an importa
nt propertyof fluidviscosity.
Viscosity :
Whenever one layer of a fluidmoves past another layer of a fluid or solid, there
arises a force parallel to
contact layers that opposes the relativemotion. This force is known as viscous f
orce and the property of
fluid is called viscosity.
Ifwe put water in one beaker and honey inanother, stir themand leave to themselv
es, honeycomes to rest
first. This is because honey ismore viscous thanwater.
Co-efficient of Viscosity : Let us consider a fluid layermovingwith velocity v.
v
Z
F
The layer in contact with it exerts a tangential force, the lower layer retardin
g and upper layer accelerating.
the net force Fis of retardation.
In the figure, velocity v is a function of zwhere Z-axis is normal to flow. The
quantity dv/dz is known as
velocitygradient along z axis.
The force of viscosity is proportional to area of the layer and gradient of velo
city in a direction normal to

flow.
FLUID MECHANICS
The force ofviscosity iswritten as
Fvis . S
dv
dz
.
vis
F S dv
dz
. .
It acts oppsoite tov .
. The proportionality constant . (eta) is known as co-efficient of visocity or sim
ply
viscosity . The above rule is valid for steady flowandwas observed first byNewton.
The fluid obeying it
is knownasNewtonian fluid.
Dimensions of ..: Using the above result,
. . . .
1
2 2 LT
MLT L
L
.
. .. .. .. .. . . .. ..
[.] = [ML 1 T 1]
The dimensions of ..are 1 inmass, 1 inlength and time and zero in the remaining b
ase quantities.
Units : C.G.S. unit of ..is g cm 1 s 1 which is called poise (P).
1 P = 1 g cm 1 s 1.
The S.I. unit of ..is kgm 1 s 1 which is called (pascal second) or poiseuille (Pl)
1 Pl = 1 Pa s = 1 kg m 1 s 1 = 10 P.
C24: Ahorizontal plate of area 100 sq. cm rests on a layer of oil of thickness 4
mm; whose coefficient of
viscosityis 4 poise.What tangentialforce is required tomove the platewitha const
ant speed of10 cm/sec.
Sol. F A dv 4 100 10 104 dyne
dx 0.4
. . . . . .
STOKES LAW
It gives us viscous drag acting ona spheremoving througha fluid having infinite
extensions (wall containing
the fluid is far away fromthe sphere).
As a spheremoves in a fluid, the boundary layer is carries with it. This sets up
relativemotion between
layers of fluid. Thus arises a velocitygradient near the sphere and viscous forc
e acts on the sphere.
SirGeorge stokes (1819-1903), a British scientist, found that the viscous force
on a sphere of radius r
movingwith velocityv relative to fluid of viscosityco-efficient . is given by
F = 6 ..rv
The direction of the force is opposite to velocity. Hence in vector from
F . .6..rv
. .
This is known as Stokes law.
C25: Asphere of radius r andmassmis thrownwith velocityv0 ina viscous fluid ofvi
scosity..Howlong does
the spheremove ?Consider onlyviscous force acting on the sphere.
Sol. UsingNewton s second lawofmotion,
m dv 6 rv
dt
. . ..
FLUID MECHANICS
dv 6 r dt
v m
..
. .
Now we integrate LHS fromv0 to v and RHS fromt = 0 to t.
0
v t
v 0
dv 6 r dt
v m
..
. . . .
0
ln v 6 r t
v m
..
. .
v = v0 e kt,
where 3 2
k 6 r 6 r 9
m 4 / 3r 2 r
.. . .
. . .
. . .
The velocitydecreases exponentiallywith time; the sphere stops onlyafter infinit
e time.
Terminal velocity of a ball : Stokes Formula
Aballof radius r andmaterialdensity. is dropped in a fluid of density..under gra
vity.The forces acting on
the ball are :
(a)Gravitationalpull,mg, acting downward;
(b) buoyant force, (m/.).g, acting upward; and
(c) viscous force, 6..rv, acting opposite to velocity.
UsingNewton second lawofmotion,
x xi
i
ma ..F
m dV mg m g 6 rV
dt p
. . . . ..
2
dV g 1 9 V
dt 2 r
. .. .
. . . . . . .. .
4 r3 m
3
. . .
. . . . . .
.
x
6 rV
m g
V mg
The acceleration decreases as speed v increases.When the speed grows to such a v
alue that acceleration
becomes zero, the ball falls with constant velocity. That velocity is called ter
minal velocity. IfVT be the

terminalvelocity, then
2 T
0 g 1 9 V
2 r
. .. . . .
. . . . . . . . .. . . .
2
T
V 2( )r g
9
. . .
.
.
This is known as Stokes formula.
It can be used as a laboratorymethod for determing viscosity of think liquids us
ing steel balls of suitable
FLUID MECHANICS
radius.You can alsomeasure terminalvelocityofwater drops falling through a long
glass cylinder containing
mustard oil.
Some Speeds
Terminal speed
2
T
V 2( )r g
9
. . .
.
.
Steady flowspeed V = e .R
.l (l = r or 2r)
(V . VC) (Re =ReynoldsNumber)
Speed profile (Poiseuille flow)
2
0 2
V V 1 r
R
. .
. . . . . .
Example 44. Aflat plate of areaA= 0.1 m2 is sliding on a oil-film of thickness 1
10 5 m with a speed of
1mms 1. Find the force Fmaintaining the speed of co-efficient of viscosity of oil
is 1.5 kgm 1 s 1.
oil film
A F
Sol. Here thickness is small so that dv/dz
3
5
1 10 0
1 10
.
.
. .
.
. (ms 1/m) = 102 s 1.
. = 1.5 kg m 1 s 1
A = 0.1 m2
. F = Fvis =A.
dv
dz
v
F
F A vis
dz
F = 0.1 1.5 102 = 15 N v = 0
Example 45. Asphericalball ofmass 2 gmand having radius 0.6 cmtakes 5 seconds to
fall steadilythrough a
height of40 cminside a long column ofliquidofdensity1.2. Calculate the cofficien
t ofviscosityof the liquid.
Sol. Here densityof the ball
3 3
m m 2 3 2.2 gm/ cc.
V 4 / 3 r 4 22 / 7 (0.6)
.
. . . . .
. . .
Now,
2 r2 ( )g 2 r2 ( )gt
. .
9 v 9 s
. . . . . .
. . . [. s . vt]
2 (0.6)3 (2.2 1.2)980 5
5.88 poise
9 40
. .
. . .
FLUID MECHANICS
Example 46. Two equaldrops ofwater eachof radius r are falling through air with
a steady velocity of 16 cm/
sec. The two drops combine to forma big drop. Calculate the terminal velocity of
the big drop.
Sol. Since volume remains constant, hence,
4 R3 n 4 r3
3 3
. . .
where n = No. of small drops, r = radius of small drop andR = radius of bid drop
.
. R = n1/3 r
If v1 and v2 are the terminal velocities of the small and big drops respectively
, then
2 2
2 1/3 2 /3
1
v R n r n
v r r
. . . . . . . .. .. .. ..
. v2 = n2/3v1 = 22/3 16 cm/sec.
Example 47. Two drops of equal size have terminal speeds 10 cms 1 in air.What will
be the terminal speed if
they coalesce ?
Sol. Using Stokes formulae,
2
T
V 2 ( ) r g /
9
. . . . .
Then
2
TT
V r
V r
. . . .. ..
For two drops forming a single drop
4 r3 2 4 r3
3 3
. . . .
r = 21/3r
. VT = 32/3 VT = 10 22/3 cms 1
Now 22/3 = 41/3 = (8 4)1/3 = 81/3
1/ 3 1 1
2
. . . .. ..
2 1 1 2 5 1.67
6 6
. . . . . . . .. ..
. VT = 16 cms 1
Example 48. InMillikan s oildrop experiment, an uncharged drop ofradius 2.0 10 5mis
fallingwith terminal
velocity in air. The density of air is negligible relative to oil density, 1.2 1
03 kg m 3. The viscosity coefficient
for air at the temperature ofworking dayis 1.8 10 5 Pa s.
Determine : (a) the terminal speed of the drop and (b) the viscous force acting
on the drop.
Sol. The terminalvelocityas given by
(a) 2
T
V 2 ( ) r g /
9
. . . .. . . .. ..
As . << ., we have
2
T
V 2 r /
9
. . . . . .. ..
FLUID MECHANICS
3 5 2
1
T 5
2 1.2 10 (2.0 10 ) 9.8
V 5.8 cm s
9 1.8 10
.
.
.
. . . .
. . .
.
(b) The viscous force is given byStokes law.
Thus, F = 6 ... rv
F = 6 3.14 (1.8 10 5 Pa s) (2.0 10 5 m) (5.8 cm s 1)
F = 3.9 10 10 N
As anothermethod wemay have also used the equilibriumcondition that weight is ba
lanced by viscous
force. Hence
viscous forceweight of drop = 4/3 .r3.g
= 4/3 3.14 (2.0 10 5)3 (1.2 103) 9.8 N
= 3.9 10 10 N.
SURFACE TENSION AND SURFACE ENERGY
The surface of a liquid opento air, vapour or gaseous systemis known as free surf
ace . It is composed of
a fewlayers ofmolecules ofthe liquid. Everyliquid has a tendencyofminimising the
area ofits free surface.
This propertyis known as surface tention.
Different liquids have different extent of the tendencyofminimising the free sur
face area.Ameasure of how
strong is this tendencyis defined below.
(a) In terms of molecular force : Draw a line in the free surface.
There are liquidmolecules lying inthe free surface oneither side
of this line. Let molecules on one side exert a force F on the
molecules on the other side, along the surface.Divide this force
by the length of the line, l. The quantity F/l is the quantitative
measure of strength of stretching force that tends to contact the
free surface area.This quantity also is called surface tension, S.
Free surface
Line in the
free surface
Vessel Liquid
Thus, the force per unit length of a line in free surface, exerted wall
by free surfacemolecules on one side of the line onthose on the other side is kn
own as surface tensions, S.
S . F
l
It is a scalar quantity as Fis themagnitude of the force.
Its SI unit isNm 1 andC.G.S. unit is dyne cm 1. Its dimensional formula is [ML0T 2].
(b) In terms of surface energy : Let us consider a wiere frame and a
movablewire forming a loop. Let a liquid filmfillup the frame.The film
has two free surfaces. Each free surface exerts a force F on length l of
wire. The two free surfaces exerts an equal force F and displaces the
wire quasi-staticallybydx.
dx
F
movable wire
Liquid film
Wire
frame 2F
l
Thework done by agent is stored in the free surface created. The area
of created free surface is l dx on one side. Hence total free surface area creat
ed is 2l dx.Thework done by
agent is Fdx.
The free surface, per unit of its area, has stored an energy of
Fdx F
2 dx 2
.
l l .
But F is 2F. Hence the stored energy per unit area is F/l, which is S, the surfac
e tension. Thus, surface
tension of a liquid is the stored energyper unit area of the free surface of the
liquid.
FLUID MECHANICS
The above experiment is usuallyperformed inthermal contact with environment. Sur
face energyincreases
at the cost of kinetic energyof bodymolecules coming to surface. Therewillbe cooli
ng. Flowofenergyto
liquid fromsurroundingmaintains the temperature to normalvalue.
C25: Ahorizontalwire of length 20 cmis kept on the surface ofwater. It is observ
ed that a force of 288 10
4 newton in addition to itsweight is required to pull thewire up. Calculate the
force ofsurface tension.
Sol. Here the total length = 20 + 20 = 40 cm.
Hence,
4
F 288 10 3
T 72 10 N/m
L 0.4
.
. .
. . . .
C26:What should be themaximumdiameter of awire of length 1metre and density6 103
kgm 3which can
float horizontally on the surface of a liquid of surface tension 80 10 3N/m(neglec
t the buoyancy effect)
Sol. Here
2 d L g T 2L
2
.. . . . . .. ..
.
3
3
d 8T 8 80 10 1.86 10 metre. g 22 6 10 9.8
7
. . .
. . . .
.. . . .
C27: Explain the following : Athinsteelneedle floats onwater but whena little soa
p solution is carefullymixed
with thewater the needle sinks.
Sol. When a needle is placed gently on the surface ofwater, as no part of it is
submerged inwater, it is not buoyed up byArchemedes principle.There is
ofcourse onwayfor steel to float byArchimedes principle.Since its density
is greater than that ofwater so it will sink if submerged. mg
T A T
It is actuallykept afloat by the surface tension ofwater.When it is placed
on the surface ofwater, it depresses the surface ofwater slightlydue to itsweigh
t.The stretchedsurface due
to surface tension exerts a restoring force, the vertical component ofwhich canm
aintainequilibriumwith the
weight ofthe needle.
However,when a detergent is added towater its surface tensionwillsuddelydecrease
and the force due to
surface tension is no longer sufficient to support theweight of the needle and s
o it will sink.
Example 49. Aring is cut froma platinumtube of 8.5 cminternal and
8.7 cmexternaldiameter. It is supported horizontallyfroma pan of
a balance so that it comes incontact withthewater ina glass vessel.
What is the surface tension ofwater of an extra 3.97 g weight is
required to pull it away fromwater ? (g = 980 cm/s2)
F
T T
F
Cross
Section
Sol. The ring is in contact with water along its inner and outer
circumference; sowhenpulledout thetotalforce onit due to surface
tensionwillbe
F = T (2.r1 + 2.r2)
So . . 1 2
T mg
2 r r
.
. . [as F = mg]
i.e., T = . .
3.97 980
3.14 8.5 8.7
.
. . = 72.13 dyne/cm
FLUID MECHANICS
Surface Energy
Liquid surface in contact with vapour is usually called a free surface. It is in
fact an interface of liquid and
vapour.The surface in contact withsolid is also aninterface of solid and liquid.
Themolecules inthe surface
interact with both similar and dissimilar molecules. The forces between similarm
olecules use cohesive
forces and those between dissimilar molecules are adhesive forces. If one remove
s a molecule froma
interface to infinity, one has to spend an energy ofvaporization, equal
to work done against the attractive forces ofcohesion and adhesion.
What happenswhen amolecule inthe body of liquid comes to the
surface?To see it let us inquire into its surround in the two states.
Themolecular force varieswith distance and vanishes if distance
betweenmolecule (r) is large (see figure).
A r0
r B R
r
Fr
ThemoleculeAis fixed at the origin and distance ofmoleculeB from F
Ais r.At r = r0 themilecules are at equilibriumdistance havingminimum
potential energyofmolecular force.
For r < r0, repulsion and for r > r0 attraction results.We can drawa sphere arou
ndAofradiusRsuch that
r > Rmeans negligible force. This sphere is called sphere of influence.Amolecule
within the sphere of
influence interactswithAwhile that outside it does not.
Amolecule in the body of liquid (well belowthe surface) is surrounded by almost
equaldensity of similar
molecules.The resultant cohesive force is almost zero.This is the rate of thatmo
lecule alsowhose sphere of
influence is almost touching the free surface [Fig (a) and (b)].
(a) (b)
As themilecule rises towards the surface, the sphere of influences rises above t
he surface. The number of
molecules in the upper hemisphere becomes less than those is the lower hemispher
e [Fig (c) and (d)]. The
molecule feels aninward force against which it has to rise.
(c) (d)
It iswill lose kinetic energyand average kinetic energyper particlewill fall; co
olingwill occur.Thus ifwe
increase the free surface area ofa given volume ofliquid,molecules in thebodyare
brought to surface losing
the kinetic energyin the formofenergyofpotential formcalled surface energy.This
increment in free surface
area is attended by fall in internal kinetic energy (and hence cooling) and incr
ease in surface energy.
The surface energy is the result of intermolecular forces and depends upon the n
ature ofmolecules (host
and foreign) and their spacing (temperature).
It is associatedwith free surface of solids also. Inthe figuremolecule
Aofmedium 1 has a stored energylike themoleculeBofmedium 2.
Whenconsideringphenomena onthe interfacebetweenvariousmedia,

A r1
1
B
r2
2

wemust keep inmind the surface energy of a liquid aswell as solidliquid
and solid-gas interfaces.
FLUID MECHANICS
C28: PQRS represents a framewhich is kept vertically.Over this frame a rodMN
of length 20 cmcan slide as shown. The whole system is dipped in a soap
solution and thenwithdrawn.What should be themass of the bloockCwhich
has to be suspended fromthe wire in order to keep it in equilibrium?
[S.T. of soap solution = 30 10 3 N/m; neglect friction]
P S
M N
Q R
C
Sol. Here the force exerted by the S.T. = 2TL
For equilibriumof the rod, Mg = 2TL
WhereMis the mass of the block C.
.
3
M 2TL 2 30 10 0.2 1.22 10 3 kg
g 9.8
.
. . . .
. . . .
Example 50. Adrop of radius 4 cmis broken into 125 equal small drops. Calculate
thework done if surface
tension ofwater is 75 10 3N/m.
Sol. Let us suppose that,
R = Radius of the big drop, and
r = radius of the small drop.
Since volume remains constant, V= nV1
4 R3 n 4 r3
3 3
. . .
. 1
R . n3r
Hence, increase in surface area
= 4.r2n 4.R2 = 4.
2
2/3
R
n
n 4.R2 = 4.R2 . . n1/3 .1
Thereforework done
. 4.R2 .n1/ 3 .1.T
. 4.R2 .(53 )1/3 .1.T
= 4.R2[5
1]T = 16 .R2T
C29: Calculate thework done in breaking awater drop of radius 4 cminto 64 small
drops, surfae tension of
water is 75 10 3 N/m.
Sol. W . 4.R2 .n1/ 3 .1.T . 4.R2 .(43 )1/ 3 .1.T
2
12 R2T 12 4 75 10 3 4.52 10 3 joule
100
. . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . .
C30: Calculate thework done in breaking a soap-bubble of radius 10 cminto 512 sm
all bubbles; S.T. of soap
solution is 30 10 3N/m.
Sol. W . 2 . 4.R2 .n1/ 3 .1.T
W . 2 . 4.R2 ..83 .1/3 .1.T . 56 .R2T
FLUID MECHANICS
C31: Calculate the surface energy released if eight small drops ofwater each of
radius 6 cmcombines to form
a big drop.
Sol. Let r and R be the radius of small drop and big drop respectivelythen as th
e volume remains constant,
4 R2 n 4 r3
3 3
. . .
. R . n1/3r
Total surface area of n small drops = 4. r2n
and surface area of big drop = 4.R2
Total release of surface energy
= [4.r2n
4.R2]T = 4.[r2n
n2/3r2]T
= 4.r2[n n2/3]T = 4.r2[8
(23)2/3]T
= 4.r2[8 4]T = 16 .r2T
Example 51.The surface tension ofwater is 0.073Nm 1. 8 drops ofwater, eachof radiu
s 1mm,merge to form
a single drop.Determine the change in internal energyofthe drops.
Sol. Surface energylost due tomerging goes into the formof change in internal en
ergy.
Surface energy befoce themerging = 8 4. (1mm)2 0.073 (Nm 1).
The eight dropsmerge to forma single drop.
Hence, 8
4
3
. (1 mm)3 =
4
3
.r3
r = 2 mm
New surface area = 4..(2mm)2.
Surface energyafter themerger
= 4..(2mm)2 0.073 Nm 1
Lost surface energy
= [8 4. (1 mm)2 0.073 (Nm 1)]
[4. (2 mm)2 0.073 Nm 1]
= 4. 0.073 [8 106 4 10 6] J
= 4. 0.073 4 10 6 J = 3.67 10 6 J
The change in internal energyis, thus, 3.67 10 3 J
EXCESS PRESSURE IN A LIQUID DROP
liquid drop is sphericalwhen effect of gravity ismasked by surface tension effec
t, or when it is in gravity
free space.
Let P be the pressure inside the drop and P0 outside the drop.
P
P0
Liquid Drop
P R2 P R2
0
Sdl
P0 ds
We consider equilibriumof half drop (hemisphere) under the forces listed below:
(a) The liquid on the lift exerts normal contact force on the right part, equal
to P .R2.
FLUID MECHANICS
(b) Air on the right exerts normal contact force P0 ds
... at each area element ds, whose resultant is P0 .R2,
acting leftward.
(c) The free surface of left hemisphere pulls the free surface of right hemisphe
re at the contact circle with
leftward force S dl over length dlof the circlewhose sumover thewhole circle is
S 2 .R.
Thus, balancing these forces leads to
S 2.R + P0 .R2 = P .R2
2S/R + P0 = P.
We see that pressure P is greater than outside pressure.The excess pressure P P0
is given by
P P0 = 2S/R
This is true also for an air drop enclosed in a liquid.
BUBBLE
Abubble has two free surfaces, externaland internal. Thickness ofliquid filmis n
egligible relative to radius
of the bubble.Hence we takeR as radius of both the outer and the inner surfaces.
P0
inner free surface
P R2
Sdl
P0 ds
P
Liquid
outer
free surface
Pds
The equilibriumofhalf bubble is under the forces
(a) Resultant of Pds forces, which equals P.R2 (right)
(b) Resultant of P0ds forces, which equals P0 .R2 (left)
(c) Resultant of S dl forces on two free surfaces,which equals 2 2.rS.
Balancing these
P .R2 = P0 .R2 + 4.R2S
P P0 = 4S/R
The exces pressure is twice that in a drop.
C32: Compare the state of a soap-bubble with that of a rubber balloon in followi
ng respects : (a) Has each
surface tension ? (b) Does the surface tension depend on area ? (c) isHooke s lawa
pplicable ?
Sol. (a) The soap bubble (having two free surface of a liquid) has surface tensi
onwhile the balloon beingmade
of rubber has no surface tension but tension due to elasticity.
(b) Surface tensionis independent of the area of the soap filmwhile the tensioni
n the balloon is proportional to
stretch, i.e., change in area.
(c) As in case of bubble surface tension is independent of stretch, Hooke s lawis
not applicable.
However, in case of balloon as tensionarises due to elasticityand is proportiona
l to stretch,Hooke s lawis
applicable.
C33: Calculate excess pressure inside a soap bubble of radius 4 cm; surface tens
ion of soap solution is
30 dyne/cm.
Sol. Excess pressure
P 4T 4 30
r 4
.
. . = 30 dyne/cm2.
FLUID MECHANICS
Example 52. The lower end of a capillary tube of diameter 2.00mmis dipped 8.00 c
mbelowthe surface of
water in a beaker. Find the pressure required in the tube in order to blowa hemi
spherical bubble at its end
in order to blow a hemispherical bubble at its end inwater.Also calculate the ex
cess pressure. Surface
tension ofwater is 7.30 10 2 N/mand atmospheric pressure is 1.01 105 Pa.
Sol. The excess pressure in a bubble of gas in a liquid is 2S/r, where S is the
surface tension of the liquid-gas
interface and r is the radius of the bubble. The pressure outside the bubble equ
als the atmospheric pressure
plus the pressure due to 8.00 cmofwater column :
pout = 1.01 105 + 0.08 1000 9.8
pout = 1.01784 105 Pa
The pressure inside the bubble is
pin = pout + 2S/r
Pin = 1.01784 105 + (2 7.3 10 2/10 7)
Pin = (1.01784 + 0.00146) 105
Pin = 1.02 105 Pa.
Here the radius of the bubble is taken to be equal to the radius of the capillar
y, since the bubble is
hemispherical.
Excess pressure inside the bubble
= 0.00146 105 Pa = 146 Pa.
Example 53. Amercury drop of radius 1 cm is sprayed into 106 drops of equal size
. Calculate the energy
expended. Surface tension ofmercury is 35 10 5N/m.
Sol. Let R be the radius of the big drop and r be the radius of a small drop. Si
nce the total volume remains
conserved on the formation of small drops.
4 r3 106 4 R3
3 3
. . . .
or r = R 10 2 = 0.01 cm
Energy expended = Surface tension Increase in surface area
= T 4.(R2
106 r2)
= 35 10 3 4 3.14 [106 (0.01 10 2)2 (10 2)2]
= 4.35 10 3 J
Example 54. Aglass plate of length 10 cm, breath 1.54 cmand thickness 0.20 cmwei
ghts 8.2 g in air. It is held
verticallywith the long side horizontal and the lower half underwater. Find the
apparent weight of the plate.
Surface tension ofwater is 7.3 10 2N/m.
Sol. Apparent weight =Trueweight + Force due to surface tension Buoyant force
True weight = mg = 8.2 10 3 kg wt
Force due to surface tension
= 7.3 10 2 2 (10 + 0.2) 10 2
= 14.892 10 3 N
=
14.892 10 3
9.8
. .
= 1.5196 kg wt
= 1.52 kg wt
Buoyant force =Volume of plate immersed inwater Densityofwater g
FLUID MECHANICS
= 10 0.2
1.54
2 10 6 103 9.8 N
= 1.54 10 3 kg wt
. Apparent weight
= (8.2 + 1.5196 1.54) 10 3
= 8.2 kg wt.
Example 55. What is the excess pressure inside a bubble of radius 5.00 mm jormea
of a soap solution of
surface tension 2.50 10 2N/m. If an air bubble of the same dimensionwere formed at
a depth of 40.0 cm
inside a container containing the soap solution (or relative density 1.20), what
be the pressure inside the
bubble ? (1 atm= 1.01 105 Pa)
Sol. Excess pressure inside the soap bubble.
2
3
4S 2 2.5 10
P
r 5 10
.
.
. .
. .
.
Excess pressure inside the air bubble in soap solution
p 2S 10 Pa
r
. .
Total pressure inside the bubble =Atmospheric pressure + Hydrostatic pressure du
e to soap solution of
height 40 cm+ Excess pressure due to surface tension
= 1.01 105 + 0.4 1200 9.8 + 10
= 101000 + 4704 + 10
= 105714 Pa
= 1.06 105 Pa
Example 56. The limbs of a monometer consist of uniform capillary tubes of radii
1.4 10 3 m and
7.2 10 4 m. Find out the correct pressure difference if the level of the liquid (d
ensity 103 kg/m3, surface
tension 72 10 3 N/m) in narrower tube stands 0.2mabove that in the broader tube.
Sol. If p1 and p2 are the pressures in the broader and narrower tubes of radii r
1 and r2 respectively, the pressure
just belowthemeniscus in the respective tubeswill be
1
1
p 2T
r
. and 2
2
p 2T
r
.
So that 1 2
1 2
p 2T p 2T h g
r r
. . . .
. . . . . . . . .
. . . .
h
p2 p1
B
A
or p1
p2 = h.g 2T
2 1
1 1
r r
. .
. . .
. .
Assuming the angle of contact to be zero, i.e., radius ofmeniscus equal to that
of capillary,
p1 p2 = 0.2 103 9.8
2 72 10 3
4 4
1 1
7.2 10. 14 10.
. . . .. . . ..
or p1
p2 = 1960
97 = 1863 Pa
FLUID MECHANICS
Example 57. Two separate air bubbles (radii 0.02mand 0.004m) formed of the same
liquid (surface tension
0.07N/m) come together to forma double bubble. Find the radius and the sense of
curvature ofthe internal
filmsurface common to both the bubbles.
Sol. If r1 and r2 are the radiiof smaller and larger bubbles and p0 is the atmos
pheric pressure, the pressure inside
themwillbe
p1 = p0 +
1
4T
r and p2 = p0 +
2
4T
r ...(1)
Nowas the pressure inside the smaller bubblewill be more than inside the larger
bubble, so for interface,
p = p1
p2 ...(2)
Nowas excess pressure acts fromconcave to convex side, the
interface willbe concave towards smaller bubble and convex
towards larger bubble (as shown in Fig.) and ifRis the radius
of interface,
p = (4T/R) ...(3)
So substituting Eqns. (1) and (3) in (2), we get p2
p1
r1
p
R
r2
1 2
4T 4T 1 1
R r r
. .
. . . .
. .
, i.e., . .
1 2
2 1
R r r
r r
.
.
So here
R 0.002 0.004 0.004 m
0.004
0.002
.
. .
Example 58. Under isothermal condition two soap bubbles of radii a and b coalesc
e to forma single bubble of
radius c. If the external pressure is p0 showthat surface tension,
3 3 3
0
2 2 2
T p (c a b )
4(a b c )
. .
.
. .
Sol. As excess pressure for a soap bubble is (4T/r) and external pressure p0,
pi = p0 + (4T/r)
so a 0 b 0
p p 4T , p p 4T
a b
. . . . . . . . .. .. .. ..
and c 0
p p 4T
c
. . . . .. .. ...(1)
and 3
a
V 4 a
3
. . , 3
b
V 4 b
3
. . and 3
c
V 4 c
3
. . ...(2)
Nowasmass is conserved,
a + b= c
i.e., a a b b c c
a b c
p V p V p V
RT RT RT
. . as PV RT, i.e., pV
RT
. . . . .. ..
As temp. is constant, i.e., Ta = Tb= Tc, so the above expression reduces to
paVa + pbVb = pcVc
FLUID MECHANICS
Which in the light ofEqn. (1) and (2) becomes
3 3 3
0 0 0
p 4T 4 a p 4T 4 b p 4T 4 c
a 3 b 3 c 3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
i.e., 4T(a2 + b2
c2) = p0(c3
a3
b3)
i.e.,
. .
. .
3 3 3
0
2 2 2
p c a b
T
4 a b c
. .
.
. .
ANGLE OF CONTACT
The free surface of a liquid in contact with a solidwallmeets at some angle. The
angle between tangents
drawn in the free surface and solid,measured inside the liquid, is known as angl
e of contact.
< 90
90
> 90
glass-water silver-water glass-mercury
In the figure, . is the angle of contact. The angle of contact may be acute, rig
ht angle or obtuse.
Tangent in the
free surface drawn
through contact Tangent along
the solid
Howdoes angle of contact arise ?
In the figure three substances, namely, a liquid (i), a solid (2), and a gas (3)
, are in direct contact with one
another. They produce such an orientation of free surface at contact line as to
haveminimumof the total
energy. this is required for stability. This happens when the line of contact of
the three substances are
oriented on the surface of the solid in such away that the sumof the surface ten
sion forces acting on its
length element equals zero.
1
3
2
S13
S23
Solid S12
1
3
2
S13
S23 S12
Let S12, S13 and S23 be the surface tensions at the solid-liquid, liquid-gas and
solid-gas interfaces.
Balancing forces along the solid surface gives

S23 = S13 cos . + S12
23 12
13
cos S S
S
.
. .
FLUID MECHANICS
The angle ..ismeasured inside the liqiud between tangents to the surface ofthe s
olid and the surface of the
liquid and is called the contact angle.
Since | cos ..| ..1, the contact angle is obtained if
23 12
13
| S S | 1
S
.
.
If this condition is not satisfied, equilibriumcannot set in at any value of .;
the contact linewill accelerate.
Wetting and Non-wetting
Waterwets glass butmercurrydoes not.At water-air-glass contour, the angle of con
tact is tending to zero
andwetting takes place. the contact angle is zero in completewetting. The inward
adhesive force by solid
ismore thannormal cohesive force.
For any value of ...close to ., the liquid-solid interface tends to contract int
o a point, and the liquid
separates fromthe surface of the solid. Complete non-wetting takes placewhen the
contact angle is ..The
adhesive force is smaller than normal cohesive force.
Capillarity
The Latin capillesmeans hair. Literally, capillary is a tube as thin as a hair . Us
ual capillariesmay have
larger bore thanhair. If such a tube of glass be immersed inwater, water rises i
n it. If this tube be immersed
inmercury, the levelis depressed. Suchactions are knownas capillarityormeniscus
effect.Wemayunderstand
capillaryaction inthe followingway.
The existence of the contact angle leads to curvature of the surface of a liquid
near thewalls of the vessel
containing it. In a narrowtube (capillary) or ina narrowgap between twowalls, th
e entire surface is curved.
If the liquidwets thewalls, the surface is concave, and if it does not wet them,
the surface is convex. Such
curved surfaces of a liquid are called meniscuses. For a narrowtube it maybe ass
umed spherical.
h P0
P0
R
Meniscus
P0 2S
R
< 2 ; h > 0
Meniscus
h
> 2 ; h < 0
Using pressure concept,we have high pressure on concave side.Tomeet this require
ment hydrostatically,
themeniscus rises (or falls) by suitable height (or depth).
A difference h sets in between the level of a liquid in a capillary and in the b
road vessel such that the
hydrostatics pressure .gh is compensating it bythe capillary pressure :
0 0
P 2S gh P
R
. . . .
gh 2S
R
. .
In this euation, S is the surface tension on the liquid-gas interface, andRis th
e radius of curvature of the
meniscus. The latter (R) can be expressed through the contact angle ..and the ra
dius of the capillary r.
FLUID MECHANICS
Indeed, figure shows that
R = r/cos..
Using this value inwe arrive at the equation
h 2Scos
gr
.
.
.
This is known as Jurin s law. Ifwe consider effect of liquid between lower level o
fmeniscus and the free
surface, h is replaced byh+r/3 for sphericalmeniscus. Inaccordancewith the fact
that awetting liquid rises
in a capillary, while a non-wetting liquid lowers in it, gives a positive h for
. < ./2 (because cos .> 0)and
negative h for . > ./2 (because cos . < 0) the radius rmust bemeasured at the po
sition of themeniscus.
[Note :We assumed here that themeniscus has a spherical shape. The equation for
h canalso be obtained
on the basis of energyconsiderations, and there is no need to make a special ass
umption on the shape of the
meniscus. The equilibriumposition of themeniscuswill correspond to aminimumenerg
yEof the liquidcapillary
system. This energyE is the sumofthe surface energy of the liquid-wall, liquid-g
as andwall-gas
interfaces, and also of the potentialenergy of the liquid in the field ofthe Ear
th s gravitation.]
Surface Tension events
Even Informations
Completewetting, capillaryrise ..= 0
wetting, capillaryrise ..< 2
.
non-wetting, no capilarity . = 2
.
non-wetting, capillarydepression . > 2
.
Complete non-wetting, capillarydepression . = .
equilibriumstates
sg SL
g
S S
cos
S
.
. .
l
; | cos ..| ..1
non-equilibriumstates cos . > 1
Capillary rise
2Scos h r
rg 3
.
. .
.
LiquidDrop P
P0 =
2S
R
Bubble P P0 =
4S
R
Variation of surface tension : stronger the intermolecular force of a liquid lar
ger is the surface tension. It is
dependent upon temperature (decreases on rising temperature) and contamination (
decreases bymixing
detergent inwater)
FLUID MECHANICS
Surface Tension events
Substance Surface Tension (Jm 2)
Water 7.29 10 2
Mercury 4.6 10 1
Benzene 2.89 10 2
Ethanol 2.23 10 2
Glycerol 6.34 10 2
Oxygen ( 183C) 1.32 10 2
Helium( 270C) 2.39 10 4
C34: Calculate the rise ofwater in a capillary tube of radius 2mm, assuming the
angle of contact to be 0; S.T.
of water is 72 10 3 N/m.
Sol. Here 2.r T cos . = .r2h.g
If . = 0, cos . = 1
then,
3
3
3 3
h 2T 2 72 10 7.34 10 metre.
r g 2 10 10 9.8
.
.
. .
. . . .
. . . .
C35: Acapillary tube of radius 2 mmis dipped in mercury kept in a vessel. Calcul
ate the depression of the
mercuryin the capillarytubewith respect to the level inthe vessel[angle ofcontac
t ofHgwithglass is 135,
and S.T. ofHg is 465 dyne/cm.]
Sol. Here,
h 2Tcos 2T cos135 2T cos(90 45 )
r g r g r g
. .
. . .
. . .
2Tcos 45 2 455 1/ 2
h 24.67 cm
r g 0.2 13.6 9.7
. .
. . . . .
. . .
C36: In a vessel equalmass of alcohal (sp. gravity0.8) andwater aremixed togethe
r.Acapillary tube of radius
1mmis dipped vertically in it. If themixture rises to a height 5 cm. in the capi
llarytube, then calculate the
S.T. of themixture; (assuming angle of contact to be 0).
Sol. 2.rTcos . = .r2h.g
. T =
rh g
2 cos
.
.
but 1 2 3
1 2
2 2 0.8 1 1.6 8 gm/ cm
1 0.8 1.8 9
. . . .
. . . . .
. . . .
. T =
0.1 5 8 / 9 980
2
. . .
= 217.9 dyne/cm.
Example 59. Aglass capillarysealed at the upper end is of length 0.11mand intern
aldiameter 2 10 5m. The
tube is immersed verticallyinto a liquid of surface tension5.06 10 2N/m.Towhat len
gth has the capillary
to be immersed so that the liquid level inside and outside the capillarybecomes
the same ?Whatwillhappen
to thewater level inside the capillaryif the seal is nowbroken ?
FLUID MECHANICS
Sol. IfAis the cross-sectional area of the tube and Lits length, the initial vol
ume of air inside it will beV1=AL
while pressure p1 = p0 = atmospheric pressure.
Nowwhen the tube is immersed inwater with its length x inwater, the level ofwate
r inside and outside is
same; so the volume of air in the tubewill beV2 =A(L x). Further if p2 is the pre
ssure of gas in the tube,
2 0
p 2T p
r
. . , i.e., 2 0
p p 2T
r
. .
Nowif temperature is constant,
.............. .......
.. .. .............. ...
... . ... . ...
................ .............. . .. ... . ... . ...
... . ... . ...
... . ... . ...
................ .. .
........... ..........
p(L x) 2
x
p0
p2 2T
r
P1V1 = P2V2
0 0
p AL p 2T A(L x)
r
. . . . . .. .. or 0 x 1 rp L
2T
. . . . .. ..
i.e.,
5 5
2
x 1 1.012 10 1 10 0.11
2 5.06 10
.
.
. . . . .
. . . . . . . .
or
x 0.11 0.01m
11
. .
If the sealis broken the pressure inside the capillarywill become atmospheric, i
.e., p0while capillaritywill
take place and the risewill be
2
5 3
h 2T 2 5.06 10 1.03m
r g 10 10 9.8
.
.
. .
. . .
. . .
However, the lengthof the tube outside thewater is 0.11
0.001 = 0.1m; so the tub
ewillbe of insufficient
length and so the liquidwill rise to the top of the tube andwill stay therewithr
adius ofmeniscus,
5
hR 1.03 10 4
r 1.03 10 m
L 0.1
.
. .
. . . .
Example 60. Aconical glass capillary tube of length 0.1 mhas diameters 10 3 and 5
10 4 m at the ends.
When it is just immersed in a liquid at 0Cwith larger diameter in contact with it
, the liquid rises to 8 10
2min the tube. If another cylindrical glass capillarytubeB is immersed in the sa
me liquid at 0 C, the liquid
rises to 6 10 2 mheight. The rise of liquid in the tube B is only 5.5 10 2 mwhen the
liquid is at 50C.
Find the rate at which the surface tension changeswith temperature considering t
he change to be linear.The
densityof the liquid is (1/14) 104 kg/m3 and angle of contact is zero. Effect of
temperature on density of
liquid and glass is negligible.
Sol. If r is the radius of themeniscus in the conical tube, then as shown in Fig
.
1 2 1 tan r r r r
L h L
. .
. . .
.
i.e.,
r 2.5 10 4 (5 2.5) 10 4
0.1 0.08 0.1
. . . . . .
.
.
r
r1
r2
L
A B
h
i.e., r 104 2.5 = 0.2 2.5
i.e., r = 3 10 4 m
Nowas capillarity is independent of the shape
of tube so at same temp. . = 0 C.
FLUID MECHANICS
hArA = hBrB = (2T0/.g) = constant.
so rB = (0.08 3 10 4)/(6 10 2) = 4 10 4 m
Nowas fromh= (2T/r.g) for cylindrical tube,
0 2 4 4
0
h gr 1 1 T 6 10 10 9.8 4 10
2 2 14
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T0 = 8.4 10 2 N/m
Nowas for a given tube and liquid T . h (as T = h.gr/2)
50 50
0 0
T h
T h
.
So,
2
50 2
5.5 10
T
6 10
.
.
.
.
. 8.4 10 2 = 7.7 10 2 N/m
So rate ofchange of surface tensionwith temperature assuming linearity,
2
50 0 T T T (7.7 8.4) 10
50 0 50
. . . . .
. .
.. .
= 1.4 10 2 N/mC Ans.
Negative sign shows that with rise in temperature surface tension decreases.7
Example 61. Aconical glass capillary tubeAof length 0.1mhas diameters 10 3 mand 5
10 4mat the ends.
When it is just immersed in a liquid at 0C with larger diameter in contact with i
t, the liquid rises by
8 10 2 min the tube. In another cylindrical glass capillarytube B, when immersed i
n the same liquid at
0C, the liquid rises by 6 10 2 m. The rise of liquid in tube B is only 5.5 10 2 mwhen
the liquid is at
50C. Find the rate at which the surface tension chargeswith temperature consideri
ng the change to be
linear.The densityof the liquid is (1/14) 104 kg/m3 and the angle of contact is
zero.Effect of temperature
on the density of liquid and glass is negligible.
Sol. Let r1 and r2 be the radii of the lower and the upper ends of the capillary
. The radius r at height h at the
position of themeniscus is given by
1 1 2 r r r r ( tan )
h
. .
. . .
l
r = r1 (r1
r2) (h / l)
r = 0.5 10 3
(0.25 0.5)
0.25
.
0.8 10 1
r = 0.3 10 3 m
r
r2
B r1
h
l
A
Surface tension of the liquid at 0C
3 2 4
0
rh g 0.3 10 8 10 10 9.8
S
2cos 2 14 1
. . . . . . . .
. .
. . . (. . = 0)
S0 = 0.084 N/m
If r is the radius of the cylindrical tube B, then at 0 C
0
0
S rh g
2
.
.
FLUID MECHANICS
and at 50C
50
50
S rh g
2
.
.
.
2
50 50
2
0 0
S h 5.5 10 11
S h 6 10 12
.
.
.
. . .
.
or 50 0
S 11 S 11 0.084 0.077 N /m
12 12
. . . . .
Rate of change of surface tensionwith temperature, assumed constant for S (.) as
a linear function,willbe
50 0 1 1 S S 0.077 0.084 Nm K
50 50
. . .
.
= 1.4 10 4 Nm 1 C 1
Thus, the surface tension decreases at the rate of 1.4 10 4 N/mper degree celsius
rise in temperature.
FLUID MECHANICS
ELASTICITY
ELASTIC BEHAVIOUR
The length of a steelwire canbe increased by applying forces at its ends. Inthe
figure a steelwire of length
l is fitted with a vernier scale V by the side ofmain scaleM. By putting a loadW
, the length l becomes
l + .l as indicated by reading of the vernier scale.
l
l + l
V
M
W
If loadWis decreased, the value of .l also decreases.Whenwbecomes zero, .l also
goes to zero. The
wire has returned to its original shape and size.
There are severalbodies around us, which behave like a steelwirewe described jus
t now. This behaviour
is known as elastic behaviour or elasticity.The property of certainmaterials to
regain their shape and size
when the cause of deformation is removed, is known as elasticity. Thematerial sh
owing elasticity is called
elastic.
In deformation, the particles of the body are diplaced fromtheir equilbriumposit
ions to newpositions.
These newpositions give rise to newshape and size of the body. The forces betwee
n particles tryto bring
themback to original positions. The tendency is decided by howthemolecules act a
n each other during
deformation. Thesemolecular forces are called internal forces that oppose the ap
plied forces andwant to
restore the old shape and ize (see figure).
When the cause of deformation ceases, there are backmotions of displaced particl
es. If the particles return
back reversibly, the deformation is categorised as elastic.
Amodel ofmolecules under spring-like forces of othermolecules is as shown here f
or simplicity sake. If
atoms (black balls) are displaced and released, the springs force themto come ba
ck. Such forces are at the
root ofelastic behaviour. It shows that it is amolecular (atomic) levelphenomeno
n, electromagnetic forces
governing thewhole game. Condon andMorse proposed a force derivable frompotentia
l.
U
repulsion attraction
r0
r
m n
U A B
r r
. .
(A, B, m, n are suitable constants)
This potentialhas both repulsive and attractive parts, giving spring-like action
.
In certainmaterials, particles are pushed to new arrangement of equilibriumdurin
g deformation. Hence
upon removal of cause of deformation, the body does not return to previous shape
and size fully. Such
bodies are called plastic. If you press a putty or mud, and remove your force, i
t stays in the pressed
position . Thus it is plastic. The deformation is irreversible.
FLUID MECHANICS
We can observe a mixture of elasticity and plasticity in the same body. It depen
ds of upon the extent of
deformation. For smalldeformation elastic behaviour is observedwhile amixture at
more deformation and
purely plastic at large deformation.Wemust performexperiments to knowthe actual
elastic behaviour of
bulkmatter.
STRESS AND STRAIN
Elastic behaviour is described by answering two questions :
(a) Howmuch is deformation produced.
(b) Howmuch is opposition to the deformation.
There are two terms stress and strain is answer such questions. Strain is related to th
irst
questionwhile stress to the second.
Stress : If a body is deformed, forces arise that want to restore the equilibriu
mconfiguration.These are known
as internalrestoring forces or elastic forces. Ifwe consider a surface in the bo
dyit divides the bodyinto two
parts, one on one side of the surface and the other on the other side. The two p
arts exert on each other
elastic forces.An areaAofthe surfacemayhave a force Fdistributed onit.The intern
alelastic force per unit
area of a surface is known as stress.We denote it by .. Then
F .
A
. .
A
Surface
A F F A
The value of . depends upon the orientation of surface.Hence itmayhappen that
(i) F .
is normal to tbe surface. In that casewe call . normal stress , denoted by .n.
(ii) F .
is not normal to the surface. In that casewe can resolveF .
into two components :
Fn, normal to surface and Ft along the surface,
Normal stress is defined as normal internal elastic force per unit area. That is
,
n
n
F .
A
. .
A Fn
F
Ft
Normal stressmaybe arising due to tension in the body. In that case it is called
tensile stress.On the other
hand, if it arises due to compression , it is called compressive stress. It produce
s a change in size.
Tangential Stress is defined as tangential internal elastic force per unit area.
That is,
t
t
F .
A
. .
It is also called shaearing stress. It tries to move the surface tangentially ca

using a change in shape.
In hydrostatics, the normal force per unit area of a surface is pressure. The va
lue of pressure at a point does
not depend upon choice of the orientation of the surface. The normal stress howe
ver, is not pressure
because its value depends upon choice of orientation of the surface. It may in s
ame cases coincidewith
pressure. Thus, stress, although has the same unit and deminsions as the pressur
e, is not a scalar, nor it is a
vector. The complete specification of stress requires description of both normal an
d tangential stresses,
which depend upon orientation of surface and are known to behave as tensors.
FLUID MECHANICS
There are situationswhere interaction of one part of a bodyon the other part is
not only a force but also by
a couple. Such couplemoments are distributed in the body, for example in a polar
dielectric in electric field
or in amagnet in amagnetic field. In those cases couplemovement per unit area is
also needed to describe
the stress. Stress is distributed in the volume the body.Wemust consider the par
ticular point and force at
that point for finding out stress at that point of the body.
Example 62. Athick book likeRamcharitManas is placed on a rough table. It is pus
hed slant byhand as in the
figure.We find that its base remains fixed but upper layers shift.Also the thick
ness is slightlyreduced due to
pressing. Consider ahand areaof A = 5 cm2 in contact and applying a force of F =
10Nat 60with normal.
Calculate normal stress and tangential stress.
Ft
Fn
Ft
Fn
60
A
rough
Sol. Normal stress n
n
F
A
. .
Here Fn = F cos 60
Fn = 10 1/2 = 5 N
A = 5 cm2 = 5 10 4 m2
. n 4 2
5N
5 10. m . .
.
.n = 104 Nm 2
.n = 104 Pa (1 pascal = 1 Pa = 1 Nm 2)
Shearing stress, t
t
F
A
. .
Here Ft = F sin 60 = 5 3 N
. .t = 3 104 Pa = 1.7 104 Pa.
Example 63. Ascissor fulcrumis a nail of radius r. It is squeezedwithforce F
as in the figure byputting a strip to cut. Inequilibrium, calculate the shearing
stress developed byblades on the nail.
b
a
F
F
Sol. Consideringmoment of forces about Oin the figure,
O
Ft
F
Ft
Ft
f
f
N a b
F (a + b) = Ft b
FLUID MECHANICS
t
F F 1 a
b
. . . . .. ..
Blades exert forces Ft on area .r2. Hence shearing stress t
t 2 2
F F(a b)
r r b
.
. . .
. . .
Example 64.Awire ofcross-sectional areaAand lengthLis hanging fromceiling.The de
nsity
of itsmaterial is p. Thegravityis pulling it downwardwhile ceilingis preventing
it fromfall.
So it is in stressed state. Calculate stress at a cross section located at heigh
t x fromlower
end. (The force is axial, the stress is tensile).
Sol. Here the elastic internal force is tensionforce. Let T be the tension in th
ewire at a
cross section located at height x above the lower end. The tensionT is balancing
theweight ofwire of length x.Thisweight is
x
weight
T
w= volume density g
w = xA. . . g
. T = xA..g.
The stress is given by
T
A
. .
..= x .g.
C37:Abeamis placed on two nails PandQ.Aload hung is fromthe centre. There is no
friction.Which part of
the beamis in tensile stress andwhich part isn compressive stress ?
P Q P Q
Sol. The part abovemiddle horizontal layer (surface) is shortened and is under com
pressionwhile the part
belowthemiddle surface is elongated and undre tension. thus, upper half is in Com
presve stress while
lower half is in tensile stress . (Themiddle surface is neutral).
Strain :When the particles of a body are displaced fromtheir equilibriumposition
s under the intermolecular
forces, the bodyis said to be strained.You squeez a rubber ball, it is strained.
Youmay pull apart the ends
of awire, it is strained.
l + l
l
We can deforma body in three ways :
(a) Changing its length.
(b) Chang it volume.
(c) Twisting it (changing its shape).
Longitudinalstrainisdefined as change inlinear dimension per unit ofits original
value.The linear dimension
may be length of awire, diameter of a cylinder, width of a rectangular bar, etc.
It l be ameasure of linear
FLUID MECHANICS
dimention and .l be the change (positive or negative), the ratio
. l
l is known as longitudinal strain. If the
length is decreased due to deformation, .l is negative. Then we call
. l
l compressive strain. If .l is
positive, the length is increased and
. l
l is tensile strain. If D be dimater of a cylinder and .D be the
change in it due to deformation,
D
D
.
is known as lateral strain. The ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal
strain is defined as Poisson ratio.
D
D
. . .
.. ..
. .
. . .
.. ..
l
l
Its theoreticalvalue can be 0.5 to 0.5 but practicalvalue is found between zero a
nd half.
Theminus sign is put to define as positive, .Dand .l are of opposite signs.
l
l + l
D + D D h + h h
l b
b + b l + l
(.l > 0, .D < 0);
b
b
. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .
l
l
D
D
. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .
l
l
h
h
. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .
l
l
Volume Strain or, hydraulic strain, is defined as the change in volume per unit
originalvolume, due to
deformation. IfVbe the volume before the deformation andV+ .Vbe the volume due t
o the deformation.
Then
V
V
.
is the volume strain.
V + V
V
An air bubble at some depth in water has volume V. It is rising up. The
pressure is less at less depth. Hence the bubble is relaxed a bit, its volume
becomesV+ .V. There is a volume strain of .V/V, which is positive. V + V,
V
V < 0
We can squeez a rubber ball in which case .V is negative and volume
strain is .V/Vis negative.
FLUID MECHANICS
Example 65. Ametalwire of length l is stretched by dl. Its Poisson ratio is .Dete
rmine its volume strain.
Sol. The initial volume of thewire isV= .r2l.
Here dV = .d (r2l)
dV = .(2r dr . l + r2 dl)
2
2 2
dV 2r dr r d
V r r
. .
. .. . . . . . .
l l
l l
dV 2 dr d
V r
. . l
l
Nowthe Poisson ratio relates
dr
r to
d l
l as
dr d dr dD D
r r D D
. . . . . . . . . .. .
l
l
.
dV 2 d d
V
. . . . . .. ..
l l
l l
dV .1 2. d
V
. . l
l
2) times the longitudinal strain. (It willbe zero if = 1
Volume strainofwire is (1
/2).
The Shearing Strain
Shear is the kind of deformation inwhich all the flat layers of a body, parallel
to certainplane, undergo rigid
displacement parallel to one another. During this, the size of layers does not c
hange.
In the figure shear of a cubeABCD is shown. The shear plane isAB. Alayer DC is p
arallel to it. It is
displaced to CD. There is no change in its size (CD = CD).
A B
D C
A B
D D
A B
D C
Ft
Ft
We observe that the ratio of relative shift in a layer relative to some layer, t
o the separation between these
two layers is the same for anypair of parallel layers and is called shearing str
ain. In the figure.
DD = shift of layer relative toAB.
DD= shift of layer relative toAB.
DD DD tan
AD AB
. . . . .
This ratio is known as shearing strain . Let us denote it by .t.
C38:Awire of length l and radius ris clamped at one end. It is twisted at the
other end byanangle . about its axis.Write the shearing strainproduced,
in a small area lying in the cross-section at the end at a distance x from
the axis.
l
FLUID MECHANICS
Sol. The figure shows an area A at position x fromaxis which is
parallel to area P at the clamped end. Due to twisting, A
goes toA bysuffering a displacementAA . x . relative to
P. The separation between the parallel area P and A is l.
Hence shearing strain, t
x .
.
. .
l
= t
A
A
x
P
Relationship Between Stress and Strain
To see the relationship between stress and strain, wemust performexperiment on t
he given body.
V M
Aslotted weight
Let us take ametalwire,measure its length and diameter, and suspend fromceiling.
Nowe attacha vernierscale
andmain scale by a sidewire. Suspend a hanger onwhich slottedweight could be put
.Adjust the
vernier to read zero; this remove calculation for effect ofweight of hanger.
Let a loadw be put on the hanger. Then stress is
2
W
( D / 4)
. .
.
The strain is calculated by noting the much (.l) the vernier descends and dividi
ng it by the length ofwire
above vernier.This is
.
. . l
l
l . IncreasingWin small steps,we get several pairs of . and t .
Agraph is plotted between ..and . for various values ofWand corresponding values
of
. l
l . This graph
shows elastic behaviour of thematerial. It is dependent uponmaterial.We discuss
typicalgraphs for steel
wire, rubber band and aorta.
The vernier-method described is good for small stretching. Formore sensetive ste
pwise stretching and
measuring tension a tensometer is used.
Steel wire : Acommon graph of stress . against stream... for a wire ofmetal has
the features shown in the
figure.
(i) Proportionate region : For lowstress, the stress-strain graph is a straight
passing through origin.
l
A
B C D
E
F
= W
( D ) 2
4
O = l
We have stress = (slope) strain. For the straight. Part the slope is constant He
nce
stress . strain.
This behaviour is called proportionalityofstress to strain. The regionOAis, ther
efore, called proportionate
region.
FLUID MECHANICS
(ii) Elastic region : If the cause of deformation be removed, the body returns r
eversibly (along to the same
states throughwhich it went on deforming) to original shape and size. This behav
iour occurs upto a stress
called elastic limit. Inthe figureOAandABare suchregions,Bis calledelastic limit
andAis called proportional
limt. In the region between proportional limt and elastic limit, the graph is cu
rved and hence stress is not
proportionalto strain, although it growswith growing strain.
If the stress is further increased, the plastic and elastic behaviourmix up.Asma
terialyields to plasticity
(agrees to become slightlyplastic also), the elastic limit is also known as yiel
d point. The stress at yield point
is known as yield strength, .y.
(iii) Plastic region : As the material is deformed beyond yield point (elastic l
imit), there is a few degree of
structural change in equilibriumpositions ofits particles causing plasticity. If
the stress is lowered, the body
returns towards initialconfiguration but not totally.When stress is zero, a perm
anent deformationstayswith
the body, called permanent set (OF).
In the graph,BDis the regionof plasticity.The stress increaseswith strain upto a
nultimate value known
as ultimate tensile strength, .u (SeeTable ).
Table : Some Elasticity Data
Material Ultimate Strength Yield Strength
(GPa) (GPa)
Aluminium 110 95
Copper 400 200
Iron(Wrought) 330 170
Steel 400 250
(iv) Fluid region : Beyond the point where stress is equal to ultimate tensile s
tress, .u, thematerial undergoes
deformation even for smaller value of stress than .u. It acts as if it is flowin
g. Thewire thickness goes on
reducing, called neck formation.At a certain point, it breaks. This point is cal
led fracture point (E) The
corresponding stress is breaking stress, .b.
The important offluid regionis that it classifiesmaterialinto brittle and ductile .
If the point of ultimate tensile stress and fracture point are veryclass to each
other thematerial is brittle, like brass, cast iron.
If these points are for apart, thematerial is ductile.That is, it canbe drawn in
to
wire form.
If youwant to test the proportionate behaviour of a steelwire in laboratory, the
allowed load is upto half of
that causing fracture.
Elastomers : If you stretch a steelwire, a large force will cause a small strain
.However, a rubber wire can be
stretched by a small force to have a large strain. There are several such substa
nces. The vessels carrying
blood fromheart, called aorta, have tissues that showlarge reversible strain for
smallstresses,without well
defined plasticity. Suchsubstances are called elastomers.
0.5
(x102 Pa)
0.5 1.0
FLUID MECHANICS
The stress strain graphs of elastomers are not straight lines, yet they are elasti
c. The tissue of aorta has a
graph of stress against strain as inthe figure (a); the figue (b) shows that for
a rubber.
Governing the elastic behaviour : The elastic behaviour depends upon the followi
ng factors :
(a)Temperature (b) presence of notches
(c) time rate of loading (d) presence ofembrittling agent like hydrogen
(e) loadingand unloading (f) structure ofmaterial.
HOOKE S LAW
Robert Hookewas the first person to notice the propertyof elasticity. Based
on experiments on springs and springybodies, he announced, Ut tensio sic
vis . (The stretching of a spring body is as the applied force). This law has
been given more precise form now and is known as Hooke s law :Within
elastic limit stress is directly proportionalto strain.
If stress be . and strain be . then
.....
or, ..= E ..
Here the proportionalityconstant is E which depends upon thematerial and the typ
e of stress.We call it
modulus ofelasticity.
Hooke s lawneed not be obeyed for a body to be elastic.We knowthat up to elastic l
imit ametalwire
remains elastic.WhileHooke s lawis valid onlywithin proportionate region.Also ther
e are severalmaterials
which are elastic but have non-linear stress strain graphs. The elastic material
s obeyingHooke s law are
known asHookean and those not obeying it are known asHencky. For Henckymaterials
we have
. = a .n
where a and n are material constants. Modulus of elasticity for such bodies are
defined by slopes of
tangent and secant of strain-stress graph.We shall not consider these further.
DifferentModuli of Elasticity : There are three types of stress longitudinal, bulk
and shearing and there
are threemodulidefined for these.
(a)Young smodulus,Y, is the ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain. I
felastic normal force Fn acts on
areasAand
. l
l be strain, then
. .
n F / A
Y
/
.
. l l
(b) Bulkmodulus, B, is the ratio of volume stress change in pressure to volume s
train.
If a change in pressure dP causes a change in volumeVby dV, the strain is (dV/V)
and bulkmodulus B
is given by
. .
B dP
dV/ V
.
.
whereminus signin put to keepBa positive quantity.

Inverse of bulkmodulus is known as compressibility, K.
That is,
K dV
VdP
.
.
FLUID MECHANICS
(c) Rigiditymodulus,G, is the ratio of shear stress to the shear strain. If elas
tic internal force Ft acts parallel
to areaA, and . be the angular shift in the layer,we get
G . Ft /A
.
Table shows elastic constants of somematerials.
Units and dimensionsofElasticmoduli :
AsE =
Stress
Strain , and strain is unitless and dimensionless, Ehas the same unit and dimens
ions as stress,which
is the ratio of force and area. Thus, the SI unit of modulus of elasticity is Nm 2
or Pa (passcal). The
dimensional formula is [ML 1 T 2]
Example 66. The following four wires are made of the same material.Which of thes
e will have the largest
extensionwhen the same tension is applied ?
(A) length= 50 cm, diameter = 0.5mm (B) length= 100 cm, diameter = 1mm
(C) length = 200 cm, diameter = 2mm (D) length= 300 cm, diameter = 3mm
Sol. [A]
Y T / A
/
.
.l l
.
T T
A Y Y A
.
. . . .
.
l l l
Here
T
Y is constant. Therefore A
.l . l .
A
l
is largest in the first case.
MEANING OF A MORE ELASTIC BODY
In commonman s languagemore elastic bodies are easily elongated to larger extent.
However in physics,
elasticity ismeasure of opposition of to a deformation. Harder to deforma body,m
ore elastic is the body.
Thusmore elastic bodieswillhave higher value ofmodulus of elasticity. This isway
we say that steel (Y=
200 GPa) ismore elastic than rubber (Y = 2.4 10 3GPa).
Relationship among elastic constants : Let Y, B and G be Young s modulus, bulk mod
ulus and rigidity
modulus ofmaterialof a solid bodyand bePoison ratio.The relationship among these
maybe summerised
as below.Derivation of these results is out of scope of the book.
(i) Y = 3B (1 2) = 2G(1 + )
(ii)
3B 2G
2G 6B
.
. .
.
(iii)
9 1 3
Y B G
. .
Elastic Fatigue
Due to repeated deformation and restoration, the elasticityfalls and delayed rec
overy is observed. This is
known as elastic fatigue. If the bodyis allowed to take rest for time, the origi
nal elastic propertyis restored.
FLUID MECHANICS
Elastic after-effect
The delayed recoveryof original configurationbysome elasticmaterialswhen the cau
se of deformation is
removed is known as elastic after effect. This is a type of viscoelastic behavio
ur. In some materials the
recoveryoforiginal configuration is quicker (quartz, phosphor bronze, etc.)while
in some it is considerably
large (glass fibre).
Strain hardening
As the deformation becomes plastic,material needs larger and larger stress (beco
mes harder to deform).
This is known as strain hardening.
Example 67. Acopper bar has a compression force of 2kN distributed over its cros
s section of diameter 20
mm. Its length is 2mandYoung smodulus isY= 110GNm 2.
Calculate the compression .l of the bar.
Sol. UsingHooke s law,
2
F y
( D / 4)
.
.
.
l
l
2
F
Y (D / 4)
. .
.
l l
2 2
(2kN) (2m)
( / 4)(110 GN m. ) (20 mm) . .
.
l
3
9 3 2
(2 10 ) 2
(3.14 / 4)(110 10 ) (20 10. )
. .
. .
. .
l
.l = 1.116 10 4 m
.l = 1.12 10 4 m.
Example 68. Aload of 4.0 kg is suspended froma ceiling through a steelwire of le
ngth 2.0 mand radius 2.0
mm. It is found that the length of thewire increases by0.031mmas equilibriumis a
chieved. FindYoung s
modulus of steel. (Take g = 3.1 .m/s2)
Sol. Longitudinal stress= 3 2
(4.0) (3.1 )
(2.0 10. )
.
. .
= 3.1 106 N/m2
Longitudinal strain=
0.031 10 3
2.0
. .
= 0.0155 10 3
Thus, Y =
6
3
3.1 10
0.0155 10.
.
. = 2.0 1011 N/m2.
Example 69.Determine the elongation of the steelbar 1mlong and 1.5 cm2 cross-sec
tionalareawhen subjected
to a pull of 1.5 104 N. TakeY= 2.0 1011 N/m2.
Sol.
Y F /A
/
.
. l l
FLUID MECHANICS
.
F
AY
.l . l
Substituting the values,
4
4 11
(1.5 10 )(1.0)
(1.5 10. )(2 10 )
.
. .
. .
l
.l = 0.5 10 3 m = 0.5 mm
Example 70. Abar ofmassmand length l is hanging frompoint Aas shown in figure. F
ind the
increase in its length due to its ownweight.TheYoung smodulus of elasticityofthewi
re is
Yand area of cross-section of thewire isA.
B
A
Sol. Consider a small section dx of the bar at a distance x fromB. Theweight of
the bar for a
length xis,
W . . mg. x .. l ..
Elongation in sectiondxwillbe
B
A
dx
W x d dx
AY
. . . .. .. l
d mg x dx
AY
. .
. . . . .
l
l
Total elongation in the bar can be obtained by integrating this expression for x
= 0 to x = l .
.
x
x 0
d .
.
. . . l l l
0
mg x dx
AY
. .
. . . . . . .l l
l
or
mg
2AY
.l . l
Example 71. Two wires ofmetalsAand B have unloaded lengths lA and lB and equal
cross sectional area .. They are loaded as in the figurewithweightsW1 andW2.

If theYoung smoduli areYA forAandYB for B, calculate elongations inAandB
due to loading.
W1
W2
A
B
Sol. The free body diagrams are shown for wireA, loadsW1 andW2, and wire B.We se
e that
TB = W2 ...(i)
TA =W1 + TB ...(ii)
The stress inwireAis
A
A
. . T
.
1 B
A
W . T
. .
.
W1 TB
TA
TA
TA
TB
TB
W2
TB
A
B
1 2
A
W .W
. .
. ...(iii)
FLUID MECHANICS
Now A
A A
A
Y
.
. . l
l
A
A A
A Y
.
.l . l
1 2 A
A
A
(W W )
Y
.
. .
.
l l [using (iii)]
The stress inwire B is
B
B
. . T
.
2
B
. . W
. [using (i)]
Hence B
B B
B Y
. . .
. . . . . .
l l
2 B
B
B
W
Y
. .
.
l l
Example 72. A wire of length l = 1.0 m and cross-sectional area . = 5.00
10 4 cm2 is stretched by load atmid point with amass m= 100 g.Assuming
stretchingwithinelastic limit, calculate the depression ofwire at themid point.
TheYoung smodulus of elasticity is 1.9 1011 Pa.
m
Sol. Let the depression be x. Then
tan x .
( / 2)
. .
l
Now W= T cos . + T cos .
T W Wsec
2 cos 2
. . .
.
UsingHooke s law
W
l/2
T T
T
x
T Y z
( / 2)
.
. l
where z is elongation in the half length (l /2).
.
W sec 2Y z
2
. .
. l
Now
2 2
z x2 2x
2 2
. . . . . . .. ..
l l
l
2
x2
2
sec
x 2
. . . .. ..
. . .
l
l
FLUID MECHANICS
.
W 2x2 2x
4 y
. .
.
l
l l
W 3 1/3
x
16 y
. .
. . . . . .
l
Putting the value
3 3
4 4 11
x 100 10 10 1 0.10 m
16 5 10 10 1.9 10
.
. .
. . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
Example 73. Amassmis tied to an elatic band of length l andwhirled in a vertical
circle.The angular speed of
themass at the lowest point of the path is .. IfYbeYoung smodulus, calculate elong
ationat this point.
Sol. Let x be the elongation.Using dynamics of circularmotionm.2 (l + x) = T mg
T = m.2 (l + x) + mg ...(i)
UsingHooke s law,
T . Y x
. l
l + x
T
mg
V
T Y x
.
.
l ...(ii)
From(i) and (ii),
Y x m 2 ( u) mg
.
. . l . .
l
Y m 2 x m( 2 g)
.. . . . . . . . . . .
l
l
2
2
m( g)
x
Y m
. .
.
. . . . . . . . .
l
l
Example 74. The breaking stress of amaterial is .B = 106 Nm 2 and density is . = 5
103 kgm 3.Determine
themaximumlength that can be hungwithout breaking.
Sol. Let l be the length hung. Theweight will be
w= l .., where ..is cross-sectional.
The stress due to weight ismaximumat the top end. Hence we expect fracture fromt
he top.We avoid
break of a top bywriting
B
w . .
.
B
.p
. .
.
l
B .
.
.
l
Themaximumlength is, then, B .
. , i.e., and across-sectional area
6
min 3
10
200 m
5 10
. .
.
l
FLUID MECHANICS
Example 75. TwometalwiresAandBhave the same length l under no loading.
TheYoung smoduli areYA andYB, cross-sectionalareas are . and 2. for
A and B respectively. The rod PQ is light.Nowa loadWis applied.
(a) Write extension in thewiresAand B as a function of x.
L
W
x
A
P
B
Q
(b) Write the value of x for equal stress in thewires.
(c) Write the value of x for equal strain in thewires.
Sol. Let tension be TA inAand TB inB.The equilibriumof rod suggests thatmoment o
fwand TB about Pmust
be balanced. Hence
Wx = TB L
B
T W x
L
. ...(i)
W
L
TA x TB
As TA + TB =W
A
T W 1 x
L
. . . . .. .. ...(ii)
The stress in thewireAis given by
a
A A Y
.
. . l
l
A A
A
T Y
.
.
.
l
l
A
W 1 x
Y L
. . . . . . .. ..
l l
The stress in thewire Bis given by
B
B B Y
.
. . l
l
B B
B
T Y
2
.
.
.
l
l
B
W x
2 L
. . . . . .. ..
l l
(b) Equal stresses in the two wiresmeans
A B T T
x 2
.
.
B
a
T T
2
.
Putting the values ofTA andTB,
Wx W 1 x
2L L
. . . . .. ..
FLUID MECHANICS
x x 1
2L L
. .
x 2 L
3
.
(c) Equal strains inthe twowiresmeans
A B . .
l . l
l l
A B
A B
T T
Y 2 Y
.
. . [ . stress =Y. strain]
A B
A B
T T
Y 2Y
.
Putting the values ofTA andTB,
A B
W 1 x Wx
Y L 2LY
. . . . .. ..
A
B
x Y x 1
L Y 2L
. .
. . . . . .
A
B
x Y 1 1
L 2Y
. .
. . . . . .
A B
x L
(1 Y / 2Y )
.
.
Example 76. Asolid cube of steel of volume 1m3 is immersed inwater at a depth of
1 km. Find the decrease
in its volume due to volume stress. The densityofwater is . = 1000 kgm 3 and the b
ulkmodulus of steel
is B = 135 GPa.
Sol. UsingHooke s law, .P =
B
V
V
. . .
.. ..
Here volume stress is .P = .gh
.P = 1000 9.81 1000 Pa
.P = 9.81 106 Pa
. .V = V (.P)
.V =
(1 m3) (9.81 106 Pa)/ (135 GPa)
.V = 0.072 10 3 m3
.V = 7.2 10 5 m3
Theminus sign shows that the volume has decreased.
Example 77. Awire of length l and radius r is clamped at one end. Its rigiditymo
dulus isG. Find the torque
about its axis needed to produce a twist by angle . at the end.
FLUID MECHANICS
Sol. Let d. be the torque acting along the axis due to forces of share along the
ring surface of area 2. x dx.
The sheart strain is
x.
l . The stress is
dF
2. x dx . Using
Hooke s law
dF G x
2 x dx
.
.
. l .
x d
dF 2 G x2dx l
.
. . .
l
Torque about the cylinder axis is given by
d. = x dF
d 2 Gx3 dx
. .
. .
l
The total torque needed is given by
r
3
0
2 G x dx
. .
. . . l
2 G r4
4
. . . .
. . . . l . .
r4 G
2
. . .
. . . . . . l .
Here ./. is constant. This constant is called torsional constant, c. c =
r4G .
2
.
l
ELASTIC ENERGY
The energystored in deformed bodyper unit volume is equal to half of the product
of stress and strain. It is
called elastic energydensity.
If u be the elastic energyper unit volume,
u =
1
2 stress strain.
We consider the Longitudinal case for deriving the above result
(without loss ofgenerality).
Let there be awire of length l and cross sectional areaAwhich is
extended by x using a force F. Then, usingHooke s law,
F Y x
A
.
l x
dx
l
F . Y Ax F
l
Let thewire be further extended by dx. Thework done byF is dW.Here
dW = F dx
FLUID MECHANICS
dW . YA x dx
l
If thewire is stretched fromx = 0 to x = .l,
0
YA
w x dx
.
. .
l
l
. .2 w YA
2
.
.
l
l
w 1 YA
2
. . . . . . . . . .
l l
l
w =
1
2 Force extension.
Thiswork is stored in thewire as elastic energyU. Thus
2 U YA 1 Y A
2 2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
l l l l l
l l l
This gives
U =
1
2 stress strain volume
.
u U
volume
.
u =
1
2 stress strain.
This is true for all the three types of deformations.
Example 78. Ametalwire of length 2mis supporting a 20 kg ball. Suddenly the ball
is detached. Calculate the
thermal energy developed in thewire ifYoung smodulus of itsmaterialis 200GPa.
Sol. The elastic energy stored in thewire in presence of load is
U =
1
2 stress strain volume
U 1 Y A 1 Y A
2 2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
l l l l l
l l l
Now Y A mg
.
l .
l
.
1 mg 1 (mg)2
U mg .
2 YA 2 YA
. . l l
2
9 6
1 (200) 2
U 0.04 J
2 200 10 5 10
.
. .
. . .
This energyis converted into thermal energy.
FLUID MECHANICS
Example 79. Awire of area of cross-section 3.0 mm2 and natural length 50 cmis fi
xed at one end and amass
of 2.1 kg is hung fromthe other end. Find the elastic potential energy stored in
the wire in steady state.
Young smodulus of thematerial of the wire = 1.9 1011 N/m2. Take g = 10 m/s2.
Sol. Volume ofthewire is
V = (3.0 10 6) (0.50) = 1.5 10 6 m3
Tension in thewire is
T =mg
T = (2.1) (10) = 21 N
Stress = T/A
Stress = 6
21
3.0 .10. = 7.0 106 N/m2
Strain= Stress/Y
Strain =
6
11
7.0 10
1.9 10
.
. = 3.7 10 5
The elastic potential energy of thewire is
U=
1
2 (stress) (strain) (volume)
U =
1
2 (7.0 106) (3.7 10 5) (1.5 10 6)
U = 1.9 10 4 J
Determination of Young s modulus of the material of a wire in laboratory
Two identicalwires (sayof steel) are hung fromthe ceiling.Ais auxiliarywire and
B is experimentalwire
whoseYis to be determined.Amain scaleMis fitted in auxiliarywireAand vernier sca
leVin experimental
wire. Identical pans H (or hangers) are attached and loaded to remove kinks.Meas
ure the diameter of
wiresBbya screwgaugevernier is adjusted to zero.Nowallowed load is calculated fr
omtable of constants
(half of breaking stress).We have to put a load not greater than this.
Now we start froma minimumload. Put the load on right pan and take the
reading on vernier scale. Calculate the value of (.l / l) for given load. Plot a
graph between stressW/.r2 and strain (.l / l). It turns out to be a straight lin
e.
Hooke s lawgives 2
W Y
r
. . . . . . . . .
l
l . M
l A l
B
l
H
H
V
The value ofYcan be calculated :

(W/ r2 ) Y
( / )
.
.
. l l
It can also be graphically calculated fromthe slope of stress
x
y
Stress
Strain l
l ( )
(W/ r 2)
strain graph.
FLUID MECHANICS
Slope = tan . =
y
x =Young smodulus.
Why dowe takewireAalongwithB ?This is to compensate for any temperature effect o
n strain.
IMPORTANT FEATURES
1. Moduli of elasticityare three, viz,Y, Band .while elastic constants are four,
viz,Y, B, ..and .. Poisson s
ratio ..is notmodulus of elasticityas it is the ratio of two strains and not of
stress to strain, Elastic constants
are found to depend on each other through the relations :
Y= 3 B (1
2.) and Y = 2..(1 + .)
Eliminating ..orYbetween these,we get
Y 9B
3B
.
.
. . and
3B 2
6B 2
. .
. .
. .
2. Table : Some Elastic Constans of SelectedMaterials ofEngineering andMedical I
nterest
Material Young sModulus ShearModulus Bulk Modulus
(Y) (1011 Pa) (S) (1011 Pa) (B) (1011 Pa)
Aluminium 0.70 0.30 0.70
Brass 0.91 0.36 0.61
Copper 1.1 0.42 1.4
Glass 0.55 0.23 0.37
Iron 1.9 0.70 1.0
Steel 2.0 0.84 1.6
Tungsten 3.6 1.5 2.0
3. Gases have two bulk-moduli, namely isothermal elasticityE. and adiabatic elas
ticityE.. It has been found
that at a given pressure P,
E. = P and E. = .P
So that P
V
E C
1
E C
.
.
. . . . , i.e., E. > E.
i.e., adiabatic elasticityis greater thanisothermal elasticity.
4. In case of compression of a fulid
density = . =
m
V , so
V
V V
.. .
. .
But bydefinitionof bulkmodulus, i.e.,
B V P
V
.
. .
. or
V P
V B
. .
. .
.
P
B
.. .
.
. or
P
B
. .. .
.
. [as .. = .
.]
FLUID MECHANICS
or
P 1
1 [1 C P] as C
B B
. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. In case of bending of a beamof length l, breadth b and thickness d, bya loadM
g at themiddle, depression
. is given by
3
3
Mg
4bd Y
. . l
and for a beamof circular cross-section of radius r and length l.
3
4
Mg
12 r Y
. .
.
l
6. In case of twisting of a cylinder (or wire) of length l, and radius r, elasti
c restoring couple per unit twist is
given by
4
C
2
..
. l
l
when . ismodulus of rigidityof thematerialofwire.
7. In case of a rod of length l and radius r fixed at one end, angle ofshear . i
s related to angle of twist ....by
the relation.
l . = r ..
FLUID MECHANICS
THINKING PROBLEMS
FLUID MECHANICS
1. Awooden cylinder floats inwater in a vesselwith its axis vertical. Howwill th
e level ofwater in the vessel
change ifthe cylinder floatswithits axis horizontal?
2. Avessel filledwithwater is supported on a knife-edge.Will the equalibriumbe d
isturbed if a small board
carrying aweight is placed on the surface of thewater?
3. Aboat floats in a swimming pool.Water fromawell is pumbed into the pool.Whenw
illthe pumps perform
movework: when a big boat floats in the pool, or a small toy-boat ?
4. Avessel ofwater is placed on the floor of an elevator.Will the pressure at th
e bottomof the vessel change if
the elevator goes upwith uniformacceleration a ?
5. Awooden cylinder floats inwater in a vessel placed on the floor of an elevato
r. The length of the cylinger
outsidewater is l. Ifthe elevator goes downwith uniformacceleration a,will l cha
nge?
6. Mercury is poured into a verticalU-tube, andwater is poured in above it. The
level ofwater is the same in
both arms.Will the levelofthewater and themercurybe the same if a piece ofwood i
s dropped into one arm
and somewater equal inweight to this piece is added to the other ?
7. An air mattress is filled with air to a pressure greater than the atmospheric
pressure. When will the air
pressure in themattress be greater: when aman stands on it or when he lies on it
?
8. Aman carries a tyre tube and decides tomake it lighter bymaking use of the bu
oyancyof air. In order to do
this, he inflates the tube, thus increasing its volume.Willhis aimbe achieved?
9. Atank containingwater is placed ona spring balance.Astone ofweight wis hung a
nd lowered into thewater
without touching the sides and the bottomof the tank.Explain howthe readingwill
change.
10.Aballfloats on the surface ofwater in a countainer exposed to the atomsphere.
Willthe ballreemain immersed
at its former depthorwillit sink or rise somewhat if (a) the container is covere
d and the air is removed, (b) the
container is covered and the air is compressed?
11.A solid cylinder is placed erect in a container in contact with the base. Whe
n liquid is poured into the
container, none of it goes beneath the solid, which remain closelyin contact wit
h the base. Is there a buoyant
force onthe solid?Explain.
12.An open bucket ofwater is on a smooth inclined plane, forming an angle .with
the horizontal.Howwill the
level rest relative to the planewhen the bucket is allowed to slide down the pla
ne?
13.Explainwhya uniformwooden stickwhichwill float horizontallyif it is not loade
d, but will float verticallyif
enoughweight is added at one end.
14.It is found that a liquidwillflowfaster andmore smoothlyfroma sealed canwhen
two holes are punctured in
the can thanwhen one hole ismade. Explain.
15.Two rowboatsmoving parallel to one another in the same directionare pulled to
wards one another. Explain.
16.Can the action of a parachute in retarding free fallbe explained byBernoulli s
theorem?
17.Can you explainwhy an object falling froma great height reaches a steadytermi
nalvelocity?
18.While taking offwould it be better for an airplane to move into thewind or wi
th thewind?While landing?
19.Does the difference in pressure between the lower and upper surfaces of an ai
rplance wing depend on the
altitude of themoving plane?Explain.
20.If p is the pressure of gas inside the exhaust chamber of a rocket and p0 is
the pressure of the gas outside the
chamber, the forward thrust on the rocket is 2a (p
p0) instead of a (p
p0),where
a is the area of the orifice.
Why does the factor 2 appear ?
21.The destructive effect of a tornado (twister) is greater near the centre of t
he disturbance than near the edge.
Explain.
22.Whywill a light ping-pong balldance over a streamof gas or water issuing at h
igh speed froma tube?
level. The temperature of water is slowly raised from 0C to 20C. How will the volu
me
V change with the rise in temperature?
27.Abodyimmersed in a liquid is balanced on a scale. Will the reading on the sca
le be d if the
liquid is heated together with the body?
28. A glass bulb is balanced by a brass weight in a sensitive beam balance. Stat
e what will
happen when the balance is covered by a bell jar which is the evacuated. Explain
.
29.Ablock ofice is floating ina liquid ofspecific gravity 1.2 contained ina beak
er. When the ice melts completely,
level. The temperature of water is slowly raised from 0C to 20C. How will the volu
me
V change with the rise in temperature?
27.Abodyimmersed in a liquid is balanced on a scale. Will the reading on the sca
le be d if the
liquid is heated together with the body?
28. A glass bulb is balanced by a brass weight in a sensitive beam balance. Stat
e what will
happen when the balance is covered by a bell jar which is the evacuated. Explain
.
29.Ablock ofice is floating ina liquid ofspecific gravity 1.2 contained ina beak
er. When the ice melts completely,
caused. Yet when a hydraulic press, in which the pressure is much higher, blows
up, the damage caused is not
very great. Why ?
32.A hollow sphere and a solid sphere of the same radius and the same material f
all through air from the same
height. Which one arrives on the ground first ? (Neglect viscous effect of the a
ir.)
33.Do rain drops of different sizes reach the earth with the same speed? Explain
.
FLUID MECHANICS
23.During storms, the strong winds tear off the roofs of thatched houses along t
he ridge C if the
roofisfastenedmorefirmlyattheedgesAandB(seefigure)thanat theridge. Ontheother
hand, if the roof is secured more firmly at the ridge C than at the edges, the w
ind will first lift
theroofupandthencarryit away.Explain.
24.Adevice(seefigure) consistsoftwodiscsAandB.Thelower discB hangsonthreepins
fixedtoAalongwhichit canfreelymoveupanddown.Theupper discAisprovidedwith
apipeat itscentre. Ifacompressedair streamispassedthroughthepipe, thelower disc
begins to knock the upper one. Explain.
25.Aballoonfilledwithairisweighedsothat itbarelyfloatsinwater asshowninthefigure
.
Explainwhyit sinksto thebottomwhenit issubmergedmorebyashort distance.
26.A block os wood is floating on water at 0C with a certain volume V above the w
ater
will the level in the beaker change ?
30.It is the practice of masons, while laying and levelling the foundations of b
uildings, to use a long, transparent,
plastic pipe. The theory is that water, seeking a common level, will be at the s
ame level in both halves of the
pipe and thus help to obtain levelling. What happens if a bubble of air is left
in the pipe?
31.When a steam boiler in which the pressure of steam is 10 to 15 atm blows up,
considerable damage is
34.Asphericalbobmadeofcorkfloatshalf-submergedinapotofteaat restontheearth.Willt
hecorkfloat or
move in the beginning and after a short time? (see figure)
sink aboard a spaceship coasting in free space? On the surface of Jupiter?
35.Why is it easier to curve the flight of a tennis ball than it is to curve tha
t of a baseball?
36.Explain why it is dangerous to stand near a speeding train.
37.Very often a sinking ship turns over as it gets immersed in water. Why?
38.What is the pressure at a depth h below the free surface of a liquid falling
freely?
39.A ship gets a large hole O in its underwater portion. In what direction willi
t begin to
40.The vessel shown in Figure is entirelyfilled with water. What will happen if
the tap S is
opened?
41.A sailor found a small hole in the hole of his vessel, through which water wa
s entering into it.
He tried to stop the flow with a plank but the stream of water pushed the plank
away. He managed to bring
the plank close to the hole with the aid of another sailor, and then found that
he could hold the plank alone.
Explainwhythepressureontheplankisdifferent inthetwo cases.
FLUID MECHANICS
42.A vessel with a side-cock is filled with water and placed on the platform of
a spring
balance. Will the equilibrium change if the cock is opened? The outflowing water
falls
on to the same pan on which the vessel is placed.
43.Explain why one has to blow over a piece of paper rather than under it, to ke
ep it horizontal.
44.Why does a flag flutter in a strong breeze ?
FLUID MECHANICS
42.A vessel with a side-cock is filled with water and placed on the platform of
a spring
balance. Will the equilibrium change if the cock is opened? The outflowing water
falls
on to the same pan on which the vessel is placed.
43.Explain why one has to blow over a piece of paper rather than under it, to ke
ep it horizontal.
44.Why does a flag flutter in a strong breeze ?
45.Why do water jets taper when the tap is almost closed ?
SURFACE TENSION
1. Water can rise to a height h in a certain capillarytube. Suppose that this tu
be is immersed in water so that only
a height h/2 is above the surface. Will there be a fountain? Explain.
2. Why is moisture retained longer in the soil if it is harrowed?
3. Why are raindrops spherical in shape ?
4. Why does the end of a glass rod become round on being heated strongly?
5. Explain how an iron can be used to remove greasyspots from clothing.
6. Why do drops of water appear at the end of a piece of firewood when it is bei
ng dried in the sun while its
other end is in the shadow ?
7. Acapillary tube is dipped in water vertically. It is long enough for the wate
r to rise to the maximumheight h in
the tube. The length of the portion immersed in water is l < h. The lower end of
the tube is closed and then the
tube is taken out and opened again. Will all the water flow out of the tube? Exp
lain.
8. Two capillary tubes A and B are immersed in water
One is straight and the oth
er is in the form of a
rectangular U-tube. The tubeAis sufficientlylong. The lower end of the bent tube
is at a depth H. What form
will the meniscus take and will there be any flow of the water? Consider the fol
lowing five cases :
(a) H > h (b) H = h (c) 0 < H < h (d) H = 0 (e) H < 0
9. Explain how detergents clean dirty clothes.
10.Two soap bubblesAand B of different diameters are blown at the two ends of a
bent tube. By opening the
stop cock S, the two bubbles are put in communication. What will happen?
ELASTICITY
1. Stress and pressure are both forces per unit area. Then in what respect does
stress differe from pressure ?
2. Is elastic limit a property of the material of the wire ?
3. Which is more elastic, steel or rubber ?
4. Which one has a greater force constant
a steel wire or a rubber wire of the s
ame length and radius ?
5. There are two springs of the same material and length but the area of cross-s
ection of one is double that of the
other. Which one will have a greater force constant ?
6. Among solids, liquids and gases, which one can have all the moduli of elastic
ity ?
7. Among solids, liquids and gases, which possesses the greatest bulk modulus ?
THINKING PROBLEMS SOLUTIONS
FLUID MECHANICS
1.
There will be no change in the level of water because in both the positions the
cylinder displaces the same
volume of water.
2.
No. The equilibriumwillnot be disturbed, since according to Pascal s law, the pres
sure on the bottomwillbe
the same at every point.
3.
Inboththecasesthepumpsperformthesamework,sincethesameamountofwater pumpedinrises
tothe
same level.
4.
Considering the upward motion of a column ofliquid of depth
FLUID MECHANICS
h, pA
p0A (Ah.)g = (Ah.) a . p = p0 + h. (g + a).
When the elevator is at rest, pi = p0 + h.g
. .p = p pi = h.a. Thus the pressure at the bottomincreases.
5. When there is nomotionAL.g = (L l)A..g, where L= total length of cylinder,A= a
rea of cross-section,
..= density of cylinder, .. = densityofwater, ..L. = (L l) ..
When the elevator goes downwithacceleration a, the effective acceleration due to
gravityon both cylinder
andwater is (g a).
. AL. (g a) = (L l )A.. (g
a) ..L. = (L l ) ..
. l = l . So the cylinderwill neither sink nor rise.
6. Dropping the piece ofwood is exactlythe same as adding the amount ofwater dis
placed byit,which is equal
to theweight of the body.Hence, if the cross-sections ofthe arms are the same, t
he levels ofwater in both the
armswill stand at the same horizontal level.
7. If themanstands on themattress, hisweight willbe distributed over a smaller a
rea, that is, the area of his feet
thanwhen he lies down. Hence, the air pressure in themattresswill be greater whe
n themass stands than
when he lies on it.
8. No, his aimwill not be achieved. The increased buoyancy of air will bemade up
for byweight of air blown
in. Since the densityof compressed air is generallygreater than the densityof at
omspheric air, hewill achieve
the opposite of his aim.
9. Make free-bodydiagrams of the bodies separatelyand consider their equilibrium
.Like all other
forces, buoyancyis also exerted equallyon the two bodies in contact. Hence if th
ewater exerts
a buoyant force, say, B on the stone upward, the stone exerts the same force on
tehwater
downward. The forces acting one the water + container systemare :W, weight of the s
ystem
downward, B, buoyant force of the stone downward; and the force of the stone dow
nward; and
the forceR of the spring in the upward direction. For equilibriumR =W+ B.
Thus the reading of the spring scalewillincrease byan amount equal to theweight
of the liquid displaced, that
is, byan amount equal to the buoyant force.
Note : The weight of the stone will not be included in the free-body diagram of
the
water + container system because the weight is the action and reaction between the
stone
and the earth and not between the stone and the water.
10.Let v be the volume of the ball above the level ofwater andVits totalvolume.W
=weight of the ball. Then
remembering that, strictlyspeaking, air also exerts buoyant force
W= v.0g + (V v) ..g
where .0= density of atmopheric air, ...= densityofwater.
Let v be the volume abovewater levelwhen density of air is changed. thenW= v .g + (
V v ) ..g where
. = density of air.
. v.0g + (V
v) ..g = v .g + (V v ) ..g
or w 0 w 0
w w
v' v or v '
v
. .
. .
. .
. . . .
. . . .
(a)When air is removed .= 0
. w 0
w
v'
v
.
.
. .
.
. v < v. So the ball sinks.
(b)When air is compressed
FLUID MECHANICS
..> .0 .... ..< ..
.0 ... w 0
w
1
.
.
.
. .
. .
.
v' 1
v
. or v > v. So the ball rises.
11.No. There is no buoyant force on the solid because the liquid is not in conta
ct at the bottomand so it exerts
no upward thrust on it.
12.The levelwill remain parallel to the plane during the journeydown the plane.T
he component of the forcemg
down the plane,whichismsin . produces acceleration down the plane. The surface i
s subjected to the force
mg cos . perpendicular to the plane.Aliquid surface keeps itself at right angles
to the force to which it is
subjected. So the level rests parallel to the plane during the downward journey
ofthe bucket.
13.Afloating body float s in stable equilibriumwhen its centre of gravityiswell
belowthe centre of buoyancy,
that is, the centre of gravityof the displaced liquid.When loaded byenoughweight
the centre ofgravitygoes
well belowthe centre of buoyancy.
14.It is found that a liquidwillflowfaster andmore smoothlyfroma sealed canwhen
two holes are punctured in
the can thenwhen one hole ismade. Explain.
15.When they are close to each other, the velocity of the water between themincr
eases, resulting in a fall of
pressure there according to Bernoulli s theorem. The pressures fromthe sides push
themtogether.
16.When the parachute opens out, the pressure of the air above drops and so an u
pward thrust is called into play
to balance theweight of the parachutist.
17.The viscous force on a bodydepends on its velocity.The greater the velocityth
e greater is the viscous force.
When a bodyfalls froma sufficient height, it acquires enoughvelocityto produce a
viscous force that balances
itsweight.The resultant force on the bodybeing zero, the bodymoveswith uniformve
locity, called terminal
velocity.
18.While taking off an airplane needsmaximumdynamic lift, which is associatedwit
h an unsymmetrical set of
streamlines relativelyclose together ontheupper side andrelativelyfar apart belo
w.Theunsymmetricdistribution
of streamlines can be obtained better bymoving into thewind.While landing, it sh
ouldmovewith thewind
when the streamlineswill be uniformlydistributed on the two sides of the airplan
e and so no liftwill arise and
the planewillland under gravity.
19.Yes, because 2 1 2 2
1 2
1 v p 1 v p
2 2
. . .
. .
. . 2 2 .
2 1 1 2
p p p 1 v v
2
. . . . . .
At high altitudes the densityis considerablylowand so the pressure differencewil
ldepend on the altitude of
the airplane.
20.The formula thrust = pressure difference area holds for fluids at rest. This doe
s not hold for fluid inmotion.
ByBernoulli s theorem(a theoremapplicable to fluids in streamlinemotion) 2 0 2 p 1
p 1 V v
2 2
. . .
. . andAV=
avwhereA= area of the chamber, a = area of the orifice. SinceA>> a, v >>V, hence
V2maybe neglected
in comparisonto v2.
.
. . 2 0 p p
v 2
.
.
.
Nowthrust on the rocket
v dM
dt
. But themass (dM) of gas flowing out in time dt is (a v . dt).
.
dM av
dt
. .
FLUID MECHANICS
. thrust = av2. = a.
. 0 . . .
0
2 p p
2a p p
.
. .
.
21.Near the edge the velocity is zero and the pressure is the normal atmospheric
pressure.At the centre, the
velocity ismaximumand so there ismaximumdrop of pressure at the centre. Thus, th
e pressure difference
between the centralregion and the surrounding air being themaximum, the destruct
ive power ofa tornado is
maximumat the centre.
22.Since the streamhas a high velocity, the pressure inside the streamis belowth
e atmospheric pressure. The
ball is supported fromthe bottomby the thrust of the streamand kept in position
by the lateral pressure
difference.
23.The pressure of the air streaming over the roof is less than that of the stat
ionary air belowthe roof. This is
according to Bernoulii s theorem.The surplus pressure of the stationaryair of the
roomacts normallyon the
two inclined halves of the roof.
When the roof is secured at the edgesAand B, the thrusts on the two halveswill h
ave turning effects about
the edges and so the roof is likelyto tear along the ridge.Onthe other hend ifth
e roof is secured rigidlyalong
the ridge, the thrustswill thenlift the roof against gravityand it willbe carrie
d away bythewind.
24.When air is blown through the pipe, the air between the discs is set inmotion
, resulting in a heavy drop of
pressure. The surplus pressure frombelowpushes the disc Band knocks it against t
he upper disc.
25.When it is submerged more by a short distance, the air inside the balloon is
compressed resulting in a
reduction ofthe buoyant force on it. Thus, downward force (weight of the sinker
attached +weight of air in
the balloon) being in excess of the buoyant force, it sinks to the bottom.
26.Let V be the total volume of the block of wood and Wbe the weight of the block
. Then by the law of
flotation
(V
V) .tg =W where .t= density ofwater at tC.
Sincewood has a negligible coefficient of expansionV maybe considered constant.
. V = V W/.tg
As the temperature is gradually increased from0C, .t increases and so V increases
up to 4C, when the
density ofwater becomesmaximum.Above 4C, .tdecreases and soVdecreases continuousl
y.
27.Reading on the scale
=weight of liquid and beaker + buoyant force
=W= V.tg, whereW=weight of liquid + beaker
V= volume of the solid at tC and .t= density of liquid at tC
. Reading . . 0
0 W V 1 t g
1 ' t
. . .
.
.
.
.
whereV0 =volume of the solid at 0C, . =coefficient of expansion ofthe solid, . = c
oefficient of expansion
ofthe liquid
. Reading =W+ V0.0 {1
(.
.)t}g
As t is increased, {1 (.
.)t} decreases and so the reading also decreases because
Wis a constant.
28.In air Wg Fg = Wb
Fb
where Wg = weight of glass bulb, Fg = buoyant force on the bulb, Wb = weight of
brass weights, Fb =
buoyant force on the brassweights
Since the volume of the bulbis greater than the brassweights
Fb < Fg or Wb
Wg + Fg < Fg or Wb < Wg
Thuswhen air is removed the bulbwillbecome heavier than the brassweights.
29.Let Hbe the height of the liquid in the beaker andH be the height of the liqui
d after all the icemelts.
LetAbe the area of cross-section of the beaker.
FLUID MECHANICS
Let Vbe the volume of the ice block andV
the volume of it inside the liquid. Then
V.ice g = V 1.2 1000 g ice

V' V
1200
. .
Volume of liquid in the beaker =AH V =AH ice V
1200
.
.
When all the icemelts, it is converted into water of the samemass but of volume,
say,V .
. V 1000 = V.ice
ice V'' V
1000
.
.
Therefore, totalvolume of liquid after icemelts
ice ice AH V V AH'
1200 1000
. . . . . . .. ..
. .
. . . ice
A H' H V 1 1 ve
1000 1200
. . . . . . . .. ..
.
. H >H. So the level of the liquidwill rise.
30.Let h1 and h2 be the heights above the horizontal line.
Let p1 be the pressure of the entrapped air.
Then p1
p0 = .gh2 and also and p1
p0 = .gh1
. .gh1 = .gh2 . h1 = h2
So the entrapped air will not affect the levelling test.
31.Steamis highlycompressible.When a steamboiler blows up, steamexpands violentl
y causing considerable
damagewhilewater being incompressible expands nominallywith release of pressure.
So it does not cause
much damage.
32.Since theyare of the same radius, the buoyant force on each of themis the sam
e.
. b
W F W a
g
. . .
whereWis theweight of the hollowsphere
and b
W' F W' a '
g
. . .
whereW =weight of solid sphere
. b
W 1 a F W' 1 a '
g g
. . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
But W > W
.
1 a 1 a ' a a '
g g
. . . . .
Hence the solid sphere arrives at the ground earlier.
33.No. Raindrops of different sizes reach the earthwith different speeds. The te
rminal velocity acquired by a
drop is proportional to the square of its radius.
At the final stage, upward viscous force = downward driving force
. 3 . . 2 6 rv 4 r g v r
3
. . . .
.
.. . .
34.For flotation
Weight of the body=weight of the liquid displaced
V.g =V . g
whereV= volume of the body,V = volume of the submerged portion of the body.
. V /V= ./.
FLUID MECHANICS
Thus, the ratio of the submerged volume to the totalvolume is independent of the
accelerationdue to gravity.
Hence in free space and on the surface of Jupiter the corkwill neither sinkmore
nor risemore.
35.The pressure difference on the two sides ofa tennis balldue to the spinimpart
ed to it is greater than it is in the
case of a baseball because the former is roughter. Hence, it is easier tomake th
e flight a tennis ball curve.
36.Due to the high speed of the train, the pressure ofthe air between the train
and themanmay fall considerably
and the pressure differencemaybe sufficientlyhigh to push theman towards the spe
eding train.
37.To pass on to the stable equilibriumposition.
38.p = p0 (atmospheric pressure). In general p = p0 + . (g + a)h. Here a = g. The
refore p = p0.
39.Initially, the shipwillmove to the right because the in-flowingwater (flowing
to the left)willexert a force 2pA
to the right,where p is the pressure at a depth h of the hole, andAis its area.A
s soon as the streamofwater
reaches the oppositewall, thiswallwillbe acted upon by the leftward forceF = .Av
2,where v is the velocity
of the streamwith respect to the ship.As a result, themotionwillbegin to retard.
40.Siphonic actionwillstart andwaterwill flowto the reservoir.
41.ByBernoulli s theoremthe velocityof flowis v = 2gh where h is the height ofwate
r above the hole. The
force on the plank = .v2S = 2.ghS.Once the hole is covered, the velocityof flowi
s zero and so the force on
the plank = .ghS which is just half as great.
42.In the beginningwhen the streamhas not yet reached the pan, equilibriumwill b
e disturbed. The panwill
swing upwards since thewater flowing out of the vesselwillnot longer exert force
on its bottomand hence on
the pan. That is, the reading of the balancewill decrease.
Themoment the streamreaches the pan, equilibriumwill be restored. On each elemen
t gravity imparts a
downward impulse
mg 2h m 2gh
g
. . . (impulse=forcetime) andonreaching the panthe same element
ofthe liquid experiences on upwardimpulse .m 2gh (impulse=change inmomentum).Thu
s, eachelement
experiences equal and opposite impulse. since the streamis continuous, the upwar
d and downward impulses
of elements cancelout and o the equilibriumis restored.
Themoment when the streamstops flowing, the panwill swing down, since the last e
lements of the liquid
falling on the pan act on it with a force that exceeds theweight of the elements
.
43.When air is blown over the paper there is a drop in pressure and the atmosphe
ric pressure from below
balances theweight of the paper.
44.Due towind on the two sides of the flag, the difference of pressure produces f
olds in the flag in compliance
withBernoulli s theorem.
45.This is in compliancewith the equation of continuity.V(rate of volume flow) a
1v1 = a2v2 i.e., a .1/v.At the
lower end the velocity is greater and so the are of cross-section is less.
SURFACE TENSION
1. No, therewillnot be a fountain. The curvature of the free liquid surface at t
he top of the tubewill change till
the upward force 2.rTcos. balances the gravitationalpull ofthe column of liquid
of height h/2.
2. When the soilis not harrowed, there are large capillaries in it.Water in the
soil rises up the capillary holes to
the surface fromwhere it evaporates continuously.Thus the soilcontinuouslylosesw
ater.Whenharrowed, all
these capillaries are destroyed, and so capillarysuction stops altogether.Thus,
water is retained longer in the
soil.
3. Because ofsurface tension ofwater.Due to surface tension the surface of a sma
ll volume ofwater tends to
occupytheminimumarea. The area of a given volume ofwater has theminimumvalue for
a spherical shape.
4. The end of a glass rod becomes round on being heated because of the surface t
ension ofmolten glass.
FLUID MECHANICS
5. The grease melts, and capillary forces carry it to the surface of the cold fa
bric placed under the clothing,
where it is soaked.
6. The end inthe shadowis colder than the end in the sun. The capillaryforces dr
ive thewater in this direction.
7. No, thewaterwill not flowout.When the tube is taken out, a convexmeniscus is
formed and
a force due to surface tension is called into playin the upward directionwhich k
eeps thewater
in the tube.Thus the length ofwater column remaining in the tubewillbe l + h.
8. In a capillarytube the height of the liquid that can be retained is given by
.r2h.g = 2.rT cos.
where . is the angle at which the liquidmeets the solid.
h.gr = 2T cos.
(a) SinceH> h, surface tension cannot sustain the column ofwater and sowater flo
ws out.
(b) SinceH= h, thewater does not flowout. Themeniscus is convex.
(c) Thewater does not flowout. Themeniscus is convex and is less curved than in
the
second case.
(d) Thewater does not flowout. Themeniscus is flat.
(e) Thewater does not flowout. Themeniscus is concave.
9. Water cannot remove grease stains. This is because water does not wet a greas
y
spot.Themolecules ofa detergent are hair pinshaped, experiencing different amoun
ts
of forces at the ends due to watermolecules and greasemolecules.
Themolecules are as if pinned to smallglobes of greasydirt and forman interface
betweenwater and greasy
dirt globes. The greasydirt is thus dislodged fromthe clothes and is carried awa
ywith runningwater.
10.The excess pressure inside a soap bubble is inversely proportional to its rad
ius.
Hence, the pressure insideAis greater thanthe pressure inside B.Airwill flowfrom
Aand B. Therefore,Awill become smaller and Bwillbecome larger.
ELASTICITY
1. Pressure is the external force per unit area, while stress is the internal fo
rce called into play fromwithin a
strained body acting transverselyper unit area of the body.
2. No. It depends on the radius of thewire aswell.
3. Steel. Elasticityismeasured bythe stress per unit strain. For the same amount
of strain,much greater stress
is produced in steel than in rubber.
4. The steelwire has a greater force constant.
5. The onewith greater areawill have a smaller force constant.
6. Only solids.Liquids and gases have onlybulkmodulus.
7. Solids.
FLUID MECHANICS
ASSERTION-REASON
1. Statement-1 : Imagine holding two identical bricks underwater. BrickA is comp
letely submerged just
below the surface ofwater, while Brick B is at a greater depth. The magnitude of
force exerted by the
person (on the brick) to hold brickB inplace is the same asmagnitude of force ex
erted bythe personon the
brick) the hold brickAin place.
Statement-2 :Themagnitudeofbuoyant force onabrick comletelysubmergedinwater is e
qualtomagnitude
ofweight ofwater it displaces and does not depend on depth of brick inwater.
2. Statement-1 :Upto elastic limit ofa stress-straincurve the steelwire tends to
regainits originalshapewhen
stress is removed.
Statement-2 :Within elastic limit thewire followsHook s law.
3. Statement-1 :When anideal fluid flows through a horizontal tube of variable c
ross-section, the pressure
becomes different as different points.
Statement-2 : Raindrops falling froma great height reach the groundwith a relati
velysmallvelocity.This
phenomena involves the viscosityof air.
4. Statement-1 :When a drop of ink falls on a newspaper, it spreads on it.
Statement-2 :Adhesive force betweenink and paper isgreater than cohesive force b
etween inkmolecules.
5. Statement-1 : In the diagramshown, a cube is floating inwater in tilted posit
ion, in shown
situation, the cube is in stable position i.e., cubewon t sink. C
Statement-2 :The point ofapplicationofgravitationalforce and buoyancyforce are p
assing
through the same line in above described case.
MATCH THE COLUMN
1. Bernoulli s equation canbewritten in the folliwing different forms (column-I).
Column-II lists certain units
each ofwhich pertains to one of the possible forms of the equation.Matchthe unit
associatedwith each of
the equations :
Column-I Column-II
(A)
v2 p
2g g
.
. + z = constant (P) Total energyper unitmass
(B)
V2
2
.
+ P + .gz = constant (Q) Total energyper unitweight
(C)
V2 P
2
.
. + gz = constant (R) Total energyper unit volume
2. InColumn-I, a uniformbar of uniformcross-section area under the application o
f forces is shown in the
figure and inColumn-II, some effects/phenomena are given.Match the entries ofCol
umn-Iwiththe entries
ofColumn-II.
Column-I Column-II
(A) F F (P) Uniformstresses developed in the rod
(C) Spraying of liquid (R) Surface energy increases

(S) Surface energy decreases
4. Column-II shows five systems in which two objects are labelled as X and Y. Al
so in each case a point P is
shown. Column-I gives some statements about X and/or Y. Match these statements t
o the appropriate
system(s) from Column-II. [JEE, 09]
Column-I Column-II
(A) The force exerted by X on Y (P) Block Y of mass M left
has a magnitude Mg. on a fixed inclined plane
X, slides on it with a
Y
X
P
constant velocity.
(B) The gravitationalpotentialenergy (Q) Two ring magnetsY and Z,
of X is continuously increasing. each of mass M, are kept
in frictionless vertrical plastic
stand so that they repel each
other. Y rests on the base X
Y
P
Z
Xand Z hangs in air in equilibrium.
P is the topmost point of the
stand on the common axis of the two rings. The whole
system is in a lift that is going up with a constant velocity.
(C) Mechanical energy of the system (R) ApulleyY of mass m0 is fixed to
(C) Spraying of liquid (R) Surface energy increases
(S) Surface energy decreases
4. Column-II shows five systems in which two objects are labelled as X and Y. Al
so in each case a point P is
shown. Column-I gives some statements about X and/or Y. Match these statements t
o the appropriate
system(s) from Column-II. [JEE, 09]
Column-I Column-II
(A) The force exerted by X on Y (P) Block Y of mass M left
has a magnitude Mg. on a fixed inclined plane
X, slides on it with a
Y
X
P
constant velocity.
(B) The gravitationalpotentialenergy (Q) Two ring magnetsY and Z,
of X is continuously increasing. each of mass M, are kept
in frictionless vertrical plastic
stand so that they repel each
other. Y rests on the base X
Y
P
Z
Xand Z hangs in air in equilibrium.
P is the topmost point of the
stand on the common axis of the two rings. The whole
system is in a lift that is going up with a constant velocity.
(C) Mechanical energy of the system (R) ApulleyY of mass m0 is fixed to
FLUID MECHANICS
(C)
Smooth
(D)
Smooth
F
(B)
F
F
(Q) Non-uniformstressesdevelopedintherod
F
(R) Compressive stresses developed
(S)
Tensile stresses developed
3.
Matchthefollowing :
Column-I Column-II
Temperature increases
Temperature decreases
(A)
Splittingofbiggerdropintosmalldroplets (P)
(B)
Formation of bigger drop from small droplets (Q)
X + Yis continuously decreasing.
a table through a clamp X. A
block of mass M hangs from a
string that goes over the pulley
and is fixed at point P of the table.
The whole system is kept in a lift
that is going down with a constant velocity.
X
YP
(D) ThetorqueoftheweightofYabout (S) AsphereYofmassMisputina
point P is zero.
nonviscous liquid X kept in a
container at rest. The sphere is
X
released and it moves down in
P
the liquid.
(T)
AsphereYofmassMisfalling
with its terminalvelocityin a
viscous liquid X kept in a container.
X
P
Y
Y
(D) The reading will be less or more depending the upon position of piece of iro
n in the liquid
Which is based on an application of Bernoulli s equation for fluid flow ?
(A) Capillary rise (B) Dynamic lift of an aero plane
(C) Viscosity meter (D) Hydraulic press
(D) The reading will be less or more depending the upon position of piece of iro
n in the liquid
Which is based on an application of Bernoulli s equation for fluid flow ?
(A) Capillary rise (B) Dynamic lift of an aero plane
(C) Viscosity meter (D) Hydraulic press
FLUID MECHANICS
LEVEL
1
(A) height of the liquid above the bottom
(C) densityoftheliquid
4.
(B) The balance will indicate more weight
Asample of a metal weights 210 g in air, 180 g in water and 120 g in an unknown
liquid. Then
(A) the densityof the metal is four times the density ofthe unknown liquid
(B) the density of the metal is 3 g/cm3
(C) the density of the metal is 7 g/cm3 (D) the metal will float on water
5. Abeaker containing water is put on the platform ofa spring balance.Apiece of
iron suspended from a string
is immersed in the water without touching the sides or the bottom of the beaker.
How will the reading on the
spring balance be affected, assuming that no water flows out of the beaker ?
(A) The balance will indicate less weight
(C) The reading will not change
6.
7.
Asteel ballof mass m falls in a viscous liquid with a terminalvelocity 4 cm s 1. A
nother steel ballof mass
64 mwillfallthrough the same liquid with a terminalvelocityof
(A)4cms 1 (B)16cms 1 (C)8cms 1 (D)64cms 1
1.
The force due to pressure in a liquid at a given depth below the free surface
(A) is always exerted downward of orienting the surface
(B) is the same in all directions of orienting the surface
(C) equals the total weight of liquid above that depth
(D)dependsupontheamount ofliquidbelowthat depth
2.
InaU-tubeexperiment,acolumnPQofwaterisbalancedbyacolumn
h1 h2SR(B)(h1 h2)/h1(D)2h2/(h1+h2)
RS of(some liquid see figure). The relative densityof the liquid is
(A) h2/h1
(C) 2 h1/h2
3. Thepressureatthebottomofaliquidtankisnotproportionaltothe
(B) accelerationduetogravity
(D) areaoftheliquidsurfaceat thetop
8.
In the apparatus shown, initially the stop-cock A is closed and B is open.
Now B is connected to a vacuum pump so that pressure is reduced and
the liquid rises up to some point C above A. B is closed at this position of
liquid and A is opened. Then
(A) liquidinthetubewillfalltillitslevelissameasoutside
(B) liquid willflow out ofA
(C) liquid willrise further
(D) liquid willnot flow out ofA

C
A
B
P
Q
FLUID MECHANICS
9. In a hydraulic press, f and Fare the forces acting on the smallpiston and the
large piston having diameters
d andD respectively.Then f/F is
(A) 2 d/D (B) 2 D2/d2 (C) d2/D2 (D) D/ d
10. Two capillary tubes of the same radius and lengths l1 and l2 are fitted hori
zontallyside byside to the bottom
of a vessel containingwater. The length of a single tube of the some radius that
can replace the two tubes
such that the rate of steadyflowthrough this tube equals the combined rate of fl
owthrough the two tubes,
is
(A) 1 2
1 2
2
.
l l
l l (B) l1 + l2 (C) 1 2
1 2 .
l l
l l (D) 1 2
2
l . l
11. Two capillary tubes of the same length and radii r1 and r2 are fitted horizo
ntallyside by side to the bottom
of a vessel containingwater. The radius of a single tube that can replace the tw
o tubes such that the rate of
steady flowthrough this tube equals the combined rate offlowthrough the two tube
s, is
(A) 1 2 r r (B) (r1
2 + r2
2)1/2 (C) r1 + r2 (D) (r1
4 + r2
4)1/4
12. Acapillarytube is dipped ina beaker containing a liquid. The angle ofcontact
of the capillarywith the liquid
is 90.The liquid in the tubewill
(A) fall (B) rise
(C) neither rise nor fall (D)mayrise or falldepending on the densityfthe liquid
13. An oildrop is placed on the surface ofwater. It will
(A) partlybe as a sphericaldroplets and partly as thin film
(B) remain on the surface as a sphere
(C) spread as a thin layer
(D) remain on the surface as distorted drop
14. If thework done in blowing a bubble of volumeVisW, then thework done in blow
ing a bubble of volume
2Vwill be
(A) (4)1/3 W (B) 2W (C) 8 W (D) (2)1/3W
15. Whichoneofthe following curves shows correctlythe variationofvelocityvwithti
me t for a smallspherical
bodyfalling verticallyin a long column ofviscous liquid ?
(A)
v
t
(B)
v
t
(C)
v
t
(D)
v
t
16. Acylindricalvesselfilledwithwater is released on an inclined surface of angl
e
. as shown in figure. The friction coefficient of surfacewith vessel is (<
tan .). Then the constant anglemade bythe surface ofwaterwith the incline
willbe :
Fixed
(A) tan 1 (B) .
tan 1 (C) . + tan 1 (D) cot 1
FLUID MECHANICS
17. Acylindrical container of radiusRand height h is completely filledwith a
liquid. Two horizontalL shaped pipes of small cross-section area a are
connected to the cylinder as shown in the figure. Nowthe two pipes are
opened and fluid starts coming out of the pipes horizontally in opposite
directions. Then the torque due to ejected liquid on the systemis :
R R
h/2 h/2
2R
(A) 4 agh.R (B) 8 agh.R
(C) 2 agh.R (D) none of these
18. In the figure shownwater is filled in a symmetricalcontainer. Four
pistons of equal area A are used at the four opening to keep the
water in equilibrium. Nowan additional force Fis applied at each
piston. The increase in the pressure at the centre of the container
due to this addition is F1
F4
F3
F2
(A) F/A (B) 2F/A
(C) 4F/A (D) zero
19. Anarrow tube completely filled with a liquid is lying on a series of
cylinders as showninfigure.Assuming no slidingbetweenanysurfaces,
the valueof accelerationofthe cylinders forwhichliquidwillnot come
out ofthe tube fromanywhere is given by
open to
atmosphere
H
L
a
(A)
gH
2L (B)
gH
L
(C)
2gH
L (D)
gH
2 L
20. Asquare box ofwater has a smallhole located in
one of the bottomcorner.When the boxis full and
sitting ona level surface, complete opening of the
hole results in a flowofwater with a speed v0, as
showninfigure (1).Whenthe boxisstillhalfempty,
it is tilted by 45 so that the hole is at the lowest
point.Nowthewaterwillflowoutwitha speed of
V0
Fig. (1) Initial V0
Later-on
(A) V0 (B) V0/2 (C) 0 V / 2 (D) 4
0 V / 2
21. Amosquitowith 8 legs stands onwater surface and each legmakes depression of
radius a. If the surface
tension and angle of contact are T and zero respectivelythen theweight ofmosquit
o is :
(A) 8T . a (B) 16 .Ta (C) Ta/8 (D) Ta/16 .
22. In determinationof youngmodulus ofelasticity ofwire, a force is applied
and extension is recorded. Initial length ofwire is 1m. the curve between
extension and stress is depicted thenyoungmodulus ofwirewillbe :
4 mm
Extension
2 mm
4000 KN/m2 8000 KN/m2
Stress
(KN/m2)
(A) 2 109 N/m2 (B) 1 109 N/m2
(C) 2 1010 N/m2 (D) 1 1010 N/m2
FLUID MECHANICS
23. Ablock ofmassMarea of cross-sectionA&length l is placed on smooth
horizontal floor.Aforce F is applied on the block as shown. If y is young
modulus ofmaterial, then total extensionin the blockwillbe : F
Area A
l
(A) Fl /Ay (B) Fl / 2Ay
(C) Fl / 3Ay (D) cannot extend
24. Auniformrod ofmassmandlengthl is rotatingwithconstant angular velocity. abou
t anaxiswhichpasses
through its one end and perpendicular to the length of rod.The area of cross sec
tion of the rod isAand its
young smodulus isY.Neglect gravity.The streamat themid point of the rod is :
(A)
m 2
8AY
. l
(B)
3m 2
8AY
. l
(C)
3m 2
4AY
. l
(D)
m 2
4AY
. l
25. Aballofmass 10 kg anddensity1 gm/cm3 is attached to the baseofa container
having a liquid ofdensity1.1 gm/cm3,withthe help of a spring as shown in the
figure. The container is going up with an acceleration 2 m/s2. If the spring
constant of the spring is 200N/m, the elongation inthe spring is
2 m/s2
(A) 2 cm (B) 4 cm
(C) 6 cm (D) 8 cm
26. In the figure shown, the heavy cylinder (radius R) resting on a smooth
surface separates two liquids of densitieis 2. and 3.. The height h for the
equilibriumofcylindermust be h 2 R 3 R
(A)
3R
2 (B)
R 3
2 (C) R 2 (D)
R 3
4
27. Aconical flask ofmass 10 kg and base area 103 cm2 is floating in liquid of
specific gravity 1.2 as shown in the figure. The force that liquid exerts on
curved surface of conical flask is (g = 10m/s2) 10 cm
(A) 20Nin downward direction
(B) 40Nin downward direction
(C) 20Nin upward direction
(D) 40Nin upward direction
28. In the figure shown, forces of equalmagnitude are applied to
the two ends of a uniformrod.ConsiderAas the cross-section
area of the rod. For this situation, mark out the incorrect
statement(s).
F F
(A)
(B)
(C)
nit
(D)
The rod is in compressive stress.

The numericalvalue of stress developed in the rod is equal to F/A.
The stress is defined as internal force developed at any cross-section per u
area.
None of the above.
FLUID MECHANICS
29. For the block shown in the figure, the Poisson s ratio is .. The
body is under state of compression.
Inthis situation
c
b
a
F F
(A) the volume of the stressed body decreases
(B) the decrease in length ismore, than compensating for increase in area
(C) the volume of the stressed body increase (D) both (A) and (B) are correct.
30. In above question, if the fractional change in length of block due to applic
ation of force F is 0.001 and
corresponding change involume is 0.0005, find the value of Poisson s ratio for the
materialof the blocks?
(A) 1/2 (B) 1/10 (C) 1/4
(D)Not possible to determine the value of Poisson s ratio fromthe given data
31. The space between two larger horizontal metal plates, 6 cm apart, is filled
with a liquid of viscosity
0.8N-s/m2.Athin plate of surface area 0.01m2 ismoved parallel to the length of t
he plate such that plate
is at a distance of 2 cmfromone of the plates and 4 cmfromthe other. If the plat
emoveswith a constant
speed of 1m/s, then
(A) the layer of the fluidwhich is havingmaximumvelocity is lyingmid-waybetween
the plates.
(B) the layers of the fluidwhichis in contract with themoving plate is having th
emaximumvelocity.
(C) the layer of the fluidwhich is in contactwiththemoving plate and is onthe si
de of farther plate ismoving
withthemaximumvelocity.
(D) the layer ofthe fluidwhich is in contactwith themoving plate and is on the s
ide of nearer plate ismoving
withthemaximumvelocity.
32. The coefficient of restitution for collisionof two bodies
(A) depends onYoung smodulius of both the bodies
(B) does not depend onYoung smodulius of both the bodies
(C) depends onYoung smodulus of the lighter body
(D)mayormay not depend uponYoung smodulus
33. Aheavy block ofmass 150 kg hangs with the help of three vertical
wires of equal length and equal cross-section area as shown in the
figure.
x x
I II III
Y1 Y2 Y3
150 kg
Wire II is attached to themidpoint (centre ofmass) of block. Take
Y2 = 2Y1. For this arrangement mark out the correct statement(s)
(A)Thewire I and III should have sameYoung smodulus.
(B) Tension in I and III would be always equal.
(C) Tension in I and IIIwould be different.
(D) Tension in Ii is 75 g.
34. Ametalwire of lengthL, cross-section areaAandYoung smodulusYis stretched bya v
ariable force F.F
is varying in suchawaythat Fis always slightlygreater thanthe elastic forces ofr
esistance in thewire.When
the elongation inthewire is l, upto this instant
(A) the work done by Fis
YA 2
2L
l
(B) the work done by F is
YA 2
L
l
(C) the elastic potential energy stored inwire is
YA 2
2L
l
(D) no energyis lost during elongation
FLUID MECHANICS
35. Asolid floats in a liquid is in partiallydipped position,
(A) the solid exerts a force equal to itsweight on the liquid
(B) the solid doesn t exert any force on the liquid
(C) the solid exerts a force equal to buoyancy force on the liquid
(D) the liquid exerts a force of buoyancy on the solidwhichis equal to theweight
of solid
36. Allthe fourwires in the optionsbelowaremade up ofthe samematerial.Which of t
hesewillhave the largest
extension,when the same tension is applied ?
(A) Length 200 cmand diameter 2mm (B) Length 100 cmand diameter 0.5mm
(C) Length 300 cmand diameter 1mm (D) Length 50 cmand diamter 0.5mm
37. Auniformplank of length L andYoung s modulus Y is
pushed over a smooth horizontal surface by a constant
horizontal force F0. F0 smooth
The areaofcross-sectionofthe plankisA.The compressive
strain (.L/L) of the plank in the direction of the force is :
(A) 0 3F
AY (B) 0 F
AY (C) 0 F
2AY (D) 0 2F
AY
38. Two wires of same material and length but cross-sectional area in the ratio
1 : 3 are used to suspend the
same loads. The extensions in themwill be in the ratio :
(A) 1 : 3 (B) 3 : 1 (C) 4 : 1 (D) 1 : 4
39. Awire elongates by l mmwhen a loadWnewton is hang fromit. If thewire goes ov
er a pulleyand two
weightsWeach are hung at the two ends, the elongation of thewire (inmm)willbe :
(A) zero (B) l (C) l / 2 (D) 2l
40. Awork of 2 10 2 J is done on awire of length 50 cmand area of cross-section 0.
5 mm2. If theYoung s
modulus of thematerial of thewire is 2 1010N/m2, then thewiremust be :
(A) elongated to 50.1414 cm (B) stretched by 0.707mm
(C) contracted by 2.0mm (D) none of these
41. The value of Poisson s ratio for all practical bodies lies between :
(A) 0 to 0.5 (B) 1 to 1.5 (C) 0.5 to 1 (D) 1 to 1
42. Two bodies ofmasses 1 kg and 2 kg are connected by a metalwire
shown in figure.Aforce of 10Nis applied on the body ofmass 2 kg.
F = 10N
1 kg 2 kg
The breaking stress ofmetalwire is 2 109 N/m2.What should be Smooth surface
minimumradius of thewire used, if it is not to break ?
(A) 0.23 10 4 m (B) 4 10 4 m (C) 5 10 4 m (D) 5.2 10 4 m
43. Two wires, nemode of coper and other of stealare joined
end to end. (as shown in figure). The area of cross-section
of copperwire is twice that of steelwire. F Cooper Steel
F
They are placed under compressive force ofmagnitudes F.
The ratio of their lengths suchthat change in lengths of bothwires are same is :
(YS = 2 1011 N/m2 and YC = 1.1 1011 N/m2)
(A) 2.1 (B) 1.1 (C) 1.2 (D) 2
FLUID MECHANICS
44. The curve in figure represents potential energy(U) in betweentwo atoms
in a diatomic molecules as a function of distance x between atoms. The
atoms are :
U
y
x
A B C
(A) attracted when x lies betweenA and B and repelledwhen x lies
between B and C
(B) attractedwhen x lies betweenB and Cand repelledwhen x lies betweenAand B
(C) attractedwhen they reachB (D) repelledwhen they reachB
45. one end of a steelwire is fixed to ceiling of an elevator moving up with an
acceleration 2m/s2 and a load of 10 kg hangs fromother end.Area of crosssection
of thewire is 2 cm2. The longitudinal strain in thewire is :
(Take g = 10 m/s2 andY= 2 1011 N/m2)
a = 2m/s2 0
(A) 4 1011 (B) 3 10 6 (C) 8 10 6 (D) 2 10 6
46. Two bodies of masses 1 kg and 2 kg are connected by a steel wire of crosssec
tion
2 cm2 going over a smooth pulley (as shown in figure). The longitudinal
strain in the wire is : (Take g = 10 m/s2,Y= 2 1011N/m2)
1 kg
(A) 3.3 10 7 (B) 3.3 10 6 (C) 2 10 6 (D) 4 10 6 2 kg
47. Water froma tap emerges vertically downwadswith an initla speed of 1.0ms 1. Th
e cross-sectional area
of the tap is 10 4m2.Assume that the pressure is constant throughout the streamofw
ater, and that the flow
is steady. The cross-sectional area of the stream0.15 mbelowthe tap is [JEE, 98]
(A) 5.0 10 4 m2 (B) 1.0 10 5 m2 (C) 5.0 10 5 m2 (D) 2.0 10 5 m2
48. Alarge opentank has two holes in thewall.One is a square hole of sideLat a d
epth y fromthe top and the
other is a circular hole of radiusRat a depth 4yfromthe top.When the tank is com
pletely filledwithwater,
the quantities ofwater flowing out per sectionfrombothholes are the same. then,R
is equalto :[JEE,2000]
(A) L/ 2. (B) 2.L (C) L (D) L/2.
49. Ahemisphericalportionof radiusRis removed fromthe bottomof a cylinder
of radiusR. The volume of the remaining cylinder isVand itsmass isM. It is
suspended by a string ina liquid of density.where it stays vertical.The upper
surface of the cylinder is at a depth h belowthe liquid surface. The force on
the bottomof the cylinder bythe liquid is [JEE, 01]
h
2r
(A) Mg (B) Mg v.g (C) Mg + .R2h.g (D) .g (V + .R2h)
50. Awooden block, with a coin placed on its top, floats in water as shown in
figure. The distances l and h are shown there.After some time the coin falls
into thewater. Then [JEE, 02]
h
l
coin
(A) l decreases and h increases (B) l increases and h decreases
(C) both l and h increase (D) both l and h decrease
51. Water is filled in a container upto height 3m.Asmallhole of area a is punched i
n thewallof the container
at a height 52.5 cmfromthe bottom. The cross sectional area of the container isA
. If a/A= 0.1 then v2 is
(where v is the velocity ofwater coming out of the hole) [JEE, 05]
(A) 48 (B) 51 (C) 50 (D) 51.5
FLUID MECHANICS
PASSAGE
Comprehension
1
Two cylindrical tanks of radii r and 2rwith their bases at the same
level containa liquid of density. to heightsHand 3H, respectively
as shown in figure. The tanks are linked through a pipe of very
small cross-sectionalareaA.Due to pressure difference liquid starts
flowing fromnarrower vessel to broader vessel to equalize the
pressure.
r 2r
3H
H
Based onabove information, answer the following questions : A
1. The final commonlevel of liquid inboth vessels is
(A) 2H (B) 7H/5 (C) 3H/2 (D) 5H/2
2. The time takenfor the liquid levels to become equal frominitial levels is
(A)
5H r2
gA
. .
(B)
5 r2 H
A g
.
(C)
r2 H
A g
.
. (D)
8 r2 H
5A g
.
.
3. Thework done by gravityin equalising these levels is
(A) .r2 .gH2 (B)
41
10 .r2 .gH2 (C)
8
5 .r2 .gH2 (D)
15
2 .r2 .gH2
Comprehension 2
Awooden cylinder of diameter 4r, height h and density ./3 is kept on a
hole of diameter 2r of a tank, filledwithwater of density..as shownin the
figure. The height of the base of cylinder fromthe base oftank isH. h2
h1
h
/3
2r
H
4r
4. If level of liquid starts decreasing slowlywhen the level of liquid is at a
height h1 above the cylinder, the block just startsmoving up.Then, value of
h1 is
(A) 2h/3 (B) 5h/4 (C) 5h/3 (D) 5h/2 [JEE, 06]
5. Let the cylinder is prevented frommoving up, by applying a force and water le
vel is further decreases.
Then, height ofwater level(h2 infigure) forwhich the cylinder remains inoriginal
positionwithout application
of force is [JEE, 06]
(A) h/3 (B) 4h/9 (C) 2h/3 (D) h
6. If height h2 ofwater level is further decreased, then [JEE, 06]
(A) cylinderwillnotmove up and remains at its originalpotition.
(B) for h2 = h/3, cylinder again startsmoving up
(C) for h2 = h/4, cylinder again startsmoving up
(D) for h2 = h/5 cylinder again startsmoving up
FLUID MECHANICS
LEVEL
2
1. The solid ballin the figure hangs froma spring balanceB1 and submerged ina li
quid
contained in a beaker placed on a spring balance B2. Themass of the beaker is 1.
0
kg and that of the liquid is 2.5 kg. Balance B1 reads 3.5 and B2 reads 8.5 kg. T
he
volume of ball is 0.005m3.
B1
B2
(a)Write the buoyant force.
(b) Find the density of the liquid.
(c)What will the balances B1 and B2 read if the ball is pulled up out of the liq
uid ?
2. Auniformrod of length Lm, specific gravity0.5 andmassmis hinged at one end
at a distance of 1/2 Lmbelowwater surface.
M
(a)What massMmust be attached to the other end of the rod so that 5/6 Lmof
the rod gets submerged?
(b) Find themagnitude and direction of the force exerted by the hinge on the rod
.
3. AU-tube, placed in a verticalplane, is partially filledwith liquidX.AliquidY,
immisciblewithX, is next
poured into one side untilXrises onthe other side by25 cm. If the density ofYrel
ative toXis 0.8, bywhat
distance theY-levelwill stand higher than theX-level ?
4. Avessel contains a liquidX(density 0.8 g/cm3) over another liquidY(density
13.6 g/cm3), notmixing together.Ahomogeneous sphere floatswith half its
X
volume immersed inupper and the other half in lower liquid. Find the density Y
of thematerialof the sphere.
5. Aliquid flows out of two smallhlesXandYin thewallof a tank.The two
streams strike the ground at the same point. If the hole X is at a height
h above the ground and the level ofwater stands at a height Habove the
ground, find theheight ofY.
H
X
Y
h
6. Two copper (density .) ballsAand B are released in a liquid of viscosity ..
They are connected by a narrow light rod. How does the tension in the rod
varywithtime ?
A
B
r
2r
7. Water rises to a height of4 cmin a capillarytube. If the area of cross-sectio
n ofthe tube is reduced to 1/16
of the former value, find howhighwillthe level rise.
8. Asoap bubbleAofradius r1 and another soap bubble B ofradius r2 (> r1) are bro
ught together so that the
combined bubble has a common interface. Find the radius of the interface.
9. Find the work that must be done to get n small equal size spherical drops fro
ma bigger spherical drop
(radius = R) of a liquid having surface tension S.Amercury drop breaks into 8 eq
ual drops. The surface
energy increases by a fact or n. Find n.
FLUID MECHANICS
10. Calculate thework done against surface tension in blowing a soap bubble from
a radius of 10 cmto 20 cm
if the surfacetension of soap solution is 2.5 10 2 Jm 2.
11. A U-shaped wire is dipped in a soap solution and removed. The thin soap film
formed between thewire and a light slider supports aweight ofW= 1.5 10 2N
(which includes the smallweight of the slider). The length of the slider is 30 c
m.
What is the surface of the liquid forming the film?
12. Atube Tofradius r is connected to a bubble of a liquid having surface
tension S. The radius of the bubble isRat time t = 0. Showthat it will
shrink to zero in time t = 2.lR4/Sr4, where . is the co-efficient of
viscosityof air.
l
R T
13. Length of horizontal armof a uniformcross-sectionU-tube is l = 21 cmand
ends of both of the vertical arms are open to surrounding of pressure 10500
N/m2.Aliquid of density. = 103 kg/m3 is poured into the tube such that liquid
just fills the horizontal part of the tube. Now one of the open ends is sealed
and the tube is then rotated about a vertical axis passing through the other
vertical armwith angular velocity .0 = 10 rad/sec.
21 cm
6 cm
If length ofeach vertical armbe a = 6 cm.Calculate the length ofair column in
the sealed arm. [g = 10 m/sec2]
14. Asimple accelerometer (ann instrument formeasuring acceleration) can be
made in the form of a tube filled with a liquid and bent as shown. During
motion, the levelofthe liquid inthe left armwillbe at a height h1, and inthe rin
g
armat a height h2.
h1 h2
/4 /4
Determine the accelerationa ofa carriage inwhichthe accelerometeris installed,
assuming that the diameter of the tube ismuch smaller than h1 and h2.
15. Ahemispherical tank of diameter 4mis filledwithwater.Averysmall hole is
punched at 1mabove the bottomas shown in figure. Find x (distance at which
water strikes the surface). 1m
x
................................................. ..............................
.................. ........................................ ....................
....... . . . .
16. Two arms of a tube have unequaldiameters d1 = 1.0mmand d2 =1.0 cm. Ifwater (
surface poured into the
tube held in the vertical position, find the difference of level in the tube.Ass
ure the angle of contact to be
zero. T = 0.07N/m.
17. A block mass 0.5 kg is attached to free end of 80 cm long aluminium wire of
diamter 0.7 mmand suspended vertically. It is now given circularmotion into a
horizontalplane at a rate suchthat thewiremakes an angle of 85with the vertical.
Find the increase in length of thewire.
85
(sin 85 = 0.9962, cos 85 = 0.0872,Young smodulus of aluminium= 7 1010Nm 2)
18. Ametalwire of cross section 4mm2 and length 5mis suspended vertically froma
rigid support.Abob of
mass 100 kg is now attached at the lower end. If the is bob gets snapped, calcul
ate the thermal energy
generated in thewire. TheYoung smodulus is 210 PGa and densityis 7800 kg/m3.
FLUID MECHANICS
19. The graphof stress . against strain (.) for amaterialis shown inthe figure.
The arrow shows the case of increasing stress. How much is the elastic
energydensity inthematerialwhen the strain is :
(a) 0.1 (b) 0.3 and (c) 0.4 ?
(GPa)
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
20. An elastic band of length l is attached to a block ofmassMwhich is held by a
person at
rest so that the band is unstretched. The person suddenly releases the block.
(a) Find themaximumelastic energystored in the band as the block falls. l
(b) If the block finally comes at rest, howmuch is thermal energy generated in t
he bank ?The
Young smodulus of the band isY, cross-sectional area is . andmass is negligible re
lative to
that of the block.
21. Acolumn ofmercuryof 10 cmlength is contained inthemiddle of a narrowhorizont
al1mlong tubewhich
is closed at both the ends.Both the halves ofthe tube contain air at a pressure
of76 cmofmercury.Bywhat
distancewill be column ofmercury be displaced if the tube is held vertically ?
22. Asinker ofweight w0 has anapparent weight w1whenweighted in a liquid at a te
mperature t1 andw2when
weight in the same liquid at temperature t2. The coefficient of cubicalexpansion
ofthematerialofsinker is
..What is the coefficient of volume expansionof the liquid.
23. Apointmassmis suspended at the end ofamasslesswireof length l andcross secti
onA. IfYis theYoung s
modulus for thewire, obtain the frequecyofoscillationfor the simple harmonicmoti
onalongthe verticalline.
24. Acube ofwood supporting 200 gmmass just floats inwater.When themass is remov
ed, the cube ruses by
2 cm.What is the size of the cube ?
25. Abeaker containing water is placed on the pan of balance which shows a readi
ng ofMgms.Alump of
sugar ofmassmgms and volume Vcc. in now suspended by a thread in such away that
it is completely
immersed inwaterwithout touching the beaker andwithout anyoverflowofwater.What w
illbe the reading
of the balance just when the lump of sugar is immersed ?Howwill the reading chan
ge as the time passes on?
26. Aboat floating in awater tank is carrying a number of large stones. If the s
tones are unloaded into water,
what willhappen to thewater level ?
27. Two idendical cylindricalvesselswith their bases at the same level each cont
ain a liquid of density . (rho).
The height of the liquid in one vessel is h1 and in other is h2. The area of eit
her base isA.What is thework
done bygravity in equalizing the levelswhen the two vessels are connected.
28. Awooden plank of length 1mand uniformcross-section in hinged at one end to
the bottomofa tank as shownin fig. The tank is filledwithwater upto a height 0.5
m. The specific gravity of the plank is 0.5. Find the anlge . that the plank mak
es
with the vertical in the equilibriumposition. (Exclude the case .= 0)

29. Athin tube of uniformcross-section is sealed at both ends. It lies horizonta
lly, themiddle 5 cmcontaining
mercury and the two equal and containing air at the same pressure P.When the tub
e is held at anangle of
60withthe verticaldirection, the length of the air column above and belowthemercu
rycolumn are 46 cm
and 44.5 cmrespectively. Calculate the pressure P in centimeters ofmercury. (The
temperature of the
systemis kept at 30C).
FLUID MECHANICS
LEVEL
3
1. Acontainer of large uniformcross-sectional areaAresting on a horizontal surfa
ce, holds two immiscible,
non-viscous&incompressible liquids of densities d&2d, each ofheight H/2 as shown
infigure. The lower
density loquid is open to the atmosphere having pressure P0.
(a) Ahomogeneous solidcylinder oflengthL(L<H/2) cross-sectional
areaA/5 is immersed such that it floatswith its axis vertical at the
liquid-liquid interface with the length L/4 in the denser liquid.
Determine :
(i) The densityDof the solid and
(ii) The totalpressure at the bottomof the container. H/2
H/2
d
2d
x
h
(b) The cylinder is removed and the originalarrangement is restored.
Atinyhole of area s(s<<A) is punched on the vertical side of the
container at a height h(h <H/2). Determine :
(i) The initial speed of efflux of the liquid at the hole;
(ii) The horizontaldistance x travelled by the liquid initiallyand
(iii) The height hm at which the hold should be punched so that the liquid trave
ls the maximumdistance xm
initially.Also calculate xm. [Neglect the air resistance inthese calculations].
[JEE, 95]
2. Acylindrical tank 1min radius rests on a platform5mhigh. Initially the tank i
s filledwithwater to a height
of 5 m. Aplug whose area is 10 4 m2 is removed from an orifice on the side of the
tank at the bottom.
Calculate the following :
(i) initial speedwithwhich thewater flows fromthe orifice; [REE, 95]
(ii) initial speedwithwhich thewater strikes the ground and
(iii) time taken to emptythe tank to halfits originalvalue.
3. Athin rod of lengthL&area of cross-section S is pivoted at its lowest point
P inside a stationary, homogeneous&non-viscous liquid (Figure).The rod is
free to rotate ina verticalplane about a horizontalaxis passing throughP.The
density d1 of thematerialof the rod is smaller than the dencity d2 of the liquid
.
The rod is displaced bya small angle . fromits equilibriumpositionand then
released.
d
d
P
2
1
Showthat themotion of the rod is simple harmonic and determine its angular
frequencyin terms of the given parameters.[JEE, 96]
4. Alarge open top container of negligiblemass&uniformcross-sectional areaAhas a
small hole of crosssectional
areaA/100 in its sidewallnear the bottom.The container is kept on a smooth horiz
ontalfloor and
contains a liquid of density. andmassm0.Assuming that the liquid starts flowing
out horizontallythrough
the hole at t = 0, calculate
(i) the accelerationof the container and; (ii) its velocitywhen 75%of the liquid
has drained out. [JEE, 97]
5. Anonviscous liquid of constant density 1000 kg/m3 flows in a streamline

motion along a tube of variable cross section. The tube is kept inclined in
the virtical plane as shown in the figure. The area of cross section of the
tube at two points P and Q at heights of 2 meters and 5 meters are
respectively 4 10 3 m2 and 8 10 3 m3.
P
2m 5m
Q
The velocity of the liquid at point P is 1 m/s. Find thework done per unit volum
e by the pressure and the
gravityforces as the fluid flows frompoint PtoQ. [JEE, 97]
FLUID MECHANICS
6. Awooden stick of length l, and radius R and density . has a smallmetal piece
ofmassm(of negligible
volume) attached to its one end. Find theminimumvalue for themassm(interms of gi
venparameters) that
wouldmake the stick float verticallyin equilibriumin a liquid of density. (> .).
[JEE, 99]
7. A uniform solid cylinder of density 0.8 gm/cm3 floats in equilibrium in a
combinationoftwo nonmixingliquidsAandBwithitsaxisvertical.Thedensities
of the liquidsAandB are 0.7 gm/cm3 and 1.2 g/cm3, respectively.The height
of liquidA is hA = 1.2 cm. The length of the part of the cylinder immersed in
liquid B is hB = 0.8 cm.
air
A
B
h
h
h
A
B
(a) Find the total force exerted byliquidAonthe cylinder.
(b) Find h, the lengthof the part of the cylinder in air.
(c) The cylinder is depressed in such awaythat its top surface is just belowthe
upper surface of liquidAand
is then released. Find the acceleration of the cylinder immediately after it is
released. [JEE, 02]
8. Consider a horizontallyoriented syringe containingwater located
at a height of 1.25mabove the ground.The diameter ofthe plunger
is 8 mmand the diameter of the nozzle is 2 mm. The plunger is
pushedwitha constant speed of0.25m/s. Find the horizontalrange
ofwater streamon the ground. Take g = 10 m/s2. [JEE, 04]
1.25 m
D=8mm d=2mm
Ground
9. Asolid sphere of radiusRis floating ina liquid of density.withhalf of its vol
ume submerged. Ifthe sphere
is slightlypushed and released, it starts performing simple harmonicmotion. Find
the frequency of these
oscillations. [JEE, 04]
10. Ahorizontalpipe line carrieswater ina streamline flow.At a point along the p
ipewhere the cross-sectional
are is 10 cm2, thewater velocityis 1ms 1&the pressure is 2000 Pa.The pressure ofwa
ter at another point
where the cross sectional area is 5 cm2, is __________ pa.
[Density ofwater = 103 kgm 3] [JEE, 04]
11. A U tube is rotated about one of it s limbs with an angular velocity .. Find t
he
difference in height H of the liquid (density .) level,where diameter of the tub
e
d << L. [JEE, 05]
H
L
12. Acylindricalvessel of height 500mmhas an orifice (small hole) at its bottom.
The orifice is initialyclosed
andwater is filled in it up to height H. Nowthe top is completely sealedwith a c
ap and the orifice at the
bottomis opened. Somewater comes out fromthe orifice and thewater level in the v
essel becomes steady
withheight ofwater columnbeing 200mm. Find the fallinheight (inmm) ofwater level
due to opening ofthe
orifice.
[Take atmospheric pressure = 1.0 105N/m2, density ofwater = 1000 kg/m3 and g = 1
0m/s2. Neglect
any effect of surface tension.] [JEE, 09]
13. Two soap bubbles Aand B are kept in a closed chamber where the air ismaintai
ned at pressure 8 N/m2.
the radii of bubbles Aand B are 2 cmand 4 cm, respectively. Surface tension of t
he soap-water used to
make bubbles is 0.04N/m. Find the ratio nB/nA, where nA and nB are the number of
moles ofair in bubbles
AandB, respectively. [Neglect the effect of gravity.] [JEE, 09]
FLUID MECHANICS FLUID MECHANICS

Answer Key
ASSERTION-REASON TYPE
Q. 1 2 3 4 5
Ans. A C B A C
MATCH THE COLUMN
1. [(A Q), (B R), (C P)]
2. [(A PR), (B PS), (C QS), (D QR)]
3. [(A QR), (B PS), (C QR)]
4. [(A PT), (B QST), (C PRT), (D Q)]
LEVEL 1
Q . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
A n s. B A D C B B D D C
Q . 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
A n s. C D C C A D A A A
Q . 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
A n s. A D B A B B C B A
Q . 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
A n s. D D C B A A BD A C D A CD B
Q . 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
A n s. C B B A A A B B B
Q . 46 47 48 49 50 51
A n s. A C A D D C
PASSAGE
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Ans. B D C C B A
FLUID MECHANICS
LEVEL 2
1. (a) 50 N, (b) 1.7 104 kg m 3, (c) 8.5 kg (B1); 3.5 kg (B2) 2. (a) 7/8 m, (b) 5/
4 mg
3. 12.50 cm 4. 7.2 g cm 3 5. H
h
6. . . 3
6 rg 4 r g 1 e t where 3
3 4 r
.. . .. . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 7. 16 cm
8. 1 2
2 1
r r
r . r 9. 4. SR2 (n1/3
1) ; 2 10. 6. mJ
11. 2.5 10 2 Jm 2 13. 5 cm 14. 2 1
2 1
g(h h )
a
h h
.
.
.
15. x = 2.81 m 16. 25.2 mm 17. 1.67 mm
18. 2.98 J 19. (a) 0.025 Jm 3, (b) 0.225 Jm 3, (c) 0.4 Jm 3
20.(a)
2M2g2
AY
l
(b)
M2g2
2AY
l
21. 3 cm 22. 2 1 0 1
0 2 2 1 0 2
w w (w w )
(w w )(t t ) (w w )
. . .
. . .
l . . .
23.
1 YA
2. mL 24. 10 c 25. Readingwill increasing.
26. The levelofwater falls. 27. . .2
g 1 2
W Ag h h
4
.
. . 28. . = 45 29. 75.4 cm
LEVEL 3
1. (a)(i)D=
5
4 d, (ii) p = P0+
1
4 (6H+L)dg ; (b) (i) v =
g (3H 4h)
2
. , (ii) x = h(3H . 4h) , (iii) xmax=
3
4 H
2. (i) 10m/s, (ii) 14.1m/s, (iii) 2.5 hr 3. w = 2 1
1
3g d d
2L d
. . .
.. .. 4. (i) 0.2 m/s2, (ii) 0 m
2g
A.
5. +29625 J/m3,
30000 J/m3
6. mmin = .r2l ( .. ..) ; if tilted then it s axis should become vertical. C.M. sh
ould be lower than centre of
bouyancy.
7. (a) 0, (b) h = 0.25 cm, (c) a = g/6 (upward) 8. x = 2 m 9. f =
1 3g
2. 2R
10.500 Pa 11. H =
L2 2
2g
.
12. 6mm 13. 6
*******
ROTATIONAL MECHANICS
DHANALAKSHMI NAGAR
TIRUPATI.
PH NO. 9440025125
PHYSICS ROTATIONAL MOTION ROTATIONALMECHASNHIECEST

A RIGID BODY
There are severalbodies around uswhose shape and size remains the same because t
he distance between any
two points of the body remains the same. Such a bodyis called rigid .An iron rod, s
teel ball, stone etc. are
almost rigid bodies.
The rigid bodies are so onlyfor small forces.Alarge force can be applied to a st
eelrod to elongate or bend it.
So a rigid body is an ideal case when small changes in the shape or size of the body
can be just neglected.
We shall consider only such ideal bodies unless stated otherwise.
C1:A(rigid) rod PQis sliding at the corner ofwalls as in the figure. The
velocity of P is downward.Write the velocity ofQrightwardwhen
PQmakes an angle .with floor.
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
. Q u
P
v
Sol: As the rod is rigid, the distance between P andQwillnot change. For
this, the approach velocity of P towardsQmust be zero.
Nowapproach velocity of P towardsQ(see figure)
can be written as vPx
vQx. Hence
vcos(90 .)
ucos. = 0
.
Q
u
P
v
90 .
90
x
. vsin. = ucos.
. u =
v sin
cos
.
.
= vtan.
Anothermethod: Setting up axesXYandwriting the
co-ordinates of P and Q, we have
.
Q
u
P
v
O
(x, 0)
x
y
y
(0, v)
x
PQ = .x2 . .y2
l2 = x2 . y2
Squaring both side,
l2 = x2 + y2
Differentiating relative to time,

d
dt (l2) =
d
dt (x2) +
d
dt (y2)
=
d
dx (x2)
dx
dt +
d
dy (y2)
dy
dt [chainruleofdifferentiation]
. 0 = 2x
dx
dt + 2y
dy
dt
Now, Pis coming down so y is decreasing:
dy
dt = v
Qismoving to the right, so x is increasing:
dx
dt = u
. 0 = 2x(u) + 2y( v)
. u =
y
x v
= (tan.)v

A rigid body in motion
Themotion of a rigid bodyis controlled bythe condition that approach velocityof
anyof its point towards its
any other point must be zero; only then the disance between two points of rigid
bodywill remain constant
duringmotion.
We consider nowthe very important type of rigid bodymotion- rotation.Therewill a
rise two aspects of this
motion-howdoes the body rotate andwhy does the bodyrotate. In the first casewe s
ay that we are studying
kinematics ofrotation.We define angular position, angular displacement, angular
velocity, angular acceleration,
and find their relationships. In discussing the second case, we turn to dynamics
of rotation.We here define
torque, angularmomentum,moment of inertia and recast Newton s laws ofmotionfor rot
ating bodies.
Note: Although we like to present the things in the above order, you may opt you
r own order of studies.
Kinematics of rotation
It is better to locate a rigid body by fixing XYZ-axis in the body (hence called
body-axes) and measuring
anglesmade by these body-axeswith axesX0Y0Z0 fixed in laboratory.
Anglesmade bybody-axeswith respective axes of lab-frame
are sometimes known asEulerian angles denoted by., . and
..:
Y0
Z0
X0
Y
Z
X
O
X X0 : .
Y Y0 : .
Z Z0 : .
These specifythe angular position ofthe body.During rotationthe angular position
s changewith time.
Rotation:
If a bodymoves in such awaythat either a point, or a line ofthe bodyremains
stationary, themotionis called rotation.
centre of
rotation
O O axis of
rotation
x
x.
In the figure point Ois at rest. It is called centre of rotation. If a line like
XX.
be at rest the line is called axis of rotation.
If a rigid body rotates about of point, the points not lying on the centre of
rotationmove along the surface of concentric spheres. On the other hand, for
a rigid body rotating about an axis, the points not lying on the axismove in
circleswhose centres line in the axis.Kinematics of such points are those of
circularmotion.Point P inthe figure, for example, has a centripetal acceleration
aC and a tangential acceleration aT,where
aT
aC
a a P C =
v2
r
= .2r .....(i)
aT =
dv
dt =
d
dt
.
r .....(ii)
a = 2 2
c T a . a .....(iii)
Angular displacement
If a rigid bodyturns, all its points suffer the same angular displacement but di
fferent linear displacements. The
number ofsuchlinear displacements is infinite.Thereforewe prefer angular displac
ement for describing rotation.
We define infinitesinalangular displacement ( d
.
. ) as a vectorwhose direction

is along the thumb of right handwith fingers curled in the sense of rotation.
d.
d.
.
It isfound that suchsmallangular displacments obeycommutativelawofvector
addition and therefore qualifyas vectors:
1 d
.
. + 2 d
.
. = 2 d
.
. + 1 d
.
.
. d
.
. is a vector .
Since there is no physical effect in the direction of d
.
., it is called a pseudo vector. It is defined along the axis
of rotation usingright hand rule and is also called and axialvector.The cross pr
oduct of realvectors is a pseudo
vector.Thus r.
p. , r.
F
.
, etc. are psuedo vectors.You need not go into more details at this level.Youmay
see other pseudo vectorswhile studyingmagnetic fields.
Angular velocity
The rate of angular displacement is known as angular velocity.We denote it by ..
.
Thus, ..
= d
dt
.
.
Its direction is along the rotational axis at the givenmoment and is along d
.
. .
Unit rad s 1 or s 1
Other units
1 rps = 1 revolution (rotation) per second
= 2. rad s 1
1 rpm = 1 revolutionperminute
=
2
60
.
rad s 1 = 30
.
rad s 1.
Angular Acceleration
The rate ofchange of angular velocityis called angular acceleration.
..
= d
dt
.
.
.
. . . .
.
90
= d.
dt
Note that ..
is in the direction d
.
. (the change in ..
).We showthe examples for (i) ..
inthe direction of ..
,
(ii) ..
opposite to ..
and (iii) ..
perpendicular to ..
in the figures.
In general ..
and ..
can have any angle between themjust
inlinearmotion.
C2: Aparticle ismoving in a circle.
and linear velocity is
v
. . The radius vector fromcentre to
. Determine (a) ..
r.
(b) .. v
.
(c) r.
v
.
.
Sol: The vector ..
is pointing out of the place of the
V
r
.
as acceleration a. and velocityV .

Its angular velocityis ..
particle is r.
circle

(a)Curl the fingers of right hand from ..
to r.
. The thumb is found to point
along v
. .
Now we know that | ..
r.
| = .r = v. Hence magnitude also equals the
magnitude of v
.
. Two vectors are equal if they have the same direction and
the samemagnitude.Hence
90
.
. r
. r
(b)We put the tails of ..
to v
. together and curlthe fingers ofright hand from
..
v
. . The thumb points towards the centre of the circle, i.e., along
.
Themagnitude is .v.Thus
..
v
. = .v ( r
r
.
. ) 90
.
. r
v
.
where ( r
r
.
. ) is unit vector directed towards the centre.
(c)We put the tails of r.
and v
. together and curl the fingers of right
hand from r.
to v
. . The thumbpoints parallel to ..
.
v
90
r V
v
Direction of
Now, |r.
v
.
| = rv. Hence
r.
v
.
r.
= rv
. .. . . .
. ..
. .
.
where
. .. . . .
. ..
. .
is unit vector along ..
.
C3:Aparticle ismoving in a circle of radius r with speed v. Find an expression f
or its acceleration.
Sol: Let v.
be the velocity, r.
be the radius vector and ..
be the angular velocity of the particle.
Then V .
= ..
r.
Differentiating both the sides relative to t,
dV
dt
.
=
d
dt ( ..
r.
)
= d
dt
..
r.
+ ..
dr
dt
.
Now, d
dt
..
is angular acceleration, ..
and dr
dt
.
is velocity v
. .
Hence dv
dt
.
= ( ..
r.
) + ( ..
v
.
).
. ..
= ( ..
r.
) + ( ..
v
. ) Using rules of cross product, ( ..

r.
) is ofmagnitude .r and is either
along + v
. or along
v
. . This is tangential acceleration:
aT = .r

( ..
v
.
) is directed towards centre and is called centrepetal acceleration
aC = .v =
v 2
r
= .2r.
Rotation about stationary axis
Let the axis of rotation be static in laboratory. The rigid bodyis
turning at angular velocity .along this axis. Then taking Z-axis
along the rotationaxis,we canwrite componentofangular velocity.
The angular acceleration ..
will the also be along the defined
axis andwe canwrite. .
. axis
Z
d. .
dt =
Z
.z= z d
dt
.
=
2
2
d
dt
.
= z d d
d dt
. .
.
= z d
d
.
.
.z
Uniform rotation: If the body turns by equal angles in each equal time interval,
howsoever small, the rotation is
said to be uniform.
The angular velocityis constant.Hence
d
dt
.
= .z = constant.
. .. = .z .t
Thus, angle turned = angular velocity time taken.
C4:Atable fan is rotating at uniformangular speed of 200 rpm. Howmuch angle does
it turn in 3s?
Sol: Here .z = 200 rpm
= 200 revolutiononeminute
= 200 30
.
rads 1. [. 1 rpm= 30
.
rad s 1]
.t = 3s
.. = ?
Using .. = .Z.t, we have
.. = 200 30
.
3 radian
= 62.8 radian
Note that radian is S.I. unit of angle.Youmay use . radian= 180 to find it in deg
reeswhich is not necessary
unles told to do so.
Rotation with uniform angular acceleration: If the angular velocity changes by e
qual value in each equal
time interval howsoever small, the rotation is uniformly accelerated. The angula
r accelertion in this case is
constant.
.Z = constant
z d
dt
.
= .Z = constant
This equationis similar to
x dv
dt = ax = constant
Hencewemayobtain kinematical equation using similar treatment.

C5: Angular displacement of allpoints ofa rigid bodyis same. In case ofnon-rigid
bodygreater thandistance of the
point fromaxis of rotation greaterwillbe its angular displacement.
2
1
P1 P2
P2
P1
O
2
1
P2
P1
P1 P2
O
Rigit body ( 1= 2 ) Non-rigit body ( 2> 1)
Equation of LinearMotion and RotationalMotion
LinearMotion RotationalMotion
(a) If acceleration is 0, v = constant and s = vt. (a) If acceleration is 0, .=
constant and . = .t.
(b) If acceleration a = constant, (b) If acceleration a = constant then
(i) s =
(u v)
2
.
t (i) . = 1 2 ( )
2
. . .
t
(ii) a =
v u
t
.
(ii) . = 2 1
t
. . .
(iii) v = u + at (iii) .2 = .1 + . t
(iv) s = ut + (1/2) at2 (iv) . = .1t +
1
2
. t2
(v) v2 = u2 + 2as (v) .2
2 = .1
2 + 2 ...
(vi) Snth = u +
1
1) (vi) .nth = .1 + (2n
1) 2
2 a (2n
.
(c) If acceleration is not constant, the above (c) If accelerationis not constan
t, the above equation
equationwillnot be applicable. In this case will not be applicable. In this case
(i) v =
dx
dt (ii) a =
dv
dt =
2
2
d x
dt
(i) . =
d
dt
.
(ii) . =
d
dt
.
=
2
2
d
dt
.
(iii) vdv = ads (iii) .d. = .d .
C6: Aflywheel of radius 0.5metre starts fromrest with angular acceleration of 0.
34 radian/sec2.What will be its
angular velocity after 100 sec ?
Sol. Here .2 = .1 + .t
.2 = 0 + 0.34 100 = 34 radian/sec.
C7: Acircular disc of radius 2mis revolving at 240 revolutions per minute a torq
ue is appliedwhich slows it at
constant rate of . radian/sec2. Inwhat time the discwill completelystop ?
Sol. Here .2 = .1 + .t
.t
or 0 = 2.n
.
t 2 n 2 240 8 sec.
60
. . .
. . .
. . .

C8: In the above question, calculate howmany revolutions the discmakes before it
comes to rest.
Sol. If . is the angular displacement then,
.2
2 = .1
2 2..
or 0 = .1
2 2..
2 2 2 2 2
1 4 n 4 240 32
2 2 2 60
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. No of revolutions = ./2. = 16
Example 1: Two gears G1 and G2 have radii and R > r. They are coupled and
angular velocityofG1 varies at uniformrate of ..Determine the angle turned
byG2 in time t if themotion starts fromrest.
G1
G2
R
T
Sol: Since the contact point of gears is not sliding, the velocityis common. Hen
ce
.1 =
v
r (magnitude)
r R
.2 = v
R
.1 = vr
. V 2 =
v
R (magnitude)
. .2 = 1r
R
.
(magnitude)
Differentiatingthis
.2 = .1
r
R (magnitudes)
Now we can use for gear 2
.. = .Z 0t +
1
2
.Zt2
Then.. = 0 +
1
2
r
R
. . .
. .
. . t2
=
1
2
r
R
. . .
. .
. . t2
[TheGear-1 turns by
1
2
.t2whileGear-2 turns
r
R
. .
. .
. . times this value.]
Example 2. Adisk 8 cmin radius rotates about its central axis at a constant rate
of 1200 rev/min. Determine
(a) its angular speed,
(b) the speed at point 3 cmfromits centre,
(c) the radial acceleration of a point on the rim, and
(d) and total distance a point on the rimmoves in 2.00 s.
Sol. (a)
1200 2 40 rad / s
60
. .
. . . .
= 40 3.14 rad/s
= 126 rad/s
(b) v = r . = 0.03 126 = 3.78 m/s

(c) ar = R.2 = 0.08 (126)2 = 1.26 km/s2
(d) . = .t = 126 2 = 252 radian
.
S
R
. .
. S = R. = 0.08 252 = 10.1 m
Dynamics of rotation
The study ofrotationalmotionwith explanationof its cause is known as rotational
dynamcis.
According to rotationaldynamics, torque is responsible for changing angular veloci
ty.Torque is also known
asmoment of force.
MOMENT OF FORCE
If a body is free to rotate about a point O at rest in an inertial frame S, and
a
force F is applied atA, if produces rotation about O (see figure).We find by
experiment that rotational effect is directly proportional to r, R and sin..We
define a quantity
.
O r F
.
F
.
.
r
. = rF sin .
We define torque as a vector by
..
= r.
F
.
.
Which is combined effect of force and its action point.We call it moment of forc
e F about Oor torque about
O.
The torque of a force F
.
about a point is defined as the cross product ofthe position vector of action po
int of
the force and the force vector.
In the figure, torque about Ois ..
= r.
F
.
.Note howthe direction is obtained using right hand rule for cross
product and vector ..
is shown at O.
S.I. unit of torque isNmand [ML2T 2] is its dimensional formula.
Moment arm : Moment arm of a torque is the perpendicular (r.) dropped on
action line of force fromthe point about which torque is calculated.
F
r||
r.
moment
arm
r
In the figure r.
. ismoment arm.We canwrite r. as vector sumof r.
.
and r.
||which is parallel to F
.
. Then
..
= ( r.
. + r.
||) F
.
= ( r.
. F
.
) + (r.
|| F
.
)
= r.
. F
.
Giving | ..
| = r. Fsin90 = r1F.
C9: Aforce of 20Nacts at (2, 2 3 ) along the line y= 3 x. Calculate the torque
of this force about the origin.
y = 3x
F
(2, 2 3)
Z (0, 0)
Y
X

Sol: The line of action ofF passes through origin. Hence
r.
. = 0
..
= r.
. F
.
= 0.
C10: In the previous example, calculate the torque of the force
about ponit (1, 0)m.
Sol:We have
60
y = 3x
(20N)
F
(2, 2 3)
r
Z O (1, 0)
Y
X
r. ..
= r.
F
.
= r.
. F
.
. | ..
| = r.F
Fromfigure
| r.
. | = (1m) sin60
=
3
2
m
F = 20 N
. . = 10 3 Nm(inward along - Z axis)
In vector from
= (10 3 Nm)( ^k ).
Example 3. Aforce of F . 2 i . 3 j
.
Nis applied to an object that is pivoted about a fixed axle aligned along the z.
coordinate axis. if the force is applied at the point r . 4 i . 5 j
.
m, find
(a) themagnitude of the net torque about the z axis and
(b) the direction of the torque vector ...
Sol. . . r . F
. . .
. . .4 i . 5 j.. .2 i . 3 j.
.
. . 12 k .10 k . 2 k
.
Torque about a point due to several forces
If severalforces act on a body at various points, their rotational effect about
a point is described bynet torque.

Net torque or resultant torque is the vector sumof torques due to all the forces
about the same point.We
denote it by. .
(gamma).
. .
= 1
..
+ 2
.. + .......... N
..
where 1
..
, 2
.. , .......... N
..
are torques about the same point due to forces 1 F
.
, 2 F
.
, ........ N F
.
. Ifthese be acting
at 1 r. , 2 r. , ...... N r. relative to the point about which torque is request
ed.

1
..
= 1 r. 1 F
.
2
.. = 2 r. 2 F
.
| | |
N
..
= N r. N F
.
In the special case, when the forces are concurrent, we can obtain net
torque as torque due to net force.
Torque about an axis
Let several forces 1 F
.
, 2 F
.
...... be acting on a body.We want to find torque about Z-axis. Thenwe take any
point Oonthis axis. The action points have positions 1 r. , 2 r. ........... rel
ative toO.Give the totalof this torque
about Ois. .
:
. .
= ( 1 r. 1 F
.
) + ( 2 r. 2 F
.
) + ...............
Its Z-component,..Z, is called torque about Z-axis.
Torque about an axis is defined as the component of torque vector along the
axiswhere the torque is calculated about any point on the axis.
Z
Z torque about
Z-axis
F2 F1
O
Inthe figure, .z = .cos.
It maybe positive, negative or zero. It is a scalar quantity.
CoupleMoment
Two forcesofthe samemagnitude, opposite directions and actingalong parallel
lines constitute a couple. The torque due to couple of forces is called couple
moment .
In the figure, F
.
and F
.
constitude a couple. d r.2
r.1 r1
F
r2
F
Their torque aboutOis given by
. .
0 = 2 r. F
.
+ 1 r. ( F
.
)
= (r.2 F
.
) + r.
.1 ( F
.
)
= d
.
F
.
[see figure]
|. .
0| = d F (one of the forces separation)
Couplemoment is independent of the point about which it is calculated. It is a
vector .
Anticlockwise and clockwise torque
The torque which tends to rotate the body clockwise is known as
clockwise torque.
F
.F .grav
mg
O
r
C
In the figure grav
.. is clockwise about O.An anticlockwise torque is
that whichtends to rotate the bodyanticlockwise.
In the figure F
.. is anticlockwise torque about O.
Free

C11: Themore is the value of r, themorewill be torque and easier to rotate the b
ody.
(i) The handle of screwdriver is taken thick.
(ii) In villages the handle of flour-mill is placed near the circumference.
(iii) The handle of handpump is kept-long.
(iv) The rinch used for opening the tap, is kept-long.
C12: Work done by torque = 2
1
d .
.
. . .
= Torque angular displacement.
Example 4. Given that, r . 2 i . 3 j
.
and F . 2i . 6k
.
. Themagnitude of torquewillbe
(A) 405 N m (B) 410 N m (C) 504 N m (D) 510 N m
Sol. We knowthat,
. . r . F
. . .
. . .2 i . 3 j.. .2i . 6 k .
.
. .12.. j.. 6.. k ..18 i
.
. . .12 j. 6 k .18i
.
Now | . | . (.12)2 . (.6)2 . (18)2
.
| . | . 144 . 36 . 324 . 504
.
Hence (C) is correct.
Example 5. An automobile engine develops 100 kilo-watt,when rotating at a speed
of 1800 rev./min.The torque
developed by it will be
(A) 60 N m (B) 531 N m (C) 5.31 N m (D) 6.0 N m
Sol. The power delivered by the torque . exerted on rotating body is given by
P = .. or
. . P
.
Here P = 100 kW= 100,000Watt
1800 2 60 rad / sec.
60
. . . . . . . . .. ..
105
513 N.m
60 3.14
. . .
. Hence (B) is correct.
Equilibrium of rigid bodies
Several forces and torques acting ona rigid bodymaybe balanced . Then the bodyis sa
id to be in equilibrium
ormeahanical equilibrium . It is classified into two parts: rotational equilibrium
and translational equilibrium.
Translational Equilibrium:
Abody is said to be in translational equilibriumif the vector sumof all the forc
es be zero. The forces are said
to be balanced and Newton s first law ofmotion is obeyed if . i F. = 0.

Rotational Equilibrium:
If the vector sumof all the torques acting on a body about a point be zero, the
body is said to be in rotational
equilibriumabout that point.
If allthe forces acting onthe bodylie in a plane, we can classify torque into cl
ockwise and anticlockwise. For
rotational equilibrium,we get
Sumofclockwise torques = Sumof anticlockwise torques
Principle of moments
For a body in rotational equilibriumunder coplanar forces clockwise torque is ba
lanced by anticlockwise
torque.
In vector form, the vector sumof all the torques is zero.
..i = 0
Rotational equilibrium is rotational version of theNewton s first lawofmotion inwh
ich forces acting on a
particle are balanced producing translational equilibrium.
Mechanical Equilibrium
Mechanical equilibriumrefers to a systemunder rotational aswellas translational
equilibrium. In this case:
or, . i
.. = 0 [rotationalequilibrium]
or, . i F. = 0 [translationalequilbrium]
Action point of resultant force.
The action point of resultant force is that point about whichtorque due to the f
orces is zero.
Centre of gravity (CG.) is the action point of resultant of gravitational forces
acting on all the particles forming the body.
Inthe figure, letCbe the centre of gravityofthe body.Let dmbe anelementary
mass at position .Torque d
.
. about C is given by
C.G. r
C
c dmg d
..
= r ( dmg. )
If the total torque is evaluated,we have
c
.. = r dmg . . . .
whole body
Bydefinition, this torque is zero.
If g. is uniformover thewhole body, then
c
.. = ( r dmg) . . . .
= dm r g . . ... . .
. . . = 0 [by definitionofCG]
Now dmr. . is the first moment ofmass about C.
IfC happens to be centre ofmass also, the firstmoment ofmass of the whole body a
bout it is zero.

whole body
dmr.
. = 0 [C is centre ofmass]
Thus, for uniform g. , centre of gravitycoincideswith centre ofmass.
CM
CG
If g. varies over points of the bodyCG and CMdo not coincide as indicated
for a long rod shown inthe figure.
C13: (i) When a rigid body is rotating about a fixed axis and a force is applied
on it at some point thenwe are
concernedwith the component of torque of this force about the axis of rotation n
ot withthe net torque.
(ii) The component of torque about axis of rotation is independent of the choice
of the originO, so long as it
is chosen on the axis of rotation, i.e., wemay choose point Oanywhere on the lin
eAB.
(iii) Component of torque along axis of rotationABis zero if
(a) F. ||AB (b) F. intersectsABat some point
(iv) If F. is perpendicular toAB, but does not intersect it, thencomponent oftor
que about lineAB=magnitude
of force F. perpendicular distance of F. fromthe lineAB(called the lever armormo
ment arm) ofthis torque.
(v) If there aremore than one force 1 F
.
, 2 F
.
........... acting on a body, the total torquewill be
.. = 1 r. 1 F
.
+ 2 r. 2 F
.
+ ..........
But if the forces act on the same particle, one can add the forces and than take
the torque of the resultant
force, or
.. = r.
( 1 F
.
+ 2 F
.
+ ......)
(vi) In general, ifmany forces are acting on a bodythe net torque is different a
bout different points but if the
body is in translational equilibrium(i.e. 1 F
.
+ 2 F
.
+ ...... = 0) the net torque about different points is equal. This
can be shown as follows:
Let the force 1 F
.
+ 2 F
.
,.......... are acting on a rigid body at position vectors 1 r. , 2 r. ,........
.. etc. The
position vectors are about the originO. Then
0
. . = 1 r. 1 F
.
+ 2 r. 2 F
.
+ ......... .....(i)
Now, suppose the position vector of an another point P is p r. and nowwewant to
find the torque about
this point P, then,
p
. . = ( 1 r.
p r. ) 1 F
.
+ ( 2 r. p r. ) 2 F
.
+ ........
= ( 1 r. 1 F
.
+ 2 r. 2 F
.
+ .....) p r. ( 1 F
.
+ 2 F
.
+ ......) .....(ii)
Fromequations (i) and (ii) we can see that
0
. . = p
. . if 1 F
.
+ 2 F
.
+ ..... = 0
or the net torque of allthe forces about anypoint is same if the body is in tran
slational equilibrium.
C14: It is correct that whenever the resultant force acting ona body is zero, th
e bodyis in static equilibrium.
Sol. No; zero resultant torque in also necessary.

C15:Ameter rod is acted upon by two forces, 2N and 4N, normal to its
length as inthe figure.Determine the distance of the point fromCMat
which their resultant force is acting.
Sol: Bydefinition, actionpoint of resultant force is that aboutwhich the net
torque becomes zero.
4N
10cm
2N
CM
(a)
4N
10cm
2N
CM
(b) Case (a): In this case the two torqueswill cancel each other only if
the point lies lower than the action point of 1Nforce. Let its distance
fromCMbe x cm.
Then
4 (10
x) = 2 (50 x)
40 4x = 100
2x
x = 30 cm
4N
2N
CM
PA 10
x
x
50 x 2 x(50
x)
x
4 x(10 x)
Ncm
P
Negative sign shows that the action point P is 30 cmbelow
the centre ofmass.
Case (b): In this case let the point P be at distance x-above CM. Equatingmoment
about P.
4 (x 10) = 2 (50
x) x
CM
10cm
P
2N
4N
4x 40 = 100
2x
6x = 140
x = cm= 36.7 cm
The point P lies 23.3 cmabove the CM.
C16:Arectangular block having uniformdensityhas centre of gravity
at C. It is placed on horizontal plane. Drawthe normal contact
force and its action point. C
(a)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
C
The plane is now tilted by an angle . (sec figure (b). Still the .
block is at rest under frictionalforce.Drawthe normal force and
its action point.
Sol: N .
, mg . and f
.
and must be concurrent forces for they are balanced.

Action point of mg
Action point of N
mg
(a)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
.
(b)
Action point
of N
Action point
of friction
mg
N Action point
of mg
N
[The largest angle . is that forwhichmg passes through edge.Above this angle, eq
uilibriumis disturbed].
Example 6. Ahorizontal force F =mg/3 is applied on the upper surface of a unifor
mcube ofmassmand side a
which is resting on a rough horizontal surface having S = 1/2.The distance betwee
n lines of action ofmg and
normal reactionNis :
(A) a/2 (B) a/3 (C) a/4 (D) None

Sol. In this case, torque ofmg is balanced by torque due to normal reaction and
applied force F.
.
N a x Fa mg a
2 2
. . . . . .. ..
or
N a x mga mga
2 3 2
. . . . . .. ..
or
N a x mga mga mga
2 2 3 6
. . . . . . .. ..
But N = mg
.
mg a mgx mga
2 6
. .
or
x a a 3a a a
2 6 6 3
.
. . . . Hence (B) is correct.
Example 7: A uniform rod of length l lies at rest. Draw forces acting on it.
Considering its rotationaland translational equilibrium, determine the force of
friction acting at Qas a function of angle .. Howdoes it varryby decreasing
angle . ?What factor willdecideminimumvalue of .without slipping ?
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
.
l
Q
P
Smooth vertical wall
Sol: Figure shows howforces can be shown to be concurrent. Forces Rough
onQ are N and fwhich adjust to produce the resultant Fc that
passes through intersection ofN .
and mg . .
Considering horizontal and vertical forces,we have
f = N. .....(i)
N = mg .....(ii)
Fc N
P
mg
f Q
Fc
N.
mg
N
Considering torque about a horizontal axis passing throughQ,
mg 2
l
cos . = N l sin .
.N..=
mg
2 cot. .....(iii)
Using these,
f=
mg
2
. .
. .
. . cot.
As . is decreased, cot. increases.Hence frictional force f increases. .
No Slippapge
2.s
.min
cot .
90
Using lawoflimiting friction
f . .SN .....(iv)
Thus,
1
2 mgcot.....smg
. cot... 2.S
tan...
s
1
2.

. .min . tan 1
s
1
2
. .
. . . . .
The factor
1
2 comes fromthe cube s centre of gravity and .S fromnature of
. .
contact surfaces.These control .min.
Youmay notice that a personwalking on ice slips for larger steps (small ., limit
ing
friction crossed). Small steps (large 0) ensure a friction less thanlimiting (no
slipping).
Example 8. Auniformboard ofweightWandwidth 2L hangs froma light, horizontal
beam, hinged at thewall and supported by a cable (fig.) Determine
(a) the tension in the cable and
L
2L
(b) the components of the reaction force exerted by thewall on the beam, in term
s of
W, Land ..
Sol. Taking torque about O,
.2L = (T sin .) 3L
. 2 L = 3TLsin .
2.= 3 T sin . ...(1)
Also, for translatoryequilibrium,
Fx = T cos . ...(2) L
2L
w
Fx
O
T
Fy
Fy + T sin . = . ...(3)
Fromequation (1)
T 2
3sin
.
.
.
Fromequation (1), (2) and (3)
x
F 2 cot
3
. .
.
and y F
3
.
.
MOMENT OF INERTIA
Moment of inertia takes same role in rotatorymotion asmass in translatorymotion.
Smaller themoment of
inertia about anaxis, easier to produce rotation about that axis; larger themome
nt of inertia, harder to produce
rotation.Thismeans thatmoment ofinertia about an axis is ameasure ofrotationalin

ertia of the bodyabout that
axis. This is its physicalmeaning.
Radius of gyration:
To gyratemeans to rotate. The radius of gyration about an axis is defined as
that distance fromthe axiswhere totalmass can be centred so as to give the
samemoment of inertia as the actualmass distribution.
I = .mr i i
2
CM M
Fromfigure, radius of gyrationKis given byK=
I
M
. It can be shown that
it has dimensions of length and depends on geometry of the system.

The radius of gyration of a homogenous sphere about its diameter, for ex,maybewr
itten as
K =
2MR2
5
M
=
2
5
R
Theorems on Moment of Inertia
We shall discuss two important theorems onMI that help it. Theoremof perpendicul
ar axes for laminear
bodies and Theorems of parallel axes.
Theorem of perpendicular axes
Let Zaxis be normal to a lamina.
Let us drawXYaxes intersecting Z-axis at (0, 0, 0). The points of lamina have z
= 0.We shall denote a point
in lamina onlyby(x, y) a for simplicitywithout a loss.
Let mi bemass of i-th particle at (xi, yi, 0). Its distance ri fromZ-axis is
given by
2
i r = 2
i x + 2
i y .
Itsmoment of inertia about Z-axis ismiri
2. For all theN-particleswe have
IZ = .mi
2
i r
= .mi( 2 2
i i x . y )
= .mi
2
i x + .mi
2
i y
= Iy + Ix
Statement: If thre axes x, y and z be drosen such that two of themlie in the pla
ne of a lamina, the sumofmoment
of inertia about these two axes is equal to themoment of inertia about the third
axis.
This is known as theoremofperpendicular axes.
C17: Auniformsquare plate hasmoment of inertia Ix and Iz about Xand Z axis
shown in the figure. Showthat
Iy = Ix = Iz/2.
Also show that rotation of XY axes about t-axis by 45 or by . does not
change the result.
y
z x
CM
Sol: Using the theoremof perpendicular axes,
Iz = Ix + Iy .....(i)
Bysymmetryofmass distribution
Ix = Iy .....(ii)
. Iz = 2Ix = 2Iy
. Ix = Iy = Iz/2.
If the axes be rotated about Z-axis by ., even then

Ix.. = Iy..
Ix...+ Iy......Iz
. z
x y
I I I
2
. .

Parallel axes theorem (Steiner s theorem)
Let a bodyhave amoment of inertia Iz about Z-axis and Icm about an
axis passing throughCMof the bodyand parallel to the Z-axis. Let d
be the separationbetween the two parallel axes andMbe themass of
thewhole body. .i CM
ri.
mi
ri
Ri
Parallel
axis through CM
d
d
M
Then Iz = Icm +Md2.
This is known as parallel axes theorem.
Themoment ofinertia of a bodyabout an axis is equalto the sumofits
moment ofinertia about an axis parallel to the given axis and passing
throughCM, and the product ofmass of the bodywith the square of
distance between the parallel axes.
Proof:
Let i-th particle havemassm.Drop perpendiculars onZ-axis and CM-axis fromthis pa
rticle. TheMI about zaxis
is given by (see figure).
Iz = .miri .....(i)
as fromZ-axis the distance ofmi is ri. The summation runs over all the particlar
in the body.
Now, construct vectors by arrows as in the figure.
i r. = d
. + i R .
We have
i r. . i r. = 2
i r = d2 + 2 d
. . i R .
+ 2
i R .....(ii)
Using (ii) in(i)
Iz = .mi(d2 + 2
i R + 2 d
. . i R .
)
= (.mi)d2 + .mi
2
i R + 2..mi i R .
= Md2 + Icm + 2 d
. ..mi i R .
.....(iii)
Let '
i r.
be position vector of i-th particle fromCM. Let i
. . + i R .
= '
i r.
.
By definition ofCM, the sumof firstmoment ofmass about CMis zero.
. .mi
'
i r.
= 0
. .mi .i + .mi i R .
= 0
Now.mi i
. . is a vector alongCM-axiswhile .mi i R .
is normal to this axis. But their sumis zero.We knowthat
a b
. . . & a b. . . = 0
. a.
= 0 = b
.
. .mi i R .
= 0 .....(iv)
From(iii)&(iv), we have
I = Md2 + Icm
This proves the theorem.

Some Calculation of Moment of Inertia
1. Moment of inertia of a uniform rod about an axis passing through its
CM and normal to its length:
Let us choose an elementarymass dMat position x on x-axis. Its distance is
also x fromaxis. Itsmoment of inertia dIz about Z-axis is given by
dM
dx x x =L2
X
x =
L2
dIz = dMx2 =
Mdx
L
. .
. .
. . x2
The totalMI will be obtained by inetragion over thewhole rod (fromx= L/2 to x= L/
2). Thus
Iz =
M
L
L/ 2
2
L / 2
x dx
.
. =
M
L
3 1/ 2
1/ 2
x
3 .
. .
. .
. .
=
M L3 L3
3L 8 8
. . ..
. . . . ..
. . ..
=
ML2
12
This is theMI of rod about CM-axis, normal to rod.
About one of its ends:
IfZ-axis passes normally through one end, wemay use parallel axes theorem.
Here, Icm =
ML2
12
CM
d = L2
Z
d =
L
2
Using parallel axes theorem
Iz = Icm + Md2
IL = M
2 L
2
. .
. .
. .
+
ML2
12
=
ML2
3
2. Rectangular Plate:
Axis throughCM, in the plane of the plate and parallel to an edge: LetMbe themas
s of the plate.
Thenmass per unit area is
M
lb . Let us consider the plate ismade up of thin bars perpendicular to the axis
one
ofwhichis shown in the figure and hasmass dM. Themoment ofinertia of this bar ab
out the given axis is given
by
dIx=
1
12 dM l2
CM
dM
b
Y
l
X
Integrating over all the bars, the totalmoment of inertia is given by
I =
1
12 l2. . dM
=
1
12Ml2

Similarly, themoment of inertia about anaxis (Y) throughCMin the plane ofthe pla
te normal to breadth b can
bewritten as
I =
1
12 Mb2
Moment of inertia about an axis normal to the plate & passing through CM:
It can be obtained using perpendicular axis theorem. In the figure
Ix =
1
12 Mb2
Iy =
1
12Ml2
. Iz = Ix + Iy =
1
12Mb2+
1
12Ml2
=
1
12M(l2 + b2)
If the plate is a square, its sides are equal then,
l = b = a
Iz =
1
6 Ma2
3. Rectangular bar:Arectangular barmaybemade up of rectangular plates of
mass dM. Then
Iz =
dM( 2 b2 )
12
l . dM
M
Z
b
Integrating,we get h
Iz =
M( 2 b2 )
12
l .
[Effect of h contained inM]
4. Ring orHoop:An element ofmass dMlies at a distance R fromZ-axis.
. dIz = dMR2
Integrating over thewhole ring
R
Z
I dM z = R2 . dM = MR2
5. MI orDisc about its axis: LetMbemass of uniformdisc ofradiusR. Thenmass per u
nit area isM/.R2.Let
the disc bemade up of elementary rings of radius r andwidth dr.Themass of this r
ing is obtained:
Area = 2.rdr
dM = (mass per unit area) area
= 2
M
R
. .
. . . . . 2.rdr Z
r
R
dr
2.r
dr
Nowwemaywrite theMI of the ring about Z-axis as
dIz = dM.r2

= 2
2M
R r3dr
Integrating over thewhole discwe get
Iz = 2
2M
R
R
3
0
. r dr = 2
2M
R
R4
4
. .
. .
. .
=
1
2 MR2
Diametrical axis:
Let XandYbemutually perpendicular diametrical axes.Then
Ix = Iy [bysymmetry]
Y
X
Z
Also, Iz = Ix + Iy [perpendicular axes theorem]
Now Iz = mR2
.
1
2 mR2 = 2Ix = 2Iy
. Ix = Iy =
1
4 mR2
6. Uniform solid cylinder: MI about its axis:
Wemayimagine the cylinder to bemade up of large no of elementarydiscs, one of th
e themhasmass dM. Its
MI about z axis is given by
dIz=
1
2 dMR2
Integrating over thewhole cylinder,
Iz =
1
2 R2 . dM =
1
2 MR2
R
Z
dM
M
MI about perpendicular bisector axis: It is equal to
Iz =
MR2
4
+
M 2
12
l
7. Homogenous sphere, diametrical axis:
Let us consider a homogenous sphere ofmassMand radius R. Itsmoment of inertia ab
out diametrical axis
shown in the figuremay be calculated as follows.
Let us consider the sphere to bemade up of disc like slices one ofwhich is locat
ed at position z. Its thickness
is dz and radius is R2 . z2 .
TheMI of this elementary disc is
dIz=
1
2 Mass (radius)2
=
1
2 .(R2
z2)dz. (R2
z2)
Z = R
R2 z2
dz
z = 0
R
z = R
Z
where . = density =
2
M
4 R
3
.

dIz= 2
..
(R2
z2)dz
Integrating over thewhole sphere
Iz = 2
.. R
4 2 2 4
R
(R 2R z z )
.
. . . dz
= 2
.. R R R
4 2 2 4
R R R
R dz 2R z dz z dz
. . .
. .
. . . .
. . . . .
= 2
.. 2R5 4 R5 2 R5
3 3
. . . . .. ..
= 2
.. 30 20 6
15
. . . .
. .
. . R5
=
8
15
..
R5
Putting the value of .,we get
Iz =
2
5 mR2.
Moment of Inertia for simple geometrical objects
Some bodies of simple geometryare thin uniformrod, uniformrectangular plate, cir
cular ringor hoop, uniform
circular disc, uniformsolid cylinder, homogeneous sphere, hollowsphere, right ci
rcular cone etc.We shallgive
you values ofmoment of inertia of these about frequentlyused axes.
Table MI of some regular bodies
Body Position of axis Moment of inertia
Laminar body
Z
Y
X
laminar body
Iz = Ix + Iy (perpendicular axis theorem)
Any body
d
Z
CM
M
IZ = ICM +Md2 (ParallelAxes theorem)
Body Positionof axis Moment of inertia

Uniformrod
90
CM
l
Total mass = m
Iz =
m 2
12
l
l
Z
Iz =
m 2
3
l
Z
. Iz =
m 2
3
l
sin2.
Z
.
CM
Iz =
m 2
12
l
sin2.
CM b
l
Y
[The axis is the plane
of plate]
Uniformrectangular plate CM b
l
X
Iy =
m 2
12
l
Z X
Y
[Axis Z is normal to plate]
Iz =
mb2
12
Iz =
m
12 (l2 + b2)
Ring orHoop
Z
R
[Z-axis : through CM and
normal to plane of hoop]
COM
Iz = mR2
CM
R
[Axis as diameter]
I =
1
2 mR2

UniformCircularDisc
Z
R
[Z-axis: through CM
and normal to disc]
COM
Iz =
1
2 mR2
[Axis as diameter]
I =
1
4 mR2
Right CircularCylinder
l
[Axis through CM along
the length]
CM
R
I =
1
2 mR2
l
[Axis through CM normal to
length]
CM
R
I =
mR2
4
+
m 2
12
l
Right Circular Cone CM I =
3
10 mR2
SphericalShell
R CM
[Diametrical Axis]
I =
2
3 mR2
Solid homogenous sphere
R
[Dimetrical axis]
I =
2
5 mR2
PartyHollowsphere
R2
[Dimetrical axis]
R2
I =
2
5 m
5 5
2
3
2
R
R
.
.
1
3
1
R
R
. .
. . . .

C18: Theoremof parallel axes is applicable for anytype ofrigid bodywhether it is
a two dimensionalor three
dimensional,while the theoremof perpendicular axes is applicable for laminar typ
e or two dimensionalbodies
only.
C19: In theoremof perpendicular axs, the point of intersection of three axes (x,
y and z)may be any point on the
plane of body (itmay evenlie outside the body).This pointmay ormay not be the ce
ntre ofmass ofthe body.
C20:Moment of inertia of a part of a rigid body(symmetrically cut from
thewholemass) is the same as that of thewhole body. e.g., in figure
(a) moment of inertia of the section shown (a part of a circular disc)
about an axis perpendicular to its plane and passing
R
O M
(a) (b) through point Ois
1
2 MR2 as themoment of inertia of the complete disc
is also
1
2 MR2. This can be shown as in figure. Suppose the given section
is
1
n th part of the disc, thenmass of the discwill be nM.
Idisc =
1
2 (nM)R2
Isection =
1
n Idisc =
1
2 MR2
C21: Calculate theM.O.I. of a circular disc about an axis passing through its ce
ntre and perpendicular to its plane;
mass of the disc is 2 kg and its radius is equal to 50 cm.
Sol. Here I =
1
2 MR2
2
I 1 2 50 0.25 kgm2
2 100
. . . . . . .. ..
Example 9. In the above question calculate itsM.O.I. (1) about a tangent in its
own plane; and (2) about a tangent
r . to its plane.
Sol. (1) Fromthe theoremof parallel axis,M.O.I. about tangent in its own plane.
I =M.O.I. about a parallel diameter +MR2
I 1 MR2 MR2
4
. .
2
I 5 MR2 5 2 50 0.625 kgm2
4 4 100
. . . . . . . .. ..
(2)M.O.I. about tangent r . to its plane.
=M.O.I. about r . axis +MR2
1 MR2 MR2 3MR2
2
.
2
3
2
.
2
. .
2 50 0.75 kgm2
100
. . . . . .. ..

C22: The figure represents a thin circular disc ofmass 4kg and radius 0.60metre.
Calculate
itsmoment of inertia about an axisXX, passing throughAand r . to its plane.
O
0.2m
A
Y X
Y X
Sol. Fromtheoremof parallel axis,M.O.I. about XX.
=M.O.I. about YY +Mr2
=
1
2 MR2 + Mr2
=
1
2 4 (0.6)2 + 4 (0.2)2 = 0.88 kgm2.
C23: Calculate theM.O.I. of a uniformcylinder ofmass 6 kg, redius 0.4 metre and
length 1metre about an axis
passing through its centre and r . to its length.
Sol.
2 2
I M L R 0.74 kgm2
12 4
. .
. . . . .
. .
C24: There is a uniformcircular disc ofmass 10 kg and radius 2 metre. Calculate
the radius of gyration if it is
rotating about anaxis passing through its centre and r . to its plane.
Sol. Here I =
1
2 MR2
. K =
R
2 =
2
2 = 1.414 m
C25: Asolid sphere ofmass 6 kg and radius 2 metre is rotating about its diameter
; then calculate the radius of
gyration.
Sol. Here I =
1
2 MR2
.
K 2 R 2 2 1.26 metre
5 5
. . . .
C26: For pointsmasses each ofmassmare attached to amassless string. Calculate th
e
M.O.I. of the systemabout XX.
L L L
m m m m
X
X
Sol. M.O.I about XX
= mL2 + 0 + mL2 + m(2L)2
= 6 mL2.
C27: Three point masses each ofmass mare kept as shown in the figure, the string
is
massless. Calculate theM.O.I. of the systemabout an axis passing through (1)AB,
(2) BC and (3) about an axis passing . rlythroughA.
10m
6m
8m
A
B C
m
m
m
Sol. (1) M.O.I about AB = 0 + 0 + m(6)2 = 36 m
(2) 64 m (3) 164 m

Example 10. Three bodies have equalmassesm. BodyA is solid cylinder of radiusR,
bodyB is a square lamina
of side R, and bodyC is a solid sphere of radiusR.Which body has the smallest mo
ment of inertia about an
axis passing through their centre ofmass and perpendicular to the plane (in case
of lamina)
(A)A (B) B (C) C (D) D
Sol. ForA
2
A
MR
I
2
.
For B . . 2
2 2
B
m MR
I R R
12 6
. . .
ForC 2
C
I 2 mR
5
.
where IA > IC > IB Hence, (B) is correct.
Example 11. ApointmassmA is connected to a pointmassmB byamassless rod of length
l as shown in the figure. It is observed that the ratio of the moment of inertia
of the
systemabout the two axiesBBandAA,whichisparallelto eachother and perpendicular m
A mB
A B
A B
l
to the rod is BB
AA
I
I = 3. The distance of the centre ofmass of the systemfromthemass
Ais
(A) (3/4)l (B) (2/3)l (C) (1/2)l (D) (1/4)l
Sol. IAA = mBl2
IBB = mAl2
BB
AA
I
3
I
.
A
B
m
3
m
. . mA = 3mB
xA)
But mAxA =mB(l
3mBxA =mB (l
xA)
3xA = l
xA
4xA = l
A x
4
. l
Hence (D) is correct.
Example 12. Three uniformrods each ofmassmand lengthLmetre are connected to form
an equilateral triangle.
Calculate theM.O.I. of the systemabout an axis passing through one of the vertex
and r . to plane of the
triangle.
Sol. M.O.I. of the rodAB, andAC about the given axis are each equal to
1
3 mL2. andM.O.I. of the rodBCabout
the given axis (fromthe theoremof parallel axis) is
2
1 mL2 mx2 1 mL2 m 3 L
12 12 2
. .
. . . . . . . .

2
1 2 3mL 10 2
mL mL
2 4 12
. . .
Hence,M.O.I. of thewhole systemabout given axis
I 1mL2 1 mL2 10 mL2 18 mL2 3 mL2
3 3 12 12 2
. . . . .
A
B
C
D
m, L x L, m
m, L
C28: The figure belowrepresents two spheres ofmassMand radiusR. Theyare kept in
contact as shown. CalculateM.O.I. about axisYY.
Y
Sol. Y I 7 mR2 7 mR2
5 5
. .
I 14 mR2
5
.
Example 13. Four spheres each ofmassMand radius r are kept with their centres on
the
corners of a squre of side L. CalculateM.O.I. of the systemabout an axis passing
through one side of the square.
A B
D C
M
M M
L M
L
L
L
Sol. M.O.I. aboutAB
2 Mr2 2Mr2 2Mr2 ML2 2Mr2 ML2
5 5 5 5
. . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. ..
8Mr2 2ML2 2M.4r2 5L2 .
5 5
. . . .
C29: Two point masses are kept at distance of 9metre on a thin uniformrod of neg
ligiblemass.The rod remains
horizontal if it is pivoted atA. CalculateM.O.I. about a vertical lineXX through
the pivotA.
Sol. Since the rod remains horizontal aboutA, hence
y) = 2g y
1 g(9
. y = 3 metre
. I = 2(3)2 + 1(6)2
1kg 2kg
X
X
A
9 y y
I = 54 kgm2
Example 14. TheM.O.I. of a thin uniformrod ofmassMand lengthL about an axis pass
ing through its centre is
I1. This rod is bent in formof a ring, and if I2 is theM.O.I. of the ring formed
about its centre thencompare I1
and I2.
Sol. For thin rod, 2
1
I 1 ML
12
.
For the ring, 2.r = L
.
r L
2
.
.
2
2
2
I Mr M L
2
. . . .. . ..
.
2 2
1 2
2
2
I 1 4
ML
I 12 ML 3
. .
. . .

Example 15: Three rods each ofmassmand length l are joined together to form
an equilateral triangle as shown in figure. Find the moment of inertia of the
systemabout an axis passing through its centre ofmass and perpendicular to
the plane of the triangle.
A
B C
CM
Sol:Moment of inertia of rod BC about an axis perpendicular to plane of triangle
ABC and passing through themid-point of rod BC (i.e.,D) is
I1 =
m 2
12
l
Fromtheoremof parallel axes,moment of inertia of this rod about the asked axis i
s
I2 = I1 + mr2
A
B C
CM
30
D
r
m 2 2 m 2 m
12 2 3 6
. .
. . . . . .
l l l
.Moment of inertia of all the three rods is
I = 3I2 = 3
m 2
6
. .
. .
. .
l
=
m 2
2
l
Example 16. Three identical thin rods each ofmassm&length l are placed along x,
y&z-axis respectively they
are placed such that, one end ofeach rod is at origin O . Thenmoment ofinertia of t
his systemabout z-axis is
(A)
m 2
3
l
(B)
2m 2
3
l
(C) ml2 (D)
m 2
4
l
Sol. Since the one end of each rod is at origin O
.
2
x y
m
I I
3
. . l
According to perpendicular theorm.
Iz = Ix + Iy
2 2 2
z
m m 2m
I
3 3 3
. . . l l l
Hence (B) is correct.
Example 17: Find themoment of inertia of a solid sphere ofmassMand radius R
about an axisXXshown in figure.
x
x
Sol: Fromtheoremof parallel axis,
IXX = ICM + Mr2
=
2
5 MR2 + MR2
=
7
5 MR2
x
x r = R
CM

Example 18:Consider a uniformrod ofmassmand length 2lwithtwo particles of
massmeachat its ends. LetABbe a line perpendicular to the lengthof the rod
and passing through its centre. Find themoment of inertia ofthe systemabout
AB. l l
m m
B
A
Sol: IAB = Irod + Iboth particles
=
m(2 )2
12
l
+ 2(ml2)
=
7
3 ml2
Example 19: Find themoment of inertia of the rodAB about an axisYYas
shown in figure.Mass of the rod ismand length is l. A
y
y
B
Sol:Mass per unit length of the rod =
m
l
Mass of an element PQ of the rod, dm=
. m .
. .
. l . dx
Perpendicular distance of this elementalmass about yy is r = x sin..
.Moment of inertia of this small element of the rod (can be assumed as a point m
ass) about yy is,
dI = (dm)r2 =
. m dx .
. .
. l . (x sin.)2 =
m
l sin2. x2 dx
. Moment of inertia of the complete rod,
I =
x
x 0
dI
.
. .
l
=
m
l sin2.
1
2
0
. x dx
A
y
y
B
Q
P
x
r
=
m 2
3
l
sin2.
Note: (i) I = 0 if . = 0 (ii) I =
m 2
3
l
if . = 2
.
or 90
Example 20. Two rods ofequalmassmand length l lie along the x-axis and y-axiswit
h their centres origin.What
is themoment of inertia of bothabout the line x= y :
(A)
m 2
3
l
(B)
m 2
4
l
(C)
m 2
12
l
(D)
m 2
6
l
Sol.
2
2
x y
m
I I sin
12
. . . l
45
x
y
m 2 m 2
I
24 24
. . l l
,
2m 2
I
24
. l
m 2 I
12
. l

Example 21. Arigid bodycan be hinged about any point on the x-axis.When it is hi
nged such that the hinge is at
x, themoment of inertia is given by
I = 2x2
12x + 27
the x-coordinate of centre ofmass is
(A) x = 2 (B) x = 0 (C) x = 1 (D) x = 3
Sol. I = 2x2 12x + 27
or
dI 4x 12
dx
. .
Forminimummoment of inertia
dI 0
dx
.
. 4x 12 = 0
. x = 3
ButM.I. about an axis passing throughcentre isminimum. Hence (D) is correct.
Example 22. The figure shows a uniformrod lying along the x-axis. The locus of a
ll the
points lying on the xy-plane, about which themoment of inertia of the rod is sam
e as
that about Ois
y
O x
(A) an ellipse (B) a circle
(C) a parabola (D) a straight line
Sol.
2
0
m
I
3
. l
Here
2
r x y2
2
. . . . . .. ..
l
.
2
2
P
m
I mr
12
. . l r y
P (x, y)
l/2 x
l/2
But I0 = IP
or
2 2 2
m m m x y2
3 12 2
... . .. . . .. . . . . ... . ..
l l l
or
2 2 2
m m m x y2
3 12 2
... . .. . . .. . . . . ... . ..
l l l
or
2 2
3m m x y2
12 2
... . .. . .. . . . . ... . ..
l l
or
2 2
x2 x y2
4 4
. . . . l l l
or x2 + y2
xl = 0
or
2 2
x2 y2 x 0
4 4
. . . . . l l l
or
2 2
x y2
2 4
. . . . . .. ..
l l
This is an equation of circle. Hence (B) is correct.

Question No. 23 to 26
The figure shows an isosceles triangular plate ofmassMand baseL. The angle at th
e
apex is 90. The apex lies at the origin and the base is parallel to X-axis.
l
X
M
Y
Example 23. Themoment of inertia of the plate about the z-axis is
(A)
ML2
12
(B)
ML2
24
(C)
ML2
6
(D) None of these
Sol.
tan 45 h
/ 2
.
l
. h
2
. l
In .ACD,
tan 45 y
x 2h
. . l
A B
C
45 45
y dx
D
h
l/2 l/2
. y x
2 / 2
.
.
l
l
. y = x
. dA= 2y dx = 2xdx
. dm= 6 dA = 2 x .dx
. . .2
2 2y
dI dm dm(x)
12
. .
2
dI 2x dx 4x 2x dx x2
12
. .
. . . . . . . .
3
2x dx 3
dI 2x dx
3
.
. . .
dI 8 x3 dx
3
. .
.
/2 4 3
0
8 x dx 8 x
3 3 4
. .
. . . . .
. . .l
8 4 4
3 64 24
.
. . . l l
Here
M
area of plate
. .
2
M 4M
1
2 2
. . .
. l . l l
.
4 2
2
4M M
I
24 6
. . . l l
l
ML2
I
6
. (. l = L ) Hence (C) is correct.

Example 24. Themoment of inertia of the plate about the x-axis is
(A)
ML2
8
(B)
ML2
32
(C)
ML2
24
(D)
ML2
6
Sol. dI = (dm) x2
dI = (2x . dx) x2
dI = 2. x3 dx
.
/2 3
0
I . 2.. x dx l
x4 4 I 2 2
4 64
. . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . .
l
4 4 4
2
4M
I 2
64 32 32
.
. . . . . . l l l
l
M 2
I
8
. l
Hence (A) is correct.
Example 25. Themoment of inertia of the plate about its base parallel to the x-a
xis is
(A)
ML2
8
(B)
ML2
36
(C)
ML2
24
(D) None of these
Sol.
2
dI dm x
2
. . . . .. ..
l
.
2
/ 2
x 0
I dm x
. 2
. . . . . .. .. l l
ML2
I
24
. Hence (C) is correct.
Example 26. Themoment of inertia of the plate about the y-axis is
(A)
ML2
6
(B)
ML2
8
(C)
ML2
24
(D) None of these
Sol. . .
2
dm 2 4dmx
dI 2y
12 12
. .
.
/2 2
0
dmx
I
3
. .l
M 2
I
8
. l

TORQUE AND NEWTON S SECOND LAW
In section 2.4,we have discussed about the turning effect of a force, torque.We
knowthat for a bodyto be in
totationalequilibrium, the sumof allthe torque acting on itmust be zero.Nowwhat
happens ifnet torque is not
zero. The case is similar if net forces acting on a body is not zero, the body w
il accelerate according to
Newton s second law. In rotationalmotion also the lawholds good, but require somem
odificationaswhen net
torque ona bodyabout a given axis of rotationis not zero, bodywillhave angular a
cceleration.Themagnitude
of angular acceleration can be obtained byNewton s Second lawin rotationalmotion.
In translationalmotionwe use F = ma ...(1)
In rotationalmotionwe use . = I . ...(2)
Let hand side is the net torque acting on the body and on right hand side I is t
hemoment of inertia of the body
about the given axis and ..is the angular acceleration of the body.
This corresponds toNewton s second lawfor translationalmotion, a ..F,where torque
has taken the place of
force and correspondinglythe angular acceleration ..takes the place of the linea
r acceleration a. In the linear
case, the acceleration is not onlyproportional to the net force but is also inve
rselyproportional to the inertia of
the body, whichwe call itsmassm, thuswe canwrite a = F/m. In case of rotationalm
otionmoment of inertia
plays the role ofmass.
Aswe have discussed that the rotationalinertia of an object depends not onlyonit
smass, but also on howthat
mass is distributed. For example, a large diameter cylinderwillhave greater rota
tional inertia thanone of equal
mass but smaller diameter (longer than previous).The formerwillbe harder to star
t rotating, and harder to stop
as itsmoment of inertia is larger.When themass is concentrated farther fromthe a
xis of rotation, the rotational
inertia is greater. This is the reason why in rotationalmotion the mass of a bod
y can not be considered as
concentrated at its centre ofmass.
For understanding the application ofNewton s second lawin rotationalmotion,
consider the rod shown in figure, pivoted at an end about which it can rotate. I
f
two forces F1 and F2 are applied on it as shown fromopposite directions, tend to
rotate the rod. The respective torque of these forces are given as 90
r2
r1
F1
Clockwise torque due to force F1 is .1 = F1 sin . . r1
Anticlockwise torque due to force F2 is .2 = F2 . r2
Let .1 > .2, the rod rotates in clockwise directionwith an angular acceleration
., which can be shown from
equation (2), as net torque is in clockwise direction, we have
2
1 1 2 2
Fr sin F r M
3
. .
. . . . . . . .
l
...(3)
Asmoment of inertia of the rod ofmassMand pivoted at one ofits end is givenas
M 2
3
l
.Above equation (3)
willgiveninitial angular acceleration ofthe rod.

APPLICATION OF . = I.
For problems based on pure rotation :
Solution technique :
Step (i) Drawthe free body diagram(if required)
Step (ii) Identify, the axis of rotation and angular accelerationw.r.t. axis of
rotation.
Step (iii) Calculate net torquew.r.t. axis of rotation and then us . = I.with+ v
e/
ve sign convention.
Example 27. Arod of lengthL andmassMis free to rotate about a vertical axis pass
ing
through its one end.Aconstant force F starts acting in horizontal plane. Initial
ly the
direction ofF .
is perpendicular to length of the rod. Calculate angular velocityof rod
as a function of angular displacement . at any time t.
L cos
L
t = t
F
Sol. Let ..= angular displacement of rod at time t F
..= angular velocityat this time.
..= angular acceleration.
. = FL cos ..
ML2
3
= .
. =
3Fcos
ML
.
.
d 3Fcos
d ML
. .
. .
.
d 3F cos d
ML
.. . . . . .
.
2 3Fsin
C
2 ML
. .
. .
When ..= 0 ; ..= 0 ; C = 0
.
6Fsin
ML
.
. .
KINETIC ENERGY OF ROTATING BODY
Arigid bodyismade up oflarge number of particles.The kinetic energyof a rotating
bodyis the sumof kinetic
energyof its particles.
Let .be the angular velocity. Then kinetic energy of i-th particle at distance r
i fromrotation-axis is
2
i i
K 1 m v
2
.
where .ri = vi. The sumof such terms over thewhole body gives
K = .
1
2 mi(.ri)2
= .
1
2 mi.2 2
i r
.
mi
ri
=
1
2 (.mi
2
i r ).2

The quantity.mi
2
i r is themoment of inertia of the bodyabout rotation axis, denoted byI. Then
K =
1
2 I.2
Multiplying and dividing byI,
K =
1
2
I2 2
I
.
. K =
L2
2I
Here Lis angularmomentumabout the axis.
C30:Whether a particle is in translationalmotion, rotationalmotion or in both it
merely depends on the reference
point with respect towhich themotion of the particelis desribed.
For example: Suppose a particle P ofmassmismoving in a straight line as shown in
figure (a), (b) and (c).
P v
A r
P v
B
90
.
v cos.
v sin.
P v
r
C
(a) (b) (c)
Refer figure (a):With respect to pointA, the particle is in pure translationmoti
on. Hence, Kinetic energy of the
particle can bewritten as
K.E. =
1
2 mv2
Refer figure (b):With respect to point B, the particle is in pure rotationalmoti
on. Hence, the kinetic energy of the
particle can bewritten as
K.E. =
1
2 l.2 =
1
2 (mr2)
2 v
r
. .
. .
. .
=
1
2 mv2
Refer figure (c):With respect to point C, the particle can be assumed to be in r
otational aswell as translational

motion. Hence, the kinetic energyofthe particle can bewritten as
K.E. =
1
2 m(v cos.)2 +
1
2 I.2
=
1
2 m(v cos.)2 +
1
2 (mr2)
2 vsin
r
. . .
. .
. .
=
1
2 mv2
Thus, in all the three cases, the kinetic energy of the particle comes out to be
the same.
C31: If aparticle ismoving ina circle it is in pure rotationalmotionabout the ce
ntre ofthe circle,while for amoment
it maybe in pure translationalmotion about some other point.

C32: If a particleP ismoving in a circle, its angular velocity about centre ofth
e circle (.c) is two times the angular
velocity about anypoint on the circumference of the circle (.0)
or .c = 2.0
This is because .P.CP = 2.P.OP (by property of a circle)
P.
P
C
O
.c =
pp
P CP
t .
. .
, .0 =
pp
P OP
t .
. .
Fromthese relations we can see that .c = 2.0.
C33: If a rigid body is rotating about a fixed axiswith angular speed ., all the
particles in
rigid bodyrotate same angle in same interval of time, i.e., their angular speed
is same
(.). They rotate in different circles of different radii. The planes of these ci
rcles are
different. Linear speed of a particle situated at a distance r fromthe rotationa
l axis is r
.
v = r.
or v . r
C34:Angular velocity of a rigid body (.) is
d
dt
.
.Here . is the angle between the
line joining any two points (sayAandB) on the rigid body and anyreference
line (dotted) as shown in figure.
.
B
A
.
For exampleABis a rod oflength 4m. EndAis resting against a verticalwall
OYand Bismoving towards right with constant speed vB = 10m/s. To find
the angular speed of rod at . = 30, we can proceed as under.
OB = x =AB cos.
. x = 4 cos.
.
B
v = 10 m/s B
A
O
Y
or X
dx
dt = 4 sin.
d
dt
. . .
. .
. .
d
dt
. . .
. .
. . =
(dx / dt)
4sin . [
dx
dt = vB = 10 m/s]
or . =
10
4sin 30 = 5 rad/s
Here negative sign implies that . decreases as t increases
d 0
dt
. . . . . .
. . .
C35: Acircular disc ofmass 2 kg and radius 1 metre is to be rotated about its ce
ntre in a horizontal plane with
angular acceleration of 4 rad/sec2. Calculate the torque required.
Sol. . . I.
1 MR2
2
. . . .
a =
1
2 2 (1)2 4 = 4 kgm2/sec2.
C36: Aconstant torque of 40 Nm is applied to a wheel pivoted on a fixed axis. At
what rate power is being
furnished to thewheelwhen it is rotating at 120 revolution perminute.
Sol. P = . . . = t . (2.n) = 40 2.
120
60 = 502.6Watt.

C37: Aflywheel ofmoment of inertia 7.5 kgm2 is rotating at 240 revolution permin
ute; calculate itsK.E.
Sol. . = 2.n = 2.
240
60 = 8 .
. K.E. =
1
2 I.2 =
1
2 [7.5] [8.]2
=
1
2 7.5 64 p2 = 2366 joule.
Example 28.Auniformrod ofmassmand length l hinged at its end is released fromres
t when it is in the horizontal
position. The normal reaction at the hingewhen the rod becomes vertical is :
(A)
Mg
2 (B)
3Mg
2 (C)
5Mg
2 (D) 2Mg
Sol. Loss in P.E. = gain inK.E.
or mg 1 I 2
2 2
l . .
or
2
m 2
mg
3
. . l l
or 3g . .2
l
F
mg
F mg m 2
2
. . l .
or F mg m 2
2
. . l .
F mg m 3g 5 mg
2 2
. . l .
l Hence (C) is correct.
Problems with pure rotation and pure translational of two or more connected obje
cts.
Solution techinque :
Step (i) Drawthe free body diagram.
Step (ii) Assume linear acceleration of translatory object&angular acceleration
ofrotatoryobject.
Step (iii) Use F . ma
. .
for translationmotion and . . I.
.
for rotationalmotion.
Step (iv) Relate linear and angular acceleration and solve the obtained equation
and get the answer.
Example 29. Consider a pulley fixed at its centre of mass by a clamp. Alight rop
e is
wound over it and the free end is tied to a block ofmassm. Find the linear accel
eration
of block.
Sol. For rotationalmotionof pulley:
TR =
MR2 .
2
.
...(1)

For translationalmotion of object :
Mg
T = ma ...(2)
and a = Ra ...(3)
.
MR2 a MaR TR .
2 R 2
. . . . .. .. ...(4)
Solving (2) and (4)
mg Ma ma
2
. .
a
T
Mg
. .
a mg
m M/ 2
.
.
Example 30. a uniformrod of length l, hinged at the lower end is free to rotate
in the verticalplane. If the rodis held
verticallyinthe beginning and thenreleased, the angular acceleration of the rodw
henit makes an angle of 45
with the horizontal(I =ml2/3)
(A)
3g
2 2 l (B)
6g
2 l (C)
2 g
l (D)
2 g
l
or . . 2 mg 1 cos 1 I
2 2
l . . . .
Differenting both sides,
mg sin d I d
2 dt dt
. .
l . . .
or mg sin I
2
l . . .
. 2
mg sin 45
2
m
3
. .
l
l
.
3g
2 2
. .
l Hence (A) is correct.

Example 31. Aperson pulls along a rope wound up around a pulleywith a constant
force F for a time entervalof t seconds. If a and b are the radiiof the inner an
d the
outer circumference (a < b), then find the ratio ofwork done by the person in th
e
two cases shown in the figure isW1/W2.
F F
Sol. W Case I Case II 1 = F a .
Fa = I .1
. 1
Fa
I
. .
. 2
1
1 t
2
. . .

. 2
1
W Fa 1 Fa t
2 I
. . . .. ..
2 2
2
1
F a
W t
2I
.
Similarly,
2 2
2
2
F a
W t
2I
.
.
2
1
2
2
W a
W b
.
Example 32. Auniformcylinder ofmassmcan rotate freely about its own axiswhich is
horizontal.Aparticle of
massm0 hengs fromthe end of a light stringwould round the cylinder which does no
t slip over it.When the
systemis allowed to move, the acceleration of the descendingmasswill be
(A) 0
0
2m g
m. 2m (B) 0
0
m g
m.m (C) 0
0
2m g
m.m (D) 0
0
m g
2m. m
T = m0a
Sol. m0g
Tr = I .
or
mr2
Tr
2
. .
or
T mr ma
2 2
.
. .
m0
or 0 0
m g ma m a
2
. .
or 0 0
m g m m a
2
. . . . .. ..
.
0 0
0
0
a m g 2m g m m m 2m
2
. .
. . Hence (A) is correct.
Example 33. For thepivoted slender rod oflength l as shown in figure, the angula
r velocity
as the bar reaches the verticalposition after being released in the horizontalpo
sition is
l/4 l
l/4
(A)
g
l (B)
24g
19l (C)
24g
7l (D)
4g
l
or mg 1 I 2
4 2
l . .
or
2 2
mg 1 m m 2
4 2 12 4
.. . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . ..
l l l
or
2 2
mg 1 m m 2
4 2 12 16
. .
. . . . .
. .
l l l
.
24g
7
. .

Problem based on situation in which same object is performing translation and ro
tational motion.
This type of motion of an object can be considered as superposition of two types
of motion taking place
simultaneously.
(A) translatorymotion ofcentre ofmass
(B) rotationalmotionw.r.t. axis passing throughcentre ofmass
Step (i) Drawthe free body diagramof object.
a
mg
T
mg
T
Step (ii) Assume linear accelerationofcentre ofmass and angular accelerationw.r.
t. anaxis passing through
the centre ofmass.
Step (iii) Use F =ma for translatingmotion of centre ofmass and . = I. for rotat
ionalmotionw.r.t an axis
passing throughcentre ofmass.
Step (iv) Relate a and . and solve the equations.
Example 34.Acylinder ofmassMis suspended through a two stringswrapped around it
an shown infigure. find the linear acceleration of centre ofmass of the cylinder
.
Mg
Sol.
a
mg
T
mg
T
a
mg
For translatorymotion of centre ofmass
T =Ma ...(1)
Mg
For Rotationalmotion of cylinderw.r.t. an axis passing through the centre ofmass
MR2
TR
2
. . ...(2)
Relation between a&.
a = R. ...(3)
solving (1), (2) and (3) we get
Mg MR . a Ma
2 R
. . . . .. ..
Mg = 3Ma/2
a = 2g/3
Example 35. Two discsAand B touch eachother as in figure.Arope lightlywound
onAis pulled down at 2m/s2. Find the friction force betweenAandBif slipping
is absent.
R 2R
1 kg 2 kg
2 m/s2

Sol.
mR2
TR fR
2
.
. .
.T f . mR a
2 R
. .
.T f . ma 1 2 1
2 2
.
. . . .
f
. T
f = 1 ...(1) f
Also,
m.2R.2 2 4 R2 a f 2R
2 2 2R
. .
. . .
F = a = 2 N
LECTURE
7
ROLLING MOTION
(a) Rollingmotionof an object canbe consider as superposition of twomotions taki
ng place simultaneously.
(i) Translatorymotion of the centre ofmass
(ii) Rotationalmotionof bodyw.r.t. anaxis passing through the centre ofmass.
(b) In pure translationalmotion, all pointsmove with the same linear velocityVcm
. In rotationalmotion about
centre ofmass all pointsmovewiththe same angular velocityabout the central axis.
v
v + R
v R
v2 + 2R2
v v
v
v
v R
R
R
Perfect Rolling :
(a) If an object is in perfect rolling on a surface thanpoint of contact ofbodyw
ith surface
must be relativelyat rest w.r.t. surface.
A
B
v
surface
for perfect rolling
vAB = 0
net velocityofA= net velocityofB.
(b) Perfect rolling on ground :
(i) The relative instantaneous speed of the point of contact during rolling is z
ero.
(ii) For perfect rollingmotion,work done against friction is zero.
(iii) In case of perfect rolling the rotating object remain s relatively at rest w
.r.t. surface on which it is rolling

therefore the force of frictionwill be static in nature.
(iv) Due to static nature of friction inperfect rolling its value lives in betwe
enOand N.Where is coefficient of
friction between rolling object and surface.
(v) For perfectly rolling v
.R = 0where v is velocity of centre ofmass and ..is
angular velocity.
v v
v R
VG = 0

C38: If sphere is in perfect rolling on platformor on plank v = .R = v1
sphere
v
v1
(i) Drawthe free bodydiagramof different components of system.
(ii) Assume linear and angular acceleration of different components of system.
(iii) User F . ma
. .
and . . I.
.
for translational and rotationalmotion respectively.
(iv) Relate linear and angular acceleration.
(v) Finally solve the equations.
Note : Friction is not necessary for perfect rolling.
Example 36. The spool shownin figure is placed onrough horizontal surface and ha
s inner
radius r and outer radiusR. The angle . betweenthe applied force and the horizon
tal
can be varied. The critical angle (.) for which the spool does not roll and rema
ins
stationary is given by
R
r
F
(A) cos 1 r
R
. . . .. .. . . (B) cos 1 2r
R
. . . .. .. . . (C) cos 1 r
R
. . . (D) sin 1 r
R
. . . .. .. . .
Sol. For equilibrium
F cos . = f ...(1)
and (F)r = fR
or
f r
F R
. ...(2)
Fromequation (1) and (2)
cos f r
F R
. . .
. cos 1 r
R
. . . .. .. . . Hence (A) is correct.
Example 37. Around object ofmassMand radiusRrollswithout slipping down an inclin
ed plane set onangle .
to horizontal. Find
(a) Linear acceleration ofcentre ofmass.
(b) Minimumcoefficient of friction required for perfect rolling. assumingM.I.w.r
.t. an axis passing through centre
ofmass isMK2.
Sol. For translatorymotion
mg sin . fr = ma ...(1)
For rotatorymotion
fr R = MK2 (.) ...(2)
and a
R. = 0 ...(3)
R a
mg
mg cos
mg sin
fr
solve equation (1), (2) and (3)
2 2
a g sin
1 K / R
.
.
.
and
r 2
2
f mg sin
1 R
K
.
.
. .
. . . . .

. fr . mg cos . (for perfect rolling)
Where
2
2
R 5
K 2
. .
. . . . .
.
2 tan
7
. .
Imperfect Rolling
(i) When point of contact of Rolling object is not relatively at rest. w.r.t. su
rface onwhich it in rolling then it is
called imperfectRolling.
(ii) Nature of frictionin this case is kinetic&it should opposing themotion of p
oint of contact (strictly).
(iii) Direction of linear acceleration and angular acceleration should be taken
according to direction of friction
(strictly).
(iv) Nature of friction is kinetic therefore its value is KN.Where K is kinetic fr
iction coefficient between surface
and object.
Transformation of Imperfect Rolling into perfect Rolling
0
N
v0
imperfect Rolling
v0> 0R
v = R
perfect Rolling
N
0
N
v0
imperfect Rolling
v0< 0R
v = R
perfect Rolling
v
N
0
N
v0
imperfect Rolling
v0< 0R
N
v
v
If becomes zero before v.
If v becomes zero before .
v = 0 & = 0
if v and both becomes
zero simultaneously.
Perfect rolling
Z
Step (i) Drawthe free body diagram.
Step (ii) Indicate the direction of friction incorrect sense.

Step (iii) Assume linear and angular acceleration.
Step (iv) Use F = ma and T = I.. Calculate a and ..
Step (v) then use the concepts of kinematics to solve the problems.
Kinetic energy of a rolling body:
Let the centre ofmass bemovingwith velocity C V .
. Relative to the centre ofmass, a particle at position i r. will
have a velocity ..
i r. . Relative to ground the particle bemovingwith velocity
i V .
= C V .
+ ..
i r.
The speed square is given by
mi
ri
.
VC
2
i V
.
= i V .
. i V .
= ( C V .
+ ..
i r. ).( C V .
+ ..
i r. )
= 2
C V
.
+ | ..
i r. |2 + 2 C V .
.( ..
i r. )
The kinetic energyof thewhole bodyis given by
2
i i
K 1 m v
2
. .
= 2
i C
1 m V
2
. + .
1
2 mi | ..
i r. |2+ 2.mi C V
. .( ..
i r. ) .....(i)
Now, .mi = totalmass =M
. 2
i i
1 m V
2
. = 2
C
1MV
2 .....(ii)
Let i r. be resolved along ..
and normal to ..
. Let i r.
. be normal to ..
and i|| r.
be along such that
i r. = i r.
. + i|| r.
Then ..
i|| r.
= 0.
| ..
i r. | = ..
i r.
. + ..
i r.
.
= | ..
i r.
. |
= .ri.
.
1
2
.mi | ..
i r. |2 =
1
2
.mi .2 2
i r . =
1
2 Icm.2 .....(iii)
The third termcan bewritten as
2.mi C V .
.( .. i r. ) = 2 C V .
.( ..
.mi i r. ) = 0 .....(iv)
In equation(iv) the summation is the first moment ofmass about centre ofmass, wh
ich is zero bydefinition of
CM. Hence thewhole termbecomes zero.
Using these,
K =
1
2
2
C MV +
1
2 Icm.2

The quantity
1
2
2
C MV is called translationalkinetic energyand
1
2 Icm.2is called rotational kinetic energyof the
rolling body.
Example 38. Auniformdisc ofmassMand radiusRrolls on a smooth horizontal surfacew
ithout slippingwith a
linear velocity v. Calculate itsK.E.
Sol. K.E. of a rolling body(without slipping)
2
2 2 2 2
2
1 1 1 1 v
Mv I Mv MK
2 2 2 2 R
. . . . . .
2
2
2
1Mv 1 K
2 R
. .
. . . .
. .
for disc, since K =
R
2
Hence K.E. of a disc =
3
4 Mv2.
C39: Asolid sphere ofmassMand radiusRis rotating aswell asmovingwith a linear ve
locity v; then calculate its
K.E.
Sol. K.E. =
1
2 Mv2
2
2
1 K
R
. .
. . .
. . ; for sphere, K =
2
5 R
. K.E. for a spherewhich is rolling (without slipping)
7
10
. Mv2.
Example 39. Asolid cylinder ofmassMand radiusR has a lengthL. If it is rolling a
swell asmovingwith linear
velocityv, thencalculate itsK.e. (assuming no slipping).
Sol. We have, K.E. =
1
2 Mv2
2
2
1 K
R
. .
. . .
. .
for a solid cylinder, K=
R
2
. K.E. =
3
4 Mv2 (same as that for a circular disc ofmassMandmovingwith same v).
Example 40:Adisc ofmassmrollswithout slidingwith speed v0. (a)write its kinetic
energy. (b)Write the ratio of
translationalto rotationalkinetic energies.
Sol: (a) The kinetic energyof a rolling bodyis given by
K = 2
CM
1MV
2 +
1
2 Icm.2
Here, Vcm =V0, .= CM V
r (no slipping)

= 0 V
r
Icm =
1
2 mr2 (for disc)
. V0
. K = 20
1 mv
2 +
1
2
1
2 mr2.2
= 20
1 mv
2 + 20
1 mv
4
= 20
3 mv
4
(b) TranslationKE = 20
1 mv
2
Rotational KE =
1
2
1
2 mr2.2= 20
1 mv
4
Required ratio =
Translation KE
Rotational KE
=
2
0
2
0
1 mv
2
1 mv
4
= 2
The ratio is, thus, 2 : 1.
Example 41.Asolid disc is rollingwithout slipping aswell asmovingwithlinear velo
cityv.Whatwillbe the ratio of
translatoryK.E. and totalK.E.
Sol.
2
2 2 2
Translatory K.E. 1/ 2M
Total K.E.[Trans.K.E. Rot.K.E.] 1/ 2M [1 K /R
.
. .
v
v
2 2
2 2 2 2
R R 2
R K R R / 2 3
. . .
. .
C40:Acircular disc ofmass 2 kg and radius 0.2metre rolls down an inclined plane
fromrest.What time it will take
to cover a distance of 1metre along the plane, if angle of inclination of the pl
ane is 30.
Sol. Acceleration,
2 2 2 2
g 1 a gsin 2 g
1 K / R 1 R 2R 3
. .
. . .
. . .
s 1 at2
2
.
1 1 g t2
2 3
.
.
t 6 0.78
9.8
. . s

Mechanical Energy
The sumof kinetic energy (K) and potential energy (U) ismechanical energy. If a
rigid body has its CMat
height hcm above gravitational zero levelofpotential energy,
U=mg hcm,
Themechanicalenergy (E) of rolling bodywill be
E = 2
CM
1MV
2
+
1
2 Icm.2 +Mghcm
In other fields like spring force, other termsmayappera in the expression for U.
If there be no sliding, thework done byfrictionforce is zero. Themechanical ener
gyremains conserved in that
situation.
Example 42. Athin rod of lengthLis placed at angle . to verticalon a frictionles
s horizontal floor and released. If
the center ofmass has acceleration =A, and the rod an angular acceleration = . a
t initialmoment, then
(A)A= (L.). sin . (B)A/2 = (L.).sin. (C) 2A= (L.).sin . (D)A= L.
Sol. . cm
a A L sin
2
. . . .
.
A L sin
2
. . . L/2
L/2 sin
90
mg
acm
N
. 2A= L ..sin .
Example 43.Adisc of radiusRis rolling purelyon a flat horizontal surface,witha c
onstant
angular velocity.The angle between the velocityand accelerationvectors of point
Pis
P C
(A) zero (B) 45 (C) 135 (D) tan 1(1/2)
Sol. ar = R.2 (radial acceleration is directed towards centre at point P.
Here cm cm
P cm
v v 1 cos
v 2 v 2
. . . .
. = 45 ar vcm
R vcm
vcm
R vP= vc2m+ (R )2 = 2 v
Example 44. Awheel, of radius 1 m, is rolling purelly on a flat, horizontal surf
ace. It s centre ismovingwith a
constant horizontal acceleration= 3m/s2.At amoment when the centre of thewheelha

s a velocity3m/s, then
find the acceleration of a point 1/3 vertically above the centre of thewheel.
Sol. acm = r.
v = r.
.
v
r
. .
. . .2 2
t cm r a . a . a . a ar
at +acm
Here t
a 1
3
. .

2
r
a 1
3
. .
acm = 3 m/s2
v = 3 m/s
Putting the value, a = 5 m/s2.
Example 45. Asolid sphere is spin of about its on axiswith angular velocity.. in
clockwise direction and is gently
placed on a rough horizontal surface. Coefficient of friction betweensphere and
the surface is . Calculate.
(a) Time afterwhichsphere starts perfect rolling.
(b) Final linear and angular velocity.
(c) Energyloss against friction.
Sol. For translatorymotion
N=ma and N = ma
. mg=ma . a = g ...(1)
For rotationalmotion
N
a
mg
N
N
m
R 0
NR 2 mR2
5
. .
5g
2R
. . ...(2)
Let after time t sphere starts perfect rolling.
For translatorymotion
. v = 0 + gt ...(3)
a = g
u = 0
v
t = 0 t = t
0
5g . t
2R
. . . . ...(4)
at t = t for perfectRolling v
.R = 0
v = .R ...(5)
From(3), (4) and (5)
0
gt R 5g t
2
. . .
(a) Therefore time after which sphere starts perfect rolling
t = 0 t = t
0
0t Rg 5g
2
.
.
.
0 2
t
7g
. .
. .
(b)
0
0
2 R
7g
.
. .
(c)
2 2
0
1 I
2 2
. .
R
.
. . .
Linear velocityat the time ofperfect rolling
2 v .g R
7
.
Work done byfriction or energy loss
2
1 mv 1 I
2
. . . . . .. ..

Example 46. Asolid cylinder ofmassmismovingwith velocity v0 in horizontaldirecti
on.
It is gently placed on a rough horizontal surface. If coefficient of friction be
tween
sphere and surface is . Calculate time interval afterwhich it starts perfect roll
ing. R
v0
Sol. For translationalmotion :
mg=ma
a = g ...(1)
NR = I .
mR2
mgR
2
. .
N
a
mg
N
v0
2g
R
. . ...(2)
Let v is the linear speed and . is angular speed at the time of perfect rolling.
at = v0
gt
. v = v0
and 0
t 0 2g . t
R
. . . . . . . . . .. .. ...(3)
. v R.= 0 (for perfect rolling)
v
R
. . ...(4)
From(3) and (4)
v 2g . t
R R
.
0 v gt 2g . t
R R
.
.
0 3g . t v
R R
. , 0 v
t
3g
. .
. . . . .
Example 47. Aspherical shell ofmassmand radius r ismovingwith linear velocity v0
in forward direction and
rotatingwith .0 inanti clockwise direction.Nowit is gentlyplaced on a rough hori
zontalsurface. If coefficient
of friction between shell and surface is . Find the relation between .0 and v0 fo
r . to be zero before v0.
Sol. For translatorymotion mg=ma
a = g ...(1)
For rotationalmotion mgr 2 mr2 .
3
. .
. = 3 g / 2r ...(2)
at time t : v = v0
gt ...(3)
and 0
3g t
2r
. . . . ...(4)
when . = 0
N
a
mg
N
v0
0
3g t 0
2r
. . .
0 2 r
t
3g
.
. and 0
0
2 r
v v g 0
3g
. . .
. . . . . . .
0 0
v 2 r
3
. .

Example 48. Acylinder ofmassMand radius R is resting on a horizontal platform(wh
ich is parallel to the x y
plane)with its axis fixed along the y axis and free to rotate about its axis. Th
e plateformis given amotionin the
x-direction given byx=Acos (.t).There is no slipping betweenthe cylinder and pla
teform. Find themaximum
torque acting on the cylinder during itsmotion.
Sol. x
v dx A sin t
dt
. . . . .
. ax = A.2 cos .t
. amax = .2A
Since, no sliping takes place.
. acm = R.
.
2A
R
.
. .
.
MR2
I
2
. . . . .
2 2
MR A 1 2
mRA
2 R 2
.
. . . . .
Example 49. Abit ofmud stuck to a bicycle s front wheel of radius r detaches and i
s flung horizontally forward
when it is at the top of thewheel.The bicycle ismoving forward at a speed v and
it is rollingwithout slipping.
Find the horizontaldistance travelled bythemud after detaching fromthewheel.
Sol. x = 2vt
2r 1 gt2
2
.
.
t 4r
g
.
2v
x
.
x 4r 2v
g
. .
r 16rv2 x 4v
g g
. .
Example 50. Find the relationship between v0 and .0 so that sphere of radiusRand
mass
mrolls up the inclined plane before it starts falling down the plane finallyin g
iven fig.
v
0
Sol. For translationalmotion v0
N mg sin .=ma
mg cos . mg sin .=ma
a = ( cos . sin .)g ...(1)
for rotationalmotionmg cos ..R=
2
5 mR2 .
5g cos
2R
.
. . ...(2)

assume t is the timewhen v = 0
. 0 = v0
( cos .
sin .) gt
. .
0 t v
cos sin g
.
. . .
at this time .> 0
0
a
mg cos
mg cos
N
N
0
5g cos . t 0
2R
.
. . . . .
. . .
0
0
5g cos v
2R cos sin g
.
. . .
. . .
. .
0
0
5v cos
2R cos sin
.
. .
. . .
Example 51. Two spheres are rolling with same velocity (for their C.M.) their ra
tio of kinetic energy is 2 : 1 &
radius ratio is 2 : 1, theirmass ratio willbe :
(A) 2 : 1 (B) 4 : 1 (C) 8 : 1 (D) 2 2 : 1
Sol. T 1 mv2 1 I 2
2 2
. . .
T 1 mv2 1 2 mR2 2
2 2 5
. . .
T 1 mv2 1 2 mv2
2 2 5
. . . . .. ..
T 1 7 mv2
2 5
. . . .. ..
. 1 1
2 2
T m
T m
. Hence (A) is correct.
Example 52. Two thin circular discs ofmass 2 kg and radius 10 cmeach are joined
by a rigid massless rod of

length 20 cm.The axis of the rod is along the perpendicular to the planes of the
disc throughtheir centres. This
object is kept on a truck insuch awaythat the axis of the object is horizontal a
nd perpendicular to the direction
ofmotion ofthe truck. Its frictionwith the floor ofthe truck is large enough so
that
the object canroll on the truckwithout slipping.TakeX-axis as the direction of
motion of the truck and Z-axis as the vertically upwards direction. If the truck
has
an acceleration 9m/s2, Calculate :
(i) the force of friction oneach disc.
(ii) Themagnitude and direction of the firctional torque acting on each disc abo
ut the centre ofmassOof the
object. Express the torque in the vector formin terms of unit vectors i
, j and k
inX,Yand Z directions.
Sol. Givenmass of disc,m= 2 kg and radius, R= 0.1 m
(i) FBDof anyone disc is shown in figure :
Truck a = 9m/s2
Z
Y X

Frictional force on the disc should be in forward direction.
Let a0 be the linear acceleration ofCOMof disc and . the angular acceleration ab
out its COM. Then :
0
a f f
m 2
. . ...(i)
2
f .R 2f 2f 10f
I 1/ 2mR mR 2 0.1
.
. . . . . .
. ...(2)
Since there is no slipping between disc and truck, therefore, a = 9m/s2
a0
f
P
f Q
a0 + R. = a
or
f (0.1) 10f a
2
. . . . .. ..
or
3 f a
2
.
f 2a 2 9.0 N
3 3
.
. .
. f = 6 N
Since this force is acting inpositive x-direction,
f . .6 i.N
.
(ii) . . r . f
. . .
Here f . .6 i.N
.
(for both the discs)
P 1 r . r . .0.1 j. 0.1 k
. .
z
x
y
P Q
2
20cm = 0.2m
O
f f
and Q 2 r . r . 0.1 j. 0.1 k
. .
Therefore, frictional forque on disc 1 about point O(centre ofmass) :
. . . . . . 1 1 . . r . f . .0.1 j. 0.1k . 6i N.m . 0.6k . 0.6 j
. . .
or . . 1 . . 0.6 k . j N.m
.
and 2 2
| .1 | . (0.6) . (0.6) . 0.85 N . m
.
Similarly, . . . . 2 2 . . r . f . 0.1 j. 0.1k . 6i N.m
. . .
. . 2 . . 0.6 . j. k N.m
.
and | .2 | . | .1 | . 0.85 N .m
. .
INSTANTANEOUS AXIS OF ROTATION
v
.
.
The combined effects of translation of the centre ofmass and
rotation anaxis through the centre ofmass are equivalent to a
pure rotationwitht he same angular speedabout anaxis passing
through a point of zero velocity. Such an axis is called the
instantaneous axis of rotation.
(IAOR).This axis is always perpendicular to the plane used to represent themotio
n and the intersectionof the

axiswith this plane defines the location of instantansus centre ofzero velocity(
IC).
v
.
.
r
Vp = r..
IC
r.
Vp
For example consider awheelwhich rollswithout slipping. In V
this case the point of contactwiththe ground has zero velocity.
Hence, this point represents the IC for the wheel. If it is
imagined that thewheel ismomentarilypinned at his point, the
velocity of anypoint on thewheelcan be found using v = r..
Here r is the distance ofthe point fromIC.Similarly, the kinetic
energyofthe bodycanbe assumed to be pure rotational about
IAOR or,
Rotation+Translation . Pure rotation about IAORpassing through IC]
K.E. = 2 cm
1 mv
2 +
1
2 Icm.2 . K.E. = 2
IAOR
1 I
2
.
C41: (i) Although the ICmay be conveniently used to determine the velocity of an
y point in a body, it generally
does have zero acceleration and therefore, it should not be used for finding the
acceleration of anypoint in the
body.
(ii) When a body is subjected to general planemotion, the point determined as th
e instantaneous centre of
zero velocityfor the bodycan onlybe used for aninstant of time. Since the bodych
anges its position fromone
instant to the next, then for each position of the body a unique instantaneous c
entremust be determined. The
locus of points which defines the IC during the body smotion is called a centrode.
Thus, each point on the
centrode acts as the IC for the body only for an instant of time.
Locaion of the IC
If the location of the IC is unknown, it maybe determined by using the fact that
the relative position vector
extending fromthe ICto a point is always perpendicular to the velocityof the poi
nt. Following three pssibilities
exist.
Give the velocity of a point (normally the centre of mass) on the body and the a
ngular velocity of the
body.
If v and .are known, the ICis located along the line drawnperpendicular to
v. at P, such that the distance fromP to ICis, r =
v
. . Note that IC lie on that
side of P which causes rotation about the IC, which is consistent with the
direction ofmotion caused by ..
and v. .
.
P v
r
IC
Example 53:Arotating disc moves in the positive direction of the x-axis. Find th
e equation y(x) describing the
position of the instantaneous axis of rotationifat the initialmoment of the cent
re c of the discwas located at the
point Oafterwhich it movedwith constant velocityvwhile the disc started rotating
counterclockwisewith a
constant angular acceleration .. The initial angular velocity is equalto zero.
O c v
y
x
IC
y
O c v
y
x
x
Sol: t =
x
v
and . = .t =
x
v
.
The positionof IAORwill be at distance

y =
v
.
or y =
v
x
v
.
or y =
v2
.x
or xy =
v2
. = constant.
This is the desired x-y equation. This equation represents a rectangular hyperbo
la.
C42: The equation text = l. does not hold good ina non-inertial frame.However, t
here exists a veryspecial case
when text = l. does hold even if the angular acceleration a ismeasured froma non
-inertial frame. That special
case is, when the axis of rotation passes through the centre ofmass and otherwis
e the pseudo forces produce
a pseudo torque about the axis. This is the reason, in above exampleswe calculat
ed the angular acceleration a
about an axis passing through the centre ofmass and perpendicular to the plane o
fmotion of the particles.
Because about that axiswe can apply, . = ext .
l .
C43: Work done byfriction in pure rolling on a stationaryground in zero as the p
oint of applicationof the force
is at rest. Therefore,mechancal energycan be conserved ifall other dissipative f
orces are ignored.
C44: In accelerated pure rolling the velocity of the bottommost point is zero bu
t despite the relatin a = R., the
accelertion of the bottommost point is not zero. Because acceleration of any pon
it P can be given as
P a. = C a. + PC a.
Here, PC a. has two components:
Tangential acceleration at = r. (which is perpendicular to CP) and radial or nor
mal acceleration an = r.2
(which is along PC)
Thus P a. = C a. + ( PC a. )t + ( PC a. )n
For the botommost ponit, C a. + ( PC a. )t = 0
R
C
r P
....
v, a
as C a. = a [in forward direction]
and ( PC a. )t = R. [in backward direction]
and since, a = R. therefore C a. + ( PC a. )t = 0.
But ( PC a. )n . 0. It is R.2 towards centre. Thus, acceleration of bottommost
ponit is R.2 towards centre.
Similarlyintheproblems like showninfigure, it iswrong tosaythat acceleration
of point Pis equal to acceleration of blockA.Althoughwe canwrite,
A
v, a P
aA = a + r.
In case of pure rolling, problems can also be solved byusing the energy conserva
tion principle (provided no
other dissipative forces are present). So, in this casewewillwrite the energyequ
ation as,
Decrease in gravitationalpotential energyofA= increase inkinetic energyofA(onlyt
ranslational) + increase in

kinetic energy ofspoot (both rotational aswell as translational).
C45: Incaseswherepulleyis having somemass and friction is sufficient enoughto pr
event slipping, the tensionon
two sides of the pulleywill be different and rotatinoalmotion ofthe pulleyis als
o to be considered.
C46: At a given instant the value of .for a rigid bodywill be same for every poi
nt.
C47: The torque equation (. = l.) can be applied only about two points. These ar
e,
(i) centre ofmass
(ii) point about which body is in pure rotation.
Example 54. There is rod of length l . The velocities of its two ends are v1 and
v2 in opposite directions normal to
the rod. The distance of the instantaneous axis ofrotation fromv1 is
(A) zero (B) 2
1 2
v
v . v
l (C) 1
1 2
v
v . v
l
(D) l / 2
Sol. . 1 2 v v
x x
. . .
l .
x) = v2x
or v1(l
or v1 l v1 x = v2 x
x
l x
O
l
v1
. v2 1
1 2
v
x
v v
.
.
l
Hence, (C) is correct.
Example 55. Aladder of lengthL is slippingwith its ends against a verticalwall a
nd a horizontal floor.At a certain
moment, the speed of the end in contact with the horizontal floor is v and the l
addermakes and angle . = 30
with the horizontal. Then the speed of the ladder s centermust be
(A) 2v/ 3 (B) v/2 (C) v (D) None
Sol.
v
/ 2
. .
l
. . 2v
l
Also, vc = r. =
2 2 3
4 4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
l l l /2
v2
l /2
30
60
60
30
30 3 l/4
l /4
O
v
l /2
C
r
intantaneous axis
of rotation
=
1 3 1
4 2
l . . . l .
2v v
2
. l . .
Example 56. A rectangular rigid fixed block has a long horizontal edge. A solid
homogeneous cylinder of radius R is placed horizontally at rest with its length
parallel to the edge such that the axis of the cylinder and the edge ofthe block
are
in the same vertical plane as shownin figure. there is sufficient friction prese
nt at
the edge so that a verysmalldisplacement causes the cylinder to roll ofthe edge
without slipping.Determine :
R
(a) the angle .c throughwhich the cylinder rotates before it leaves contact with
the edge.

(b) the speed of the centre ofmass of the cylinder before leaving contact with t
he edge, and
(c) the ratio of the translational to rotationalkinetic energies ofthe cylinderw
hen its centre ofmass is in horizontal
linewiththe edge.
Sol. (a)The cylinder rotates about the point ofcontact.Hence themechanicalenergy
ofthe cylinderwillbe conserved
i.e.,
R
v
R Rcos
v
(1) (2) (3)
. (P.E. + K.E.)1 = (P.E. + K.E.)2
. mgR + 0 = mgR cos . + 1 I 2 1 m 2
2 2
. . v
But .= v/R (No slipping at point of contact)
and I = 1 mR2
2
Therefore, mgR = mgR cos . + 2 . 2 2 . 2 1 1 mR v / R 1 mv
2 2 2
. . . .. ..
or
3
cos .)
4 v2 = gR (1
or
v2 4
R 3
. g (1 cos .) ...(1)
At the time of leaving contact, normal reactionN= 0 and . = .c.Hence
mg cos ..=
mv2
R
........
v
mg
mg sin
mg cos
N = 0
or
v2
R
= g cos . ...(2)
From(1) and (2)
4
3 g(1
cos .c) = g cos .c
or
7
4 cos .c = 1 or cos .c = 4/7
or .c = cos 1(4/7)
(b) . . v 4 gR 1 cos
3
. . . (Fromequation 1)
At the time it leaves the contact
cos ..= cos .c = 4/7
. . . v 4 gR 1 4 / 7
3
. . or
v 4 gR
7
.

Therefore, speed ofCOMof cylinder just before it leaves the contact is
4 gR
7 .
(c) At themoment, when cylinder leaves the contact
v 4 gR
7
.
Therefore, rotational kinetic energy, KR =
1
2 I.2
or 2 . 2 2 . 2
R
K 1 1 mR v / R 1 mv 1 m 4 gR
2 2 4 4 7
. . . . . . . .. .. .. ..
or KR =
mgR
7 ...(3)
Nowonce the cylinder loses its contact,N= 0, i.e. the frictional force,which is
responsible for its rotation, also
vanishes.Hence its rotationalkinetic energynowbecomes constant,while its transla
tionalkinetic energyincreases.
Applying conservation of energyat (1) and (3) :
Decrease ingravitationalP.E. =Gainin rotationalK.E. +translationalK.E.
. TranslationalK.E. (KT) =Decrease in gravitational P.E. KR
or KT = (mgR)
mgR
7 =
6
7 mgR ...(4)
From(3) and (4) we have
T
R
K 6 / 7mgR
K mgR / 7
. or T
R
K
6
K
.
ANGULAR MOMENTUM
Let a particle ofmassmhave a velocityv .
in a frame S. Let O be a point at
rest in S. The particle has a position vetor r. relative to O.
v
m
r
Then the cross prodcut r O . mv . is called angularmomentumabout O.
The angularmomentumof a particle about Ois equal to the cross product of its pos
ition vector relative to O
and themomentumvector.
O
.
l = r. p.
.
Its S.I. unit is kgm2s 1 and dimensional formula [ML2T 1].
Moment arm:
In the figure r. is themoment armfor
.l
.We have
r. = moment arm
O
.
l = ( r.
. + || r. ) p.
rs
r.
r
O
p
= r.
. p.
[. || r. p.
= 0]

For a particle to have angular momentum, it must posses a linear momentum. Howev
er, a particle having a
linearmomentummaynot have anangularmomentum.
The concept ofangularmomentumis introduced formotion of particles in space here.
However, youwill find
in your studies ofmodern physics or atomic physics another angularmomentumwhich
is not related tomotion
in space- that is spin angular momentumof particles like electron. It is instrin
sic to a particle, say, electron.
There are severalparticleswhich have spinangularmomenta.We shallnot discuss then
here.We shall consider
motion-related angularmomenta only.
C48:Aparticle ismovingwithuniformvelocity.Does its angularmomentumabout anypoint
change as itsmoves ?
Sol: The angularmomentumabout O(see previous figure)maybewritten as
.l
= r.
. p.
= r.p inward, which does not change.
Example 57. Aparticle ofmass 0.5 kg is rotating in a circular path of radius 2ma
nd centrepetal force on it is 9
Newtons. Its angularmomentum(in J.sec) is :
(A) 1.5 (B) 3 (C) 6 (D) 18
Sol. L=mvr
But
mv2
F
r
.
or
v Fr
m
.
L m Fr r
m
.
L 0.5 9 2 2
0.5
.
. .
L . 36 . 6 J s Hence (C) is correct.
Example 58.Aparticle ofmassmis rotating in a plane is a circular path of radius
r, its angularmomentumisL.The
centripital force acting on the particle is :
(A)
L2
mr
(B)
L2m
r
(C)
2
2
L
mr
(D)
2
3
L
mr
Sol. L=mvr
.
v L
mr
.
.
2
2
m L
F mv mr
r r
. .
.. ..
. .
.
2
3
L
F
mr
. Hence (D) is correct.
Example 59. Aparticle ofmass 2 kg located at the position . i .
. i . j . k . m/s. Its angular
momentumabout z axis in kg-m2/s is :
(A) zero (B) 8 (C) 12 (D) 8
j.mhas a velocity 2

Sol. The angularmomentumabout origin
L . r .mv
.. . .
L . . i . j.. 4. i . j. k .
..
L . 4..k . j.k . i.
..
L . 4 i . 4 j. 8 k
..
. Lz = 8 kg m2/s Hence (D) is correct.
Example 60. The position vector of a particle ofmass 2.00 kg is given as a funct
ion of the by r . 6 i . 5t j
.
m.
Determine the angularmomentumof the particle about the origin, a function of tim
e.
Sol.
v dr 5 j
dt
. .
. .
. L . r .mv
.. . .
L . .6i . 5t j.. 10 j
..
L . 60 k
..
Example 61. Aparticle ofmassmis projectedwith a velocity u at an angle of . with
horizontal. Find the intial
angularmomentumof the particle about the highest point of its trajectory.
Sol. u . u cos. i . u sin . j
.
. | L | . | r . mu |
.. . .
Here
u2 sin2 h
2g
.
.
O
h
x
y
R/2
u
u2 sin2 R
g
.
.
r h j R i
2
. . .
.
mu3 sin2 cos L
2g
. .
.
Angular momentum of many particles

If a systemhas severalparticles, having angularmomenta 1
.l
, 2
.l
, ........ n
.l about a point Oat rest in frame S,
the totalangularmomentumof the systemis defined as their vector sum:
L. = 1
.l+ 2
.l
+ ........ + n
.l
Angular momentum about centre of mass
For calculatingangularmomentumabout centre ofmass of a system,wemust
take a frame S. inwhichCMis at rest. Fromthis framewe observemomenta

'1
p. , '
2 p. , ........ '
N p. of the particles located at '1
r. , '2
r. ,.... 'N
r. relative to centre
ofmass. Then the particle has angularmomentum '
i r. '
i p. about centre of
Z.
Y.
X.
Vi.
pi.
Frame fixed to CM
but not to the body
mass. Total angularmomentumis the vector sumof such angularmomenta.
We denote it by cm L .
:
cm L .
= . i' r. 'i
p. .
Relationship to angular momentum about a Laboratory point:
Let Obe a point in laboratory andO. be the centre ofmass of the system. Let i-th
particle, havingmassmi be
movingwith velocity 'i
v. in the frame of laboratory.Then angularmomentumof this particle about Owillbe
i r.
mi
'i
v. . Thewhole bodywill have an angularmomentum
O L
. = . i r. mi
'i
v. .
Relative to the frame inwhichO. is at rest (CM- frame) the i-th particle has a d
ifferent velocity i v. , it is relative
CM V. , where CM V. is the velocity of centre ofmass. Simmilarllyi
velocity i v.
ts position vector is
i' r. = i r. cm r.
The figure shows
i V
. = '
i V
. + CM V.
i r. = i' r. + cm r.
VCM
vi.
VCM
O.
rcm
ri L
ri.
vi.
Using thesewe have
L .
= . i r. mi i v.
= ..( cm r. + i' r. ) mi i v.
= . cm r. mi i v. + . i' r. mi i v.
= cm r. .mi i v. + . i' r. mi i v.
= cm r. M CM V. + . i' r. mi ( 'i
v. + CM V. ) [. M CM V. = .mi i v. ]
= cm r. M CM V. + . i' r. mi
'i
v. + mi CM V.
= cm r. M CM V. + cm L
. + .mi
i' r. CM V.
= ( cm r. M CM V. ) + cm L
. [. .mi
i' r. = 0]
The first termgives angularmomentumassociatedwithmotion of centreofmass,while th
e secondwithmotion
about CM.
Example 62:Arod of length 3mand negligiblemass connects two balls of
masses 1 kg and 3 kg. The systemis thrown inair negligible (friction)
as in the figure.At a certainmoment, the centre ofmass is located at

(2m, 4m) andmovingwith 10ms 1 at 60 with horizontal. The rod is
turning at .= 2 rad s 1 about the centre ofmass.
1kg 10 m/s
CM 2kg
4m
Y
j ^
k ^
O X
. = 2 rads 1
(a) Determine the angularmomentumof systemabout centre ofmass
and express it using î , ^j and ^k .
(b) Determine the angularmomentumof the systemabout origin.
Sol: (a) See figure for quantities needed. 1m
2m
6 ms 1
2 ms 1
1kg 2kg
j ^
k^ i^
We have cm L
. = . i r. mi
'i
v. .
. = {2m( î ) 1 kg (6 ^j ms 1)} + {(1m) î (2 kg) 2m 1( ^j )}
= 16 ^k (kgm2s 1)
(b) O L
. = ( cm r. cm MV .
) + cm L
.
Here, cm r. = (4 î + 4 ^j )m, = 16 ^k (kg m2s 1)
CM V. = 10 ms 1(cos 60 î + sin60 ^j )
M = 3 kg
Using there
O L
. = 27.92 ^k (kg m2s 1)
Angular momentum about an axis
The component of angularmomentumabout a point on the given axis is known as angu
larmomentumalong
that axis. If angularmomentumabout a point Oon Z-axis isL .
. It ismaking an angle .with Z-axis, then the
angularmomentumabout Z-axis (LZ) is given by
LZ = L cos.
It is a scalar quantity.
Angular momentum of a body rotating about an axis at rest:
Let Z-axis beoriented along the stationaryaxis of rotating of thebody.An i-th
particlewill have angularmomentum i
.l
about a point Oin the Z-axis. Then
total angularmomentumL .
is given by
ItsZ-component is called angularmomentumabout Z-axis, LZ.Now
LZ = .liZ ,
where liz is the Z-component of angularmomentum i
.l
. To get liZ,we figure, mi
Vi
ri
.
R. i
O
li
.z
Z
Here li = Rimivi
. liZ = Rimivi cos.
= Rimi.Zri cos.
Now, Ricos. = ri
. liZ = 2
i i z m r .
. LZ = 2
i i z (.m r ).
LZ = IZ.Z
where IZ = 2
i i .m r is calledmoment of inertia about Z-axis.
Torque and angular momentum
Nowwe shallconsider fundamental lawof rotationaldynamics-also calledNewton s secon
d lawof rotational

dynamics. It relates the rate ofcharge of angularmomentumto torque.
Single Particle System
The figure shows a particle havingmomentum p. .
There is a point Ofixed inXYZ-frame. Let angularmomentumabout Obe denoted by o
.l
.
Then, 0 L .. = r. p. .
Differentiatingwe get
d
dt
l
=
d r
dt
.
p. + r.
d p
dt
.
= v. p. + r. F. [.
d p
dt
.
= F. ]
= 0 + ..
= ..
Thus
. d
dt
.l
= ..
The rate of change of angularmomentumabout a point is equalto unbalanced torque
about the same point.
The case of many particle system
Let there bemanyparticles havingmomenta i p .
.
Then i dp
dt
.
= i F
. [Newton s second lawofmotion] .....(i)
where i F
.
is unbalanced force. Nowit arises due to two types of sources-particleswithin th
e systemboundary
and the particles outside the boundary of the system. Let be the force exerted b
y internal particles.We call it
internal force. Let iext F
.
be the force exerted by externalparticle;we call it external force. Then
i F
.
= iint F
.
+ iext F
.
.....(ii)
Nowwewrite angularmomentumLin the form:

L
.
= . i
.l
= . i r .
i p
.
.....(iii)
Differentiallyrelative to time t,
dL
dt
.
= . i i
i i
dr dp
p r
dt dt
. .
. . . .
. . . . .
.. ..
= . i v. i p
.
+ . i r .
( iint F
.
+ iext F
.
) [Using (i) and (ii)]
= 0 + . i r .
iint F
.
+ . i r .
iext F
.
= in t
..
+ ext
.
.

Itis experimentallyfound that internal torque can t change angularmomentumof the s
ystem.
. int F
.
= 0 [postulate ofrotationaldynamics]
Thus, dL
dt
.
= ext
.
. .....(iv)
The rate of change of angularmomentumof a systemof particles about a point in an
intertialreference frame is
equal to net external torque about the same point.
Taking Z-component of the above relationship (equation -iv) we get
.ext z = z dL
dt
Now, LZ is angularmomentumabout Z-axis
LZ = IZ.Z
where IZ ismoment of inertia about Z-axis.
Hence, .Z=
d
dt (IZ.Z)
= z dI
dt wz + Iz z d
dt
.
. .z = z dI
dt
.z + Iz.z [non-rigid system]
Ifmoment of inertia. IZ constant then,
.ext Z = IZ.Z [rigid bodies]
The external torque acting on a rigidbodyabout an axis is equal to theproduct of
moment ofinertia and angular
acceleration about the same axis.
Example 63. The angularmomentumof a flywheel having amoment of inertia of 0.4 kg
m2 decreases from30 to
20 kgm2/s in a period of 2 second. The average torque acting on the flywheel dur
ing this period is :
(A) 10 N . m (B) 2.5 N . m (C) 5 N . m (D) 1.5 N . m
Sol.
L
t
.
. .
.
10 5 Nm
2
. . .
Angular Impulse Theorem
As ext . .
is equal to rate of change of angularmomentum L
.
,we have
ext. . dt . . dL
..
= f L
. i L
.
The LHS is called angular impulsewhich equals the change in angularmomentum.
Some dynamical Relationships

Quantities Single Particle System of Particles
Angularmomentum
about a ponit .l
= r.
p. L
.
= . i r. i p
.
L
.
= cm L.
+ cm r. M cm V .
about z-axis lZ = lcos. LZ = L cos. = Iz.z
Torque
about a point .. = r.
F.
. .
= . i r. i F
.
; . .
= . .
ext
about z-axis ..Z = .cos. .Z = ..cos.
Equation ofRotationalDynamics
- about a point .. = d
.l
dt
.. = dL
.
dt
- about z-axis .2 = z d
.l
dt
.2 = z dL
dt
.z = Iz.z
.z = Iz.z + z dI
dt
. .
. .
. .
.z
Angular Impulse
about a point dt ..
. = f i
. .
l . l . .ext dt . Lf . Li
. .. ..
- about z-axis z. . dt = lzf
lzi .extzdt = Lzf
Lzi
Conservation of angularmomentum
about a point .. = 0 . .l= constant ext . .
= 0 .... L
.
= constant
about z-axis .2 = 0 . lZ = constant .ext z = 0 . LZ = constant
Example 64. The moment of inertia of semicircular plate of radiusR andmassMabout
axisAA in its plane passing throughits centre is

A
(A) A
MR2
2
(B)
2
MR 2
cos
4
. (C)
2
MR 2
sin
2
. (D)
MR2
4
Sol. Here
2
x
mR
I
4
.
and
2
y
mR
I
4
.
.x = . cos .
A
A
x
x
y
.y.....sin..
. x x y y
L . I . i . I . j
..

or e = unit vector along the axis.
e . e cos.i . esin . j
e . cos. i . sin . j
.
2 2
2 2
axis
mR mR L I L . e cos sin
4 4
. . . . . . . . .
..
.
2 2
mR 2 mR 2
I cos sin
4 4
. . . .
mR2
I
4
. Hence (D) is correct option.
Question No. 65 & 66
Auniformrod is fixed to a rotating turntable so that its lower end is on the axi
s of the
turntable and it makes an angle of 20 to the vertical. (The rod is thus rotatingw
ith
uniformangular velocityabout a vertical axis passing throughone end). If the tur
ntable
is rotating clockwise as seen fromabove.
20
Example 65.What is the direction of the rod s angularmomentumvector (calculated ab
out its lower end) ?
(A) verticallydownwards (B) down at 20 to the horizontal
(C) up at 20 to the horizontal (D) verticallyupwards.
Sol. . . . ..cos. i ..sin . j
..
Ix = 0
2
y
m
I
3
. l
x
x
y
x
. Lx = Ix .x =0
and
2
y y y
m
L I sin
3
. . . . . . l
.
m 2 L sin i
3
. . . .
.. l
m 2
L sin 20 j
3
. . .
.. l
Example 66. Is there a torque acting on it, and if so inwhat direction ?
(A) yes, vertically (B) yes, horizontally
(C) yes at 20 to the horizontal (D) no
Sol.
mg cos
mg
mg sin
O
. Torque ofmg about Ois

(mg sin.) 2
l
CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM
The angularmomentumof a systemabout a ponit canbe changed onlybyan external torq
ue about that point.
This is suggested by
dL
dt
.
= ext . .
.
If the external torque about a point be zero (either the vector sumis zero, or t
he torque is absent) then
dL
dt
.
= 0
The angularmomentumwillnot changewithtime.This is knownas lawof conservationof a
ngularmomentum.
If the net torque or external torque about a point be zero, the total angularmom
entumabout that point is
conserved.
If .z = 0, Lz = constant.
If torque about an axis be zero, the angularmomentumabout the axis conserved:
Iz.z = constant.
C49: Is the angularmomentumof the Earthconserved ?Explain.
Ans: Yes. The line of action of gravitational force due to the Sun on the earth
passes through the Sun.
. ext . .
= r.
F. = 0
F
r
VCM
S
L
. s L
.
= constant.
Thus, torque on the Earth about theSun is zero and hence angularmomentumabou the
Sun is conserved.
C50: ClassicalAngularmomentumof the electronabout nucleus inH-atomis conserved.
Explainwhy.
Ans: Nucleus exerts electrostatic pull on the electron. Its line of action is pa
ssing through the nucleus. Hence its
torque is zero.
ext . .
= r.
F. = 0
F
r
When external torque is zero, angularmomentumremains constant. This is
whyclassicalangularmomentumofthe electron about the nucles is conserved.
C51:Aperson is rotatingwith turn tablewithout considerable friction. His hands a
re stretched. Nowhe folds his
hands.His angular speed increases. Explain.
Ans: Since friction is neglected, there is no torque about vertical axis of the
system.Hence
I.1 = I2.2
As theman folds hands, hismoment of inertia decreases. The angular speed increas
es.
Example 67. Aparticle ismoving in a circular orbit of radius r1 with an angular
velocity .1. It jumps to another

circular orbit of radius r2 and attains an angular velocity.2. If r2 =0.5 r1 and
assuming that no external torque
is applied to the system, then the angular velocity .2, is given by :
(A) .2 = 4.1 (B) .2 = 3.1 (C) .2 = 2.1 (D) .2 = .1
Sol. Applying conservation principle of angularmomentum,
mr1
2.1 = mr2
2 .2
or r1
2 .1 = r2
2 .2
or r1
2 .1 = (0.5r1)2 .2
or .1 = 0.25 .2
or .2 = 4 .1 Hence (A) is correct.
Example 68.Aman, sitting firmlyover a rotating stoolhas his arms streched. If he
folds his arms, thework done by
theman is
(A) zero (B) positive
(C) negative (D)may be positive or negative.
Sol. The kinetic energyis
T 1 I 2
2
. .
But L = I.
.
L
I
. .
.
1 L 2 L2 T I
2 I 2I
. . . . .. ..
But in this case, If < Ii
. Tf > Ti (Because angularmomentumremains conserved)
Ti > 0
But w = .T = Tf
Hence,workdone is positive. Hence (B) is correct.
Example 69.Asmallobject is attached to a light stringwhichpasses through a hollo
wtube.The tube is held byone
hand and the string by the other. The object is stet into rotation in a circle o
f radius r1.The string is then pulled
down, shortening the radius of the circle to r2. The ratio of the newkinetic ene
rgy to originalkinetic energy is
(A) 1
2
r
r (B) 1 (C)
2
1
2
r
r
. .
.. .. (D)
2
2
1
r
r
. .
.. ..
Sol. Byconservation principle of angularmomentum,
mv1r1 = mv2r2
. v1r1 = v2r2 ...(1)
But ratio =
2 2 2
2
2 1
2 1 2
1
1 mv v r 21
mv v r
2
. . . .
. . . . . . . . . . Hence (C) is correct.
Example 70. Asmall bead ofmass mmoving with velocity v gets threaded on a statio
nary

semicircular ring ofmassmand radius R kept on a horizontal table. The ring can f
reely
rotate about its centre. The bead comes to rest relative to the ring.What willbe
the final
angular velocity ofthe system?
O
R
v
m
(A) v/R (B) 2v/R (C) v/2R (D) 3v/R
mvR = (mR2 +mR2).
. 2
vR v
2R 2R
. . . Hence, (C) is correct.
Example 71. Achildwithmassmis standing at the edge of a disc withmoment of inert
ial I, radiusR, and initial
angular velocity .. See figure given below.The child jumps off the edge of the d
iscwith
tangentialvelocityvwith respect to the ground. Then newangular velocity of the d
isc is
v
(A)
I 2 mv2
I
. .
(B)
(I mR2 ) 2 mv2
I
. . .
(C)
I mvR
I
. .
(D) .I mR2 . mvR
I
. . .
(I + mR2).= I. + mv1R ...(1)
But v1
R. = v (Byrelative concept) ...(2)
(I mR2 ) mvR
I
. . .
. . Hence (D) is correct.
Example 72. Two men, each ofmass 75 kg, stand on the rimof a horizontal large di
sc, diametrically opposite to
each other.The disc has amass 450 kg and is free to rotate about its axis. Eachm
ansimultaneouslystart along
the rimclockwisewith the same speed and reaches their original starting points o
n the disc. Find the angle
turned through bythe discwith respect to the ground.
Sol. vrel = v1 + R.
ad vrel = v2 + R.
. v1 = vrel
R.
and v2 = vrel
R.
. Li = Lf
. O = mv1R + mv2R
MR2
2
.
v1 vrel vrel
v2
or
MR2
2
. = mR (vrel R. + vrel
= 2mR (vrel
R.) ...(1)
. 2. = (v1 + R.) t
.
1 rel rel
2 2 2
v R v R R v
. . .
. .
. . . . . .
R.)

.
rel
t 2
v
.
. . . . . . ...(2)
Fromequation (1)
rel
MR 2mR 2mR v
2
.
. . .
or rel
M 2m 2m v
2
. . . . . .. ..
. rel 2mv
M/ 2 2m
. .
.
. rel
rel rel
2 2 2mv
v v M/ 2 2m
. .
. . . . . .
.
.
4 m 4 75 4 75 M 2m 225 150 375
2
. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .
4 radian
5
.
.
Example 73. Auniformdisc ofmassmand radiusRrotates about a fixed vertical axis p
assing through its centre
with angular velocity..Aparticle of samemassmand having velocity2.Rtowards centr
e of the disc collides
with the discmoving horizontallyand sticks to its rim. Find
(a) the angular velocityof the disc.
(b) the impulse on the particle due to disc.
(c) the impulse on the disc due to hinge.
Sol. (a)Applying conservationprinciple of angularmomentumabout centre of disc.
2 2
mR mR mR2
2 2
. .
. . . . . . . . O
.
2
2
mR
3 3 2 mR
2
.
. . . .
.
(b) Fydt = Jy = 2 m.R
x x
F dt J mR mR
3
.
. . . .
. 2 2 2
x y
J J J mR 2 1
9
. . . . .
mR 37
3
. .
=
37 m R
3
.

Example 74. Ablock ofmassmis attached to a pulley disc of equalmassm, radius r b
y
means of a slack string as shown. The pulley is hinged about its centre on a hor
izontal
table and the block is projectedwith an initial velocityof 5m/s. Its velocitywhe
n the
string becomes taut will be
(A) 3 m/s (B) 2.5m/s (C) 5/3m/s (D) 10/3m/s
Sol. For block,
Tdt =mv mv0
For disc, rTdt = I.
or 2
Tdt I Iv
r r
.
. .
or 0
mv mv mv
2
. .
or 0
v v v 3 v
2 2
. . .
. 0
v 2 v 2 5 10 m/ s
3 3 3
. . . . Hence (D) is correct.
Example 75. Auniformrod of length l is given an impulse at right angles to its l
ength as
shown. Find the distance of instantaneous centre ofrotation fromthe centreof the
rod.
cm
impulse
x
Sol. Let instantaneous axis of rotation is passing through point O.
vcm y. = 0
. vcm = y.
\ cm y . v
. y x Fdt
O
vcm
C
Here Fdt = mvcm
xFdt = I..=
m 2
12
. l
or
m 2 Fdt
12 x
.
. l
or
2
cm
mv m
12x
.
. l
2
cm y v
12 x
. .
.
l
Example 76. Asolid sphere ofmassmand radiusR is
rface.Asudden belowis
given horizontallyto the sphere at a height h =
is the impulse of the blowthen
find
(a) theminimumtime afterwhich the highest point
(b) the displacement ofthe centre ofmass during
placed on a smooth horizontal su

4R/5 above the centre line. If I
Bwilltouch the ground.
this internal.

Sol. (a) Here Fdt = mvcm
and hFdt = Icm .
or h I 2 mR2
5
. .
Fdt
or 4R I 2 mR2
4 5
. .
.
2 I
mR
. .
. . = .t
or . = .t
.
t mR
2I
. .
. .
.
(b) Fdt = mvcm
or I = mvcm
. cm
v I
m
.
. cm
S v t I mR R
m 2I 2
. .
. . . .
Angular momentum conservation in collision
Ifwe consider a ball collidingwith a bat, and neglected the force exerted byhand
during collision, there is no
external torque and bodies are freely colliding.
Ifwepivot a bodyand then consider another bodycollidingwith it, the pivot exerts
an impulsive external force,
in general. The external force acting onthe systemduring collisionis not negligi
ble.
Case (a): Free collision of free extended bodies:We use two conservation laws in
this case.
(i) Totalmomentumis conserved.
(ii)Angularmomentumabout any point is cosnerved.
Case (b) Pivoted bodies: In this case, external force ( ext F
.
) on the system
arises frompivot (O) and is considerable.
O
r.
N
(i) Totalmomentumis not conserved. N
(ii) Angularmomentumis conserved about the pivot.
ROTATIONAL COLLISIONAND ANGUALR MOMENTUM
We have discussed head on and oblique collisions. In this sectionwewilldiscuss t
he different cases of collision
of two bodies inwhich during or after collision rotationalmotion ofthe body is a
lso taken into account.

m u
A
L
B
A
L
v B
w
We first discuss teh simples case of a collsionwhich is shown in figure.ArodAB o
fmassMand length Lis
hinged at the pointA, is hangingvertically.Asmallballofmassmmovingwitha speed uh
orizontallystrikes the
endBof the rod elastically.Let us consider that after collision the rodwill star
t rotatingwithangular speed .
and the ball continues to move forward with a less speed v. Sot the ballmay rebo
und but we need not to
consider this case, as ifballwill rebound, the result willgive thevelocityvnegat
ive. The values ofv andwin this
problemcan be obtained in twoways using energy and angular momentumconservation
or using impulse
equations.
Note about hinge at pointA: Students should note that when ballwill strike the r
od, anexternal impulsewill
be developed at the hingewhichwillprevent and rod to move forward, as rod as onl
yrotate, can not translate.
Due to this external linear momentumof the systemcan not be conserved but angula
r momentumcan be
conserved about the hinge.
As stated in above paragraph, herewe cannot use linearmomentumconservation but a
s so external torque is
present we use angularmomentumconservation about the hinge as
muL=mvL+
ML2
3
. .
. .
. .
. .....(i)
Heremulis the angularmomentumof the ballbefore striking the rod and it is the on
lyangularmomentumbefore
collision as rodis at rest.After collisionaas ballwillmovewitha speedvin same di
rection, its angularmomentum
ismul and that of rod is I.as it starts rotationwith initial angular velocity..
As collision is elasticwe use kinetic energyconservation before and after collis
on is
1
2 mu2 =
1
2 mv2 +
1
2
ML2
3
. .
. .
. .
.....(ii)
Nowusing the above two equations, we get the values of v and ..

The other wayof solving this problems is by breaking equation (i). It can be
broken in two parts if required in some problems using impulse equations.
Again consider the initial case when ball strikes the rod, a rnormal force is
developed between the surface of ball and that of rod due to the push of ball
against rod, the situtation is shown in figure. This interaction for F acts for
a
short duration (say dt) when the ball and rod are in contact. It retards the bal
l
and its torque accelerates the rod in anticlockwise direction.We can use the
impuse equatons for ball (linear) and rod (angular).
m u
A
L
Fdt B
Formotion ofball, we have the linear impulse equation is Fdt
mu = Fdt = mv .....(iii)
Formotion ofrod, we have the angular impulse equation as
0 + Fdt = I.
or FLdt =
ML2
3
. .
. .
. .
. .....(iv)

Ifwe use the above two equations alongwith equation(ii),we can solve the problem
.Here ifeqauation(iii) and
(iv) aremerged, it results equation (i). This type ofworking might be ofmore uti
lity in solving the problem
instead of directlyusing energyconservations.
The previous casemight also be ofinelastic or partical elastic collision. If in
previous problemwith same initial
conditions the collisionis partical elastic and the coefficient of restitution i
s given as e, the angularmomentum
conservationequation(i) remains same as no externaltorque is actingbut nowwe can
not use enrgyconservation
as collision is not perfectlyelastic.Herewe use the definition of coefficient of
restitution that it is the ratio of
velocityof separtion after collision on the velocityof approach before collision
. In this case it is used as
e =
L v
u
. .
or L.= v eu .....(v)
Solving the equations (i) and (v), we get the results v and .. If this collision
were perfectlyinelastic, we use
e = 0,which comes fromequation (v), v = L., as no separation occurs inperfectlyi
nelastic collision.Here it is
important to be noted that the ball and rodwillbe separate even if inelastic col
lision takes place because ball is
in translationalmotion and rod is in rotationalmotion. Figure explains the situa
tion.
m u
A
L
B
A
L
v B
.
e = 0 v = L.
m u
A
L
B
A
B
.
Now we consider onemore when ball sticks to the end of the rod and will rotate a
longwith the rod. It is a
specific type of inelastic collision as ballsticks to rod.Here againwe can neith
er use energy conservation nor
the coefficient ofrestitutionequation.Onlyangularmomentumconservationequationis
sufficient for solving the
solving the problemas one of previous varialbes reduces, the linear velocityof t
he ball. Consider figure. Ball
and rodwillstart together in rotationwith an initial angular velocityw.Thuswewri
te the angularmomentum
conservation equation as
muL= I. [H = I =M.I. of rod plus ball]
muL =
2
ML mL2
3
. .
. . .
. .
. .....(vi)
Heremoment of inertia of the systemtakencombined that of rod pulsballas both are
inrotationalmotionwith
angular velocitywafter collision. Example (vi)willgive us the angular velocity.o
fthe system.
Now we discuss another case when rod is not hinged at end end.
Consider the collision shown in figure. Here rodAB is placed on a
smooth surfacewhich is free to move on it and ballmoving shown in
figure.
m u
A
L
B
A
L
B
v1
.
d
v2
As no externalforce is acting onthe system, herewe canalso conserve
linearmomentumalongwith angularmomentum.Whenthe ballstrikes
the rod, the instantaneous axis of rotationis taken at the centre of the
rod hence the equation of angularmomentumconservation iswritten
abut the centre of the rod. If after collision, ballmoveswith speed v1
and centre of rodmoveswith some angular velocity, let it be ., then
according to angularmomentumconsevationwe have.

mud = mv1d l.
or mud = mv1d +
ML2
12
. .
. .
. .
. ....(vii)
Fromlinearmomentumconservation, we have
mu = mv1 +Mv2 .....(viii)
Equations (vi), (vii) and (viii) gives the unknown parameters after collisions v
1, v2 and . ifthis collision is not
elastic,we use coefficient of restitution instead of energyconvervationequation
(iv), as
e = 2 1 (v d ) v
u
. . .
.....(ix)
Here v2 + d. is the linear speed of point P after collision as rod moves transla
tionallywith velocity v2 and
rotateswith angular velocity.and v1 is the finalvelocityof the ball after collis
ion. For inelastic collisions, e can
be taken as zero.
Example 77. Arod of lengthRandmassMis free to rotation about ta horizontal axis
passing through hinge P as in figure. First it is taken aside such that it becom
es
horizontaland thenreleased.At the lowest point the rod hits the blockB ofmassm
and stops. Find the ratio ofmasses such that the block B completes the circle.
Neglect anyfriction.
M P R
m
B
Sol. Minimumvelocityrequired byblock m to complete themotionin 5gR conservingmecha
nical energy
1 I 2 Mg R
2 2
. . .
MgR
I
. .
Cons. angularmomentumwrt P before&after collision.
I. . m.R 5gR
I . MgR mR 5gR
I
.
R.M m
P
5gR
MgRI = m2R2 5 gR
puting
ML2 MR2
I
3 3
. . (since L= R)
M 15
m
.
Example 78:Arod ofmassMis lying on a smooth horizontal table.Asmall disc sliding

at speedV0 hits the rod at
one end normal to its length. The disc comes to a stop just after the collision.
(a) Write the velocityof the centre ofmass of the rod just after the collision.
(b) Write the angular velocity ofthe rod about its CMjust after collision.
(c) Howmuch distance does the rodmove in one rotation about CM?
Sol: Since there isno external force onthe rod + disc system,momentumis conserve
d.Let Vbe thevelocityofCM
of the rod.

(a) Conservingmomentum,
mv0 + M 0 = m 0 + MV
V = 0 mv
M .....(i) .
M
m
v
(b) Angularmomentumconservation about a point of space initiallycoincidingwith
the centre of the rod:
mv0
L
2 = I.
ML2
12
. .
...... = 0 6mv
ML .....(ii)
(c) As there is no friction, the rod slideswith constant velocity after the coll
ision. Let itmove by s in time t.
In one rotation angle turned is 2..Hence
2. = .t .....(iii)
. s =
v2.
.
= 0 mv
M
0
2
6mv
ML
.
. .
. .
. .
=
L
3
Example 79. ArodACoflengthLandmassmis kept on a horizontal smooth plane. It is f
ree to rotate andmove.
Aparticle of same massmmovingwith velocity v strikes rod at point B which is at
a distance L/4 frommid
pointmaking angle 37 with the rod.The collision is elastic.After collision find
(a) the angular velocityof the rod.
l/4
37
A B C
(b) the distancewhich centre of the rodwill travel in the time inwhich it makes
halfrotation.
(c) the impulse ofthe impact force.
Sol. (a) The ballhas v, component ofits velocityperpendicular to the length of ro
d immediatelyafter the collision
u is velocity ofCOMof the rod and .is angular velocityof the rod, just after col
lision. The ball strikes the rod
with speed v cos 53 inperpendicular direction and its component along the lengtho
f the rod after the collision
is unchanged.
Using for the point of collision.
Velocity of separation=Velocity of approach

V
D
u
3v u v
5 4
. . . . . . . . . .
l
...(1)
Conserving linearmomentum(of rod + particle), in the direction . to the rod.
mv . 3 mu mv
5
. . ...(2)
Conserving angularmoment about point D as shownin the figure

m 2 0 0 mu
4 12
. .
. . . . ..
. .
l l
u
3
.
. l
...(3)
Bysolving
u 24 v , W 72 v
55 55
. .
l
(b) Time taken to rotate by . angle t =
.
. l/4 Ndt
In the same time, distance travelled = u2 . t = 3
. l
Using angular impulse-angularmomentumequation.
m 2 72 v N . dt . .
4 4 55
. . l l
l
N . dt 24mv
55
. .
or using impulse momentumequation onRod
Ndt mu 24m
55
. . .
Example 80: In the previous example for what ratio
m
M is the collision elastic ?
Sol: For elastic collisioninitialkinetic energyshould be equal to theKE just aft
er the collision. That is,
Ki = Kf
20
1 mv
2 = 0 +
1
2 MV2 +
1
2 I.2
=
1
2 MV2+
1
2
ML2
12
.2
=
1
2 M.
2
0 mv
M
. .
.. .. +
1
2
ML2
12
2
0 6mv
ML
. .
. .
. .
. m =
m2
M
+ 3
m2
M
1 = 4
m
M
.
m
M =
1
4

Example 81:Asmall disc and a thin uniformrod of length L, whosemass is . times g
reater than themas of disc,
lie on a smooth horizontalplane.The disc is set inmotion, in horizontaldirection
and perpendicular to the rod,
with velocityv, after which it elastically collideswith the end of the rod. Find
the velocity of the disc angular
velocity of the rod after the collision.At what value of hwill the velocityof th
e disc after the collision be equal
to zero ?Reverse the direction ?
Sol: The situation is shown in figure. Ifmass of disc ism, thenmass of rod hm. i
f v1 and v2 be the velocities of the
disc and rod after collision, using linearmomentumconservation,we have
mv =mv1 + hmv2
or v = v1 + .v2 ....(x)
If after collision, rod starts rotatingwith angular speedw, using consrvation of
angularmomentumwe have
mv
L
2 =
mL2
12
. . .
. .
. .
. + mv1
L
2
or v =
1
6
.L.+ v1
or . = 1 6(v v )
L
.
. .....(xi)
As collision is elastic, using kinetic energyconservation,we get
1
2 mv2= 2
1
1 mv
2 + 22
1 v
2
. + 1 I 2
2
.
or v2 = 2
1 v +
3
. (v - v1)2 + .
2
1
2
(v . v )
.
Solving for v1,we get
v1 =
4
4
. .
. . v
Herewe can see that v1 is zero if h = 4 and v1will be negative when . > 4.
Example 82. On a smooth table two particles of mass m each, travelling with a
velocity v0 in opposite directions, strike the ends of a rigidmassless rod of le
ngth
l, kept perpendicular to their velocity. The particles stick to the rod after th
e
collision. Find the tension in rod during subsequent motion.
v0 m
l
v0 m
Sol. 0 0 mv mv I
2 2
l . l . .
.
2
0
m
mv
2
. . l l
or
2
0
m
mv
2
. . l l
. 0 2v . .
l
.
2
2 0 2v
T m m
2 2
. . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. ..
l l
l
.
2
0 2mv
T .
l

Example 83. Asolid uniformsphere of radius RandmassMrollswithout slipping
with angular velocity w0 when it encounters a step of height 0.4 R. Find the
angular velocityimmediatelyafter inelastic impact withthe rough step.
0
h
Sol. Applying conservatio principle of angularmomentumabout point of impact,
mvcm (R
h) + Icm .0 = I.
. . 2 2
0 0
mR R h 2 mR 7 mR
5 5
. . . . . .
or 2 2
0 0
7 mR mRh 7 mR
5 5
. . . . .
or 0 0
7 R h 7 R
5 5
. . . . .
. 0
5 7 5h
7R 5
. . . . . . . . . .
0
5 7R 5h
7R 5
. . . . . . . . . .
0 .7R 2R.
7R
.
. . .
0 5
7
.
. .
CONCEPT OF TOPPLING
Rolling is generallya difficult concept to grasp. The primaryquestionthat rises
in
the students mind is howcan a point in the body have zero velocityand yet the F
bodymoves forward. Let us consider a simple example as shown in figure. Fig. : F
orce acting on a flat body
Assume that a force F acts on a flat body as shown above.
How will the body move ?
Obviouslythe bodywillmove forward translationally.The situation is shown
infigure.
v
Fig. : Motion of the body
v
All points in the body willmove with the same velocity and acceleration. Therefo
re, the bodywill move
translationally. Nowassume that the bodybecomes lesswide.
What will the situation be ?
This is shown in figure. Fig. : Force acting on a
body with less width
F
In this case as well, the body is likely to move translationally. However as the
body
becomes less and lesswide, something else happens. Let us nowconsider the situat
ion
infigure.
In this case as the force Fincreases, the frictional force also increases.At som
e point

the bodystarts toppling.At this instance the bodytopples about point A. themotio
n in
this situationis shown in figure. Fig. : Force on a very
thin body
F
As the force increases, the bodystarts toppling about point A.The bodynowhas
fallen down.Let us step back and consider the situationin greater depth.
Fig. : Body topples
F
A
Obviously this kind ofmotion is not translational. The bodyhasmoved forward
as awhole.We can say that though because the centre ofmass of the body has
moved, yet themotion has not been translational.What canwe sayabout the
motion ?We can observe the following points :
Different points in the bodymovewith different velocities and accelerations.Wher
eas the topmost point has
the greatest velocity, the point Ahas zero velocity.
The point of contact Ais at rest, evenwhile the bodymoves.
The bodyhasmoved forward evenwhen one point has zero velocity.
We cantherefore conclude that the bodycanmove forward even if a single point in
the bodyhas zero velocity.
each one of these points is shown below:
Different points in the bodymovewith different velocities and accelerations.Wher
eas
the topmost point has the greatest velocity, point Ahas zero velocity.This is sh
own in
figure.
Fig. : Different points have
different velocities
v
v1
v2
The point of contact Ais at rest, evenwhile the bodymoves.This is shownin figure
.
Fig. : Point A has zero velocity.
Velocity profile of other points
0
A
The body hasmoved forward evenwhenone point has zero velocity and zero
acceleration. This is shown in figure.
Fig. : Point has moved
F
B
C
F
The centre ofmasswas initially at B. It has thenmoved forward to point C. Theref
ore the bodyhasmoved
forward.
We call this kind ofmotion toppling.Nowlet us look at when exactly a bodywill to
pple :
Abodywill topple when the base is smaller.
Abodywilltopplewhen the force exerted is higher fromthe ground level.
Abodyresting on a surface,whichhas friction, ismore likely to topple.
Look at the situation below.
Which body is more likely to topple ?
F
B
F
C
Fig. :Which body will topple ?
Which body will topple ?

Obviously body B, because bodyC is wider then bodyB. This illustrates the first
point that for a body to
topple, the base has to be smaller.
Consider the next situation now:
F
B F C
In this case, thewidth is the same.
In the second case, the height at which the force is applied is lower.Therefore
the bodyas shownfirst is likely
to topple.
If the surface has no friction, the bodywill bemore likely to move by pure trans
lation than by toppling.
Look at the situation below.
C
F
F
C
Obviously the the square, because it has a lesswide base.Why? Explanations follo
w.
Similarly, we can see that a pentagon ismore likelyto topple than a square. Simi
larly
an octagonwill bemore likely tomove by toppling than a pentagon. Therefore, we
have seen that as the body becomes less and less wide, it tends to move more and
more bytoppling.
F
Fig. : An octagon is more likely
to move by toppling
The question, however, still remains unanswered.
How and when will a body move by translation and when will it move
by pure translation ?
Let us consider the situation shownin figure
F
B b
a A
Fig. : When will the
body topple ?
Assume that thewidth is a and height is b. Let us drawthe force diagram, just as
the bodyis about to topple.Assume that () is the coefficient of friction.We know
fromthe earlier discussions that the bodywill topplewhen the normal force shifts
to the rightmost point.
For the bodyto topple about A, takingmoments about A, (whydowe take point A?
Becausemaximumnumber of force i.e. friction and normalforce pass throughA. It is
also correct to take torque about centre ofmass, though thiswillbe lengthier).
F
B
b
a A
Fig. : Force diagram on the body
mg N
Total torque = Fb
mga
2
If torque > 0 then the body topples.

There F >
mga
2b
What thismeans is that
If F <
mga
2b then bodywillmove in pure translation andwillnot topple.
If F >
mga
2b , the bodywill topple.
Let us studythe concept to toppling in a littlemoremathematical detail.Whilewe o
utline every scenari, tryto
visualize physicallythemotion of the body.
We have alreadyestablished that for force F >
mga
2b , the bodywill start moving by topping.
Let us nowbring into this picture the friction,width and height of the force and
study toppling.
Consider first a square body ofwidth a.Assume that the force is applied at the t
op of
the square.Assume also that the coefficient of friction is . The situation is sho
wn in
figure.
F
mg
f
Coefficient of friction =
Fig. : Condition for
toppling a square
N
Using the equations described above, the bodywilltopple for force
F >
mga
2b (since a = b).
The bodywill topplewhen F >
mg
2 or F > 0.5 mg
If the coefficient of friction = 0.2 what will happen to the square ? Will it to
pple or translate ?
For the body to just topple or translate, the force equations are same. The forc
e equation for just toppling or
just translation is
F f = 0 . F = f ...(1)
N mg = 0 . N = mg; f.mg
If =0.2,Maximumfrictional force = 0.2mg
Therefore using equation (1) the force required to move the body by translation
is F = 0.2 mg. The Force
required to topple the body is F = 0.5mg.
Therefore transalation happens first. The bodywill translate and not topple.
What happens if the coefficient of friction is 0.6 ?
In such a case, the force required to topple is F = 0.5 mg. This remains unchang
ed. However the force
required to move the body by translation is 0.6mg. In this case topplingwill tak
e place first.
We can nowsummarize the scenario below:
For > 0.5, the bodywillmove by toppling.
For < 0.5, the bodywillmove by translation.
ROTATIONAL MECHANICS ROTATIONAL MECHANICS

This off course assumes that the force is exerted at the top.
What happens if the force is exerted at any other point ?
Insuchacase, thecoefficientoffrictionwillhavetobehighertomovethebodybytoppling.V
isualizethis. It
isverydifficult for asquaretotopple.it requiresaveryroughsurface(>0.5).
What is the value of frictional forces when < 0.5 and > 0.5 ?
The figure explains it all.
F=mg F<mg
N
Coefficient of friction = < 0.5
Moves by translation
Friction = mg
Coefficient of friction = > 0.5
Moves by translation
Friction < mg
mg mg
f = mg f < mg
A A
N
Note the interesting fact in the second case. The body topples and moves. but du
ring this time f < mg.
We allknow that when a body translates frictional force = mg.
The interesting thing to note is that a body a shown above can move in other met
hods
translation. It can topple.
not necessarilyby just
And what happens when the body topples ?
The body moves, but yet frictional force < mg. This is a very important point. St
udents need to visualize this
scenario very clearly in their minds. When the body topples, frictional force is
less than mg.Also it requires
less effort to move a body. This is a classic property of toppling.
Let us summarize the characteristics of toppling that we have alreadydiscussed e
arlier :
All points have different velocities and accelerations.
The lowermost point will have zero velocity and acceleration when the body just
starts toppling.
Frictional force is less than the maximumvalue of friction.
If this is the case, why doesn t a square body not topple so easily ?
Thereasonisverysimple. Thecoefficient offrictionsneedsto behigherthan0.5for asqu
arebodyto topple
(assuming that the force acts at the topmost point). This does not happen in rea
lity because if = 0.5, the
surface must reallybe very rough. Most surfaces are smoother than this. Hence a
square bodyprefers to move
bytranslationandnotbytoppling.
Itrequireslesseffortorforcetomovethebodybytoppling.
mg NAF
But now let us consider a hexagon. a hexagon. Again assume that the coefficient
of
friction is and that the forceis being exerted at the top.Assume the widthof the
sides
to be a.
Fig. : Force required to
topple a hexagon
Again we can take torque about A. The side of the hexagonis a. Therefore the hei
ght
will be a tan 60. You can easily see that this is the case, by looking at figure
.
Fig. : Height is a tan 60
a
a tan 60
60

mga
The torque about A is, Fatan60
=0
2
mga
Therefore the body will topple for F >
2 tan 60
Now tan 60 ~ 1.732. Therefore the body will topple for F > 0.21 mg
You can now see the huge difference. for < 0.21, the body will translate and for
> 0.21, the body will
topple.
The situation is again reproduced below
Coefficient of friction = < 0.21
Moves by translation Friction = mg
mg N
F
A
f = mg
Coefficient of friction = > 0.21
Moves by translation Friction < mg
mg N
F
A
f = mg
Fig. : Motion for toppling a hexagon body
Again the same conditions that were discussed before, regarding toppling hold tr
ue. When a body just topples,
the coefficient of friction is less than mg. The point of constact is a rest (i.e
. point A). Different points have
different accelerations.
These are typical characteristics of toppling and you should now be clear about
these.
Note that we can make an interesting observation. The value of required to make
a square topple is 0.5,
whereas the value of required to make a hexagon topple is 0.21. this obviously b
ears out the fact that it is
easier to topple a hexagon than a square. Similarly you will find that the minim
um value of required to make
a body topple will decrease if the body is an octagon. It will reduce stillfurth
er for a decagon. This means that
a decagon willmove by toppling more easily than bypure translation. The force re
quired to move it by toppling
is less.
What can we say about an infinite-sided polygon ?
Extending the same logic, you will find that for values of < 0, the body will top
ple.
What does this mean ?
The body always topples. Even if a small force is applied, the body will topple.
Therefore note the interesting
observation. Circular bodiesmove predominantlybytoppling.Againlet us reproduce t
heproperties oftoppling
here.
All points have different velocities and accelerations.
Thelowermostpointwillhavezerovelocityandaccelerationwhenthebodyjuststartstopplin
g.
Frictionalforceislessthanthemaximumvalueoffriction.
Itrequiresverylittleefforttomoveabodybytoppling.
Thesearepreciselythepropertiesoftopplingacircularbodyaswell. Theonlydifferenceis
that sincetheside
of the circle is 0, virtuallyno forceis requiredto topplethebody.Thebodymovesbyt
opplingand F<N.
Now let us introduce a very interesting property. Toppling is Rolling. Theyare o
ne and the same. Visualize
toppling motion and you canvisualize rolling motion. If you look at the properti
es oftoppling described above,
these are exactlythe properties of rolling.

Toppling is thereforethe same as rolling. To visualize rolling motion always thi
nk oftoppling motion. It is easier
to visualize toppling.
How does a body move when it is toppled ?
This is shown below
F F FC
B A
C
A B C
Fig. : Visualization of toppling
To start with, A is at the edge. During the first round of toppling, A is at res
t and B falls down. Now the body
topples about point B. Point C touches the gound. In the next round, the body to
pples about point C.
An interesting point to observe here is that the body topples about different po
ints. First it is point A, which is
at rest, and the body topples about A. Then the body topples about point B and B
is at rest.
Therefore different points have zero velocities and accelerations.
This is exactly the situation with rolling as well. In rolling the point of cont
act has zero motion. This point
however keeps on changing. It is veryimportant for the students to be able to vi
sualize toppling and understand
rolling in this contaxt.
To summarize
Toppling is the same as rolling.
During toppling or rolling F < mg.
It requires negligible force to topple or roll a disc.
Point of contact has zero motion with respect to the surface.
Different points have zero motion at different points of time.
Another questionthat the student mayask is what happensin the case ofa hexagon
if the value of the force F > 0.21 mg. In such a case, the bodywilldifinitelytop
ple,
but the point of contact will also move. This will not have zero acceleration. T
his
is shown in figure.
Coefficient of friction = 0.21
A
Acceleration
f = mg
F > 0.21 mg
Fig. : Value of force is higher than
the force required to topple.
The point of contact will move. The body will topple, but in a different way. th
e
point of contact moves. We call this kind of motion sliding or skidding. Notice
that when a body slides or skids,
Frictionalforce
mg and not less than mg.
What is the minimum force required for the body to topple ?
Thebodywilltopplewhenthenormalforcepassesthroughtheedge. Theforce
diagramat this stage is shownin figure.
taking torque about point A we have

body is just going to topple.
mg (1/2)= 4F
F = (1/8)Mg = 0.125 mg
Theforcerequiredforthebodytomovebytranslationis0.2mg, butthebodytoppleswhenthefo
rceis0.125
Fig. : Force diagram when
mg
A
N
Mass=1 kg
F
f

mg. Therefore, it is obvious that the bodywill topple before it translates.
Example 84. Auniformcube of side b and massMrest on a rough horizontal table.A
horizontal force Fis applied normal to oneof the face at a point, at a height 3b
/4 above
the base.What should be the coefficient of friction() between cube and table so t
hat
iswill tip about an edge before it starts slipping ?
F
b 3b/4
(A) > 2/3 (B) > 1/3 (C) > 3/2 (D) None
Sol.
mg b F 3b
2 4
. ...(1)
F = f < mg ...(2)
F < mg
2mg g
3
.
or
2
3
Example 85. Auniformcylinder rests on a cart as shown.The coefficient of static
friction
between the cylinder and the cart is 0.5. If the cylinder is 4 cmin diameter and
10 cm
in height, which of the following is theminimumacceleration of the cart needed t
o
cause the cylinder to tip over ?
(A) 2m/s2 (B) 4 m/s2
(C) 5 m/s2 (D) the cylinderwould slide before it begins to tip over.
Sol. Taking torque about O,
ma0 5 > mg 2
or 0
a 2g
4
.
ma0
a0
mg
O
. 2
0min
a 2 10 4 m/ s
5
.
. . Hence (B) is correct.
ROTATIONALMECHANICS
THINKING PROBLEMS
1. Can the mass of a body be taken to be concentrated at its centre of mass for
the purpose of calculating its
rotationalinertia?
2. If two circular discs of the sameweight and thickness aremade frommetals ofdi
fferent densities,whichdiscwill
have the largermoment of inertia about its central axis?
3. About what axiswould a uniformcube have itsminimumrotational inertia?
4. Consider four bodies : a ring, a cube, a disc and a sphere.All the bodies hav
e the samemass. The ring, disc and
sphere have the same diameter, equalto the length ofthe cube on eachedge.All rot
ate about their axes through
their respective centres ofmass.Which one has the largestmoment of inertia?
Which is the smallest?
5. Aperson can distinguish between a rawegg and a hard boiled one byspinning eac
h one on a table. Explain.
6. Awooden sphere rolls down two different inclined planes of the same height bu
t different inclines.Will it reach
the bottomwith the same speed in each case ?Will it take longer to roll down one
incline than the other? If so,
which one and why ?
7. Aman, withtwo equalmasses held at arm s length, stands on a rotating table. If
hemoves themasses and puts
themover his shoulders, does this change his speed of rotation? Explain.
8. Astudent stands on a platformthat can rotate onlyabout a vertical axis. In hi
s hand he holds the axle of a rimloaded
bicyclewheelwith its axis vertical. Thewheel is spinning about the verticalaxisw
ithan angular speed .0,
but the student and the platformare at rest. The student turns the wheel through
180, that is, the axle of the
wheel is held downward by the student.What happens ?
9. Adiver can turn several somersaults before strikingwater. Explain.
10.Showthat in the course of diving, the rotational kinetic energy of a diver, t
urning somersaults before striking
water, increases.What is the source of this increased energy?
11. If the polar ice capsmelt and spread uniformly, howwill the length of the da
ybe affected ?
12.Acircular turntable rotates at constant angular velocity about a vertical axi
s. There is no friction and no driving
torque.Anicepan containing ice also rotates alongwith it.The icemelts but none o
f thewater escapes fromthe
pan. Is the velocity nowgreater, the same as, or less than the originalvelocity?
Give reasons for your answer.
13.In order to get a billiard ball to rollwithout sliding fromthe start, the cue
must hit the ball not at the centre but
exactly at a height of 2/5 Rabove the centre, where Ris the radius of the sphere
. Explain.
14.Astudent standson a turntablewitha rim-loaded bicyclewheel. he holds the shaf
t of thewheelverticaland inthe
beginning, there is no motion of the turntable. Now the student is asked to rota
te the wheel in a clockwise
direction relative to him.What happens to themotion ofturntable + student?
15.The melting of the polar ice caps is supposed to be a possible cause of the v
ariation of the earth s time of
rotation.Explain.
ROTATIONALMECHANICS
SOLUTION OF THINKING PROBLEMS
1. No.
2. 2
1 1
1
2
I = mr and 2
2 2
1
2
I = mr
2
1 1
2
2 2
I r
I r
=
Now 2 2
1 1 2 2 m . . r t. . . r t.
.
2
1 2
2
2 1
r
r
.
.
.
. 1 2
2 1
I
I
.
.
. or
I 1
.
.
Thus, the one with greater density will have less rotational inertial.
3. About a diagonal, because the mass is more concentrated about a diagonal.
4. I (ring) = (1/4)ma2 where a is the length of each edge of the cube,
I (cube) = (1/6)ma2, I (disc) = (1/8)ma2, I (sphere) = (1/10) ma2.
I1 : I2 : I3 : I4 = 1/4 : 1/6 : 1/8 : 1/10 = 30 : 20 : 15 : 15.
Thus, the ring has the greatest moment of inertia and the sphere the smallest.
5. The hard boiled egg will continue to sping if they are momentarily stopped an
d then let go.
6. The acceleration down an inclined plane is given by a = g sin ../(1 + k2/r2)
where k is the radius of gyration.
h (height of the plane) = s sin . where s is the length of the plane.
Now 2 2 ( 2 2 ) 1 1 sin / 1 /
2 2
s = at = g a t + k r
. t2 sin2 a = constant
. t .1/ sin.
Thus, the greater the time of descent the less the inclination to the horizontal
.
Now 2
2 2
2 2 sin
1 / sin
v as g h
k r
.
.
. .
.
. v = a constant
Thus, the sphere will reach the bottom with the same speed, whatever be the incl
ination.
7. The only external force acting on the system (man + table) is gravity and rea
ction of the ground, and those
exert no torque about the axis of rotation. Hence, the angular momentum of the s
ystem is conserved about
this axis. When the man puts the masses on his shoulders, the moment of inertia
of the system about the
axis decreases and so the angular speed of the system increases.
8. The platfor starts rotating with almost double the initial angular momentum o
f the wheel. To justify this, let
us consider wheel + student + platform asour system. The initial angular momentum
of the system is I0.0,
where I0 is the moment of inertia of the wheel about the vertical axis. Since th
ere is no external torque on
the system about the vertical axis, the angular momentum about the vertical axis
must be conserved about
this axis. Let I be the moment of inertia of student + platform about the vertical
axis. The angular momentum
of the wheel about the vertical axis is now I0.0.
Let . be the angular velocity of the platform. Then by the principle of conserva
tion of angular momentum
I0.0 = I0.0 + I. or I. = 2I0.0 . 0 . . 2.
on account of negligible m.i. of the platform.
ROTATIONALMECHANICS
9. Let us consider the diver as a system and his limbs as its components. When h
e leaves the diving board, he
has a certain angular speed .0 about the horizontal axis through his centre of m
ass. Now there are no
external forces acting on him except gravity, and gravity exerts no torque about
his centre of mass. His
angular momentum remains constant, and I0.0 = I.. When he pulls in his limbs, hi
s moment of inertia
decreases and consequently, his angular velocity increases.
10. Since the diver is free from external torque about the horizontal axis throu
gh his centre of mass, his angular
momentum remains constant. Therefore.
I0.0 = I. or 2 2 2 2
I0w0 = I w ....(i)
When he pulls in his limbs, his moment of inertia about the horizontal axis decr
eases.
. I < I0 or
0
1 1
I I
> or
2 2 2 2
0 0
0
1 I 1 . I
I I
. . . .
or 2 2
0 0
1 1
2 2
I. . I .
The source of this increased kinetic energy is the diver himself, who does work
when he pulls the parts of
his body together. His body energy is converted into his kinetic energy.
11. If the polar ice caps were to melt, the water formed would spread on the sur
face of the earth and so its
moment of inertia would increase. By the law of conservation of angular momentum
, the speed of rotation
would be reduced, that is, the length of the day would increase.
12. Due to the accumulation of mass near the edge, the moment of inertia of the
system increases and so the
angular velocity of the system decreases.
13. Let the ball be struck by a horizontal force F at a height d above the centr
e. Then the torque exerted by it
on the ball about its centre of F.d. By the formula . = I., we have F.d =
2
5 MR2 .
Let a be the acceleration of the centre of mass produced by this force. Then F =
Ma. For rolling without
sliding, v = .R and a = ...R; . F = M ..R
. 2 2
5
M. R . d . MR .. .
2
5
d = R
14. The system (turntable + student) will turn in the opposite direction. Since
the entire system is free from
external torques, the angular momentum of the system (wheel + turntable + studen
t) remain constant at
zero. If I = moment of inertia of turntable + student and I0 = moment of inertia
about the vertical axis of
rotation of the table and .0 = angular velocity of rotation (relative to the ear
th), then
I0.0 + I..= 0
or 0 0 I
I
.
. . .
15. A liquid of given mass has less inertia for rotational motion than the same
mass of solid because a liquid
cannot sustain shearing force. It always tends to move translation-wise. Hence,
the melting of the ice caps
would result in the reduction of the rotational inertia of the earth and hence,
the angular speed of rotation of
the earth would increase or time of rotation decrease. If water were to spread u
niformly, the result would
be as in Example 11.
ROTATIONALMECHANICS
ASSERTION & REASON
Astatement of Statement-1 is given and a Corresponding statement of Statement-2
is given just belowit of
the statements,mark the correct answer as
(A) If both Statement-1 and Statement-2 are true and Statement-2 is the correct
explanation ofStatement-1.
(B) If both Statement-1 and Statement-2 are true and Statement-2 isNOT correct e
xplanation ofStatement-1.
(C) If Statement-1 is true but Statement-2 is false.
(D) If both Statement-1 and Statement-2 are false.
(E) IfStatement-1 is false but Statement-2 is true.
1. Statement-1 : In pure rollingmotion, net work done by friction is zero.
Statement-2 : Sumof translationalwork done by friction and rotationalwork done b
y friction is zero.
2. Statement-1 : Auniformsolid cylinder rolling with angular velocity . along a
plane surface strikes a
vertical rigid wall.Angular velocity of cylinder when it begins to roll up a wal
l is less
than the initialAngular velocity (.).
Statement-2 : After striking the verticalwall angular velocity
3. Statement-1 : If bodies slide down an inclined plane without rolling then all
bodies reach the bottom
simultaneously.
Statement-2 : Acceleration of all bodies are equal and independent of the shape.
4. Statement-1 : The force of friction in the case of a disc rollingwithout slip
ping down an inclined plane
is zero.
Statement-2 : When the disc rolls without slipping, friction is required because
for rolling condition
velocity of point of contact is zero.
5. Statement-1 : As the radius of earth reduces by 50% without any change in mas
s, length of a day
reduces.
Statement-2 : Angular momentumconservation provides drop in time as . decreases
to 25%of the
original.
6. Statement-1 : If there is no external torque on a body about its centre ofmas
s, then the velocity of the
centre ofmass remains constant.
Statement-2 : The linearmomentumof an isolated systemremains constant. [JEE, 07]
MATCH THE COLUMN
1. A circular body of mass M and radius R, initially spinning about its centre o
f mass with 0 . is gently placed
on a rough horizontal surface. The moment of inertia of body about its C.M. is 2
.CM . MK . If the coefficient
of friction between the body and the surface is . then:
Column I Column II
(A) Translational work done by the friction (P) ve
(B) Rotational work done by the friction (Q) +ve
(C) Larger the moment of inertia of body, the time (R) smaller
required for rolling motion
(D) Larger the moment of inertia of the body, (S) longer
work done by the friction
(T) greater
ROTATIONALMECHANICS
2. In the following column - I mass of each object is m and circular of radius R
. Column - II represents moment
of inertia.
Column I Column II
(A) Full ring (P) mR2
(B) Half ring (Q)
2
2
mR
(C) Quarter ring (R)
2
4
mR
(D) Arc making an angle . at the centre (S) 2
2
mR .
.
3. Suppose a force Of is applied at the top most point of a rigid body of radius
R and mass M.
Column I Column II
(A) Force of friction will be zero for (P) Solid sphere
(B) Force of friction will be forward for (Q) Zero
(C) Force of friction will be backward for (R) Ring
(D) If a . R. then force of friction (S) No body
4. A rigid body of mass M and radius R rolling without slipping on the inclined
plane, then the magnitude of force
of friction.
Column I Column II
(A) For ring (P) Mg Sin. 2.5
(B) For solid sphere (Q) Mg Sin. 3
(C) For solid cylinder (R) Mg Sin. 3.5
(D) For hollow sphere (S) Mg Sin. 2
5. A rigid body is rolling without slipping on the horizontal surface
Column I Column II
(A) Velocity at point A i.e. A V (P) V 2
(B) Velocity at point B i.e. B V (Q) Zero
(C) Velocity at point C i.e. C V (R) V
(D) Velocity at point D is i.e. D V (S) 2 V
1
LEVEL
1. A ring of mass 0.3 kg and radius 0.1 m and a solid cylinder of mass 0.4 kg an
d of the same radius are given,
kinetic energy and released simultaneously on a flat horizontal surface such tha
t they begin to roll with the
same KE as soon as released towards a wall which is at the same distance from th
e ring and the cylinder.
Then:
(A) The cylinder will reach the wall first. (B) The ring will reach the wall fir
st.
(C) Both will reach the wall simultaneously. (D) None of the above.
2. A solid homogeneous sphere is moving on a rough horizontal surface, partially
rolling and partly sliding.
During this kind of motion of the sphere:
(A) total KE is conserved.
(B) angular momentum of the sphere about the point of contact is conserved.
(C) only the rotational KE about centre of mass is conserved.
(D) angular momentum about the centre of mass is conserved.
ROTATIONALMECHANICS
3. The angular momentum of a projectile (in X-Y plane) about origin (point of pr
ojection) at time t has:
(A) only Z component. (B) only X and Y components.
(C) All the three X, Y and Z components. (D) only Y-component.
4. A solid sphere of radius R and mass M is pulled by a force F acting at
the top of the sphere as shown in figure. Friction coefficient is sufficient
F
Rough
enough to provide rolling without slipping. Work done by force F when
the centre of mass moves a distance S is :
(A) FS (B) 2FS (C) Zero (D)
3
2
FS
5. A body of mass M slides down an inclined plane and reaches the bottom with ve
locity v. If a ring of same mass
rolls down the same inclined plane, what will be its velocity on reaching the bo
ttom?
(A) v (B) v 2 (C) 2 v (D) v 2
6. A sphere cannot roll on:
(A) a smooth horizontal surface. (B) a smooth inclined surface.
(C) a rough horizontal surface. (D) a rough inclined surface.
7. A thin spherical shell of radius R lying on a rough horizontal surface is hit
sharply and horizontally by a cue.
At what height from the ground should it be hit so that the shell does not slip
on the surface?
(A) 2 3.R (B) 5 4.R (C) 5 3.R (D) 3 2.R
8. What is the moment of inertia of a triangular plate ABC of
mass M and side BC = a about an axis passing through A,
A
B C
45 a 45
shown in figure and perpendicular to the plane of the plate?
(A)
2
6
Ma
(B)
3 2
4
Ma
(C)
2
24
Ma
(D)
2
12
Ma
9. A thin circular ring of mass M and radius r is rotating about its axis with a
constant angular velocity w, Two
objects, each of mass m, are attached gently to the opposite ends of a diameter
of the ring. The wheel now
rotates with an angular velocity. (1983)
(A) . .
wM
M .m (B)
. .
. .
2
2
w M m
M m
.
. (C) . 2 .
wM
M . m (D)
w.M 2m.
M
.
10. Two point masses of 0.3 kg and 0.7 kg are fixed at the ends of a rod of leng
th 1.4 m and of negligible mass.
the rod is set rotating about an axis perpendicular to its length with a uniform
angular speed. The point on the
rod through which the axis should pass in order that the work required for rotat
ion of the rod is minimum, is
located at a distance of (1995)
(A) 0.42 m from mass 0.3 kg (B) 0.70 m from mass 0.7 kg
(C) 0.98 m from mass 0.3 kg (D) 0.98 m from mass 0.7 kg
11. A cubical block of side a is moving with velocity V on a horizontal
smooth plane as shown in Figure. It hits a ridge at point O. The
M V
O
a
angular speed of the block after it hits O is(1999)
(A) 3V .4a. (B) 3V .2a. (C) 3V . 2a . (D) Zero
12. An equilateral triangle ABC formed from a uniform wire has two small
identical beads initially located at A. The triangle is set rotating
about the vertical axis AO. Then the beads are released from rest
simultaneously and allowed to slide down, one along AB and the
other along AC as shown. Neglecting frictional effects, the quantities
ROTATIONALMECHANICS
that are conserved as the beads slide down, are (2000)
(A) angular velocity and total energy (kinetic and potential)
(B) Total angular momentum and total energy
(C) angular velocity and moment of inertia about the axis of rotation.
(D) total angular momentum and moment of inertia about the axis of rotation.
13. One quarter sector is cut from a uniform circular disc of radius
R. This sector has mass M. It is made to rotate about a line
perpendicular to its plane and passing through the center of the
original disc. Its moment of inertia about the axis of rotation is (2001)
(A) 1 2
2
MR (B) 1 2
4
MR (C) 1 2
8
MR (D) 2MR2
14. A cylinder rolls up an inclined plane, reaches some height, and then rolls d
own (without slipping throughout
these motions). The direction of the frictional force acting on the cylinder are
(2002)
(A) up the incline while ascending and down the incline descending.
(B) up the incline while ascending as well as descending.
(C) down the incline while ascending and up the incline while descending
(D) down the incline while ascending as well as descending.
15. A circular platform is free to rotate in a horizontal plane about a vertical
axis passing through its centre. A
tortoise is sitting at the edge of the platform. Now, the platform is given an a
ngular velocity 0 . . When the
tortoise move along a chord of the platform with a constant velocity (with respe
ct to the platform), the angular
velocity of the platform . .t . will vary with time t as (2002)
(A) .0
.(t)
(B) .0
.(t)
(C) .0
.(t)
(D) .0
.(t)
16. Consider a body, shown in figure, consisting of two identical
balls, each of mass M connected by a light rigid rod. If an impulse M M
J = MV
L
J = MV is imparted to the body at one of its ends, what would be
its angular velocity? (2003)
(A) V L (B) 2V L (C) V 3L (D) V 4L
17. A particle undergoes uniform circular motion. About which point on the plane
of the circle, will the angular
momentum of the particle remain conserved? (2003)
(A) centre of the circle (B) on the circumference of the circle.
(C) inside the circle (D) outside the circle.
18. A horizontal circular plate is rotating about a vertical axis passing throug
h its centre with an angular velocity
0 . . A man sitting at the centre having two blocks in his hands stretches out h
is hands so that the moment
of inertia of the system doubles. If the kinetic energy of the system is K initi
ally, its final kinetic energy will be
(2004)
(A) 2 K (B) K 2 (C) K (D) K 4
19. A disc is rolling without slipping with angular velocity . . P
and Q are two points equidistant from the centre C. The
C P
Q
order of magnitude of velocity is (2004)
(A) Q C P V . V .V (B) P C Q V . V . V
(C) P C V .V , 2 Q C V .V (D) P C Q V .V . V
ROTATIONALMECHANICS
20. A block of mass m is at rest under the action of
force F against a wall as shown in figure. Which
of the following statement is incorrect? (2005)
(A) . = mg [where . is the friction force]
(B) F = N [where N is the normal force]
(C) F will not produce torque (D) N will not produce torque
21. A particle is confined to rotate in a circular path decreasing linear speed,
then which of the following is
correct? (2005)
(A) L
. (angular momentum) is conserved about the centre
(B) only direction of angular momentum L
. is conserved
(C) It spirals towards the centre
(D) Its acceleration is towards the centre.
22. Select the correct statement(s):
(A) A particle performs uniform circular motion with an angular momentum L. If t
he frequency of particle s
motion is doubled and its KE is halved, the angular momentum becomes one-fourth.
(B) If a particle moves in X-Y plane, the resultant angular momentum about origi
n has only Z-component.
(C) A particle is moving along a straight line parallel to X-axis with constant
velocity. Its angular momentum
about the origin decreases with time.
(D) Action of angular impulse is to change the angular momentum.
23. Aring, a cube, a cylinder, a prism and a sphere all having equalmasses, equa
l heights and equalmaximum width:
(A) The cube has the largest moment of inertia about an axis perpendicular to cr
oss-section and passing
through the centre of mass.
(B) The ring has the largest moment of inertia about the axis mentioned above.
(C) The cylinder has the smallest moment of inertia.
(D) The sphere has the smallest moment of inertia.
24. Select the correct alternative(s):
(A) The mass of a body can be taken to be concentrated at its centre of mass for
the purpose of calculating
its rotational inertia.
(B) Two circular discs of the same mass and thickness are made from metals of di
fferent densities, the one
with greater density will have less rotational inertia about its central axis.
(C) About an axis passing through diagonally opposite ends of a uniform cube, ha
ve its minimum rotational
inertia.
(D) None of these.
(A) A very small particle rests on the top of a hemisphere of radius 20 cm. The
smallest horizontal velocity
to be given to it, if it is to leave the hemisphere without sliding down its sur
face, is 3.2 m/s.
(B) A solid cylinder at rest at the top of an inclined plane of height 2.7m roll
s down without slipping. If the
same cylinder has to slide down a frictionless inclined plane and acquires the s
ame velocity as that
acquired by the centre of mass of the rolling cylinder at the bottom of the incl
ined plane, the height of
the inclined plane should be 1.8m.
(C) Three thin rods each of mass M and length L are welded so as to form an equi
lateral triangle. The
moment of inertia of the triangle about an axis perpendicular to the plane of tr
iangle and passing through
of its vertices is 3 2
2
ML .
(D) None of these.
26. Two boys of equal masses are sliding freely on smooth horizontal surface wit
h the same speed v on parallel
straight paths in opposite directions. The paths are separated by a perpendicula
r distance d. One of the boys
carries a light pole of length d, held firmly at one end. The other boy grasps t
he other end of the pole just when
they are crossing each other. Which of the following statements is/are true for
the subsequent motion?
ROTATIONALMECHANICS
(A) Each boy moves in a circular path of radius d 2 with a constant speed v.
(B) The tension in the pole remains constant.
(C) They come to rest when the pole has rotated through 90 to lie along the direc
tion of original motion.
(D) The tension in the pole varies with time.
27. A uniform rod AB of length . is free to rotate about a horizontal axis
passing through A as shown in figure. The rod is released from rest from
horizontal position. If the rod gets broken at mid-point C when it becomes
A
B
C
vertical, just after breaking of the rod:
(A) Angular velocity of upper part starts to decrease while that of
lower part remains constant.
(B) Angular velocity of upper part starts to decrease while that of lower part s
tarts to increase.
(C) Angular velocity of both the parts is identical.
(D) Angular velocity of lower part becomes equal to zero.
(E) lower part falls vertically.
28. If 1 . is the moment of inertia of a thin rod about an axis perpendicular to
its length and passing through its
centre of mass and 2 . is the moment of inertia of the ring formed by bending th
e rod, then:
(A) 2
2 1 . . . 4. (B) 2
2 1 . . . . (C) 2 1 . . . 0.3 (D) 2
1 2 . . .. 3
29. If the polar ice caps melt and spread uniformly:
(A) The moment of inertial of the earth about centroidal axis would increase.
(B) The moment of inertia of the earth about centroidal axis would decrease.
(C) Length of the day would increase.
(D) The speed of rotation would be reduced.
30. A sphere is rolling down a plane of inclination . to the horizontal. The acc
eleration of its centre, down the
plane is:
(A) g sin . (B) less than g sin . (C) greater than g sin . (D) greater than .g s
in. . 2
31. The moment of inertia of the pulley system shown in figure is 4 kg m2.
The radii of bigger and smaller pulleys are 2m and 1m, respectively. The
1m
2m
4 kg
5 kg
angular acceleration of the pulley system is:
(A) 2.1 rad/s2 (B) 4.2 rad/s2
(C) 1.2 rad/s2 (D) 0.6 rad/s2.
32. Two masses 1 kg and 2 kg are connected by an inextensible light thread passi
ng over a pulley of mass 2 kg
and radius 20 cm. There is no slipping anywhere:
(A) Tensions at the two sides of the pulley will be different. (B) Accelerations
of the two blocks will be g 4 .
(C) Ratio of tensions on the two sides will be 5 6 (D) Ratio of tensions on the
two sides will be 1 2 .
33. A tube of length L is filled completely with an incompressible liquid of mas
s M and closed at both the ends.
The tube is then rotated in a horizontal plane about one of tis ends with a unif
orm angular velocity .. The force
exerted by the liquid at the other end is :

(A) M.2 L 2 (B) M.2L (C) M.2 L 4 (D) M.2 L2 2
34. Let . be the moment of inertia of a uniform square plate about an axis AB th
at passes through its centre and
is parallel to two of its sides. CD is a line in the plane of the plate that pas
ses through the centre of the plate
and makes an angle . with AB. The moment of inertia of the plate about the axis
CD is then equal to:
(A) . (B) . sin2. (C) . cos2. (D) . cos2 .. 2.
ROTATIONALMECHANICS
35. A rod of mass M kg and length L metre is bent in the form of an
equilateral triangle as shown in the figure. The moment of inertia of
O
triangle about a vertical axis to perpendicular to the plane of
triangle and passing through the centre (in units of kg m2) is
(A)
2
12
ML
(B)
2
54
ML
(C)
2
162
ML
(D)
2
108
ML
36. A cord is wound round the circumference of a solid cylinder of radius R
and mass M. The axis of the cylinder is horizontal. A weight mg is attached
to the end of the cord and falls from rest. After falling through a distance h,
the angular velocity of the cylinder will be
(A)
2
2
mg
M . m (B)
2gh
R (C) . . 2
4
2
mgh
M . m R (D)
37. A disc of moment of inertia . is rotating about its axis, which is initially
along the vertical direction, making n
revolution per minute. The axis gradually tilts becomes horizontal and the disc
rotates about the horizontal
axis with the same revolution per minute. The total time, taken in doing so is t
seconds then the torque acting
on the body is
(A) Zero (B)
2
60
n
t
. .
(C)
2 2
60
n
t
. .
(D) None of the above.
38. From the circular disc of radius R and mass M, a concentric circular disc of
small radius r is cut and removed,

the mass of which is m. the moment of inertia of the angular disc remaining, abo
ut its axis perpendicular to
the plane and passing through the centre of mass will be
(A) . 2 2 . 1
2
M R . r (B) 1 . .. 2 2 .
2
M .m R . r
(C) . .. 2 2 . 1
2
M .m R . r (D) 1 . 2 2 .
2
MR .mr
39. Three discs each of mass M and radius R are placed in contact with each
other as shown in the figure here. Then the M. of the system about an XX is:
(A)
2
4
MR
(B)
11 2
4
MR
(C) 2 2
3
MR (D) 7MR2
40. In which case, it is easier to rotate?
(A) Case I (B) Case II (C) same (D) data is insufficient
41. A small mass m is attached to the rim of a circular disc of mass M and radiu
s R. The disc rotates with angular
velocity . about an axis passing through the centre O of the disc and perpendicu
lar to its plane. Then the
angular momentum of the system will be
(A) 1 2
2
MR . (B) MR2. (C)
2 2
2
M m R .
. . .
. .
. . (D) .M m.R. .
ROTATIONALMECHANICS
42. When a force F acts on a side of the hexagonal body will
(A) topple (B) translate
(C) both (D) None
43. A particle of mass m is moving along a straight line y = x + 4 with constant
velocity v, then angular momentum
of the particle about the origin is
(A) Zero (B) constant (C) decreasing continuously (D) increasing continuously
44. A cylinder can maintain its rolling motion on a
(A) rough horizontal surface (B) smooth horizontal surface
(C) rough inclined surface (D) smooth inclined surface
45. Choose the correct statement(s) for a particle moving along a circular path
of constant radius
(A) centripetal acceleration is always perpendicular to velocity vector.
(B) centripetal acceleration is always perpendicular to angular velocity vector.
(C) angular acceleration vector is always perpendicular to angular velocity vect
or.
(D) angular velocity vector is always perpendicular to the linear velocity vecto
r.
46. A solid sphere is executing rolling with slipping motion on a rough horizont
al surface
(A) The frictional force will always perform a negative work on the sphere.
(B) The work done by friction cannot be zero.
(C) The angular momentum of the sphere is conserved about its centre of mass.
(D) The angular momentum of the sphere is conserved about any point on the horiz
ontal surface.
47. A solid sphere of mass M and radius R is pulled horizontally on a rough surf
ace as shown in the figure.
Choose the incorrect alternatives
(A) The acceleration of the centre of mass is F M .
(B) The acceleration of the centre of mass is
2
3
F
M .
CM
F
(C) The frictional force on the sphere acts forward. Rough Surface
(D) The magnitude of the frictional force is F 3 .
48. A constant force F is applied at the top of ring as shown in figure.
Mass and the radius of the ring are M and R respectively. Angular
F
M R
momentum about the point of contact at time t
(A) is constant (B) increases linearly with time
(C) is 2. FRt (D) 2FRt
49. A disc of radius R rolls on a horizontal surface with linear velocity V
and angular velocity .. There is a point P on circumference of disc
at angle . , which has a vertical velocity. Here . is equal to
(A) sin 1 V
R
.
.
. . (B) sin 1
2
V
R
.
.
. .
(C) cos 1 V
R
.
.
. . (D) cos 1 V
R
.
.
. .
50. Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct for a spherical body roll
ing without slipping on a rough
horizontal surface at rest
(A) the acceleration of the point of contact with the ground is zero.
(B) the speed of some of the point(s) is/are zero.
(C) frictional force may or may not be zero
(D) work done by friction may or may not be zero.
ROTATIONALMECHANICS
51. A 2kg mass attached to a string of length 1m moves in a horizontal circle as
a conical pendulum. The string
makes an angle . = 30 with the vertical. Select the correct alternative(s) (g = 1
0 m/s2).
(A) The horizontal component of angular momentum of mass about the point of supp
ort P is approximately
2.9 kg m2/s.
(B) The vertical component of angular momentum of mass about the point of suppor
t P is approximately 1.7
kg m2/s.
(C) The magnitude of
dL
dt ( L
. angular momentum of mass about point of support P) is approximately
2
2 10 kgm
s .
(D)
dL
dt
. .
.
will not hold good in this case.
52. A particle of mass m is travelling with a constant velocity v .V0 .
along the line y = b, z = 0. Let dA be the area
swept out by the position vector of (from origin) particle in time dt and L is t
hemagnitude of angular momentum
of particle about origin at any time t. Then
(A) L = constant (B) L . constant (C)
dA 2L
dt m
. (D) 2
dA L
dt m
.
53. A uniform rod kept on the ground falls from its vertical position. Its foot
does not slip on the ground.
(A) No part of the rod can have acceleration greater than g in any position
(B) At any one position of rod, different points on it have different accelerati
on.
(C) Any one particular point on the rod has different acceleration at different
positions of the rod.
(D) The maximum acceleration of any point on the rod, at any position is 1.5 g.
54. A thin uniform rod of mass m and length . is free to rotate about its upper
end. when it is at rest, it receives
an impulse J at its lowest point, normal to its length. Immediately, after impac
t
(A) the angular momentum of rod is jl . (B) the angular velocity of rod is
3J
ml .
(C) the kinetic energy of rod is
3 2
2
J
m . (D) the linear velocity of mid point of rod is
3
2
J
m .
55. The torque . .
on a body about a given point is found to be equal to A. L
. . where A .
is a constant vector and
L
. is the angular momentum of the body about this point. It follows that:
(A)
dL
dt is perpendicular to L
. at all instant of time.
(B) the component of L
. in the direction of A .
does not change with time.
(C) the magnitude of L
. does not change with time.
(D) L
. does not change with time.
56. Two particles A and B initially at rest, move towards each other under mutua
l force of attraction. At the instant
when the speed of A is V and the speed of B is 2V, the speed of the centre of ma
ss of the system is
(A) 3 V (B) V (C) 1.5 V (D) Zero (JEE, 1982)
57. When a bicycle is in motion, the force of friction exerted by the ground on
the two wheels is such that it acts
(A) in the backward direction on the front wheel and in the forward direction on
the rear wheel.
(B) in the forward direction on the front wheel and in the backward direction on
the rear wheel.
(C) in the backward direction on both the front and the rear wheels.
(D) in the forward direction on both the front the rear wheels. (JEE, 1990)
ROTATIONALMECHANICS
58. Two particles, each of mass m and charge q, are attached to the two ends of
a light rigid rod of length 2R. The
rod is rotated at constant angular speed about a perpendicular axis passing thro
ugh its centre. the ratio of the
magnitudes of the magnetic moment of the system and its angular momentum about t
he centre of the rod is
(JEE, 1998)
(A) q/2m (B) q/m (C) 2q/m (D) q/.m
59. Let . be the moment of inertia of a uniform square plate about an axis AB th
at passes through its centre and
is parallel to two of its sides. CD is a line in the plane of the plate that pas
ses through the centre of the plate
and makes an angle . with AB. The moment of inertia of the plate about the axis
CD is then equal to
(A) . (B) . sin2. (C) . cos2. (D) . cos2 .. 2. (JEE, 1998)
60. Let I be themoment of inertia of a uniformsquare plate about an axisABthat p
asses through its centre and is
parallel to two of its sides. CDis a line in the plane of the plate that passes
through the centre of the plate and
makes as angle .withAB.Themoment of inertia of the plate about the axis CDis the
n equal to [JEE, 98]
(A) I (B) I sin2 . (C) I cos2 . (D) I cos2 (./2)
61. The torque . .
on a bodyabout a given point is found to be equal to A. L
.. .. whereA.. is a constant vector andL..
is the angularmomentumof the body about that point. Fromthis it follows that [JE
E, 98]
(A) dL/ dt
.. is perpendicular to L.. at all instants of time
(B) the components ofL.. in the direction ofA.. does not changewith time
(C) themagnitude ofL.. does not changewith time (D) L.. does not changewith time
62. Asmooth sphereAismoving on a frictionless horizontalplanewithangular speed .
and centre ofmass velocity
v. It collides elastically and head onwith an identical sphere B at rest. Neglec
t friction everywhere.After the
collision, their angularspeeds are .A and .B, respectively.Then [JEE, 99]
(A) .A < .B (B) .A = .B (C) .A = . (D) .B = .
63. A disc of massM and radius R is rolling with angular speed . on a horizontal
as
shown. Themagnitude of angularmomentumofthe disc about the originOis :
[JEE, 99]
y
O x
M
(A) (1/2)MR2. (B)MR2. (C) (3/2)MR2. (D) 2MR2.
64. Acubicalblock of sideLrest ona rough horizontal surfacewithcoefficient of fr
iction
.Ahorizontalforce F is applied on the block as shown. If the coefficient of frict
ion is
sufficientlyhigh so that the block does not slide before toppling, theminimumfor
ce
F
L
required to topple the block is : [JEE, (Scr) 2000]
)
(A) infinitesimal (B)mg/4 (C)mg/2 (D)mg(1
65.Athinwire oflengthLand uniformlinearmass density. isbent into a circular loop
with
centre at Oas shown. Themoment of inertia of the loop about the axisXX is :
[JEE, (Scr) 2000]
60
O
x x
B
(A) .L3/8.2 (B) .L3/16.2 (C) 5.L3/16.2 (D) 3.L3/8.2
66. Two particles eachofmassMare connected by amassless rod of length l. The rod
is
lying on the smooth surface. If one of the particle is given an impulseMVas show
n in
the figure thenangular velocityof the rodwould be : [JEE, (Scr) 03]
(A) v/l (B) 2v/l (C) v/2l (D) None Mv M
ROTATIONALMECHANICS
67. Adisc hasmass 9m.Ahole of radius R/3 is cut fromit as shown in the figure. T
he
moment ofinertia ofremaining part about an axis passing through the centre O ofthe
disc and perpendicular to the plane of the disc is : [JEE, (Scr) 05]
2R/3
R
Q
R/3
(A) 8 mR2 (B) 4mR2 (C)
40
9 mR2 (D)
37
9 mR2
68. Aparticlemoves in circular pathwith decreasing speed.Which of the following
is correct
(A) L.. is constant (B) only direction of L.. is constant [JEE, (Scr) 05]
(C) acceleration a
. is towards the centre (D) itwillmove in a spiral and finally reach the centre
69. Asolid sphere ofmassM, radiusR and havingmoment of inertia about an axis pas
sing through the centre of
mass as I, is recast into a disc of thickkness t, whosemoment of inertia about a
n axis passing through its edge
and perpendicular to its plane remains I.Then, radius of the discwill be [JEE, 0
6]
(A) 2R / 15 (B) R 2 /15 (C) 4R / 15 (D) R/4
70. Asolid cylinder ofmassmand radius r is rolling on a rough inclined plane of
inclination .. The coefficient of
friction between the cylinder and incline is . Then [JEE, 06]
(A) frictionalforce is always mg cos . (B) friction is a dissipative force
(C) bydecreasing ., frictional force decreases (D) friction opposes translation
and supports rotation
71. Aballmoves over a fixed track as shown in the figure. FromAto Bthe ball roll
s
without slipping. SurfaceBC is frictionless. KA, KB andKC are kinetic energies
of the ball atA, B and C, respectively. Then hA hC
C
A
B
(A) hA > hC ; KB > KC (B) hA > hC ; KC > KA
(C) hA = hC ; KB = KC (D) hA < hC ; KB > KC [JEE, 06]
72. Asmallobject of uniformdensityrolls up a curved surfacewith aninitialvelocit
yv. It
reaches up to amaximumheight of 3v2/(4g) with respect to the initialposition. Th
e
object is [JEE, 07] v
(A) ring (B) solid sphere (C) hollowsphere (D) disc
FILL IN THE BLANKS
1. A uniform cube of side a and mass m rests on a rough horizontal table. A hori
zontal force F is applied normal
to one of the faces at a point that is directly above the centre of the face, at
a height 3a 4 above the base.
The minimum value of F for which the cube begins to tip about the edge is ......
..... (Assume that the cube
does not slide). (1984)
2. According to Kepler s second law, the radius vector to a planet from the sun sw
eeps out equal area in equal
intervals of time. This law is a consequence of the conservation of ............

.... (1985)
3. A smooth uniform rod of length L and mass M has two identical beads of neglig
ible size, each of mass m,
which can slide freely along the rod. Initially the two beads are at the centre
of the rod and the system is
rotating with an angular velocity 0 . about an axis perpendicular to the rod and
passing through the midpoint
of the rod (see figure). There are no external forces.
ROTATIONALMECHANICS
When the beads reach the ends of the rod, the angular velocity of the system is
.............. (1988)
4. A cylinder of mass M and radius R is resting on a horizontal platform (which
is parallel to the x-y plane) with
its axis fixed along the y-axis and free to rotate about its axis. The platform
is given a motion in the x-direction
given by x = A cos ( . t). There is no slipping between the cylinder and platfor
m. The maximum torque acting
on the cylinder during its motion is ................ (1988)
5. A stone of mass m, tied to the end of a string, is whirled around in a horizo
ntal circle. (Neglect the force due
to gravity). The length of the string is reduced gradually keeping the angular m
omentum of the stone about the
centre of the circle constant. Then, the tension in the string is given by T = A
rn where A is a constant, r is the
instantaneous radius of the circle and n = ....................... (1993)
6. The ratio of Earth s orbital angular momentum (about the Sun) to its mass is 4.
4 x 1015 m2/s. The area
enclosed by Earth s orbit approximately ........... m2. (1997)
7. A uniform disc of mass m and radius R is rolling up a rough inclined plane wh
ich makes an angle of 30 with
the horizontal. If the coefficients of static and kinetic friction are each equa
l to . and the only forces acting
are gravitational and frictional, then the magnitude of the frictional force act
ing on the disc is ........... and its
direction is .............. (wire up or down) the inclined plane. (1997)
8. A rod of weight w is supported by two parallel knife edges A and B and is in
equilibrium in a horizontal
position. the knives are at a distance d from each other. The centre of mass of
the rod is at distance x from
A. The normal reaction on A is ........... and on B is ................. (1997)
9. A symmetric lamina of mass M consists of a square shape with a
semicircular section over of the edge of the square as shown in
Figure. The side of the square is 2a. The moment of inertia of the
lamina about an axis through its centre of mass and perpendicular
O
2a
A B
to the plane is 1.6 Ma2. The moment of inertia of the lamina about
the tangent AB in the plane of the lamina is .................... (1997)
TRUE & FALSE
10. A triangular plate of uniform thickness and density is made to rotate
about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the paper and (a) passing
through A, (b) passing B, by the application of the same force, F, at C
A C B
F
(midpoint of AB) as shown in the figure. The angular acceleration in
both the cases will be the same. (1985)
11. A thin uniform circular disc of mass M and radius R is rotating in a horizon
tal plane about an axis passing
through its centre and perpendicular to its plane with an angular velocity .. An
other disc of the same dimensions
but of mass M 4 is placed gently on the first disc coaxially. The angular veloci
ty of the system now is
2. 5 . (1986)
ROTATIONALMECHANICS
12. A ring of mass 0.3 kg and radius 0.1 m and a solid cylinder of mass 0.4 kg a
nd of the same radius are given
the same kinetic energy and released simultaneously on a flat horizontal surface
such that they begin to roll
as soon as released towards a wall which is at the same distance from the ring a
nd the cylinder. The rolling
friction in both cases is negligible. The cylinder will reach the wall first. (1
989)
PASSAGE
PASSAGE
1
Moment of inertia is a physical term which oppose the change in rotational motio
n. Moment of inertia
depends on distribution of mass, shape of the body as well as distance from the
rotational axis. Moment of
linearmomentum is called angular momentum. If no external torque act on the syst
em then angular momentum
of the system remains conserved. Geometrical meaning of angular momentum relates
to the areal velocity.
1. Mass M is distributed over the rod of length L. If linear mass
density ( . ) linearly increases with length as . = Kx. The M. . .
of the rod about one end perpendicular to rod i.e. (YY )
(A)
2
3
ML
(B)
2
12
ML
(C) 2 2
3
ML (D)
4
4
KL
2. Four holes of radius R are cut from a thin square plate of side 4R and
X
Y
mass M. The moment of inertia of the remaining portion about z-axis.
(A) 2
12
MR .
(B)
4 2
3 4
MR . . . . . .
. .
(C)
4 2
3 6
MR . . . . . .
. . (D)
8 10 2
3 6
MR . . . . . .
. .
3. A particle of mass m is moving along the line y = 3x + 5 with speed V. The ma
gnitude of angular momentum

about origin is
(A)
5
12
mV (B)
5
2
mV (C)
1
2
mV (D)
1
3
mV
4. A hollow sphere is rolling without slipping total energy during rolling is 60
J, then
(A) translational K.E. = 36 J (B) rotational K.E. = 36 J
(C) translational K.E. = 24 J (D) rotational K.E. = 24 J
5. Acceleration of block of mass m1 is (given moment of inertia
of pulley is . and string does not slip over the pulley).
(A)
1 2
1 2
m m g
m m
. . .
. . . . .
(B)
. . 1 2
1 2 2
m m g
m m
R
.
. . . . . . .
. .
(C)
1 2 2
1 2
m m g
R
m m
. . . . . . .
. .
.
(D)
1 2 2
1 2 2
m m g
R
m m
R
. . . . . . .
. .
. . . . . . .
. .
ROTATIONALMECHANICS
PASSAGE
2
Angular velocity is defined as the rate of change of angular displacement.
The angular velocity is a measure of the degree of rotation of body. For a rigid
body . is constant. All angular
variable (such as angular displacement, angular velocity and angular acceleratio
n) are directed along the axis
of rotation and perpendicular to plane. Rotating rigid object has two accelerati
on, one centripetal and other
tangential both accelerations being normal to each other.
6. A disc of radius R rolls on a horizontal ground with linear acceleration
a and angular acceleration . as shown in figure.
The magnitude of acceleration of point P at an instant, when its linear
velocity is V and angular velocity is . , will be:
(A) .a . ra.2 . .r.2 .2 (B)
ar
R (C) r2a2 . r2.4 (D) r.
7. A disc is rotating clockwise at 20 radian/sec. Its centre has velocity 30 m/s
in the forward direction. It has
radius of 20 m. Then
(A) velocity of topmost point is 430 m/s in forward direction.
(B) velocity of lowermost point is 370 m/s in backward direction.
(C) velocity of topmost point is 400 m/s (forward).
(D) velocity of lower most point is 50 m/s (forward).
8. The topmost and bottom most points have velocities V1 and V2 in the same dire
ction. The radius of sphere is
R. Then the correct option are
(A) Angular velocity of sphere about cm is 1 2
2
V V clockwise
R
.
.
.
(B) The Linear velocity at point P is 1 2 3
P 4
V V V .
. .
(C) The Linear velocity at point Q is 1 2
3 1 3
2 2
V V
. .
. . . .
. .
.
(D) Velocity of centre of mass is 1 2
2
.V .V .
. .
. . .
9. Three identical rods, each of mass m and length . are joined to form
a rigid equilateral triangle. Its radius of gyration about an axis passing
.
.
.
60
through a corner and perpendicular to the plane of the triangle is
(A) 2
l
(B)
3
2
l (C) 2
l
(D) l 3
10. A Disc of mass M and radius R is rolling with angular speed . on Y
O X
M
.
V
a horizontal plane as shown in figure,
The magnitude of angular momentum of the disc about O is
(A)
2
2
MR . (B) 2 MR . (C) 3 2
2
MR . (D) 2MR2.
PASSAGE
3
In figure 1, the winch is mounted n an axle, and the 6-sided nut is welded ot th
e winch. By turning the nut
with a wrench, a person can rotate the winch. For instance, turning the nut cloc
kwise lifts the block off the
ground, because more and more rope gets wrapped around the winch.
Three students agree that using a longer wrench makes it easier to turn the winc
h. But they disagree
about why. All three students are talking about the case where the winch is used
, over a 10-second time
interval, to lift the block one meter off the ground.

Student : 1
By using a longer wrench, the person decreases the average force he must exert o
n the wrench, in order to
lift the block one meter in ten seconds.
nut
winch
block
Figure : 1
person grips
wrench here
Figure : 2
Student : 2
Using a longer wrench reduces the work done by the person as he uses the winch t
o lift the block one
meter in ten second.
Student : 3
Using a longer wrench reduces the power that the person must exert to lift the b
lock one meter in ten
seconds.
11. Student 1 is:
(A) Correct, because the torque that the wrench must exert to lift the block doe
sn t depend on the wrench s
length
(B) Correct, because using a longer wrench decreases the torque it must exert on
the winch.
(C) Incorrect, because the torque that the wrench must exert to lift the block d
oesn t depend on the wrench s
length.
(D) Incorrect, because using a longer wrench decreases the torque it must exert
on the wrench.
12. Which of the following is true about student 2 and 3?
(A) Students 2 and 3 are both correct.
(B) Student 2 is correct, but student 3 is incorrect.
(C) Student 3 is correct, but student 2 is incorrect.
(D) Students 2 and 3 are both incorrect.
13. If several wrenches all apply the same torque to a nut, which graph best exp
resses the relationship between
the force the person must apply to the wrench, and the length of the wrench?
(A)
length
force
(B)
length
force
(C)
length
force (D&&)
length
force
PASSAGE
4
When a force Of is applied on a block of mass m resting on a horizontal surface
then there are two
possibilities, either the block moves by translation or it moves by toppling. If
the surface is smooth then the
block always translates but on a rough surface it topples only when the torque o
f the applied force Of is
greater than the torque of mg about a point in contact with the ground.
When the force Of is applied the body may topple about A or it may translate.
F
m
a A
h
Answer the following question.
ROTATIONALMECHANICS
14. When the block topples about A, the normal force
(A) passes through centre of mass (B) is / zero
(C) shifts to the right and passes through right most edge containing A.
(D) is zero if the surface is smooth.
15. The block will move in pure translation if
(A)
F mga
h
. (B) 2
F mga
h
. (C) 2
F mga
h
. (D) None
16. The block will topple about A if
(A)
F mga
h
. (B) 2
F mga
h
. (C) 2
F mga
h
. (D) None
17. If the block be a cube of edge a and . = 0.2 then
(A) The body will translate (B) The body will topple
(C) The body may translate or topple (D) None
18. If the block is a cube of edge a and . = 0.6 then
(A) The body will translate (B) The body will topple
(C) The body first translates and then topples (D) None
PASSAGE
5
Two discs Aand B are mounted coaxially on a vertical axle. The discs have moment
s of inertia I and 2I
respectivelyabout the common axis.DiscAis imparated an initialangular velocity2.
usingthe entire potential
energy of a spring compressed bya distance x1.DiscBis imparted anangular velocit
y.bya spring having the
same spring constant and compressed bya distance x2. Both the discs rotate in th
e clockwise direction.
19. The ratio x1/x2 is [JEE, 07]
(A) 2 (B) 1/2 (C) 2 (D) 1/ 2
20. When discBis brought in contact with discA, theyacquire a common angular vel
ocityin time t.The average
frictional torque on one disc bythe other during this period is [JEE, 07]
(A) 2I./(3t) (B) 9I./(2t) (C) 9I./(4t) (D) 3I./(2t)
21. The loss of kinetic energy during the above process is [JEE, 07]
(A) I.2/2 (B) I.2/3 (C) I.2/4 (D) I.2/6
LEVEL 2
1. A uniform solid sphere of mass 1 kg and radius 10 cm is kept stationary on a
rough inclined plane by fixing
a highly dense particle at B. Inclination of plane is 37 with horizontal and AB i
s the diameter of the sphere
which is parallel to the plane, as shown in figure. Calculate:
ROTATIONALMECHANICS
(i) mass of the particle fixed at B, and
(ii) minimum required coefficient of friction between sphere and plane to keep s
phere in equilibrium.
2. A ball of radius R = 20 cm hasmassm = 0.75 kg andmoment of inertia (about its
diameter) . . 0.0125 kg m2 .
The ball rolls without sliding over a rough horizontal floor with velocity v0 =
10 ms 1 towards a smooth vertical
wall. If coefficient of restitution between the wall and the ball is e = 0.7, ca
lculate velocity v of the ball long
after the collision. (g = 10 ms 2).
3. AB is a horizontal diameter of a ball of mass m = 0.4 kg and radius R = 0.10
m.
At time t = 0, a sharp impulse is applied at B at angle of 45 with the horizontal
,
as shown in Figure so that the ball immediately starts to moves with velocity
v0 = 10 ms 1.
(i) Calculate the impulse
If coefficient of kinetic friction between the floor and the ball is . = 0.1, ca
lculate
(ii) velocity of ball when it stops sliding.
(iii) time t at that instant,
(iv) horizontal distance ravelled by the ball upto that instant.
(v) angular displacement of the ball about horizontal diameter perpendicular to
AB, upto that instant, and
(vi) energy lost due to friction.
4. A solid ball of diameter d = 11 cm is rotating about its one of the horizonta
l diameters with angular velocity
0 . .120 rad sec . It is released from a height so that it falls h = 1.8 m freel
y and then collides with the
horizontal floor. Co-efficient restitution is e . 5 6 and co-efficient of fricti
on between the ball and the ground
is . . 0.2 . Calculate fraction of energy lost during collision and the distance
between the points where the
ball strikes the floor for the first and second time.
5. A heavy plank of mass 102.5 kg is placed over two cylindrical rollers of radi
i R = 10 cm and r = 5 cm. Mass
of rollers is 40 kg and 20 kg respectively. Plank is pulled towards right by app
lying a horizontal force Of = 25
N as shown in Figure. During first second of motion the plank gets displaced by
10 cm.
If plank remains horizontal and slipping doesnot take place, calculate magnitude
and direction of force of
friction acting between
(i) plank and bigger roller. (ii) plank and smaller roller.
(iii) bigger roller and floor, and (iv) smaller roller and floor.
6. A wheel of radius R = 10 cm and moment of inertia I = 0.05 kg-m2 is rotating
about a fixed horizontal axis O
with angular velocity 0 . = 10 rad/sec. A uniform rigid rod of mass m = 3 kg and
length l = 50 cm is hinged
at one end A such that it can rotate about end A in a vertical plane. End B of t
he rod is tied with a thread as
shown in figure such that the rod is horizontal and is just in contact with the
surface of rotating wheel.
Horizontal distance between axis of rotation O if cylinder and A is equal to a =
30 cm.
If the wheel stops rotating after one second after the thread has burnt, calcula
te co-efficient of friction
. between the rod and the surface of the wheel. (g = 10 ms 2)
ROTATIONALMECHANICS
7. Two heavy and light cylindrical rollers of diameters D and d respectively res
t on a
horizontal plane as shown in figure.
The larger roller has a string wound round it to which a horizontal force P can
be
D
d
P
applied as shown. Assuming that the coefficient of friction . ahs the same value
for all surfaces of contact, determine the limits of . so that the larger roller
can be pulled over the smaller
one.
8. A block of mass m height 2h and width 2b rests on a flat car which moves hori
zontally with constant
acceleration a as shown in figure.
Determine:
(a) the value of the acceleration at which slipping of the block on the car star
ts, if the coefficient of friction
is .
(b) the value of the acceleration at which block topples about A, assuming suffi
cient friction to prevent
slipping and
(c) the shortest distance in which it can be stopped from a speed of 72 km/hr wi
th constant deceleration so
that the block is not disturbed.
The following data are given: b = 0.6 m, h = 0.9 m; = 0.5 and g = 9.8 m/s2.
9. A block of and M = 4 kg of height h and breath b is placed on a rough plank of sa
me mass M. A light
inextensible string is connected to the upper end of the block and passed throug
h a light smooth pulley as
shown in the figure.
A mass m = 1 kg is hung to the other end of the string.
(a) What should be the minimum value of coefficient of friction between the bloc
k and the plank so hat,
there is no slipping between the block and the wedge?
(b) Find the minimum value of b/h so that the block does not topple over the pla
nk, friction is absent
between the plank and the ground.
10. A homogeneous cylinder and a homogeneous sphere of equal massm = 20 kg and e
qual radii R are connected
together by a light frame and are free to roll without slipping down the plane i
nclined at 30 with the horizontal.
Determine the force in the frame.
Assume that the bearings are frictionless. Take g = 10 m/s2)
ROTATIONALMECHANICS
11. A uniform ring of mass m, radius a and centre C lies at rest on a smooth hor
izontal table. The plane of the ring
is horizontal. A point P on the circumference is struck horizontally and it begi
ns to move in a direction at 60
to PC. If the magnitude of impulse is mv 7 , find the initial speed of point P.
12. A solid cube of wood of side 2a and mass M is resting on a horizontal surfac
e.
The cube is constrained to rotate about an axis passing through D and perpendicu
lar
to face ABCD. A bullet of mass m and speed v is shot at a height of
4
3
a
as shown in figure.
The bullet becomes embedded in the cube. Find the minimum value of v r
equired to topple the cube. Assume m << M.
13. A semicircular ring of mass m and radius r is released from rest in the posi
tion shown with its lower edge
resting on a horizontal surface.
Find the minimum coefficient of static friction s .
. Which is necessary to prevent any initial slipping of the
ring.
[Hint: centre of mass of a semicircular ring lies at a distance of
2 r
. from centre]
14. A spherical ball of radius r and mass collides with a plank of mass M kept o
n
a smooth horizontal surface. Before impact, the centre of the ball has a velocit
y
v0 and angular velocity 0 . as shown. the normal velocity is reversed with same
magnitude and the ball stops rotating after the impact.
v0
.0
Find the distance on the plank between first two impacts of the ball. The
coefficient of friction between the ball and the plank is . . Assume that plank
is large enough.
15. A disc of mass M is lying on a frictionless horizontal surface. A small part
icle of
mass m strikes the edge of the disc with a velocity v0 in a tangential direction
of
disc and gets embedded in it, as shown in the figure. M
m
v0
Find the angular velocity of the disc just after the collision?
16. A solid hemisphere of mass M = 8 kg and radius R = 5m is supported at the
ends of the diameter of the circular cross-section. the supports are frictionles
s.
A particle of mass m = 1 kg is dropped freely from a height h and strikes the en
d
of the diameter of the circular section perpendicular to the diameter passing
thought he supports and sticks, as shown in the figure.
m
M
The hemisphere just reaches a position where the flat face of it is vertical. Fi
nd h. Also calculate the reactive
impulse J of the support during collision.
ROTATIONALMECHANICS
LEVEL
3
1. A block of mass M with a semicircular of radius R, rests on a horizontal
frictionless surface. A uniform cylinder of radius r and mass m is released
from rest at the top point A (see Figure). the cylinder slips on the
semicircular frictionless track. How far has the block moved when the
cylinder reaches the bottom (point B) of the track?
How fast is the block moving when the cylinder reaches the bottom of the track?
(JEE, 1983)
2. A homogeneous rod AB of length L = 1.8 m and mass M is pivoted at the centre
O in such a way that it can
rotate freely in the vertical plane (Figure). The rod is initially in the horizo
ntal position. An insect S of the
same mass M falls vertically with speed V on the point C, midway between the poi
nts O and B. Immediately
after falling, the insect moves towards the end B such that the rod rotates with
a constant angular velocity ..
(A) Determine the angular velocity . in terms of V and L. (JEE, 1992)
(B) If the insect reaches the end B when the rod has turned through an angle of
90, determine v.
3. A uniform thin rod of mass M and length L is standing vertically along the yaxis on a smooth horizontal
surface, with its lower end at the origin (0, 0). A slight disturbance at t = 0
causes the lower end to slip on the
smooth surface along the positive x-axis, and the rod starts falling. (JEE, 1993
)
(A) What is the path followed by the centre of mass of the rod during its fall?
(B) Find the equation to the trajectory of a point on the rod located at a dista
nce r from the lower end. What
is the shape of the path of this point?
4. A block X of mass 0.5 kg is held by a long massless string on a frictionless
inclined
plane of inclination 30 to the horizontal. The string is wound on a uniform solid
cylindrical drum Y of mass 2 kg and of radius 0.2 m as shown in Figure. The drum
is
given an initial angular velocity such that the block X starts moving up the pla
ne.
(A) Find the tension in the string during the motion. (JEE, 1994)
(B) At a certain instant of time the magnitude of the angular velocity of Y is 1
0 rad s 1
calculate the distance travelled by X from that instant of time until it comes t
o rest.
5. Two uniform thin rods A and B of length 0.6 m each and of masses 0.01 kg
and 0.02 kg respectively are rigidly joined end to end. The combination is
pivoted at the lighter end, P as shown in figure. Such that it can freely rotate
P
A
B
about point P in a vertical plane. A small object of mass 0.05 kg, moving
horizontally, hits the lower end of the combination and sticks to it. (JEE, 1994
)
What should be the velocity of the object so that the system could
just be raised to the horizontal position.
6. A wedge of mass m and triangular cross-section (AB = BC = CA = 2R) is moving
with a constant velocity .vi
towards a sphere of radius R fixed on a smooth horizontal table as shown in Figu
re. The wedge makes an

elastic collision with the fixed sphere and returns along the same path without
any rotation. Neglect all
friction and suppose that the wedge remains in contact with the sphere for a ver
y short time. .t , during
which the sphere exerts a constant force F on the wedge. (JEE, 1998)
ROTATIONALMECHANICS
(A) Find the force F and also the normal force N exerted by the table on the wed
ge during the time .t .
(B) Let h denote the perpendicular distance between the centre of mass of the we
dge and the line of action
of F. Find the magnitude of the torque due to the normal force N about the centr
e of the wedge, during
the interval .t .
7. A uniform circular disc has radius R and mass m. A particle also of mass
m, is fixed at a point A on the edge of the disc as shown in Figure. The
disc can rotate freely about a fixed horizontal chord PQ that is at a
distance R 4 from the centre C of the disc. The line AC is perpendicular
to PQ. Initially, the disc is held vertical with the point A at its highest
position. It is then allowed to fall so that it starts rotating about PQ.
Find the linear speed of the particle as it reaches its lowest position.
(JEE, 1998)
8. A man pushes a cylinder of mass m1 with the help of a plank of
mass m2 as shown in Figure. There in no slipping at any contact.
F
M1
m2
The horizontal component of the force applied by the man is F.
Find
(A) the accelerations of the plank and the center of mass
of the cylinder, and
(B) the magnitudes and directions of frictional forces at contact points. (JEE,
1999)
9. A small ball of mass 2 x 10 3 kg having a charge of 1.C is suspended by a strin
g of length 0.8 m. Another
identical ball having the same charge is kept at the point of suspension. Determ
ine the minimum horizontal
velocity which should be imparted to the lower ball so that it can make complete
revolution. (JEE, 2001)
10. Three particles A, B and C, each of mass m, are connected to each other by
three massless rigid rods to form a rigid, equilateral triangular body of side
. . This body is placed on a horizontal frictionless table (x-y plane) and is
hinged to it at the point A so that it can move without friction about the
vertical axis through A (see figure).
The body is set into rotational motion on the table about A with a constant
angular velocity .. (JEE, 2002)
(A) Find the magnitude of the horizontal force exerted by the hinge on the body.
(B) At time T, when the side BC is parallel to the x-axis, a force F is applied
on B along BC (as shown).
Obtain the x-component and the y-component of the force exerted by the hinge on
the body, immediately
after time T.
11. A wooden log of mass M and length L is hinged by a frictionless
nail at O. A bullet of mass m strikes with velocity v and sticks
to it. Find angular velocity of the system immediately after the
collision about O. (JEE, 2005)
12. A cylinder of massm and radius R rolls down an inclined plane of inclination
. . Calculate the linear acceleration
of the axis of cylinder. (JEE, 2005)
ROTATIONALMECHANICS
13. Auniformcircular disc has radius Randmassm.Aparticle also ofmassmis fixed at
a point A on thewedge of the disc as in fig. The disc can rotate freely about a
fixed
horizontal chord PQthat is at a distanceR/4 fromthe centreCof the disc.The lineA
C
is perpendicular to PQ. Initiallythe disc is held verticalwith the pointAat its
highest R/4
C
A
position. It is then allowed to fall so that it starts rotating about PQ. Find t
he linear P Q
speed of the particle at it reaches its lowest position. [JEE, 98]
14. Aman pushes a cylinder ofmassm1with the help of a plank ofmassm2 as shown.
There is no slipping at anycontact.The horizontal component ofthe force applied
by the man is F. Find [JEE, 99]
F
m2m
1
(a) the accelerations of the plank and the centre ofmass of the cylinder, and
(b) themagnitudes and directions of frictional forces at contact points.
15. ArodABofmassMand lengthLis lying on a horizontal frictionless surface.Aparti
cle ofmassmtravelling
along the surface hits the end A of the rodwitha velocityv0 inthe direction perpend
icular toAB.The collision
is completely elastic.After the collision the particle comes to rest.
(a) Find the ratio m/M.
(b) Apoint P on the rod is at rest immediatelyafter the collision. Find the dist
anceAP.
(c) Find the linear speed of the point P at a time .L/(3v0) after the collision.
[JEE, 2000]
16. Two heavymetallic plates are joined together at 90 to each other.Alaminar she
et ofmass 30Kg is hinged at
the lineAB joining the two heavymetallic plates. The hinges are frictionless. Th
e moment of inertia of the
laminar sheet about an axis parallel toAB and passing through its centre ofmas i
s 1.2Kg m2. Two rubber
obstacles P andQare fixed, one on eachmetallic plate at a distance 0.5mfromthe l
ineAB. This distance is
chosen so that the reaction due to the hinges onthe laminar velocity1 rad/s and
turns back. If the impulse onthe
sheet due to each obstacle is 6 N s. [JEE, 01]
(a) Find the location of the centre ofmass of the laminar sheet fromAB.
A
Q
P B
(b) At what angular velocitydoes the liminar sheet come back after the first
impact ?
(c) After howmany impacts, does the laminar sheet come to rest ?
17. Two identicalladders, eachofmassMand lengthLare resting onthe rough horizont
al
surface as shown in the figure.Ablock ofmassmhangs fromP. If the systemis in
equilibrium, find themagnitude and the directionof frictional force atAandB.
[JEE, 2005]
m
P
A B
v
18. There is a rectangular plate ofmassMkg of dimensions (a b). The plate is hel
d
inhorizontalpositionbystriking n smallballs eachofmassmper unit area per unit
time. These are striking in the shaded half region of the velocity v.What is v ?
[JEE, 06]
b
a
It is given n = 100, M= 3 kg, m= 0.01 kg; b = 2 m; a = 1m; g = 10 m/s2.
ROTATIONALMECHANICS
ASSERTION-REASON
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Ans. A C A D B D
MATCH THE COLUMN
13. A.Q, B.P, C.S, D.T
14. A.P, B.P, C.P, D.P
15. A.R, B.P, C.S, D.Q
16. A.S, B.R, C.Q, D.P
17. A.Q, B.P, C.S, D.R
LEVEL
1
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. C B A B B B C A C C
Q. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. A B A B B A A B C D
Q. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. B ABD BD BC BC AB AC D ACD BD
Q. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. A ABC A A B C C D B B
Q. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
Ans. C C B ABC ABD BD ABCD BD CD BC
Q. 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. ABC AD BCD ABCD ABC D C A A A
Q. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
Ans. ABC C C C D A B B A CD
Q. 71 72
Ans. AB D
FILL IN THE BLANKS AND TRUE-FALSE
1.
2
3
mg 2. Angular momentum 3. 0
6
M
M m
.
. 4. 5 2
3
MRA.
5. 3 6. 6.94 x 1022 7. 6
mg
, direction upward 8. , d x W xW
d d
. . .
. .
. .
9. 4.8 Ma2 10. F 11. F 12. F
ROTATIONALMECHANICS
PASSAGE
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Ans. D D A AD B A AB ABCD C
Q. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Ans. C A D D C B C A B
Q. 19 20 21
Ans. C A B
LEVEL
2
1. (i) 3 kg (ii) 0.75 2. 2 ms.1
3. (i) 4 2kg ms.1 (ii) Zero (iii) 10 second (iv) 50 (Leftward) (v) 1250 radians
(clockwise) (vi) 70 joule
4. 0.432, 2.2 m 5. (i) 3N (ii) 1.50 N (iii) 1.00 N (iv) 0.50 N 6. 0.2 7.
d
D
. .
8. (a) 4.9 m/s2 (b) 6.53 m/s2 (c) 40.82 m 9. (a)
1
9 (b)
4
9 10. 3.45 N 11. 4 v
12. . . 1 2
M 2ag 2 1
m
. . . . . 13. 0.398 14. 0 0 4
5
M m v r
M g
. . . .
. .
. . 15. 0 2
3
mv
M . m 16. h = 42 m, J = 30 kg m/s.
LEVEL 3
1.
. . . .
. .
2
,
m R r g R r
m
M m M m M
. .
. . 2. (a)
12
7
V
L (b) 3.5 ms 1 3. (i) Circular path of radius 2
L
(ii)
2 2
x y 1
L R r
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. (i) 1.63 N, (ii) 1.22 m 5. 6.3 m/s 6. (a) . . 2 3
, 2
3 3
mv i k mv mg k
t t
. .
. . . . . . . . , (b)
4
3
mv h
t
.
.
7. 5gR 8. (a) R. , 2R. (b)
1 1
1 2 1 2
3 ,
3 8 3 8
FM FM
M . m M . m 9. 5.86 m/s
10. (a) 3m..2 (b) . .
net x 4
F . F , . . 3 2 net y F . m.. 11. . .
3mv
3m M L
. .
.
12. axies
a 2g sin
3
.
. 13. v . 5gR
14. c . .
1 2
a 4F ,
3m 8m
.
. p . .
1 2
a 8F ,
3m 8m
.
. . .
1
1
1 2
f 3m F ,
3m 8m
.
. . .
1
2
1 2
f m F
3m 8m
.
.
15. (a)
m 1
M 4
. ; (b)
x 2L
3
. ; (c) 0 v
2 2
16. (a) l = 0.1 m; (b) . = 1 rad/s ; (c) laminar sheet will never come to rest
17. f .M m. g cot
2
.
. . 18. 10 m/s
X
X
X
S.H.M
DHANALAKSHMI NAGAR
TIRUPATI.
PH NO. 9440025125
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

PERIODIC MOTION
If a particle moves along X-axis, its position depends upon time t.We express th
is fact mathematically by
writing
x = f(t) or x(t)
There are certainmotions that are repeated at equalinterval of time. Bythiswemea
n that particle is found at
the same positionmoving in the same directionwith the same velocity and accelera
tion, after each period of
time. Let T be the interval of time inwhichmotion is repeated. Then
x(t) = x(t + T)
The Tis theminimumchange it t. The function that repeats itself is known as a pe
riodic function.During the
period, its valuesmay remain finite. Such functions are bound functions. Periodi
cmotion of a particle is also
bound functions. Periodicmotion ofa particle is also bound because itmust not go
to infinityand retun back
in one finite period. (That willmean infinite average speed).
Periodicmotionsmay be oscillatory ornon oscillatory. Uniformcircularmotion, them
otion of a planet
around the sun, etc are periodic but not oscillatory.Also, an oscillatorymotionm
aynot repeat its positionwith
the old velocitydue to friction andwill be non-periodic.
C1 : The position x of a particle is plottedwith time t as in the figure. Is the
motion periodic ?
O A B C t
x
Sol. Yes. The portionOAis repeated asAB, then as BC and so on. Hence themotion i
s periodic.
C2 : Is the followingmotion periodic ? Is it oscillatory ?
t
x
O
A B
Sol. Yes. The portionOAis repeated asAB, and so on.Themotion is oscillatoryalso
because the velocitychanges
its sign(direction) periodically.
Period :
Theminimumtime interval iswhich a particle repeats itsmotion is called the time
period of themotion.
The expression of period depends upon the type ofmotion.
C3 : Aparticlemoves uniformly in a circle.Determine the time period of themotion
.
Sol. Let Vbe the speed and r be the radius of the circle. Then time taken to com
plete
one revolution is the time period, T.Hence
T 2 r
V
.
.
r
V
If . be the angular speed of the particle, its radial line turns by 2. radian in
one time period.
Hence
T 2
.
.
. .

C4 :Aballis dropped froma height h and falls under uniformacceleration g. It hit
s the ground elastically. Its velocity
is reversed due to collision; the ball reaches the same starting position. Calcu
late the periodic time.
Sol. Here time t of descent is
h = 1/2gt2 or t =
2h
g
h
This is also the time of ascend.Hence total time, which equals the periodic time
T of thismotion, is 2t. Thus
T 2t 2 2h
g
. .
C5 : The position x of a particle depends upon as x = 4 (mm) sin4(s 1)t. Determine
its time period.
Sol. We knowthat
sin . = sin (. + 2.)
Hence
sin 4t = sin (4t + 2.)
We can expressRHS in the same formas LHS as
sin 4t = sin4
t 2
4
. .. . . . . .
Comparing thiswith
x(t) = x(t + T)
We see that
T 2
4
.
.
Thus the period of the givenmotion is
2
4
.
s.
Note : You may learn that period of sin.t or cos .t is
2.
. .
C6 : Determine the time period of x(t)motion.
t (s)
x(m)
O 2 4 6 8 10
Sol. Here the repetition occurs at every 4s of interval. Hence T = 4 s.
Frequency :
Anyperiodicmotionthat repeats itselfat regular time intervaland continuesfor lon
gtime is assigned a frequency
of repetition ofmotion.We saythat one repetitionmeans occurrence ofmotion once.T
he number of times the
motion is repeated per unit time is known as the frequencyof themotion.
IfTbe the periodic time of amotion, the number of repetitions in unit time is 1/
T. Hence frequency= 1/T.
Frequency is denoted by n, f or v.Then
v = 1/T
The S.I. unit of frequency isHertz, denoted byHz.
1Hz = 1 cycle per second (1 cps)

Frequencyis a feature of anyperiodicmotion, not onlyofoscillations. Frequencyis
also called linear frequency .
Angular frequency is defined as 2. time the linear frequency. It is denoted by .
.(unit : s 1) :
. = 2 .v
(Note that ..here is not angular velocity)
C7 :Aball is dropped fromheight h on anelastic floor.Determine the frequencyof t
he periodicmotion executed by
the ball.
Sol. We have seen that periodic time of thismotion is
T = 2
2h
g
Hence frequencyis given by
v =
1
T =
1 g
2 2h .
Displacement as a function of time :
Let the initial position of a particle be x0 and position at time t be x. Then i
ts displacement relative to x0 is
x x0. This depends in somemanner on time t. we say that displacement varieswith
time, or is a function of
time t.We denote the function byf(t). Thus
x x0 = f(t)
Here the expression for function depends upon type ofmotion.
If themotion iswith uniformvelocity,we have
x x0 =Vt (linear function)
Herewe saythat displacement x
x0 is proportional to t. Positionx = x0 +Vt is sai
d to be a linear function of
t, as power of t is 1. The graph of x(t) is a straight line. If themotion is alo
ng x-axiswithuniformacceleration
the displacement is given by
x x0 = ut + 1/2at2
Herewe have quadratic function of t, as the highest power of t is 2. The graph o
f x(t) is a parabola.
If acceleration is not uniform,we have infinite number ofways inwhich accelerati
on can change.Of these, one
special case is veryimportant-arising froma periodic function of time.
Periodic Function :
Afunction that repeats itself at equal interval is called a periodic function.
There are severalperiodic functions.All of themcan be symbolicallyexpressed as x
(t) = x(t + T)
where theminimumvalue ofTis known as t-period of the function x.
C8 :What is the t-period of
x =Asin (.t + .)
Sol. It is knownfromtrigonometrythat
sin . = sin(. + 2.)

Hence
x =Asin(.t + ..+ 2.)Asin
2
t
. . .. . ... . . . .. . . . . .
x =Asin (.t + .), where t = t +
2.
. .
This shows that the function at t coincideswith the function at t. The interval t
t is the period in t.
This period is
2.
. .
C9 :What is the time period of
x =Acos (.t + .) ?
Sol. Fromtrigonometry, it is known that
cos . = cos (. + 2.)
Here x =Acos (.t + . + 2.)
Acos
2
t
. . .. . ... . . . .. . . . . .
=Acos (.t + .),
where t = t + 2./..
Thus, the function at t coincideswith that at t.The period is, thus, 2./..
C10 : Determine the period T of the periodic function x=Asin2.t.
Sol. Using cos2..= 1 2 sin2 .,
sin2. =
1 cos 2
2
. .
The . period of cos 2..is 2./2 i.e. ..
Hence sin2.t has a similar treatment.
. T = ./.
NOTE :
1. Period is not changed by multiplying or dividing by (or by adding) a constant
:
If 0 x(t) x(t T) x(t) x
m
.
. . has the same period T.
2. Period is reduced . times of t be multiplied by . :
If x(t) = x(t + T) then x(.t) will have a period
T
. .
3. According to Fourier, the sum of periodic functions is also periodic.
OSCILLATION
If you displace a particle fromits equilibriumpositioninsuch awaythat its potent
ial energyis increased, a force
ariseswhich tries to bring the particle to the positionof lowest potential energ
y. If you release it, this forcewill
bring it to the equilibriumposition. But itwillnot stop!Why? It has gained veloc
ityand due to inertia ofmotion,
it willgo on the other side. The restoring forcewill again be bringing to back t
o the equilibriumposition. Inertia
ofmotionwillagainbe bringing it back to the equilibriumposition. Inertia ofmotio
nwillagain shift it to the other
side. This to and fromotionwillcontinue until the energyis lost in friction.

To and fromotion is called oscillation. It may be periodic or non-periodic. If a
n angle is used to describe
oscillation, the oscillation is called angular. Iflinear quantities are used to
describe oscillation, it is called linear
oscillation.
C11 :Ablock suspended froma spring performs oscillation.
x
C12 : Ablockmoving to and fro along smooth surface between two strings.
x
C13 : Afunction f(t) is said to be periodic of time period Tif
f(t + T) = f(t)
All sine or cosine functions of time are periodic. Thus,
Y=Asin .t or Acos .t is periodic, of time period T =
2.
. .
C14. Find the period of the function,
y = sin .t + sin 2.t + sin 3.t
Sol. The given function can bewritten as,
y = y1 + y2 + y3
Here y1 = sin .t, T1 = 2./.
y2 = sin 2.t, T2 =
2
2
. .
.
. .
and y3 = sin 3.t, T3 = 2./3.
. T1 = 2T2 and T1 = 3T3
So, the time period of the given function is T1 or 2./.
Because in timeT= 2./., first function completes one oscillation, the second fun
ction two oscillations and the
third, three.
C15:What is the period ofmotion shown byposition-time graph ?
1 3 5
2 4 6
O t
x
Sol. Themotion is periodic, with period of 2s.
cos .t periodic? simple harmonic ?
C16: (a) Is themotion x = sin .t
(b) What type ofmotion is represented byx = sin3.t
periodic, non-periodic or sim
ple harmonic ?

Sol. (a)We can always express
x = a sin .t + b cos .t
inthe form
x = c sin (.t + .)
where a = c cos ., b = c sin ..
Hence themotion is simple harmonic and periodic.
(b) sin 3.= sin(2.+ .)
= sin2. cos. + cos 2. sin .
= 2sin. cos2..+ (cos2.
sin2.)sin .
= 2sin..(1 sin2.) + (1
sin2.) sin.
= 3 sin. 4 sin3.
sin3 1 sin 3 3 sin
4 4
. . . . .
.
x 1 sin 3 t 3 sin t
4 4
. . . .
This is a periodic function.
v dx 1 cos3 t 3 cos t
dt 4 4
. . . . . .
2
dv 9 3 2
a sin 3 t sin t
dt 4 4
.
. . . . . . .
. .2xThus, themotion is not SHM.
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION :
If the positionof a particle changes,we saythat it ismoving. then x= f(t). if th
e position changes periodically
are call themotion harmonic or periodic . In studying vibration of harmoniumblades (m
usical instrument),
sine and cosine functionswere used.We call sine and cosine functions a harmonic
function.Themost simple
function is linear, like sin . , cos . or asin. + bcos ..
If the displacement of a particle froma fixed point be expressed using simple fo
rmof harmonic functions, we
have
x x0 = a sin .t + b cos .t
By using trigonometrywe canwrite this either as x
x0 =Asin(.t + .) or asAcos (.t
+ .).
Hence themotion represented using simplest harmonic functionsmay be expressed as
x x0 =Asin(.t + .)
Here x0 is a fixed co-ordinate andmaybe set equalto zero. Ifa particlemoves insu
chawaythat its displacement
relative to a fixed point is given by
x =Asin(.t + .)
themotion is called simple harmonic
The velocityof the particle is given by
v =
dx
dt = .A cos(.t + .)

The rate of change of velocityis acceleration a .
Thus a =
dV
dt = .2Asin (.t + .) = .2x
The negative sign shows that acceleration is directed opposite to
displacement. Ifaparticlemoves insuchawaythat its accelerationis always
directed towards a fixed point andis directlyproportional to themagnitude
of displacement relative to the fixed point, the motion is called simple
harmonic.
a
OP
O P
Fixed point Particle
X
In the figure a particle P is moving along X-axis. There is a fixed point O from
which the displacement is
measured. OP
.... is the displacement. If a
. be the acceleration of the particle then, for SHM,
(i) | a | . . OP
. ....
(ii) | a | .OP
. ....
a
. = (positive const.) OP
....
Equation of SHM :
Let x = 0 lies at O and P be at x. Then
OP . (x . 0) i . x i
....
x
a . a i
.
. 2
x
a i . .. x i
where, .2 = positive constant for real ..
ax = .2x (component form)
If O lies at x0, then
ax = .2(x
x0)
This is the kinematical formof equation ofSHM.
The above formulation is valid in all frames of reference.However, its dynamical
formusing force depends on
reference frame.
Dynamical Form :Multiplying ax = .2x by the massmof the particle,
max = m.2x
If the frame be inertial, Newton s second lawofmotion is valid. Thenmax= Fx
Then Fx = m.2x = kx
where, k = m.2
Thus, SHMin an inertial frame is themotion inwhich the force acting onthe partic
le is directed opposite to the
displacement froma fixed point and is proportional inmagnitude to the displaceme
nt fromthe fixed point.
If the frame be non-inertial, then Fx will be the x-component of both real and p
seudo forces.

Solving the differential equation of SHM :
We know that ax =
2
2
d x
dt
, hence
2
2
d x
dt
= .2x (Diff. eqn. of SHM)
This is a differential equation in x.
Let
dx
dt = Vx, Then
2
x x
2 x
d x dV dx dV
V
dt dx dt dx
. . (Chain rule)
x 2
x
V dV x
dx
. ..
VxdVx = .2x dx (variables separated)
During oscillation, the particle returns at extreme points x = A(At x = A, the vel
ocity becomes zero for a
moment.)
Then
Vx x
2
x x
0 A
V dV xdx
.
. . .. .
2 Vx 2 x
x 2
0 A
V x
2 2 .
. . . .
. . . .. . .
. . . .
Vx
2 = .2[x2
A2]
Vx
2 = .2(A2
x2)
2 2
x V . .. A . x ...(1)
Equation (1) shows that
(i) Particle has opposite velocities for the same position. This is possible at
different moments of time.
(ii) Particle has equalvelocities at two positions at equaldistance frommeanposi

tion.Themaximumspeed occurs
at x = 0, and is .A.
(iii) Equation (1) can be rearranged inthe form
2 2
x
2 2 2
V x
1
A A
. .
.
This shows that velocity-position graph is an ellipse. This is also true formome
ntum-position graph. The
momentum-position graph is known as phase-space graph of the particle.
Let 2 2
x V . . A . x at time t. Then
dx A2 x2
dt
. . .
A
A
A A x
Vx
Separating the variables and integrating,we have

2 2
dx dt
A x
. .
. . .
sin 1 x t
A
. . . . .
where, ..= constant of integration.
x
A = sin(.t + .)
x =Asin(.t + .) ...(2)
. is decided by the position x at a given time t.
PHASE
The general equation of SHMalongX-axismaybewritten as
x =Asin(.t + .)
Here (.t + .) contains all the informations ofdynamical state of oscillator. It
indicateswhat portionofmotion
is complete bythe time t and is called phase ofmotion. Characteristics ofSHMare th
e following :
(i) Amplitude : themaximumdistance of the particle fromitsmean position is known
as amplitude.
Fromthe equation | x |max = A
Thus, A= amplitude of SHM.
(ii) Phase angle or phase : The portion ofmotion that is completed by a given ti
me is represented by phase or
phase angle .
(.t + .) is phase at time t in the expression
x
A
. .
.. .. = sin(.t + .)
(iii) Phase constant or epoch or initial phase : The phase at t = 0 is called ini
tial phase , phase constant , or
epoch . In the expression above,
. = phase constant = epoch
(iv) Angular frequency : 2. times frequency is called angular frequency. In the
above expression, . is angular
frequency:
. =
2
T
.
= 2.v
S.I. Unit of ..is s 1.
Special case
(i) If the particle is at x = 0 at t = 0
Then 0 = . 0 + .
. = 0
. x =Asin .t
(ii) If at t = 0, the particle is at rest (extreme), x = A.
0 = . 0 + .

. = 0
. x =Asin .t
For x = A For x = A
A
A = sin(. 0 + .)
A
A
.
= sin(. 0 + .)
1 = sin . 1 = sin .
. = sin 1 1 . = sin 1( 1)
. = ./2 . = ./2
x =Acos .t x = A cos .t
Example 1: If x =A/2 at t = 0, find phase constant . in x =Asin(.t + .).At t = 0
, a particle executing SHMis
going along x-axis.
Sol. Here
A
2 =Asin(. 0 + .)
A
2A = sin . or sin ..=
1
2
. = 30 or 5./6
Now we use the other condition : Vx < 0 at t = 0
We have Vx = .Acos(.t + .)
Putting t = 0 and . = ./6,
Vx = .A cos(.. 0 + ./6)
x
V 3 A
2
. . ,which is positive.
Now . = 5./6
Vx = .A cos
5
6
.
=
3
2
.A
which is negative and satisfies the given condition. Hence the required .=
5
6
.
Example 2:Asmallmass executes linear SHMabout Owith amplitude a and period T. It
s displacement fromO
at time T/8 after passing throughOis :
(A) a/8 (B) a / 2 2 (C) a/2 (D) a / 2
Sol: x =Asin .t
x Asin 2 T
T 8
.
. .
or
x Asin A
4 2
.
. . Hence option (D) is correct.

Example 3: The figure shows the displacement-time graph of a particle executing
SHM. If the time period ofoscillation is 2s, then the equation ofmotionis given
by x = _______.
t(s)
0
5
10
(mm)
x
Sol. In the case of SHM,
x =Asin (.t + .)
or 5 = 10 sin (. 0 + .) (Here A= 10 mm= 0.01 m)
.
sin 1
2
. .
6
.
. .
Here
2 2
T 2
. .
. . . . .
. x = 0.01 sin t
6
. .. . . . . . . where xis inmetre.
Example 4: Time period of a particle executing SHMis 8 sec.At t = 0 it is at the
mean position. The ratio of the
distance covered by the particle in the 1st second to the 2nd second is :
(A)
1
2 .1 (B) 2 (C)
1
2 (D) 2 .1
Sol: Here x =Asin .t
x1 =Asin
2
8
.
1
x1 =Asin
A
4 2
.
.
and 2
x Asin 2 2 A
8
.
. . .
. The distance traveled in 2nd second is
2 2 1
x x x A A
2
. . . .
( 2 1)A
2
.
.
.
1
2
Ratio x A/ 2 1
x ( 2 1)A ( 2 1)
2
. . .
. .
=
2 1 ( 2 1)
( 2 1)( 2 1) 2 1
. .
.
. . .
= ( 2 .1) Hence Option (D) is correct.

C17: Aparticle executing SHMhas anamplitude of 1metre and time period 2 sec.What
are the velocityand the
accelerationwhen the displacement is 0.5metre ?
Sol.
2 3.14 rad / sec.
T
.
. . .
Acceleration, f = .2y = (3.14)2 0.5 = 4.93 m/sec2.
Velocity, V . . a2 . y2 . 3.14 (1)2 . (0.5)2 . 2.72 m/ sec.
C18: In the above question, calculate themaximumvelocityandmaximumacceleration.
Sol. Vmax = .a = 3.14 1 = 3.14 m/sec
fmax = .2a = (3.14)2 1 = 9.86 m/sec2.
C19: Aparticle executing SHMof amplitude 10 cmhas speed 3.14 cm/sec. at the mean
position; calculate its
time period.
Sol. At themean position,
V a 2 a
T
.
. . . .
T 2 a 20 sec.
V
.
. .
C20: Aparticle is executing SHMoftime period 10 sec., and amplitude 9 cm.What wo
uld be the velocityof the
particle 2.5 sec. after it passes through themean position ?
Sol. V = a . cos .t., here t ismeasured fromthemean position.
V a 2 cos 2 t
T T
. . . . . . . . .
V 9 2 cos 2 2.5
10 10
. . . . . . . . . . .
V 9 2 cos 0
10 2
. .
. . .
C21: Abody executing SHMhas its velocity10 cm/sec. and 7 cm/sec. when its displa
cement fromthe mean
position are 3 cmand 4 cmrespectively. Calculate the length of the path.
Sol. We have V . . a2 . y2
.
2 22
2
2 2
1 1
V a y
V a y
.
.
.
or
2
2
49 a 16
100 a 9
.
.
.
. a = 4.76 cm.
Length of the path = 2a = 9.5 cm
Example 5: Aparticle executes SHM on a straight line path. The amplitude of osci
llation is 2 cm.When the
displacement of the particle fromthemeanposition is 1 cm, thenumericalvalue ofma
gnitude of acceleration is
equal to the numericalvalue ofmagnitude of velocity. The frequencyof SHM(in seco
nd 1) is :
(A) 2. 3 (B)
2
3
.
(C)
3
2.
(D)
1
2. 3

Sol: . A2 . x2 . .2x
.2 A2 . x2 . .4x2
or .2A2 ..2x2 . .4x2
or A2
x2 = .2x2
or 22 12 = .2 12
or 3 = .2
. . 3
or
2 3
T
.
.
.
T 2
3
.
. .
f 1 3
T 2
. .
.
Hence option (C) is correct.
Example 6:Astone is swinging in a horizontal circle 0.8min diameter at 30 rev/mi
n.Adistance horizontal light
beamcauses a shadow of the stone to be formed on a nearly verticalwall. The ampl
itude and period of the
simple harmonicmotion for the shadowof the stone are
(A) 0.4 m, 4 s (B) 0.2 m, 2 s (C) 0.4 m, 2 s (D) 0.8 m, 2 s
Sol:
A d 0.8 0.4m
2 2
. . .
30 2
60
. .
. . . .
or
2
T
.
. . . T = 2 sec. Hence option (C) is correct.
Example 7:Abodyundergoing SHMabout the origin has its equation is given byx =0.2
cos 5.t. Find its average
speed fromt = 0 to t = 0.7 sec.
Sol.
v = Total distance
Total time
Here x = 0.2 cos .t
Here . = 5.
or
2 5
T
.
. . , .
T 2 0.4 sec.
5
. .
Here 0
t nT t
4
. .
t = n 0.1 + t0 or 0.7 = n 0.1 + t0
Fromthis, n = 7 and t0 = 0
But distance travelled inT/4 isA= 0.2 unit
. Total distance = 0.2 7 = 1.4 unit.
.
v 1.4 2 unit
0.7
. .

Example 8:Aparticle perfroms SHMwith a period Tand amplitude a. Themean velocity
of the particle over the
time intervalduringwhich it travels a distance a/2 fromthe extreme position is
(A) a/T (B) 2a/T (C) 3a/T (D) a/2T
Sol: x = a cos .t
a/2 = a cos .t0
or 0 cos cos t
3
.
. .
or 0 t
3
.
. . . 0 t
3
.
.
.
v dx a sin t
dt
. . . . . .
/3
0
/3
0
vdt
v
dt
. .
. . . .
.
But
2
T
.
. . .
v 3a
T
. Hence option (C) is correct.
Example 9: The angular frequencyofmotionwhose equation is
2
2
d y
4
dt
+ 9y= 0 is (y= displacement and t = time)
(A)
9
4 (B)
4
9 (C)
3
2 (D)
2
3
Sol:
2
2
d y
4 9y 0
dt
. .
or
2
2
d y 9
y
dt 4
.
.
Comparingwith SHMequation
2
2
2
d y
y
dt
. .. . 2 9
4
. . .
3
2
. . Hence option (C) is correct.
x) graph of a particle executing
Example 10: The acceleration-displacement (a
simple harmonicmotion is shown inthe figure. Find the frequencyof oscillation.
a
O x
Sol. In SHM,
. = .2x
. = .2( .)
. . = .2. ...(i) (fromgraph)
and
.
. .
.
or 2 f
.
. .
. or f =
1
2
.
. .

Example 11:Agraph of the square of the velocityagainst the square of the acceler
ation of a givensimple harmonic
motionis :
(A)
v2
a2
(B)
v2
a2
(C)
v2
a2
(D)
v2
a2
Sol: x =Asin .t
v dx A cos t A2 x2
dt
. . . . . . .
a dv A 2 sin t
dt
. . . . .
a dv 2x
dt
. . ..
But 2
x . . a
.
.
2
2
4
v . . A . a
.
or
2
2 2 2
4
v A a
. .
. . . . . . . . Hence option (D) is correct.
C22: Aparticle executing SHMhas its acceleration represented by the equation f =
4.2y. Calculate its time
period.
Sol. f =
4.2y = .2y where, .2 = 4.2
.
T 2 2 1 sec
2
. .
. . .
. .
Example 12:Ablock is kept on a horizontal table. The table is undergoing simple
harmonicmotion of frequency
3Hz ina horizontal plane. The coefficient of static frictionbetween block and th
e table surface is 0.72. Find the
maximumamplitude ofthe table at which the block does not slip on the surface.
Sol. amax = .2A
fmax = Smg
or mamax = Smg
or m.2A=Smg
. S
2 2
g 0.72 10 A
(2 f )
.
. .
. .
2 2
A 0.72 g
4 3
.
.
. . [. .2 = g]
A = 0.02 m= 2 cm
Example 13:Aplankwith a smallblock on top of its is under going verticalSHM. Its
period is 2 sec.Theminimum
amplitude at which the blockwill separate fromplank is :
(A) 2
10
. (B)
2
10
.
(C) 2
20
. (D) 10
.

Sol: Here g =A.2
.
2
2 2 2
A g g gT
2 4
T
. . .
. . .. .
.. ..
2 2
A 10 4 10 m
4
.
. .
. . Hence (A) option is correct.
Example 14: Aforce f = 10x + 2 acts on a particle of mass 0.1 kg, where k is in m
and F in newton. If it is
released fromrest at x = 2m, find :
(a) amplitude; (b) time period ; (c) equationofmotion.
Sol. f = 10x + 2
df 10 dx
dt dt
. .
.f = 10 .x
ma = 10 .x
.
a 10 x
0.1
. . .
or .2.x = 100 .x
or . = 10 rad/s
(b) .
T 2 2 sec.
10 5
. . .
. . .
.
Let at x = x0,mean position is situated.
. f = 10x + 2
0 = 10x0 + 2
. 0
x 2 0.2 m
10
. .
. f = 10(.x + 0.2) + 2
or f = 10.x
2 + 2
ma = 10 .x
or
a 10 x
0.1
. . .
or a = 100 .x
. .x = Asin (.t + .)
or .x =Asin(10t + .)
At t = 0, .x =
2.2 metre
. 2.2 =Asin .
Also, v . . A2 . .x2
or 0 . 10 A2 . (2.2)2
. A= 2.2 m
. 2.2 = 2.2 sin .

.
2
.
. . .
. x 2.2sin 10t
2
. .. . . . . . . .
.x = 2.2 cos 10 t
The displacement fromoriginal is x =
2.2 cos 10 t + x0
x = 0.2
2.2 cos 10 t
. x = 0.2
11
5 cos 10 t
Example 15:Aparticle ofmass 4 kgmoves betweentwo pointsAand B on a smooth horizo
ntal surface under the
action of two forces such that when it is at a point P, the forces are 2PA N
..
and 2PB N
..
. If the particle is
released fromrest at A, find the time it takes to travel a quarter of theway fro
mA to B.
Sol. . F = 2(l x)
2x
F = 2l 2x
2x = 2l
4x
or
a 2 4x x
4 2
.
. l . l . A B
2x P
2(l x)
l
x
or
v v
0 0
vdv x dx
2
. . . . . . .. .. l
or
2 2 x
0
v x x
2 2 2
. .
. . . . . .
l
or
v2 x2
x
2 2 2
. . l
or v2 = lx
x2
or v . lx . x2
or dx x x2
dt
. l .
or
t0
0 2 0
dx dt
x x
.
. . . l
l
. 0 t second
3
.
.
How to solve problems (Force method)
Step 1 : Write equilibriumequation.
Step 2 : Displace the particle along
forces in terms of x.
Step 3 : Take x-component of all the
ike smallx, etc.)Compare
with standard equation Fx = m.2x to
:
x-axis fromequilibriumposition andwrite the
forces and use step 1.Make approximation (l
get ..

Oscillation of a spring :
Ablock ofmassmis hanging verticallyfromthe lower end of an ideal springwhose upp
er end is fixed to the
sealing. The stiffness of the spring is k. The block is now pulled downward and
released.We can see the
motion of the block is simple harmonic and find the angular frequencyof its osci
llation.
In equilibrium, the extension in the spring is x0. The spring force is kx0. This
balancesmg. Hence
mg = kx0 ...(1)
Nowthe block is pulled by x. Then spring force is k(x0 + x) and ismore thanmg. t
aking x-component,
Fx = mg
k(x + x0)
Fx = mg kx kx0 (2)
Using (1)
Fx = kx ...(3)
This satisfies the equation of SHM. Hence themotion is SHM.
The restoring force is kxwhere k is spring constant and x is extension or compre
ssion relative to equilibrium.
Comparing Eq. (3) with standard equation of SHM,
m.2x = kx; . =
k
m
This is the angular frequencyofthe oscillations.
C23: A mass of 200 gm is connected to a light spring of force constant 5 N/m and
is free to oscillate on a
horizontal, frictionless surface. If themass is displaced 5 cmfromthe equilibriu
mposition and released from
rest, thencalculate the period of itsmotion.
Sol. We have . . K /m . 5/ 200 .10.3 . 5 rad / sec.
. T = 2 ./. = 2./5 = 1.26 sec.
C24:Aheavy brass sphere is hung froma light spring and is set in vertical small
oscillationwith a period T.The
sphere is nowimmersed in a non0-viscous liquidwith a density1/10th the densityof
the sphere. If the system
is nowset in vertical SHM, its periodwill be
(A) (9/10)T (B) (9/10)2T (C) (10/9)T (D) T
Sol:
T 2 m
k
. .
Example 16: Two springs of spring constant K1 andK2 are suspended as shown inthe
figure.AbodyofmassM
is suspended as shown.
(a) Calculate the effective spring constant of the system, and
(b) The time period.
Sol. (a) In this case same forcewill act on both the springs, but their displace
ment will not be the same.
Let y1 and y2 be their displacement, and let F be the force, then
y = y1 + y2
and F = K1y1 . y1 = F/K1
Also F = K2y2 . y2 = F/K2
IfKis the effective spring constant of the system, then

F = Ky . y = F/K
K1
K2
M
Since, y = y1 + y2 .
1 2
F F F
K K K
. . . .
.
1 2
1 1 1
K K K
. . or 1 2
1 2
K K K
K K
.
.
If K1 = K2 = K, then K =
K
2
(b) 1 2
1 2
2M M(K K ) T 2 2
K K K
.
. . . .
If the two spring have same spring constant, i.e. ifK1 = K2 = K, thenK= K/2
T 2 2M
K
. .
Example 17: Two spring of spring constant K1 andK2 are arranged as shown in the
figure.Abody ofmassMis
attached as shown.
(a) Calculate the effective spring constant of the system, and
Sol. (a) In this case the displacement (y) in the two springswill be same, but d
ifferent restoring forceswill act on
them.
Let F1 and F2 be the restoring forces acting on the two springs, then
F = F1 + F2
Where F is the total force.
Again, F1 = K1y and, F2 = K2y
IfKis the effective force constant of the system, then
M
K1 K2
F = Ky
Since, F = F1 + F2 . Ky = K1y
K2y
. 1 2 K . K . K
If K1 = K2 = K, then K . 2K
(b) Time period,
1 2
T 2 M 2 M
K K K
. . . .
.
If K1 = K2 = K, then
T 2 M
2K
. .
Example 18: Two spring of spring constant K1 andK2 are arranged as shown.Abodyof
massMis attached as
showninthe figure.
(a) Calculate the effective force constant of the system, and
Sol. (a) In this case same displacement y will take place in the two springs, but d
ifferent forcewill act on them.
If themassMis displaced in downward direction, then the other springwillbe compe
rsed.

Since th forces are different, therefore,
F = F1 + F2
and, Let ybe the common extension or compression, then
F1 = K1y, and F2 = K2y
IfKis the effective force constant of the system, then
M
K2
K1
F = Ky
Since, F = F1 + F2 . Ky = K1y
K2y
. K . K1 . K2
If K1 = K2 = K, then K . 2K
(b) Time period
T 2 M
K
. . or
1 2
M
T 2
K K
. .
.
If K1 = K2 = K then
T 2 M
2K
. .
Example 19: Aspring of lengthL, force constant Khas time period T. it is cut int
wo equal parts; calculate the
time period of each part, if samemass is suspended fromeach part.Also calculate
the spring constant of each
part.
Sol. Now, for one part
1
y 1 y
2
. and K1 = 2K
Therefore, 1
1
T 2 M 2 M 1 T
K 2K 2
. . . . .
Time perid of each original Time period
No. of parts
.
Example 20:Abodyis in SHMwith period Twhen oscillated froma freelysuspended spri
ng. If this spring is cut
in two parts of length ratio 1 : 3&again oscillated fromthe two parts separately
, then the periods are T1&T2
then find T1/T2.
Sol. Aswe know, spring constant is inverselypropertional to its natural length.
.
k . C
l
1
1
k . C
l
and
2
k .
l
. 1
2 1
k
3
k
. .
l
2
C
2

. k1 = 3 k2
But
1 2
1 1 1
k k k
. .
or
2 2 2
1 1 1 1 3
k 3k k 3k
.
. . .
. k 3k2
4
.
. 2
k 4k
3
.
. k1 = 3k2 = 4k
But
T 2 m
k
. .
1
1
T 2 m
k
. .
and 2
2
T 2 m
k
. .
. 1 2
2 1
T k 4k
T k 3 4k
. .
.
1
2
T 1 1 : 3
T 3
. .
C25: In the above question the two parts are connected inseries, if samemass is
connected to one of them, then
(a) calculate the spring constant ofthe system, and (b) the time period.
Sol. (a) 1 2
1 2
K K
K
K K
.
. but K1 = K2 = 2K . K = K
(b)
T 2 M 2 M T
K K
. . . . .
C26: In the above questions. If the two parts are
as showninthe figure, then(1) calculate the force
of the system(2) time period of this system.
M
K1
T K1= 2K K1= 2K
Sol. Clearly K = K M 1 + K2 = 2K1 = 4 K and time
1
T 2 M 2 M T
K 4K 2
. . . . .
Example 21: Find the ratio of time periods of two
irst joined in series&then in parallel
&a massmis suspended fromthem:
(A) 4 (B) 2 (C) 1 (D) 3
connected
constant
period.
identical springs if theyare f

Sol: 1
eq
T 2 m
k
. . (in series)
eq
1 1 1 2
k k k k
. . .
. eq
k k
2
.
. 1
T 2 2m
k
. .
2
T 2 m
k
. . (in parallel)
But k = k + k = 2k
2
T 2 m
2k
. .
.
1
2
2 2m T k 2
T m 2
2k
.
. .
.
Example 22: Two bodies P & Q of equal mass are suspended from two separate massl
ess springs of force
constants k1 &k2 respectively. If themaximumvelocity of themare equal during the
irmotion, the ratio of
amplitude ofPto Qis :
(A) 1
2
k
k (B) 2
1
k
k (C) 2
1
k
k (D) 1
2
k
k
Sol: 1
1
k
m
. .
and 2
2
k
m
. .
. v1 max = v2 max
or A1.1 = A2.2
or 1 2 2
2 1 1
A k
A k
.
. .
. Hence option (B) is correct.
C27:Aspringmass systemis hanging fromthe ceiling of an elevator in equilibrium.
The
elevator suddenly starts accelerating upwardswith acceleration a, find k
(a)the frequency; (b) the amplitude of the resulting SHM. m

Sol. Frequencywillremain unchanged onlymeanpositionwill change.
f 1 k
2 m
.
.
Amplitude : figure (a) : Free bodydiagramofblockw.r.t. ground
is shown in figure. For equilibriumof block.
kx =mg ...(i)
kx
mg
(a)
k(x + x )
mg + ma
(b)
0
ma = pseudo force
Refer figure (b) : Free body diagramof block w.r.t. elevator is
shown in figur. For equilibriumof block,
k(x + x0) = mg + ma ...(ii)
Fromequations Eqs. (i) and (ii),
x0 = amplitude =
ma
k
Example 23. Apointmassmis suspended at the end of a masslesswire of length l and
cross-sectionA. IfYis
Young smodulus ofelasticityforwire, obtain the frequencyofoscillation for simple h
armonicmotion along the
verticalline.
Sol. The original lengthofwire = l
The downward force acting on the block =mg
IfTis the tension inthewire, then
T =mg because the is in equilibrium
According toHooke s law
y =
Long stress T /A
Long strain /
.
.l l
where .l is the increase in length of thewire.
. T =YA
.l
l
Putting T = mg,mg =YA(.l / l) ...(1)
Let the block be displaced downa little through a distance x during oscillators.
The tension in thewire acting
upwardswill be
YA (. . x) . mg (. . x)
.
l l
l l
The downward force =mg
. Resultant downward force acting on themasswill be
F =
.mg (. . x) . mg. .. . ..
l
l
F =
. mg. x
.. .l ..
or, F =
kx ...(3)
Thus the net force is directlyproportionalto the displacement, but oppositelydir
ected.Hence themotion ofthe
block is SHM.
Comparingwith standard euation of SHMis
F = m.2x, ..(5)
We get . . (k /m)

. T = 2./. = 2. m/ k = 2. ml / AY
and frequencyof vibration = n=
1 1 AY
T 2 m
.
. l
ENERGY IN SHM
Aparticle performing SHMhasmotion and hence, a kinetic energy the restoring forc
e being a conservative
force. It also has a potential energy.
KINETIC ENERGY
Letmbe themass of the simple harmonic oscillatormoving at a velocityVx. It has g
ot a kinetic energydue to
motion. It is given by
2x
K 1 mv
2
.
K 1 m 2 .A2 x2 .
2
. . .
The plot ofK against x is a parabola.
A A x
k(x)
Ifwe have x =Asin(.t + .)
We get V = .A cos(.t + .)
This gives
K =
1
2 m.2A2 cos2(.t + .)
Its plot K(t) is given below:
O t
k(t)
Note that its period its
.
. , the half of period of oscillation.
C28 :Howmuchis the frequencyofvariation ofKE of a particlemoving simple harmonic
allywith a time period of
2 s ?
Sol. T = 1/2 2s = 1 s
Potential energy of oscillator :
If . F. dr . 0
. .
. , thenF . is said to be conservative.
The force acting on a simple harmonic oscillator is Fx = m.2x.
Here,
f
i
x
2
x
x
. F . dr . . F dx . . .m. xdx . 0 . .
. .

Thus, Fx(= m.2x) is conservative.
Since the force responsible for simple harmonic motion is conservative, a potent
ial energy must exist
corresponding to this force. IfUbe the potential energy thenthe decrement inUis
equal to thework done by
the conservative Fx.
i.e., dU = Fxdx = m.2x dx
dU = m.2x dx
It can be integrated to get Uas a functionof x. On integrating,we get
U =
1
2 m.2x2 + constant
The value of constant depends uponour choice.
By chosingU= 0 at x = 0, the equation becomes
U =
1
2 m.2x2
A A x
Umax=1/2m A 2 2
The plot U(x) is a parabola as in the figure. The potential ismaximumat extremes
.
Mechanical energy of the particle in SHM :
It is the sumof kinetic and potential energies.We have
K =
1
2 m.2 (A2
x2) or U =
1
2 m.2 x2
Hence ehmechanical energyE is given by
. E = K + U
E =
1
2 m.2A2
The mechanical energy of the oscillator remains constant. This is so because no
non-conservative force is
doingwork.
The figure shows plot ofK(x),U(x) and E(x), whereU(0) = 0 is the reference value
ofU.
A A x
E 1/2m 2A2
E
K
U
IfU(0) . 0, we shift U(x) and E(x) byU0. Then the graphs. E(x) and U(x) is shift
ed byU0 but Kremains
unshifted.
We note that energy taking part in oscillationis given by
EOSC = 1/2m.2A2
UOSC = 1/2m.2x2
x = A x=A
1/2m A 2 2
K(x)
U(x)
U0
E(x) Etot=
Eosc=1/2m 2A2
KOSC = 1/2m.2 (A2
x2).

C29: In SHM, F = kx or a = .2x, i.e., F x graph or a x graph is a straight line passin
g through originwith
negative slope.The corresponding graphs are shown below.
F
F = kx
x
(a)
a
F = x
x
(b)
2
Slope =
k Slope =
2
C30: Any function of t, sayy=y(t) oscillates simple harmonically if
2
2
d y
y
dt
. .
or we cansayif above condition is satisfied, ywilloscillate simple harmonically.
C31: All sine and cosine functions of t are simple harmonic in nature. i.e., for
the function
y =Asin (.t .) or y =Acos (.t .)
2
2
d y
dt
is directlyproportional to y.Hence, theyare simple harmonic in nature.
C32: Howthe different physical quantities (e.g., displacement, velocity, acceler
ation, kinetic energy, etc.) vary
with time or displacement are listed belowin tabular form.
TABLE
S.No. Name of the equation Expression of the equation Remarks
1. Displacement time x =Acos(.t + .) x varies between+Aand A
2. Velocity-time (v= dx/dt) v = A.sin(.t + .) v varies between +A.
and A.
3. Acceleration-time (a = dv/dt) a = A.2 cos(.t + .) a varies between +A.2
and A.2
4. Kinetic energy-time (K= 1/2mv2) K = 1/2mA2.2 sin2(.t + .) Kvaries between 0
and 1/2mA2.2
5. Potential energy-time (U= 1/2m.2x2) K = 1/2m.2 A2 cos2(.t + .) U varies betwe
en 1/2mA2.2
and 0
6. Total energy-time (E =K+U) E = 1/2m.2A2 E is constant
7. Velocity displacement v . . A2 . x2 v = 0 at x = A and at x = 0
v = A.
8. Acceleration displacement a = .2 x a = 0 at x = 0
a = ..2A at x = . A
9. Kinetic energy displacement K = 1/2m.2 (A2
x2) K = 0 at x = A
K = 1/2m.2A2 at x = 0
10. Potential energy-displacement U = 1/2m.2 x2 U = 0 at x = 0, U = 1/2m.2A2
at x = A
11. Total energy displacement E = 1/2m.2A2 E is constant

C33: Fromthe above tablewe see that x, v and a are sine or cosine functions of t
ime. So, theyalloscillate simple
harmonicallywith same angular frequency .. Phase difference between x and a is .
.and between any other
two is ./2.
C34: Kinetic energyversus time equation can also bewritten as
K = 1/4mA2.2[1
cos 2(.t + .)]
This function is also periodic with angular frequency 2.. Thus, kinetic energy i
s SHMis also periodic with
double the frequency then that of x, v and a. But these oscillations are not sim
ple harmonic in nature, because
2
2
d K
dt
is not proportional to K. But,
K
1
4 mA2.2 =
1
4 mA2.2 cos 2(.t + .) = K0 (say)
Here,K0 is simplya cosine function oftime. So,K0willoscillate simple harmonicall
ywithangular frequency2..
Same is the casewith potential energyfunction.Ualso oscillatewith angular freque
ncy2.but the oscillations
are not simple harmonic in nature. Totalenergydoes not oscillate. It is constant
.
Thus,
x . oscillate simple harmonicallywith angular frequency.
v . oscillate simple harmonicallywith angular frequency.
a . oscillate simple harmonicallywith angular frequency.
K . oscillatewithangular frequency2..but not simple harmoncally
U . oscillatewithangular frequency2..but not simple harmoncally
E . does not oscillate.
C35: In the above discussion we have read that potential energy is zero at mean
position and maximum at
extreme positions and kinetic energy ismaximumat mean position and zero at extre
me positions. But the
correct statement is like this,
At mean position .KismaximumandUisminimum(itmay be zero also, but it is not nece
ssarily zero).
at extreme positions .Kis zero andUismaximum.
U(J)
x(m)
(a)
U(J)
x(m)
(b)
5
2
U(J)
x(m)
(b)
2
Thus, infigure (a), oscillationswill take place about themean position x =0 andm
inimumpotentialenergy at
mean positionis zero.
In figure (b)mean position is at x = 2mand theminimumpotentialenergy in this pos

ition is 5 J.
In figure (c)mean position is at x = 2mand theminimumpotentialenergy in this posi
tion is again zero.
THE CAUSES OF OSCILLATION
Consider a particle free to move on x-axis, is being acted upon by a force given
by,
F = kxn
Here, k is a positive constant.
Now, following cases are possible depending on the value of n.

(i) If n is aneven integer (0, 2, 4, ..... etc), force is always along negative
x-axis,whether x is positive or negative.
Hence, themotion of the particle is not oscillatory. If the particle is released
fromany position on the x-axis
(except at x= 0) a force innegative direction ofx-axis acts on it and itmoves re
ctilinearlyalong negative x-axis.
(ii) If n is an odd integer (1, 3, 5, ..... etc), force is along negative x-axis
for x > 0, along positive x-axis for x < 0
and zero for x= 0.Thus, the particlewilloscillate about stable equilibriumpositi
on, x= 0. The force in this case
is called the restoring force. Of these, if n = 1, i.e., F =
kx themotion is sai
d to be SHM.
Example 24. Describe themotion of a particle acted upon by a force
(i) F = 2(x 2)3 (ii) F = 2(x 2)2 (iii) F =
2(x
2)
Sol. (i) F = 2(x
2)3
F = 0 at x = 2
Force is along negative x-direction for x > 2
and it is along positive x-direction for x < 2. Thus, the motion of the particle
is oscillatory (but not simple
harmonic) about x = 2.
(ii) F = 0 for x = 2, but force is always along negative x-direction for any val
ue of x except at x = 2. Thus, the
motion ofthe particle is rectilinear along negative x-direction.
(iii) Let, us take x 2 = X, then the given force can bewritten as,
F = 2 X
This is the equation of SHM.Hence, the particle oscillates simple harmonically a
bout X= 0 or x= 2.
Example 25: Abodyofmass 1kg is executing simple harmonicmotionwhich is given byy
= 6.0 cos(100t + 4.)
cm.What isthe (i) amplitude ofdisplacement, (ii)Angular frequency, (iii) initial
phase, (iv)velocity, (v) acceleration,
(vi)maximumkinetic energy?
Sol. The given equationof SHMis
y = 6.0 cos (100t + ./4) cm.
Comparing it with the standard equation of SHM, y=Asin (.t + .),we have
(i) AmplitudeA= 0.6 cm
(ii) Angular frequency .= 100 sec 1.
(iii) Initial phase . = ./4
(iv) Velocity v = . (A2 . y2 ) = 100 (36 . y2 ) cm/sec
(v) Acceleration = .2y = (100)2y = 104y
(vi) Kinetic energy =
1
2 mv2 =
1
2 m.2(A2 y2)
The kinetic energy of a particle in SHMismaximum,when it passes itsmean position
i.e. at y= 0
(K.E.)max = 2
max
1 mv
2 =
1
2 mA2.2
=
1
2 1 104 (0.06)2 = 18 joules

Example 26: Aparticle ofmass 0.8 kg is executing simple harmonicmotionwith an am
plitude of 1.0 metre and
periodic time 11/7 sec. Calculate the velocity and the kinetic energy of the par
ticle at themoment when its
displacement is 0.6metre.
Sol. We knowthat, at a displacement y frommean position particle s velocityis give
n as
v = . (A2 . y2 )
or v 2 (A2 y2 )
T
.
. .
v 2 3.14 [(1.0)2 (0.6)2 ] 3.2
(11/ 7)
.
. . . m/sec.
Kinetic energyat this displacement is given by
K =
1
2 mv2
K =
1
2 0.8 (3.2)2 = 4.1 joule
Example 27:Apersonnormallyweighing 60 kg stands on a platformwhich oscillates up
and down harmonicallyat
a frequency 2.0 sec 1 and an amplitude 5.0 cm. If amachine on the platformgives th
e person sweight against
time, deduce themaximumandminimumreading it will show, take g = 10m/sec2.
Sol. As shown infigure, platformis executing SHMwith amplitude and angular frequ
encygiven us
A= 5.0 cm
and . = 2.n = 4. rad/sec [as n = 2 sec 1]
+A
A
weighing
machine
Hereweighingmachinewill showweightmore then that ofmanwhenit is belowits equaili
briumpositionwhen
the acceleration of platformis in upward direction. In this situation the free b
ody diagramofman relative to
platformis shown in figure. Herema is a pseudo force onman in downward direction
relative to platform(orweighingmachine).Asweighingmachinewillread the normal
reaction on it thus for equilibriumof anrelative to platform,
mg + ma
N
we have N = mg + ma
or N = mg + m(.2y) [as | a | = .2y]
Where y is thedisplacement of platformfromitsmean position.Wewishto find themaxi
mumweight shownby
theweighingmachine,which is possiblewhenplatformis at its lowest extreme positio
n as showninfigure, thus
maximumreading ofweighingmachinewillbe
N = mg + m.2A
N = 60 10 + 60 (4.)2 0.05

N = 600 + 480
N = 1080 Nt = 108 kg .t
Similarlythemachinewillshowminimumreadingwhen it is at itsupper extreme position
whenpseudo force on
manwillbe in upward direction, thusminimumreading ofweighingmachinewillbe
N = mg
m.2A
N = 600
480 = 120 Nt = 12 kg .t
Example 28: A20 g particle is oscillating simple harmonicallywith a period of 2
second and maximumkinetic
energy2 J. The totalmechanicalenergy of the particle is zero.Write the following
(a) Amplitude ofoscillation
(b) Potential energyas a function of displacement xrelative tomean position.
Sol. (a) m = 20 g = 20 10 3 kg
T = 2s
Kmax = 2 J
Using Kmax =
1
2 m.2 A2
we have
2
2 1 20 10 3 2 .A2
2 2
. . . . . .. ... . .
2
3 2
2 A
5 10. 4 .
. . .
A . 10 m
.
(b) Etot = EOSC + U0
0 = 2 + U0
U0 = 2 J
. U(x) =
1
2 m.2 x2
2
2
U(x) 1 20 2 x2 2
2 1000 2
. .. . . .. . . . .
2
u(x) x2 2
100
.
. . (S.I. units)
Example 29:Abody is executing SHMunder the action of forcewhose maximummagnitude
is 50N. Find the
magnitude of force acting on the particle at the timewhen its energyis half kine
tic and half potential.
Sol. Totalenergy
E = 1/2 mA2.2
Up = Uk
. 1 mA2 2 sin2 t 1 mA2 2 cos2 t
2 2
. . . . .

or tan2.t = 1
. t
4
.
. .
. a = .2Asin .t
. F = ma = .2Asin 4
.
(in the sence ofmagnitude)
.
F 50 25 2 N
2
. .
Example 30:Apoint particle ofmass 0.1 kg is executing SHMwith amplitude of0.1m.W
hen the particle passes
through themeanposition, itsK.E. is 8 10 3 J.Obtainthe equation ofmotionof this par
ticle ifthe initialphase
of oscillation is 45.
Sol. 2 3
max
1 mv 8 10
2
. . .
or 1 mA2 2 8 10 3
2
. . . .
or 1 0.1 (0.1)2 2 8 10 3
2
. . . . . .
or .2 = 16
. . = 4 rad/s
. x =Asin t
4
. .. .. . . . .
. x = 0.1 sin 4t
4
. .. . . . . .
Example 31: In case of simple harmonicmotion (a)what fraction of total energy is
kinetic andwhat fraction is
potentialwhen displacement is one half of the amplitude, (b) at what displacemen
t the kinetic and potential
energies are equal?
Sol. In case ofsimple harmonicmotion
K 1 m 2 .A2 y2 .
2
. . . , U 1 m 2y2
2
. . and E 1 m 2A2
2
. .
(a) So
2
K 2
f K 1 y 1 1 3
E A 4 4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
as y A given
2
. . . .. ..
2 2
P 2
f U y (A / 2) 1
E A A 4
. . . . . . .. ..
(b) According to given problem
K = U, i.e.,
1
2 m.2(A2
y2) =
1
2 = m.2y2
i.e. 2y2 = A2 or
y A 0.7 A
2
. .

Example 32:Aparticle starts oscillating simple harmonicallyfromits equilibriumpo
sition then, the ratio of kinetic
energy and potential energy of the particle at the time T/12 is : (T = time peri
od)
(A) 2 : 1 (B) 3 : 1 (C) 4 : 1 (D) 1 : 4
Sol: x =Asin .t
v dx
dt
. =A. cos .t
. 2 2 2 2
k
U 1 mv 1 mA cos t
2 2
. . . .
and 2 2 2
P
U 1 mA sin t
2
. . .
.
2
k 2
2
P
U cos t
cot t
U sin t
.
. . .
.
k 2
P
U 2 T cot
U T 12
.
. .
k 2 2
P
U
cot cot 30
U 6
.
. .
k
P
U
3:1
U
. Hence option (B) is correct.
Example 33:Abody performs simple harmonic oscillations along the straight lineAB
CDE withCas themidpoint
ofAE. Its kinetic energies at B and D are each one fourth of itsmaximumvalue. If
AE = 2R, the distance
between Band Dis
A B C D E
(A)
3 R
2
(B)
R
2 (C) 3 R (D) 2 R
Sol: 2 2 2
k
U 1 m (A x )
2
. . .
or 1 1 mA2 2 1 m 2 (A2 x2 )
4 2 2
. . . . .
or . . 2
A 2 2
A x
4
. .
or
2 2
2 2 A 3A
x A
4 4
. . .
.
x 3A 3 R
1 2
. . Hence option (A) is correct.
Example 34: The potentialenergyof a simple harmonic oscillator ofmass 2 kg in it
smeanposition is 5 J. If its total
energy is 9J and its amplitude is 0.01 m, its time periodwould be
(A) ./10 sec (B) ./20 sec (C) ./50 sec (D) ./100 sec

Sol: 2
max
1 mv 9 5 4
2
. . .
or 2
mvmax . 8
or 2
max 2 v . 8
or vmax = 2 m/s =A.
. max v 2 200
A 0.01
. . . .
or
2 200
T
.
.
.
T 2
200 100
. .
. . Hence (D) option is correct.
Example 35:Aspringmass systempreforms SHM. If themass is doubled keeping amplitu
de same, then the total
energyofSHMwill become :
(A) double (B) half (C) unchanged (D) 4 times
Sol: E 1 mA2 2
2
. .
E 1 mA2 k
2 m
. . . .. ..
E 1 A2k
2
. (Independent ofmass) Hence option (C) is correct.
C36:Amass at the end of a spring executes harmonicmotionabout anequilibriumposit
ionwithan amplitudeA. Its
speed as it passes through the equilibriumposition isV. If extended 2Aand releas
ed, the speed of the mass
passing through the equilibriumpositionwillbe
(A) 2V (B) 4V (C) V/2 (D) V/4
Sol: . v =A.
. v = 2A.
. v = 2v Hence option (A) is correct.
C37: Alinear harmonic oscillator has a totalmechanical energyof200 J. Potential
energyof it atmeanposition is
50 J. Find,
(i) themaximumkinetic energy
(ii) theminimumpotential energy
(iii) the potentialenergyat extreme positions.
Sol. Atmeanposition, potential energyisminimumand kinetic energyismaximum. Hence
,
Umin = 50 J (atmean position)
Umin = 200
50
and Kmax = E
Kmax = 150 J (atmean position)
At extreme positions, kinetic energyis zero and potential energyismaximum
. Umax = E
Umax = 200 J (at extreme position)

C38: The potentialenergyof a particle oscillating on x-axis is given as
U = 20 + (x
2)2
HereU is in joules and x inmetres. Totalmechanical energyof the particle is 36 J
.
(a) Statewhether themotion of the particle is simple harmonic or not.
(b) Find themean position.
(c) Find themaximumkinetic energyof the particle.
Sol. (a) F =
dU
dx = 2(x
2)
By assuming x
2 =X, we have F =
2X
Since, F . X
Themotionof the particle is simple harmonic
(b) The mean position of the particle is X= 0 or x
2 = 0, which gives x = 2 m
(c)Maximumkinetic energyof the particle is,
Kmax = E Umin = 36
20 = 16 J.
Note : Umin is 20 J at mean position or at x = 2 m.
Example 36. If a particlemoves in a potential energyfieldU=U0
ax+ bx2, where a a
nd b are positive constant,
obtain an expression for the force acting on it as a function of position.Atwhat
point does the force vanish? Is
this a point of stable equilibrium?
Calculate the force constant and frequencyof the particle.
Sol.
F dU a 2bx
dx
. . . .
F = 0, at x = a/2b
2
2
d U
2b 0
dx
. .
i.e.,
x a
2b
. is a point ofminimumpotential energy.Hence, the equilibriumis stable.
k = 2b
and
f 1 k 1 2b
2 m 2 m
. .
. .
Example 37:Aparticle ofmassmmoves in a one-dimensional potential energyU(x) = ax2
+ bx4, where a and b
are positive constants. The angular frequencyof small oscillations about themini
ma of the potential energy is
equal to
(A)
a
2b
. (B)
2 a
m (C)
2a
m (D)
a
2m
Sol: U = ax2 + bx4
. F dU 2ax 4bx3
dx
. . . . .

Atmean position F = 0
. 2ax = 4bx3
or x2 2a a
4b 2b
. .
. 0
x a
2b
. .
. F =
2a(x0 + x) + 4b(x0 + x)3
F = 2ax0
2ax + 4bx0
3
3
0
1 x
x
. .
. . . . .
F = 2ax0
2ax + 4bx0
3
0
1 3x
x
. .
. . . . .
F = 2ax0
2ax + 4bx0
3 +
30
0
12bx x
x
F = 2ax0
2ax + 4bx0
3 + 12bx0
2x
F 2a a 2ax 4b a a 12b a x
2b 2b 2b 2b
. . . . .
F 2a a 2ax 2a a 6ax
2b 2b
. . . . .
ma = + 4ax
.
a 4a x
m
.
. a . x
. a = .2x
4a 2 a
m m
. . .
Example 38:Aparticle ofmassmmoves in the potential energy
U shown above. The period of themotionwhen the particle
has total energyEis
U(x)
U=mgx. x > 0 U= kx , x > 0 2 12
x
(A) 2. m/ k . 4 2E /mg2 (B) 2. m/ k
(C) . m/ k . 2 2E /mg2 (D) 2 2E /mg2

Sol: For x < 0
F dU kx
dx
. . . .
ma =
kx
or
a k x
m
. .

. 2
1
x k x
m
.. . .
. 1
k
m
. .
. 1
T 2 m
k
. .
For x > 0
U=mgx
.
F dv mg
dx
. . . .
But 20
E 1 mv
2
.
. 0
v 2E
m
. , it is speed at lowest point.
. 0
2
2v 2 2E
T
g g m
. .
. 1
2
T m 2 2E
T T
2 k g m
. . . . .
Hence option (C) is correct.
PASSAGE (Q. 39 to 41)
The graphs is figure showthat a quantityy varieswith displacement d ina systemun
dergoing simple harmonic
motion.
(I)
y
O d
(II)
y
O d
(III)
y
O d
(IV)
y
O d
Example 39: The total energy of the system
(A) I (B) II (C) III (D) IV

Sol: In SHM, totalenergy remains constant.
Example 40: The time
(A) I (B) II (C) III (D) IV
Sol: x =Asin .t
Example 41: The unbalanced force acting on the sytem
(A) I (B) II (C) III (D) None
Sol: a = .2x
. F = ma = m.2x Hence option (D) is correct.

Energy method for SHMproblems :
1. Write the equilibriumequation.
2. Take displaced position andwrite the potential plus kinetic energies : E =K+U
3. Set
dE
dt = 0 and obtain dynamical equation.
Example 42: The friction coefficient between the two blocks shown infigure is an
d
the horizontalplane is smooth. If the systemis slightlydisplaced and released,
(a) find the time period
m
M
k
(b) find themagnitude ofthe frictionalforce betweenthe blockswhenthe displacemen
t
fromthemean position is x,
(c) find themaximumamplitude if the upper block does not slip relative to the lo
wer block during oscillations.
Sol. (a) For small amplitude, the two blocks oscillate together.
The angular frequencyis of a single block spring system:
. . [k /(M. m)]
and so the time period is :
T . 2. [(M.m) / k]
(b) When the blocks are at distance x fromthemean position, their acceleration i
s :
.2x =
a =
kx
M. m
The resultant force on the upper block is, therefore
mf =
mkx
M. m
The force is prompted by the frictional of the lower block. Hence the magnitude
of the frictional force is
mk | x |
M. m .
(c) themaximumfrictionalforce required for simple harmonicmotion of the upper bl
ock ismKA/(M+m) at the
extreme position.But themaximumfrictionalforce can onlybemg.
Therefore
mkA
M. m =mg or A=
(M m)g
k
.
Example 43:A2 kg mass is attached to a spring of force constant 600 N/mand rests
on a smooth horizontal
surface.Asecondmass of 1 kg slides along the surface toward the first at 6m/s.
(a) Find the amplitude of oscillation if themassesmake a perfectlyinelastic coll
ision and remain together on the
spring.What is the period of oscillation?
(b) Find the amplitude and period of oscillation if the collision is perfectly e
lastic.
(c) For each case, write down the position x as a function of time t for themass
attached to the spring, assuming
that the collision occurs at time t = 0.
What is the impulse given to the 2 kgmass in each case ?

Sol. (a) Fromconservationof linearmomentum,
1 6 = (1 + 2)v
. v = 2 m/s

Nowfromconservationofmechanical energy,
1kg 6m/s 2kg 1 mv2 1 kA2
2 2
.
A m v 3 2
k 600
. . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . or A = 0.141 m= 14.1 cm
T 2 m 2 3 0.44 s
k 600
. . . . .
(b) For perfectlyelastic collision,
2 1 1
2 2 1
1 2 1 2
m m 2m
v v v
m m m m
. . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . or
2
v 0 2 1 6 4 m/ s
1 2
. . . . . . . . . . . .
1/ 2
2
A m v 2 4
k 600
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . or A = 0.23 m= 23 cm
T 2 m 2 2 0.36 s
k 600
. . . . .
(c) In the first case,
2 2 14.28 rad / s
T 0.44
. .
. . . .
and amplitude A= 14.1 cm
. x =Asin .t = (14.1 cm) sin (14.28 t)
In the second case,
2 2 17.45 rad / s
T 0.36
. .
. . . .
and amplitude A= 23 cm
. x = 23 sin (17.45 t) cm
Impulse, J = .P = 2 2 = 4 N-s in the first case
and 4 2 = 8 N-s in the second case.
Example 44: Abody A of mass m1 = 1.00 kg and a body B of mass m2 = 4.10 kg are
interconnected by a spring as shown in figure. The body A performs free vertical
harmonic oscillationswithamplitude a=1.6 cmand frequency.=25 rad/s.Neglecting
themass ofthe spring, find themaximumandminimumvalues of force that this system
exerts on the bearing surface.
A
B
Sol. Nmax : k = .2m1 = (25)2 (1.0) = 6.25 N/m

Acceleration ofcentre ofmass in extreme position,
2
1 1
CM
1 2 1 2
m a m A
a (upwards)
m m m m
.
. .
. .
Now
2
1
max 1 2 1 2
1 2
m A
N (m m )g (m m )
(m m )
.
. . . . .
.
m1
m2
a = A 2
. Nmax = (m1 + m2)g + m1.2A
Nmax = (1.0 + 4.10)9.8 + (1.0)(25)2(1.6 10 2) = 59.98 newton

Example 45: In the figure shown, the blockAcollideswiththe blockBand after
collision theystick together. Calculate the amplitude of resultant vibration.
B A
M
u
M
Sol. Common velocity after collision =
u
2
Hence, K.E. =
2
1 (2M) u 1 Mu2
2 2 4
. . . .. ..
It is also the totalenergyofvibrationbecause the stringis unstretched at thismom
ent, hence ifAis the amplitude,
then
1 KA2 1Mu2
2 4
. or
A M u
2K
. .
Example 46:Abody ofmassmfalls froma height h on to the pan of a spring balance.
Themass of the pan isM
and spring is massless. The force constant of the spring is k. The body gets str
uck to the pan and starts
performing harmonic oscillations in the verticaldirection.Calculate the period,
amplitude and energy of these
oscillations.
Sol. Let vbe the velocityimmediatelyafter impact.
Then m 2gh = (M+ m)v
or
v m 2gh
M m
.
. ...(1)
The period of oscillation of a spring depends on themass attached and its force
constant and it is given by
T 2 m
k
. .
. here
T 2 M m
k
.
. . or
k
M m
. .
.
x0
x0
3
2
1
x0
l0 l
M
m
The bodyvibrates about the equilibriumposition.
Let the spring be compressed by x0 under theweight of the pan. ThenMg = kx0.
Let the spring be compressed by x0 fromthe previous position under theweight (M+m)
g. Then
(M+ m)g = k(x0 + x0)
This positive (position 2) is the equilibriumposition of the system (pan + body)
. Let x0 be the maximum
compression of the spring relative to position1. This is the lower extreme posit
ion (position 3) of the system.
Applying Conservation of energybetween positions 1 and 3
2 2
0
(M m)g 1 k x 1 (M m)v
2 2
. l . . .
2
0 0 0
(M m)g( x ) 1 k(x x ) 0
2
. . l . . . .

2
2
0 0 0 0
m gh 1
(M m)g x k x x k x
M m 2
. . . . .
.
2
0 0 0 0
Mg x mg x k Mg x 1 k x
k 2
. . . . .
2
20
0
2m gh
kx 2mg x 0
M m
. . .
.
0
x mg mg 1 2kh
k k M m
. . .
.
The negative value is not acceptable
. 0
x mg mg 1 2kh
k k (M m)g
. . .
.
Since the amplitude of SHMis the distance between the mean position and the extr
eme position, here a,
amplitude
0 0
x x mg 1 2kh
k (M m)g
. . . .
.
and E 1 (M m)a2 2
2
. . .
2 2
2
E 1 (M m) m g 1 2kh k
2 k (M m)g M m
. .
. . . . . . . . .
1 m2g2 2kh E 1
2 k (M m)g
. .
. . . . . . .
Example 47: The spring shown in figure is kept in a stretched position x0.
Assuming the horizontalsurface to be frictionless, calculate the frequency
of oscillations after the systemis released. M m
k
Sol. As there is no external force acting on the systemof two blocks plus the sp
ring, the centre ofmass of the
systemwill remain at rest. Themean positions of two simple harmonicmotion or two
blocks occurwhen the
spring becomes unstretched. If themassmmoves towards left through a distanceXare
a themassMmoves
towards left through a distance x before acquires natural length,
x + X = x0 ...(1)
where x andXwill represent the amplitudes of two blocksmandMrespectively. Becaus
e the centre ofmass
of the systemmust not move during themotion, we canwtire
mx =MX ...(2)
From(1) and (2)
x = 0 Mx
M.m and X = 0 mx
M.m ...(3)
x andXalso give the amplitudes ofmandMduring oscillations.At the mean positions
the two blocks have
kinetic energies
1
2 m.2x2 and
1
2 M.2x2. Their summust be
1
2 kx0
2.

Now, from(3) X0 =
M m X
M
.
1
2 kx0
2 =
1
2
.2(mx2 + Mx2)
Using (3), angular frequency
K(M m)
Mm
.
. .
and the frequency
n K(M m)
2 Mm
. .
. .
.
Example 48: Two identical balls Aand B each ofmass 0.1 kg are attached to two
identicalmassless springs.The spring-mass systemis constrained to move inside
a rigid smooth pipe bent inthe formof a circle as shown infig. The pipe is fixed
in
a horizontalplane. The centres of the balls canmove in a circle of radius 0.06m.
Each spring has a natural lengthof 0.06 .mand force constant 0.1N/m. Initially,
both the balls are displaced by an angle . = ./6 radianwith respect to diameter
PQ of the circle and released fromrest.
/6 /6
A B
P Q O
y1 y2
(a) Calculate the frequency of oscillation ofthe ballB.
(b) What is the total energy of the system?
(c) Find the speed of the ballAwhenA and B are at the two ends of the diameter P
Q.
Sol. (a)As here two massesAand Bare connected by two springs, this problemis equ
ivalent to the oscillation of
a reduced massmby a spring of effective force constant keff given by
1 2
1 2
m m 0.1 0.1 m 0.05 kg
m m 0.1 0.1
.
. . .
. .
and keff = k1 + k2 = 0.1 + 0.1 = 0.2 N/m
So f 1 keq 1 0.20 1 Hz
2 m 2 0.05
. . .
. . .
(b) As here one spring is compressed while the other is stretched by same amount
(say y) and balls are at rest at
AandB, so
2 2 2
1 2
E 1 k y 1 k y ky
2 2
. . . [as k1 = k2]
But fromabove figure
y = y1 + y2 = R.1 + R.2 = 2R.
y = 2 0.06 (./6) = 0.02 .m
So E = (0.1)(0.02.)2 = 4.2 10 5 J
(c) As at P andQsprings are unstretched so thewhole energy becomes kinetic of th
e ballsAand B, i.e.
2 2 2 5
1 1 2 2
1 m v 1 m v E 4 10 J
2 2
. . . . . .
Here m1 = m2 = 0.1 kg and v1 = v2 = v
So 0.1 v2 = 4.2 10 5, i.e., v = 2. 10 2 m/s

Example 49: Figure shows a blockPofmassMrestingona horizontal
smooth floor at a distance l froma rigid wall. Block is pushed
toward right bya distance 3l/2 and released,when block passes
fromitsmean position another block ofmassm1 is placed on it
which sticks to it due to friction. Find the value ofm1 so that the
combined block just collideswith the left wall.
m
k
P
l
Sol. When block P is released fromrest froma distance 3l/2 toward right frommean
position, this will be the
amplitude ofoscillation, so velocityof blockwhen passing fromitsmean position is
given as
v A 3 k
2 m
. . . l
[as . =
k
m ]
Ifmassm1 is added to it and just after if velocityof combined block becomes v1,
frommomentumconservation
we have
mv = (m+ m1)v1
or 1 . .
1
v m 3 k
m m 2 m
. .
. . . . . .
l
If this is the velocity of combined block at mean position, it must be given as
v1 = A.1 [now .1 =
1
k
m. m ]
WhereA1 and .1 are the newamplitude and angular frequencyofSHMof the block. It i
s given that combined
block just reaches the left wall thus the newamplitude of oscillationmust be l s
owe have
1
1 1
m . 3 k k
(m m ) 2 m m m
.
. .
l l
or
1
3 m 1
2 m m
.
. or 9m= 4m+ 4m1 or 1
m 5 m
4
.
Example 50: For the arrangement shown in figure, the spring is initially
compressed by3cm.When the spring is released the block collides with

thewalland rebounds to compress the spring again.
k = 104N/m m = 1 kg
4 cm
(a) If the coefficient of restitution is 0.7, find themaximumcompression in the
spring after collision.
(b) If the time starts at the instant when spring is released, find theminimumti
me after which the block becomes
stationary.
Sol. (a)Velocityof the block just before collision,
2 2 2
0 0
1 mv 1 kx 1 kx
2 2 2
. .
or . 2 2 .
0 0
v k x x
m
. .
here, x0 = 0.03 m, x = 0.01 m, k = 104 N/m, m= 1 kg
. 0 v . 2 2 m/ s

After collision, v = ev0 = (0.7) 2 2 = 2 m/s
Maximumcompression inthe spring is
2 2 2
m
1 kx 1 kx 1 mv
2 2 2
. .
or
2
2 2 2
m 4
x x m v (0.01) 1(2) 2.23 cm
k 10
. . . . .
(b) In the cse of spring-mass system, since the time period is independent
of the amplitude of oscillation, therefore
0 1 T 1
T 2sin
2 3
. .. . . .. .. . . . . . . . .
/2
v
/2
O
1
3
+3
x
sin 1(1/3)
sin 1(1/3)
T m 2sin 1 1
k 3
. ... . . .. .. .. . . . .
Example 51: The systemshown in the figure canmove on a smooth surface. the sprin
g is initially compressed by
6 cmand then released. Find
(a) time period k=800N/m
3kg 6 kg (b) amplitude of 3 kg block
(c) maximummomentumof6 kg block.
Sol. (a)
T 2
k
. .
Here 1 2
1 2
m m 3 6 2 kg
m m 9
.
. . .
.
.
T 2 2 2 1
800 20
. . . . .
. T second
10
.
.
(b) Here x0 = 6 cm
But x10 + x20 = x0
and m1x10 = m2x20
or 3x10 = 6x20
or x10 = 2x20
. x10 + x20 = x0
or 10
10 0
x x x
2
. .
or 10 0
3 x x
2
.
. 10 0
x 2 x 2 6 4 cm
3 3
. . . .

(c) Applying conservationprinciple ofmomentum
3 v1
6 v2 = 0
. 3v1 = 6v2
. v1 = 2v2
Applyingmechanicalenergyconservation
. 2 2 2
1 2 0
1 3 v 1 6 v 1 kx
2 2 2
. . . . . .
or 2 2 2
1 2
3 v 3v 1 800 (0.06)
2 2
. . . .
or 2 2 4
2 2
3 (2v ) 3v 400 36 10
2
. . . . .
or 2 2
2 2
3 4v 3v 1.44
2
. . .
or 9 v2
2 = 1.44
or 2
v 1.2 0.4 m/ s
3
. .
. P2max = 6 0.4 = 2.4 kg m/s
Example 52:A2Kg blockmovingwith10m/s strings a spring of constant
.2 N/mattached to 2 Kg block at rest kept on a smooth floor. The
time forwhich rearmoving block remainin contact withspringwillbe 2 kg 2 kg
10 m/s
(A) 2 sec (B)
1
2 sec (C) 1 sec (D)
1
2 sec
Sol:
T 2
k
. .
Here
2 2
2 2
.
. .
. reduced mass = 1
. 2
T . 2. 1 . 2 s.
.
Initially, systemis atmean position.
Again blocks separatewhen spring comes in natural length (i.e.mean position).
Hence, t = T/2 = 1 second.
Example 53:Two blocksA(2kg) andB(3kg) rest up on a smooth horizontalsurface are

connected bya spring of
stiffness 120N/m. Initiallythe spring is undeformed.Ais imparted a velocity
of 2m/s along the line of the spring away fromB. Find the displacement of
A t seconds later.
2m/s
2kg
B A
3kg
Sol. cm
v 2 2 4 0.8 m/ s
2 3 5
.
. . .
.
InC-frame, themotion is SHM.

But m1x1C = m2x2C
But x0 = x0OC + x0OC
. 2 0
1OC
1 2
x m x
m m
.
. and 1 0
2OC
1 2
x m x
m m
.
.
Applying conservationprinciple ofmechanical energyinC-frame,
2 2
rel 0
1 r 1 kx
2 2
.
or 2
0
1 2 3 4 1 120 x
2 5 2
.
. . . .
or 20
6 4 x
5 120
.
.
.
. 0
x 2
10
.
. 2 0
1OC
1 2
3 2 m x 10 6 x
m m 5 50
.
. . .
.
1OC
x 12 0.12 m
100
. .
Also,
k
. .
here 1 2
1 2
m m 3 2 6
m m 5 5
.
. . .
.
.
120 10 rad / s
1.2
. . .
. x1C = x1OC sin .t
or x1
xC = 0.12 sin 10t
or x1 = xC + 0.12 sin 10t
. x1 = 0.8t + 0.12 sin 10t
Example 54. Two blocks ofmassesm1 andm2 are connected by
a spring of stiffness k.Another block ofmassm1, sliding atV0
without friction,hits the set upelasticallyas showninthe figure. V0
m1 m1 k m2
Plot elastic energyof the spring as a functionoftime t after the
collision.
Sol. Due to one dimensional elastic collision of identicalbodies, velocity is tr
ansferred totallyto m1.
m1 m2
V0
Let x1 and x2 be positions ofm1 andm2 at a time t. Then extension in the spring
(with natural length = l)
x = x2 x1
l ...(1)

The equation ofmotion ofm1 iswriten as
2
1
1 2
d x
m kx
dt
. or
2
1
1 2
d x
m kx
dt
. .
Fromthese
2 2 2
2 1
2 2 1 2 2
d x d x d x
(x x )
dt dt dt
. . l . .
1 2 1 2
k x k x k k x
m m m m
. . . .
. .. . . . .. . . . . . .
2
2
2
d x
x
dt
. .. ...(2)
where
2 1
k 1 1
m m
. .
. . . . . . . ...(3)
Solving these,
x =Asin (.t + .)
At t = 0, x = 0, sin (.t + .)
sin ..= 0
. = 0, . ...(1)
At t = 0, 2 2
0
dx 0, dx V
dt dt
. .
. 0
dx 0 V
dt
V0
. . or .A cos . =
..= . ...(2)
From(i) and (ii)
sin2. + cos2. = 0 +
2
0
2 2
V
. A
0 A . V
.
. 0 0 x . V sin(.t . .) . . V sin.t
. .
Now we canwrite U(x) 1 kx2
2
. U(t)
t
kv0
2
2
2
Umax The plot of
2
0 2
2
kV
U(t) sin t
2CO
. .
. . . . . .
Circular Representation of SHM
We have discussed that an oscillationcan be regarded
as ShM if it satisfies the basic requirements to be
SHM. Every SHM can be best represented as a
projection of a particle in circular motion on its
diameter. In fact themotion ofprojectionof a uniform
circular motion on its diameter satisfies both the
conditions required to beSHM. Let us analyze it from
the figure shown.
y
y
x x t = 0
y
y
xC
A
x
P
1
2 2
1
P
O t = 0
D
B

AparticlePis executing a uniformcircularmotiononthe circlewitha uniformangular v
elocity.as shown.The
particle is shown at its initialpositionAat t =0. It starts inanticlockwisedirec
tionwith uniformangular velocity
.. Ifwe followthemotion of the projection of particle on its verticaldiameter in
figure thenwe can see, along
withP, its projectionP starts frommid point (centre of circle) inupward direction
and the respective position
ofP for position ofP at point 1 and 2 are 1 and 2 as shown in figure.
When P reaches the topmost position, P will also be at this point and when P star
ts tracing the second
quadrant of circle, P starts coming down towards pointO. Thuswe can see, as point
Ptraces its circular path
ABCD, its projectionondiameterYY follows oscillatorymotion alongOBODO.... and so
on.This oscillatory
motion ofP can be taken as SHMas it follows the conditions to be a SHM.We ll prove
it in next section.
Heremotion ofparticle is in a straight linewith amplitude equal to the radius of
circle.As shownin figure, the
displacement ofP frompoint Oas a function of time can be given as
y = R sin .t ...(1)
As P is going up, its velocity can be given as
v =
dy
dt =R..cos .t ...(2)
x
A
x
P
y
y
t = 0
t
R
t = t
y
Its acceleration is
a =
dv
dt = R.2 sin .t
Fromequation (1), we have
a = .2y ...(3)
Here ..is a constant thus the acceleration of P is directly proportional to the d
isplacement fromitsmean
positionOandnegative sign in equation(3) shows that directionof acceleration is
opposite to y that is towards
mean positionO. Hence themotion of projection P can be regarded as SHM.
Equation of SHM
Equation ofan oscillation is themathematical expressiongiving the displacement o
f oscillating particle fromits
mean position as a function of time.
If a particle is executing SHMwith amplitude A, it can be regarded as the
projection ofa circularmotionofrediusAas shown in figure, ifcircularmotion
of point P is at a constant angular velocity ..then this is termed as angular
frequencyof the point P whichis in SHM.
C
A
P
P
D
B
t = 0
P
y
P
t
R
t = t
Let us consider at t = 0, Pwas at point Aand starts in anticlockwise
direction as shown in figure. Nowin time t, point P traversed by an angle .t (as
shown) and P reaches to a
displacement y as shown, can be given as
y =Asin .t ...(4)
This equation-(4) in this case is called as equation ofSHMof point P whichis in S
HM.Here .t whichis the
angular displacement of point P(in circularmotion) is called phase angle of poin
t P in SHM.
In previous articlewe ve discussed the SHMof point P whichwas at itsmean position a
t t = 0. But it is not
necessary that particle starts its SHMfromits mean position. It can start froman
y point on its path, thus
equation-(4) can not be accepted as a general equation of SHM, this being the eq
uation of those all SHMs
where particle starts (at t = 0) their SHMfromtheirmean position.

Nowconsider figurewhere a particle P starts its SHMwith a point
having initial phase angle ..anticlockwise on the circle of point Pof
which it is the projection. Let as t = 0, point P was at an angular
displacement ..fromits reference point (pointA).Thus the point from
whichPwillstart its SHMis shown in figure.At this position(project
t = 0
P
t = t
B P
Y
D Y
C
X X
A
y P
P
tion of P at t = 0 onYY) ..is called as initial phase of point P in
SHM, as ..is the initial angular displacement ofparticle Pwhich is in
circularmotion. Nowafter time t, the angular displacement ofPis (.
+..t) which is called the instantaneous phase of point P at time t = t
and at this instant the displacement of point P frommean position is
y =Asin (.t + .) ...(5)
This equation-(5) is called as general equation of SHMofa particlewhich starts i
ts SHMwith initialphase ..
Here initialphase ofSHMimplies it is the initialangular displacement of the part
iclewhich is incircularmotion
ofwhich the projection is executing SHM.
As equation-(4) gives the equation ofSHMof those particleswhich starts their SHM
frommean position.
Similarlywe can define an equation of SHMof those particles which start their SH
Mfromtheir extreme
position bysubstituting .= ./2 inequation (5).As if a particle starts fromits ex
treme position,we can take its
initial phase ./2 thus its equation ofSHMfromequation (5) can be given as
y =Acos .t ...(6)
In all type of problems inwhich a bodyor a particle execute SHM, we assume that
this is the projection of an
another perticlewho is in circularmotion and its projectionis executing SHM(that
bodyor particlewhichis in
SHM).
Valocity and acceleration of a particle in SHM
Equation (5) gives the general expressionfor displacement frommeanposition ofa p
article executing SHMas
a function of time. Thus velocityofthis particle as a function of time canbe giv
en as
v =
dy
dt =A. cos (.t + .) ...(7)
To convert it in displacement function,we canwrite.
v =A. 1. sin2 (.t . .)
v =A..
2
2
1 y
A
. [as y =Asin .t]
v = .. A2 . y2 ...(8)
Equation (8) gives the velocityofa particle in SHMwith amplitudeA, and angular f
requency..as a function of
its displacement frommeanposition. Fromequation-(8)we canstate that inSHM, parti
cle svelocityismaximum
when y= 0 i.e. at itsmean position and is given as
at y = 0, vmax = A.
At extreme positions of particlewhen y= A, its velocity is zerowhere it returns t
owards itsmean position.
Fromequations-(5) and (8)we can plot the graphs ofdisplacement and velocityas a
function of time as shown
infigure.

O T 2T
t
y
Asin
T = 2
y = Asin ( t + )
(a)
O T 2T
t
y
T = 2
y = Asin t
+A
T/4 5T/4
T/2 3T/4 7T/4
A
(b)
O T 2T
t
y
y = A cos t
T/4
3T/4
T/2
(c)
Similarly acceleration ofparticle in SHMcanbe given as
a =
dv
dt = A.2 sin(.t + .) ...(9)
or a = .2y [as y =Asin (.t + .)] ...(10)
Fromequation-(10)we cansee that atmeanposition(y=0)whenvelocityofparticle ismaxi
mum, its acceleration
is zero and at extremitieswhere y= A, accelration of particle ismaximumand itsmag
nitude is given as
amax = .2A (towardsmean position)
It also shows that as particlemoves away frommean position, its acceleration con
tinuously increases till it
reaches its extreme position (at amplitude)when its velocity becomes zero and it
returns.
Equation-(10) canbe rewritten in differentialfromas
2
2
d y
dt
+ .2y = 0 ...(11)
This equation-(11) is called BasicDifferentialEquation ofmotion ofa particle in SH
M.Everyexpression of
displacement y as a function of timewhichsatisfies this equation can also be reg
arded as anequation of SHM.
C39: Prove that yAei.t is an equation of SHM.
Sol. According to given equation in problem, differentiatingwith respect to time
we get,

dy
dt = iA.ei.t
Differentiating againwith respect to time,we get
2
2
d y
dt
= .2Aei.t =
.2y [as y =Aei.t]
Thuswe have
2
2
d y
dt
+ .2y = 0
This is the basic differential equation of SHMhence y=Aei.t is an equation of SH
M.
Example 55: The displacement of a body executing SHMis given by x =Asin (2.t + .
/3). The first time from
t =0when the velocityismaximumis
(A) 1/12 sec. (B) 0.16 sec (C) 0.25 sec (D) 0.5 sec
Sol:
v dx 2 Acos 2 t
dt 3
. .. . . . . . . . . .
or 2.A = 2.A cos (2.t + 3
.
)
or cos 2 t 1
3
. .. . . . . . . . .
Hence 2 3
. .
. . .
/3
t = 0
t = t0
3 2 Phasor diagram
6
. . .
. .
. . = .t0
or 0 2 t
6
.
. . . 0
t 1 sec.
12 12
.
. .
. Hence (A) option is correct
Phase analysis of a particle in SHM
We ve alreadydiscussed about phase angle ofa particle in SHM. It is actuallythe an
gular displacement of that
particlewho is in circularmotionandwhose projection is in SHM.At a general time
t, the instantaneous phase
of a particle in SHMcan bewritten as (.t + .) if ..is its initialphase (already
discussed).
Phase difference in two SHM

Case I : When two SHMs are of same agnular frequency
Figure shows two particlesP andQ in SHMwithsame angular frequency.. PandQare the c
orresponding
particles in circularmotion for SHMofP andQ.
Let P andQboth starts their circularmotion at the same time at t = 0 then at the
same instant P andQ starts
their SHMinupward direction as shown.As frequencyofboth are equal, bothwill reac
htheir extreme position
(topmost point) at the same time andwill again reach theirmean position simultan
eouslyat time t = T/2. [T =
Time period ofSHM= 2./.] andmove in downward direction together orwe can state t
hat the oscillations of
P andQ are exactlyparallel and at every instant the phase of bothP andQ are equal, t
hus phase difference
in these two SHMs is zero. These SHMs are called same phase SHMs.

t
P t = t
P t = 0
ref. point
P
t
Q t = t
Q t = 0
ref. point
Q
A A
Nowconsider figure,wherewe assume ifP starts its SHMat t = 0 butQwill start at tim
e t1. Inthis duriation
fromt = 0 to t = t1, P willmove ahead in phase by .t1 radianswhileQ was at rest. N
owQ starts at time t1
andmovewithsame angular frequency.. It cannever catchP asboth are oscillating at
same angule frequency.
Thus hereQ will always lag in phase by .t1 then P or we sayP is leading in phase by
.t1 thenQ ans as .
of both are constant their phase differencewill also remains constant so keep it
inmind that in two SHMs of
same angular frequency, if they have some phase difference, it always remains co
nstant.
t
t = t
P
t = 0
P
Q Q
A t = t1
1
1
Nowwe consider a spacial casewhen time lag between the starting of two SHMs is T
/2 i.e. half of oscillation
period. Consider figure, here ifwe assume, particle P starts at t = 0 andQ at t =
T/2when P completes its
half oscillation. Herewe can see that the phase difference in the two SHMis ..by
whichQ is lagging. Here
whenQ starts its oscillationinupward directionPmoves indownward direction.As angul
ar velocityofPand
Q are same, both complete their quarter revolution in same time. Thuswhen P reach
es its bottomextreme
position,Qwill reach its upper extreme position and then afterQ startsmoving downw
ard, P startsmoving
upward and both of these will reach their mean position simultaneously but in op
posite directions, P has
completed its one oscillationwhere asQ is at half of its oscillation due to a pha
se lag of ..
P
t = 0
Q Q
t = T/2
t = T/2
P
P
Thus ifwe observe both oscillations simultaneouslywe can see that oscillations o
f the two particls P andQ
are exactlyantiparalleli.e.whenP goesup,Q comes downand at allinstants of time the

ir displacements from
mean position are equalbut in opposite direction if there amplitudes are equal.
Such SHMs are called opposite
phase SHMs.
Case II : When two SHMs are of different angular frequency
We ve discussed that when two SHMs are of same angular frequency, their phase diff
erence does not change
with time.Consider two particles inSHMas shown infigure. Their corresponding par
ticles for circularmotion
areAandB respectivelyas shown. If bothA andB starts their SHMfrommeanpositionat t
=0withangular
frequencies .1 and .2, thenwe say at t = 0 their phase difference is zero but af
ter time t, their respective phase

are .1t and .2t. Thus after time t, the phase difference in the two SHMs is . =
(.1
.2)t thus equation
above shows that if angular frequencies of the two SHMs are different their phas
e difference continuously
changeswith time.
t
t = t
t = 0
A
A 1 A
1
t
t = t
t = 0
B
B 2 B
2
Same Phase SHMs
As discussed above two particles execute SHMin such awaythat their oscillations
are exactlyparallel to each
other or their phase difference during oscillation is zero, theyare said to be i
n same phasewe ve seen that this
happenswhen both SHMs are started at same timewith same angular frequency. This
canhappen also when
the time lagbetween starting ofthe two SHMisTor anintegralmultiple oftime period
ofSHM.Because ifone
starts at t = 0 and other starts at t =T, in this duration first particlewillcom
plete its first oscillation and is going
to start its second oscillations and the second particlewill start insynchroniza
tionwith the first.Hence the two
oscillationwill stillbe parallel or in same phase. There phase diference in the
two SHMswill be 2..Not only
this even if the time lag in starting of the two SHMs is 2T, 3T..... nT or the p
hase difference in the two SHMs
is 4., 6., 8. ...... 2n., then also these SHMs can be treated in same phase.
Thus phase difference in two SHMs of same phase is
. = 2., 4., 6. .......... 2n.
Opposite Phase SHMs
As discussed in previous article, two SHMs are said to be in opposite phase when
their oscillations are
antiparallel this happenswhen two SHMs of same angular frequency start with a ti
me lag ofT/2 and phase
difference among the two SHMs is .. By analyzing the situation it can also be st
ated that the same thing also
happenswhen the time lag in starting of the two SHMs is 3T/2, 5T/2 ........ (2n
+ 1)T/2 or the phase difference
between the two is 3., 5. ..........(2n + 1)..
Thus phase difference in two SHMs of opposite phase is
. = ., 3., 5. ........., (2n + 1).
To understand the concept of phase and phase difference in SHM, we take fewexamp
les.
Example 56: Two particles are in SHMin a straight line about same equilibriumpos
ition.AmplitudeAand time
period Tof both the particles are equal.At time t = 0, one particle is at displa
cement y1 = +Aand the other at
y2 = A/2, and they are approaching towards each other.Afterwhat time they cross e
ach other ?
(A) T/3 (B) T/4 (C) 5T/6 (D) T/6

Sol: Fromphasor diagram,
0 0 t t
6 2
. .
. . . . .
or 0
2 t 3 4 2
6 2 6 6 3
. . . . . . .
. . . . . .
t0
t0
t0
6 t0
3
C
2 A
6
t = t0
t = t0
.
t
6
.
.
.
0
2
6
.
.
.
2 T
2 / T 6
.
. Hence option (D) is correct.

Example 57. Two particles execute SHMwith same amplitudeAand same angular freque
ncy ..on same straight
linewith samemean position.Given that during oscillation theycross each other in
opposite directionwhen at
a distanceA/2 frommean position. Find phase difference in the two SHMs.
Sol. Figure shows that two respective particles P and Q in SHMalong with their cor
responding particles in
circularmotion.Let Pmoves inupward directionwhen crossingQ atA/2 as shown in figur
e(a), at this instant
phase of P is
.1 = sin 1 1
2
. .
.. .. = 6
.
...(1)
P P Q
A
1
N2 N2
2
Q
Similarlyas shown in figure(b) we can take particleQ ismoving in downward directi
on (oppositeP) atA/2,
this implies its circularmotion particle is in second quadrant thus its phase an
gle is
.2 = . sin 1 1
2
. .
.. .. = . 6
.
=
5
6
.
...(2)
As both are oscillating at same angular frequencytheir phase diff. remains const
ant which can be given from
equation-(1) and (2), as
.. = .2 .1 =
5
6
.
6
.
=
2
3
.
Example 58:Aparticle executes SHMwith amplitudeAand angular frequency..At an ins
tant when particle is at
a distanceA/5 frommean position andmoving away fromit. Find the time afterwhich
it will come back to this
position agin and also find the time after which it will pass throughmean positi
on.
Sol. Figure shows the circularmotionrepresentationfor the particlePgiveninprolbem
.
The initial situation of particle is shown in figure.AsPmoves, its projectionPwil

l
go upand then come backto its initialpositionwhenP reaches to the corresponding
position in second quadrant as shown. In this process P traversed an angular
displacement .withangular veliocity., thus time taken in the process is
P
P
A/5
B
D
C A
1
1 1 2cos (1/ 5)
t [2cos (1/ 5)]
.
. .
. . .
. . .
Nowwhen P reaches point C, Pwill reach itsmean position. Thus time takenbyP fromi
ts initialposition to
point C is
( ) sin 1(1/ 5)
t
. .. . . .
. .
. .
The same time Pwill take fromA/5 position tomean position through its extreme pos
ition.
Example 59: Two particles executing SHM with same angular frequency and amplitud
es A and 2A on same
straight line with same mean position cross each other in opposite direction at
a distance A/3 frommean
position. Find the phase difference in the two SHMs.

Sol. Figure shows the two corresponding particles of circularmotion for the
twomentioned particles in SHM. Let particleP is going up and particleQ
is going down. Fromthe figure shown, the respective phase differences
of particles P and Q are Q
N3
1
Q
2
P
2A
.1 = sin 1
1
3
. .
.. .. [Phase angle of P]
and .2 = . sin 1 1
6
. .
.. .. [Phase angle ofQ]
Thus phase difference in the two SHMs is
.. = .2 .1 = . sin 1 1
6
. .
.. .. sin 1
1
3
. .
.. ..
C40:Aparticle stars its SHMfrommeanposition at t = 0. If its time period isT and
amplitudeA. Find the distance
travelled by the particle in the time fromt = 0 to t = 5T/4.
Sol. We knowin one complete oscillation i.e. in period T, a particle covers a di
stance 4Aand in first one quarter of
its period it goes fromitsmean positionto its extreme position as its starts fro
mmean positionthus the distance
travelled bythe particle in time 5T/4 is 5A.
Example 60: Aspring block pendulumis shown in figure. The systemis hanging in
equlibrium.Abullet ofmassm/2movingat a speed uhits theblock fromdownward
direction and gets embedded in it. Find the amplitude of oscillation of the bloc
k
now.Also find the time taken bythe block to reach its upper extreme position
after hit bybullet. m
h
Nature
length of
spring
Sol. If block is in equilibriumthen springmust be at some stretch if it is h, we
have
mg = kh
If a bullet ofmassm/2 gets embedded in the block, due to this inelastic impact i
ts newmass becomes 3m/2 and
nowthe newmean position of the blockwill be say at a dept. h1 fromoldmean positi
on then,wemust have
3
2 mg = k(h + h1)
3m
2 g = k(h + h1)
m
u
v
m/2
1
h mg
2k
. (as mg = kh)
Just after impact due to inelastic collision if the velocityof block becomes v,w
e have
according tomomentumconservation
m u 3m v
2 2
.
or
v u
3
.
Nowthe block executes SHMand at t = 0 block is at a distance 1
h mg
2k
. above itsmean positionand having

a velocityu/3. If amplitude of oscillation isA,we have
2
u A2 mg
3 2k
. . . . . .. ..
or
2 2
u 2k A2 mg
9 3m 2k
. . . . . . . . . . .. . . ..
[As for this spring block system.=
k
(3m/ 2) ]
mu2 mg 2 A
6k 2k
. . . . .. ..
Nowtime takenbyparticle to reachthe topmost point can beobtained bycircular
motion representationas shown in figure.This figure shows the position of block
P and its corresponding circularmotion particle P0 at the t =0. Block Pwill reac
h
its upper extreme positionwhen particle P0will travers the angle . and reach the
topmost point.As P0 moves at constant angular velocity ., it will take a time
given as
P P
1 A
1
h
1
1 1 t cos (h /A) 3m cos 3mg
k 2k 2kA
3m/ 2
.
. . . . . .. .. . . .
Example 61: Figure(a) shows a spring block system, hanging in
equilibrium. The block of systemis pulled downbya distance
x and imparted a velocity v in downward direction as shown
infigure(b).Find the time itwilltake to reachitsmeanposition.
Also find themaximumdistance to which it willmove before
returning back towardsmean position.
equilibrium m
position
k
m
x
(a) (b)
Sol. As shown in figure (b),when the block is pulled down bya distance x
and throwndownward, it will start executing SHM. It willgo further
to a distanceA(amplitude) frommean position before returning back
which can be found by using the velocityof block vat a displacement
x fromitsmean position as
v . . A2 . x2
or 2 . 2 2 . v k A x
m
. . [as for spring block system.=
k
m ]
or
2
A mv x2
k
. .
Now time of motion of bob can be obtained by circular motion representation of t
he respective SHM.
Corresponding circularmotion representation for this SHMis shown in figure at t
=0.At t = 0, block P is at a
distance x from its mean position in downward direction and it is moving downwar
d so we consider its
corresponding circularmotionparticle in III quadrant as shown in reference angul
ar velocitywe consider Pwill
reach itsmean positionwhen particle P0 reaches positionAby traversing an angle .
. Shown in figure.Thus it
will take a time given as

sin 1 .x /A.
t
k
m
. . . .
. .
.
A
P0 P
v
x
A
B
C
D
or
1
2
2
m x
t sin
k mv x
k
.
. .
. .
. .. . .
. .
. . .
. .
Themaximumdistance towhich blockwillmove fromits initialpositionisA xas it gas up
to its lower extreme
at a distance equal to its amplitudeAfromtomean position.
Example 62: Figure shows a block ofmassmresting ona smooth horizontal
ground attached to one end of a spring of force constant k in natural
length. Ifanother block ofsamemass andmovingwitha velocityutoward
right is placed on the blockwhich stick to it due to friction. Find the time
it will take to reach its extreme position. Also find the amplitude of
oscillations of the combinedmass 2m.
m u
m
k
smooth
Sol. When secondmass sticks to the lowermass, due to such aninelastic collision,
the velocityof combined block
is reduced byhalf that is u/2 to conservemomentum.Nowatmean positionthe velocity
of block can bewritten
as
u A
2
. . (ifAis the amplitude of oscillation)
or
u A k
2 2m
. [As here for combined block newangular frequencyof SHMis . = k
2m ]
or
A u 2m u m
2 k 2k
. .
As oscillation starts frommean position, in reaching its extreme position, parti
cle has to cover a phase of ./2
radians, thus time taken by particle to reach its extreme position is
t / 2 k
2 2m
. .
. .
.
Example 63: In previous example if block is pulled toward riht by a distance x0
and released, when the block
passes through a point at a displacement x0/2 frommean position, another block o
fsamemass is gentlyplaced
on it which sticks to it due to friction. Find the newamplitude ofoscillation an
d find the time nowit willtake in
reaching itsmean position and extreme positionon left side.
Sol. When block was released at x0 frommean position, this will be the amplitude
of oscillation and when it is
passing through the positionof half amplitude x0/2, its velocitycan be given as
2
2 0 v A x
2
. . . . . .. .. or
2
2 0
0
v k x x
m 4
. .
0
v 3 x k
2 m
.

When another block of samemass is added to it, due tomomentumconservation its ve
locitybecomes half and
. of oscillation will, also change from
k
m to
k
2m . Again using the formula for velocity of SHMat a
distance x0/2 frommeanposition,we get
2
v v A2 x0
2 2
. . . .. . .. ..
or
2
2 0
0
3 x k k A x
2 m 2m 2
. .. . .. .. [ifA is the newamplitude of oscillation]
2
2 2 0 2
0 0
3 x 5
A x x
8 4 8
. . . or 0
5
A x
2 2
.
To find time ofmotion in SHMwe use circularmotion representationof the respectiv
eSHM.The figure shows
the corresponding circularmotion. If at t = 0, the secondmass is added to the os
cillating block, it was at a
position x0/2 frommean position and moving towards it, and after adding the mass
the new amplitude of
oscillation changes toA and . changes from
k
m to
k
2m . Figure shows the corresponding position of
particle in circularmotion at t =0 in II quadrant.Whenthis particle P0will reach
the positionCafter traversing
the angle ., particle P in SHMwill reach itsmean position and similarlywhen P0wi
llreach positionD, P will
reach the extreme position on other side. thus the time taken by P to reachmean
position froma position of
x0/2 frommean position is given as
1 0
1
sin x
t 2A
k
2m
. . .
. .. ..
. .
. A
t=0
A
P0
A0
B
P
v
D
C
x0 /2
or
1
1
1
sin 2
5 2m 2
t sin
k k 5
2m
.
.
. .
.. .. . .
. . . . . .
Similarlytime taken by P to reach the left end extreme position is
1
2
t / 2 2m sin 2
k 2 5
. . . . .. . . .
. . . . . . . . .. . . ..
Example 64: Figure shows a block P of mass m resting on a smooth
horizontal surface, attached to a spring of force constant kwhich is
rigidlyfixed on thewallon left side, shown in figure.At a distance l to
the right of block there is a rigidwall. Ifblock is pushed toward lift so
that spring is compressed by a distance 5l/3 and released, it will start
m
k
P
l
its oscillations. If collision of blockwith thewall is considered to be
perfectly elastic. Find the time period of oscillations of the block.
Sol. As shown infigure, as the block is released fromrest at a distance 5l/3 fro
mitsmean position, thiswill be the
amplitude of oscillation. But on other side ofmean position block canmove onlyup
to a distance l frommean

position and then it will returnfromthis point withequal velocitydue to elastic
collision. Consider figure. If no
right wall is present during oscillation block Pwill executing complte SHMon rig
ht side ofmean position also
up to its amplitude 5l/3. Thus we can observe the block P at a point X at a dist
ance l frommean position
(where in our casewall is present), if block passes this position at speed v(whi
ch is the speedwithwhich block
hits thewallinour cse), after reaching its extreme positionY, it will returnand
during return pathitwill cross the
positionXwith the same speed v (as displacement frommean position is same).
m
P
5l/3
l
5l/3
Y
v
v X
(a)
Thuswe canstate that inour case of givenproblem, block P is executing SHMbut it
skips a part XYXon right
half of itsmotion due to electric collisionof the blockwith thewall. IfT0 is the
time period of this oscillationwe
look at figure (b),which shows the corresponding circularmotion representation.
Here during oscillation of
point P, particle P0 covers its circularmotion alongECDAF, and fromF it instantl
yjumps to E (due to elastic
collision of P withwall at X) and again carry out ECDAF and so on, thus we can f
ind the time of this total
motionas
2 2sin 1(3/ 5)
t
k
m
. . . . . .
. .
.
t m 2sin 1 3
k 5
. ... . . .. .. .. . . . .
...(1)
l
P X
Y
B
F
A
5l/3
D
C
E
P0
5l/3
(b)
We can also find the time period of thismotion bysubtracting the time of
FYE fromthe total time period as
2 2cos 1 3
t 5
. . . .. .. . .
.
.
or t m 2 2cos 1 3
k 5
. .. . . . .. .. .. . . . .
...(2)
these equation-(1) and (2)will result same numericalvalue.
Example 65: Figure shows a spring block systemhanging in equilibrium. Ifa veloci
tyv0
is imparted to the block in downward direction. find the amplitude ofSHMof the
block and the time afterwhich it will reach a point at half of the amplitude of
block.
m
k
h
Natural length
P
Mean position
Sol. Initially inequilibriumif block is at a depth hbelowthe natural length of s
pring then
we have
mg = kh
If at mean position block is imparted a velocity v0, thiswould be themaximumvelo
city of block during its
oscillation. Ifits amplitude of oscillation isA, then it is given as
v0 =A. [where .=
k
m ]
or 0
0
A v v m
k
. .
.
Now to find the time taken by block to reach its half of amplitude point we

consider the corresponding circularmotion ofthe SHMas shownin figure.
E
A/2 v0 A A
P P0
C
D
B
Here block Pwill reachto half of its amplitudewhen particle P0willreach point E
shown in figure at an angular displacement . frommean position relative to point
A, thus time taken by it is
t sin 1 .1 2. m
k m 6 k
. . .
. . .
.
Angular Harmonic Motion :
If the angular acceleration of a systembe directlyproportional inmagnitude to th
e
angular displacement and be directed opposite to angular displacement relative t
o
fixed position, itsmotion is said to be angular simple harmonic.
Z
Z
In the figure rotationof the body about z-axis is such that angular acceleration
.z is
.2. where .2 is a positive constant. Themotion is then angular SHM
given by .z =
.As
2
z 2
d
dt
.
. . ,
the differential equationmaybewritten as
2
2
2
d
dt
.
. .. .
Multiplying both the sides by themoment of inertia of the body about the z-axis
(I), we get .z = I.2.
where .z is the z-component of net torque . .
acting on the body.
Table : SHM Features
Quantity Linear SHM Angular SHM
Equation m
2
2
d x
dt
+ kx = 0 I
2
2
d
dt
.
+ C. = 0
Angular frequency . . k /m . . C/ I
Displacement x =Asin(.t + .) . = .0sin(.t + .)
Phase .t + . .t + .
Phase constant . .
Amplitude A .0
Totalenergyof oscillation 1/2m.A2 = 1/2kA2 1/2I.2.0
2 = 1/2C.0
2
Potentialenergy 1/2m.2x2 1/2I.2.2
KineticEnergy 1/2I.2(A2
x2) 1/2I.2(.0
2 .2)
Simple Pendulum (mathematical pendiulum)
Aheavy pointmass suspended froma rigid support using inextensible, elastic andma
ssless thread and free to
oscillatewithout friction is called a simple pendulum.
All these conditions are ideal and cannot be realised completely in particle. He
nce such a pendulumis also
called mathematical pendulum. In laboratory a thread, a bob, a split cork and st
and are arranged to get an
approximate simple pendulum.

Splitcork
l
h
r
L= l + h + r friction Zero
rigid
massless, inextensible,
elastic cord
heavy point mass
Motion of simple pendulum
Let the thread be deflected byan angle . about z-axis as in the figure. The torq
ue
abotu z-axis is given by
= 0 mg
Z-axis l sin
l
.z = mgl sin .
For small angle,
sin . . .. (see table)
Table : Some values of sin .
..(degree) ..(radian) sin .
1 0.01745 0.01745
2 0.03490 0.03490
3 0.05235 0.05234
4 0.06981 0.06976
5 0.08727 0.08716
6 0.10472 0.10453
7 0.12217 0.12187
8 0.13963 0.13917
9 0.15708 0.15643
10 0.17453 0.17365
11 0.19199 0.19081
12 0.20944 0.20791
13 0.22689 0.22495
14 0.24435 0.24192
15 0.26180 0.25882
(Values reounded at 5th place)
Then,
.z = mgl. (angular SHM)
Now,
.z =
2
2
d
I
dt
.
= ml2
2
2
d
dt
.
. = ml2
2
2
d
dt
.
= mgl.
2
2
d g
dt
. . . . .. . . . l .
Comparing thiswith standard equation,we get
.2 . g
l

Thus, the angular frequency .of the simple pendulumis given by
. . g
l
The time period of the pendulumis given by
T =
2.
.
. T = 2. g
l
This expression contains four informations known as laws of simple pendulum.
Laws of simple pendulum :
(i) T . l (lawof length)
(ii)
T 1
g
. (lawof acceleration due to gravity)
(iii) T doesn t depend uponmass (lawofmass)
(iv) T doesn t depend upon amplitude (lawof amplitude)
Second s Pendulum: The simple pendulumhaving time period of 2s is called second s pe
ndulum.Apendulum
clock generallyuses this pendulum.
Simple pendulum in accelerated frame :
Case I : Let the simple pendulumbe located in a lift. The accelerationDthe lift
is a0.
a0
. upward : In this casema0 andmg are downward giving effective-g
geff = (g + a0)
ma0 mg
a0
m(g+a0)
.
eff 0
T 2 2
g g a
. . . .
.
l l
Time period has decreased.Apendulumclock in such a lift willbe running fast.
Case II :
a
. directed downward : In this case pseudoforce ma0 acts upward. The net downward
force ismg
ma0. This
gives effective-g equal to g
a0 . Then
0
T 2
g a
. .
.
l
mg
ma0 a0
m(g+a0)
< g

Case III :
a0
. is horizontal : In this case ma0
. and mg .
are at right angles. They give as effective - g
2 2
eff 0 g . g .a
Hence the period is
ma0
a0
mg mg eff= m g2+ a 2
0
2 2
0
T 2
g a
. .
.
l
Simple pendulum in a fluid (non-visicous) :
In a non-visicous fluid, the vertical buoyant force (m/.).g acts opposite to mg
.
. The net downward force is
(m/.).g.
mg
The effective-g is 1 g
. ..
. . . . .. .
mg
F = m b g
m = Volume displaced
m = mass of bob
= density of bob
= fluid density <
eff mg
mg = mg 1
g g 1
. ..
. . . . . ..
.
T 2
g 1
. .
. ..
. . . . ..
l
C41: The length of a simple pendulumis increased by 4%; calculate the percentage
increase inits time period.
Sol. Here, 1 1
2 1
L L 4L 104L
100 100
. . .
Therefore, 2 2 1
1 1 1
T L 104L 104 4
1
T L 100L 100 100
. . . . . . . .. ..
1/2
2
1
T 1 4 1 2 102 1.02
T 100 100 100
. . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. ..
2 1 T . 1.02 T
Increase [or change] in time period = T2
T1
= T1(1.02
1) = 0.02 T1
%Increase (or change) in time period = 1
1
0.02 T
100% 2%
T
. .
C42: Calculate the length of a second pendulumon the surface of themoon (given g
m = 1/6ge).
Sol.
T 2 L
8m
. . or
2 2 L
8m
. .
. m
2 2
L 8g 9.8 16.5 cm
6 (3.14)
. . .
. .

C43: The length of a second pendulumis increased by 4%, thenwhat will be its new
time period ?
Sol. Here
1/2
2 2
1 1
T L 4
1 1.02
T L 100
. . . . . . .. ..
. T2 = 1.02 T1 = 2.04 sec.
C44: Calculate howmuch time a second pendulumwill lose in a day, if its length i
s increased by4%?
Sol. If the length is increased 4%then the time period of the seconds pendulumwi
ll become 2.04 sec; hence it will
lose 0.04 sec in every 2.04 sec. Therefore it will lose.
0.04 86, 400
2.04
. sec in a day = 1694 sec in a day (nearly).
C45: Calculate the frequencyofa secondspenduluminanelevator,whichis accelerated
upwardwithanacceleration
of 49.0m/sec2.
Sol.
2
2 2
1 1
n g 49 9.8 58.8 6
n g 9.8 9.8
. . .
. . . . . . . .
. 2 1
n n 6 1 6 1.224 per sec.
2
. . . .
C46:Asimple pendulum50 cmlong is suspended fromthe roof of a cart
accelerating in the horizontal directionwith a = 7m/s2 (figure). Find
the period ofsmall oscillations of the pendulumabout its equilibrium
angle.
50 cm
m a = 7 m/s2
Sol. 2 2 2 2 2
eff g . a . g . (7) . (9.8) . 12.0 m/ s
eff
T 2 2 0.5 1.28 s
g 12
. . l . . .
Example 66. The lengthof a simple pendulumis 1m. The bob of the pendulum(mass =
0.10 kg) is releasedwhen
the string is horizontal. Calculate in the lowest point ofits path :
(i) its kinetic energy, (ii) the tensionin the string.
Sol. The amplitude .0 = ./2 is large.We cannot use SHMequations
(i) When the bob is released fromhorizontal, the loss in its potential energy at
the lowest point =mgl, where l is
the lengthofthe pendulum.
Let the velocityof bob at the lowest point is v.Then gain inK.E. = 1/2mv2
Fromconservationofmechanical energy
mgl = 1/2 mv2
Hence, K.E. = 1/2 mv2 =mgl

= 1/100 9.8 1 = 0.098 J
(ii) Tension in the string T mg =mv2/l
Using (i)
v . 2gl . 2 . 9.8.1 . 19.6 = 4.42 m/s
. T =
1 9.8 1 19.6
100 100 1
. . . = 0.294 N.

Example 67. The figure shows a simple pendulumwhose bob is an elastic ball. It c
ollides
elasticallywith the slant wall. Calculate the period of the pendulumoscillations
for
small . and . as shown in the figure.
>l
Sol. Let the stringmake and angle .withthe downward vertical.
Let t = 0 at . = .. Then
. = . cos .t
where
. . g
l
=
=
At thewall . = .
. = . cos .t
t 1 cos.1 . ...
. . . . . . .
The period is double of this value. Hence
T 2 cos 1
g
. . ..
. . . . . . .
l
Example 68: Figure shows two identical simple pendulums of length l.
One is tilled at an angle ..and imparted an initial velocity v1 toward
mean position and at the same time other one is projected awayfrom
mean positionat a velocityv2 at aninitial angular displacementB. Find
the phase difference in oscillations ofthese two pendulums. A B v1
v2
l l
Sol. It is given that first pendulumbob is given a velocity v1 at a displacement
l. frommean position, using the
formula for velocitywe can find the amplitude of its oscillations as
2 2
1 1 V . . A . (l.) [IfA1 is the amplitude of SHMof this bob]
As for simple pendulum..=
g
l we have
2 2 2
1 1
V . g [(A ) . (l.) ]
l
2
2 2 1
1
v
A
g
. . . l l ...(1)
Similarly ifA2 is the amplitude of SHMof second pendulumbobwe have
2 2
2 2 V . . A . (l.)
or
2
2 2 2
2
v
A
g
. . . l l ...(2)
Nowwe represent the two SHMs bycircularmotion representation as shown in figure.

B A A
2
t=0
1
t=0
0
l 2
B
I SHM
l
A1
A0
(a)
II SHM
(b)
In first pendulumat t = 0 the bob is thrown froma displacement l. frommean posit
ionwith a velocity v1
toward mean position.As it ismoving toward mean position, in figure(a), we consi
der the corresponding
circular motion particleA0 of the bobAis second quadrant, as the reference direc
tion of ., we consider
anticlockwise.As shown in figure initialphase of bobAis given as
1
1
1
sin
A
. . . .
. . . . . . . .
l
...(3)
Similarly for second pendulumbobB, its corresponding circular motion particle B0
at t = 0 is considered as
shown in figure (b) its initialbase is given as
1
2
2
sin
A
. . . .
. . . . . .
l
...(4)
As both the pendulums are identical, their angular frequencyfor SHMmust be same,
so their phase difference
will not changewith time, hence their phase difference can be given as
1 1
2 1
2 1
sin sin
A A
. . . . . . ..
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
l l
Example 69: In previous question if second pendulumbob is thrown at
velocityv2 at an angle . frommeanposition but on other side ofmean
position. Find the phase difference inthe two SHMs nowas shown in
figure. v A B 1
v2
l l
Sol. In this case still amplitudes of the two SHMswill remain same and are given
byequation (1) and (2) but when
we represent the two SHMs on their corresponding circularmotions, the position o
f the particle in circular
motion in second pendulumis nowdifferent as shown in figure.
As shown in figure (a) and (b) the initial phases of the
two pendulumbobs are
.1 = .
sin 1
1 A
. ..
.. ..
l
A
1
t=0
A1 l
A0
II SHM
(a)
2
A2 l
B0
B
II SHM
(b)
and .2 = . sin 1
2 A
. . .
.. ..
l
As . for both SHMare same, their phase difference remains constant so it is give
n as
.. = .2 .1 = sin 1
2 A
. . .
.. ..
l
+ sin 1
1 A
. ..
.. ..
l

Example 70: Two pendulums have time periods T and 5T/4. They starts SHMat the sa
me time fromthemean
position.After howmany oscillations of the smaller pendulumtheywillbe again in t
he same phase :
(A) 5 (B) 4 (C) 11 (D) 9
Sol: n1T1 = n2T2
or 1 2
n T n 5T
4
.
or 1
2
n 5
n 4
.
. n1 = 5 Hence, option (A) is correct.
C47: Asimple pendulumhaving a bobofmassmswingswith an angular amplitude of 40. Sh
owthat the tension
in the string is greater thanmg cos 20when its angular displacement is 20.
Sol. The tension is the string at an angle 20 is
T = mg cos 20 +
mV2
L
mg cos 20 =
or T
mV2
0
L
.
. T >mg cos 20.
COMPOUND PENDULUM
This ismadewhenever a rigid bodyis hanging freelyfroma horizontally pivoted
axis, as showninfigure.Abodyofmassmispivotedat pointOthrougha horizontal
axisAA.The bodyis hanging freelyunder gravity and inequilibriumposition its
centre ofmassCis vertically belowthe suspension point O, at a distance l from
O.
O
A
A
l
l
c
c
mg
If the body is slightly tilted fromits equilibriumposition by an angle .,mg will
exert a restoring torque on it in opposite direction to restore the equilirbium
position. Thus restoring torque on bodyin dotted position after tilting is
.R = mg. l sin . [ ve signfor restoring nature]
.R = mgl. [for small ., sin . . .]
If its angular acceleration is .,we have
I. = mgl. [Here I is themomentumofinertia ofbodyabout axisAA]
or . =
mg
I
l
. ...(1)
Comparing equation(1)with standard differential equation of angular SHMwe get
mg
I
. . l
Thus its time period of oscillation is
T 2 2 I
mg
.
. . .
. l

EQUIVALENT LENGTH OF A SIMPLE PENDULUM
We knowthat the time period of oscillations of a simple pendulumis given by
2
g
. l
...(3)
Similarlywe ve also discussed that the time period of a compound pendulumis given
as
c
2 I
Mg
.
l ...(4)
Where I is themoment of inertia of the rigid body about the axis of rotation and
lc is the distance of centre of
gravity of body fromthe suspension point (Axis of rotation). ifwe consider a sim
ple pendulumof length leq
which has a bob of samemassMas that of rigid bodyof compound pendulumand has the
time period same
as that of the compound pendulumthen this length of simple pendulumleq is called
Equivalent length of
simple pendulum for the given compound pendulum .
For the time periods of the two pendulums to be equal, we have
c
2 2 I
g mg
. l . .
l ...(5)
Ifk be the radius of gyration ofthe rigid bodyabout an axis passing throughits c
entre ofmass then themoment
of inertia of the rigid bodyabout point of suspension is given as
I = Mk2 + Mlc
2 ...(6)
Nowfromequation-(5), we have
2 2
eq c
c
Mk M
g mg
.
.
l l
l
or
2
eq c
c
k l . l .
l ...(7)
Equation-(7) gives the equivalent length ofsimplependulumfor the givencompoundpe
ndulum.One important
point to be noted here is if in equation-(7)we replace lc by k2/lc,we get
2 2
eq 2
c c
k k
k
l . .
l / l
2
eq c
c
k l . . l
l ...(8)
Which is same as that of equation-(7).Thuswe can saythat if the same rigid body,
which is suspended froma
point, situated at a distance lc fromcentre of gravityof body,we suspend if from
a point at a distance k2/lc from
centre ofgravityof the bodyand oscillate like a compound pendulum, its equivalen
t lengthof simple pendulum
remains same or the time period ofoscillation of bodyremains same.Consider figur
e, a rigid bodyis suspended
at a pointOthrougha horizontal axisAA.
HereCis the centre of gravityofthe body. If it oscillates then the time period o
f smalloscillations can be given
as

2
c
c
k
T 2
g
.
. .
l
l ...(9)
As discussed inlast sectionwe cansaythat if the same bodyis suspended either fro
manypoint on circular arcs
PQor RS [as shown in figure(b)] of radius lcwith centre at C(circleM1) or any po
int on the circle of radius
k2/lcwith centre at C(circleM2), the time period of smalloscillations of the bod
ywill remain same.
1
2
3
4
R S
B
P Q
B
M1
M2
lc
c
k2 /lc
(a) (b)
O
A
A
lc
C
Here we can develop one property of the bodywhen it is used as a compound pendul
um. This is, when a
straight line is drawn passing through the centre of gravity of bodyas in figure
(b) a line BB is drawn. There
axis four points on this line (as here points 1, 2, 3 and 4) about which if body
is suspended, the time period of
small oscillation of body remains same. This we can also prove graphically as if
we plot the time period of
oscillation, the curve looks like as shown in figure.
As shown in firure, if the body is suspended fromC, from
equation-(9), we can see that if lc = 0, time period becomes
., and at lc = k i.e. if the body is suspended froma point at a
distance equal to radius of gyration of bodyfromC, the time
period of oscillation isminimumand at all other suspension
points the time period is higher and ifwe drawa horizontal
line in graph at time period T1which ismore thanminimum
period, it cuts the graph at four points as shown,whichverifies
the statementweve discussed earlier.
1 2 3 4
k k
Tmin
T1
T
x
lc = k lc = 0 lc = k
C
Fromequation-(9)we can also find the value of lc atwhich this time period has am
inimumvalue by equating
c
dT
dl = 0, as
2
2 2
c c
c
c
dT 2 1 k
. 1 0
d g k 2
. . .
. . . . .
. . .
l l
l
l
or lc = k
Which also verifies the experimental result obtained bygraph shownin figure.

Example 71:Aring of diameter 2moscillates as a compound pendulumabout a horizont
al axis passing through a
point at its rim. It oscillates suchthat its centremove in a planewhich is perpe
ndicular to the plane of the ring.
The equivalent length of the simple pendulumis
(A) 2m (B) 4m (C) 1.5 m (D) 3m
Sol:
I 3mr2 T 2
mg 2mgr
. . .
l
or
T 2 3r
2m
. .
or
2 2 3r
g 2g
. l . .
.
3 r 3 1 1.5 m
2 2
l . . . . Hence option (C) is correct.
C48: Calculate the time period of ametre scale if it is free to rotate about a h
orizontal axis passingthrough its one
end.
Sol. Total length of themetre scale = 1metre
Here, K= (radius of gyration) =
1
12
l = distance of the C.G. fromone end = 0.5 m
T = 2.
K2 2
g
. l
l = 1.6 sec (nearly).
C49: Calculate the time period of smalloscillation ofa uniformmetre stick, ifit
is suspended through 10 cmmark.
Sol. For a metre stick, K2 =
L 1
12 12
. . L = 1 metre
Hence,
K2 1
0.208
12 0.4
. .
l .
K2 / 0.208 0.4 T 2 2
g 9.8
. .
. . l l . . .
1.56 sec (nearly)
C50: Auniformcircular disc ofmassmand radius R is suspended froma small hole in
the disc. Calculate the
minimumpossible time period fromsmalloscillations.
Sol.
k2 / T 2
g
.
. . l l
;
T will beminimumwhen (k2/l + l) isminimum,when k / l . l . 0 ;or l . k . R 2
C51: Calculate the lengthofa simplependulumwhose time period is equalto that ofa
particular physicalpendulum.
Sol. We have
T 2 L 2 I
g mg
. . . .
l
or
L I
m
.
l

Example 72: Consider a pulleyofmoment of inertia I supporting a block ofmassm, t
ied
to an idealspring of stiffness k.
The block is slightly pulled downward and released. Determine its period of osci
llation. R I
m
k
Sol. Inequilibrium
mg = T . T = kx0
Also, . mg = kx0 ...(i)
Let the block be displaced downward by x andmovingwith velocitydx/dt. Then
0
U 1 k(x x ) mgx
2
. . .
2
K 1 m dx 1 I 2
2 dx 2
. . . . . .. .. or
2 2
2
K 1 m dx 1 I dx
2 dt 2 R dt
. . . . . . .. .. .. ..
.
2
2
0 2
E 1 k(x x ) mgx 1 dx m I
2 2 dt R
. . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . .
.
Differentiating it and setting to zero,
dE 0
dt
.
k(x + x0)
2
2 2
dx mg dx dx m I d x
dt dt dt R dt
. . . . . . . .. .. . . . . = 0
k(x + x0)
2
2 2
mg d x m I 0
dt R
. . . . . . .. .. ...(ii)
Using (i) and (ii),we get
2
2 2
d x k
x
dt m I /R
. .
.
Comparing it with standard equation ofSHM,
2
2
2
d x
x
dt
. .. ,
2
2
k
m I /R
. .
.
.
m I /R2 T 2
K
.
. .
Example 73:An L-shaped bar ofmassMis pivoted at one of its end so that it can
freely rotate in a vertical plane, as shown inthe figure.
(a) Find the value of .0 at equilibrium. 0
L
B
L C
A
(b) If it is slightlydisplaced fromits equilibriumposition, find the frequency o
f oscillation.
Sol. (a) TakingB as the origin, the co-ordinates of its c.m. are
C
M L
2 2 L x M M 4
2 2
. .
.
and C
M L
y 2 2 L
M 4
. . xC M/2
L
M/2 c.m.
yC
B
L
A
C

0
tan L/ 4 1
3L/ 4 3
. . .
1
0
tan 1
3
. . . .. .. . .
(b) The frequencyof oscillation for a compound pendulumis
f 1 mgd
2 1
.
.
where d = distance of theCOMfromthe point of suspension.
I =moment of inertia about the point of suspension.
2 2 d 3L L L 10
4 4 4
. . . . . . . .. .. .. ..
0
L/4
B
C
A
3L/4
L/4
2 2 2 2
I M L M L M L2 L ML
2 3 2 12 2 2 3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ..
. 2
Mg L 10 1 4 f
2 ML
3
.
. or
f 1 (2.37) g
2 L
.
.
Example 74:Asystemof two identical rods (L shaped) ofmassmand length l are
resting on a peg Pas shown in the figure. If the systemis displaced in its plane
by
a small angle ., find the period of oscillations :
l P l
(A)
2 2
3g
. l
(B)
2 2 2
3g
. l
(C)
2 2
3g
. l
(D) 3
3g
. l
Sol:
T 2 I
mgL
. .
Here
m 2 m 2 2mg 2
I
3 3 3
. . . l l l
l/2 l/2
L
45
45
G
Fromfigure :
sin 45 L
/ 2
.
l
. L
2 2
. l
.
2m 2 2 2 T 2 2
3 mg 3g
2 2
. . . .
.
l l
l Hence option (C) is correct.

Example 75: Asolid cylinder is attached to ahorizontalmassless spring so that it
can rollwithout slipping along a
horizontal surface. The spring constant k is 3 N/m. If the systemis released fro
mrest at a point inwhich the
spring is stretched by 0.25m, find
(a) the translationalkinetic energyand
(b) rotational kinetic energyof the cylinder as it passes the equilibriumpositio
n.
(c) Showthat under these conditions the centre ofmass ofthe cylinder executes SH
Mwith time period
T . 2. (3M/ 2k)
Sol. If at any position the stretch in the spring is x and the velocityof centre
ofmass of the cylinder isV, then as
U 1 kx2
2
. , 2
T
K 1 MV
2
.
and 2 2
R
K 1 I 1 MV
2 4
. . . [as L =
1
2 Mr2 and . = V/r]
So totalmechanicalenergy of the system
E = KT + KR + U
i.e. E =
1
2 MV2 +
1
4 MV2 +
1
2 kx2
i.e. E =
3
4 MV2 +
1
2 kx2 ...(1)
According to given problemV = 0 if x = 0.25
so
2 E 1 (3) 1 3 J
2 4 32
. . . . . . .. ..
Now at equilibriumpositionU = 0 [as x = 0].
so 3 MV2 3 J
4 32
. , i.e. MV2 1 J
8
.
So at equilibriumposition :
(a) translationKE = (1/2)MV2 = (1/16) J
(b) RotationalKE = (1/4)MV2 = (1/32)J
(c) As in SHMenergy is conserved, i.e., dE/dt = 0. Fromeqn. (1), we have
3 M. 2V dV 1 k . 2x dx 0
4 dt 2 dt
. .
or
2
2
3 d x 1
M kx
4 dt 2
. .
2
2
as dx V and dV d x
dt dt dt
. .
. . . .
. .
or
2
2
2
d x
x
dt
. .. with 2 2k
3M
. .
This is the standard equation ofSHMwith time period T = (2./.).
So here
T 2 3M
2k
. .
Example 76: Acylinder of radius r andmassmrests on a curved path of radiusRas sh
own in Fig. Showthat the
cylinder can oscillate about the bottompositionwhen displaced and left to itself
. Find the period of oscillation.
Assume that the cylinder rollswithout slipping.

Sol. Restoring torque acting oncylinder after a smalldisplacement ., about anaxi
s through point ofconstant Owith
the curved path,
. =
mg sin . r . mgr . (as for small ., sin . = .)
Angular accelerationof cylinder,
2
2
d
dt
.
. .
r. = (R
r).
(R r)
r
.
. . .
R
A
A
r m
Consequently
2 2
2 2
d (R r) d
dt r dt
. . .
. . .
Moment of inertia about contact point,
3mr2
I
2
.
2
2
2
3 (R r) d
mgr mr
2 r dt
. .
. .
or
2
2
d g
3 0 dt (R r)
2
.
. . .
.
Hence
g
3 (R r)
2
. .
. or
3 (R r) 6(R r) T 2 2
g g
. .
. . . .
Example 77. Two identical cylinders C1 and C2 are placed with their axes
horizontal and in the same horizontal plane. Theyare rotated uniformly
about their once axes inclockwise andanticlockwise directionrespectively.
AuniformplankAB ofmassMis kept restingof these rotating cylinders. C1 C2
A B
2L
mg
If the plank is displaced slightlyfromits equilibriumpositionthe demostrate
that it performs simple harmonic oscillations. Calculate the time period of thes
e oscillations. The axes of the
cylinders are separated bya distance 2Land the co-efficient of friction betweent
he plank and thewheels is .
Sol. Let the plank be displaced to the right (x-axis) through a small distance x
and released. The normal forces
executed bythe two cylinders not equal.
C1 C2
A B
(L+x)
mg
x
X
(L x)
G G
Let thembeN1 andN2.The frictionalforces are N1 and N2 to the right and left respec
tively. Considering the
vertical forces,
N1 + N2 = mg ...(1)
Also, considering the rotational equilibriumof the plank about C.
N1(L + x) = N2 (L
x)

(N1
N2) L =
(N1 + N2)x ...(2)
Hence resultant force acting on the plank along x-axis :
Fx = N1 N2 = (N1
N2)
Fx = Mgx/L [using (1) and (2)]
This is the restoring force, acting towards the centre.
Comparingwith standard equation of SHM
Fx = M.2x
Here time-period of SHMis
T 2 2 L
mg
.
. . .
. .
TORISIONAL PENDULUM
In aTorisionalPendulumanobject is suspended fromawirewith rigiditycoefficient C.
Ifsuch awire is twisted
by an angle ., due to its elasticity it exerts a restoring torque . = C. on the
twisted object attached to it.
Ageneral torisional pendulumis shown in figure. Here a discDof radiusRandmassMis
attached to a stiff
wirewhose other end is suspended fromceiling as shown.
Fromthe equilibriumposition of this disc if it is twisted byan angle . as shown,
thewire applies a restoring
torque on it,which is given as
.R = C. [ ve sign, for restoring nature]
R
M
D
If during restoring motion the angular acceleration of disc is ., we can write
. = I.where I is themoment of inertia ofdisc about its central axis, thuswe have
I. = C. or . =
C
I
. ...(1)
Equation-(1) resembleswith the basic differential equation of SHMin angular form
thus we can state the
angular frequencyofthis SHMis
. . C/ I ...(2)
Thus the period of SHMis
T 2 2 I
C
.
. . .
.
In the above cases of some pendulumswe ve discussed, howto find the angular freque
ncy and time period of
a bodyin SHM. Nowwe take some similar examples of physical situations inwhich an
object is in SHM.
C52: Acircular disc ofmass 1.5 kg and radius 15 cmis suspendedwiththe help of aw
ire,whose one end is fixed
to the centre of the disc.When a torque of 15 10 2 Nm/rad is applied, then the dis
c begins to oscillate.
Calculate the time period for small displacement.
Sol. M.O.I. of the dis, I 1 Mr2
2
.
and
2 2
2
T 2 I 2 Mr 2 (1.5)(0.15) 2.107 sec.
C 2C 2 15 10. . . . . . . .
. .

Example 78: Figure shows a torisional pendulumconsists of a uniformdiscDofmassM
and radiusRattached to a this rod oftorisional constant C. Find the amplitude an
d the
energyofsmalltorisionaloscillations ofthedisc, ifinitiallythe discwas imparted a
ngular
speed .0. D
R
Sol. We knowfor a torisionalpendulumangular frequencyof smalloscillations is giv
en as
. . C/ I
Where I = 1/2MR2, thus
2
2C
MR
. .
At it is given that frommean position the disc is imparted as\an angular speed .
0, if the angular amplitude of
oscillations of disc is .,we have
.0 = ..
or 2
2C
MR
. .
Thus angular amplitude is given as
2
0
MR
2C
. . .
For angular SHMthe totaloscillation energyis given as
2 2
T
E 1 I
2
. . . [If Umin = 0]
Thus here oscillation energyof the disc is given as
2
2 2
T 2 0
E 1 1MR 2C MR
2 2 MR 2C
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
or 2 2
T 0
E 1 MR
4
. .
SUPERPOSITION OF PERPENDICULAR SHM s :
Let us consider two SHM s acting on the same particle along perpendicular directio
ns.The resultingmotion of
the particlewill be obtained by eliminating t fromthe expressions for xand y.
Let x =A1 sin .t ...(1)
y =A2 sin(.t + .) ...(2)
From(2)
y
x
P(x, y)
y/A2= sin .t cos . + cos .t sin .

2
y
A =
1
x
A cos . +
2
2
1
1 x
A
. sin . [using (1)]
2 2
2
2
2 1 1
y x cos 1 x sin
A A A
. . . .
. . .. . . . . . . . . .

2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 1 1 2 1
y x 2xy x
cos cos sin sin
A A A A A
. . . . . . . .
2 2
2
2 2
2 1 1 2
y x 2xy
cos sin
A A A A
. . . . .
This is anequation to an ellipse.
Special cases :
Case (i) . = 0. In this case we have
2 2
2 2
2 1 1 2
y x 2xy
0
A A A A
. . .
2
2 1
y x 0
A A
. .
. . . . . .
. 2
1
A
y x
A
.
The pathis a straight line segment (see figure) A1
A2
A2
A1
2
1
A
tan
A
. .
Thismotion isSHMwith amplitude 2 2
1 2 A . A
Case (ii) . = .. In this case, we have
2 2
2 2
2 1 1 2
y x 2xy
0
A A A A
. . .
A1
A2
A2
A1
Y
X
tan =
A2
A1
2
1
A
y x
A
. .
The path is a straight line segment inclined at and .where the amplitude
of oscillationis 2 2
1 2 A . A .
Case (iii) . = ./2. In this case, we have
2 2
2 2
2 1
x x
1
A A
. . A1
A2
X
Y
A2
(x, y)
A1
This is an ellipse.
Case (iv) . = ./2, A1 =A2. In this case, we have
x2 + y2 = A2
This is a circle. A
y
x

Table : Superposition of SHMs
Superposition Superposition features
Same line x = x1 + x2 =Asin (.t + .);
A = 2 2
A1 . A2 . 2A1A2 cos.
tan . = 2
1 2
A sin
A A cos
.
. .
Perpendicular lines
2 2
2
2 2
2 1 1 2
y x 2xy
cos sin
A A A A
. . . . .
Lissajous figure : This figure is the locus of particle inmotion under action of
mutually perpendicular SHM s
having different frequencies. It is a closed path known asLissajous figure.
Example 79: Find the amplitude and initial phase of a particle inSHM, whosemotio
n equation is given as
y =Asin .t + B cos .t
Sol. Here inthe given equationwe canwrite
A = R cos . ...(12)
and B = R sin . ...(13)
Thus the givenequation transforms to
y = R sin(.t + .) ...(14)
Equation-(14) is a general equation of SHMand here R is the amplitude of given S
HMand ..is the initial
phase of the oscillating particle at t = 0.
HereRis given by squaring and additing equation-(12)&(13)
R = A2 . B2
Initial phse ..can be given by dividing - (13) &(12)
tan ..=B/A
. = tan 1 (B/A)
Note : Equations y =Aei(.t + .) and y =Asin .t + B cos .t, we can also represent
the general equation of
SHM.
Example 80. Two simple harmonicmotions are represented bythe following equations
y1 = 10 sin(./4) (12t + 1)
y2 = 5 (sin 3.t + 3 cos 3.t)
Here t is in seconds.
Find out the ratio of their amplituds.What are the time periods of the two motio
ns ?
Sol. Given equations are
y1 = 10 sin(./4) (12t + 1) ...(1)
y2 = 5(sin 3.t + 3 cos 3.t) ...(2)
We recast these in the formof standard equation ofSHMwhich is
y =Asin (.t + .) ...(3)
Equation (1)maybewritten as
y1 = 10sin[(12.t/4) + (./4)]

y1 = 10sin[(3.t + ./4)] ...(4)
Comparing eqn. (4) with eqn. (3)we have
Amplitude of first SHM=A1 = 10 cms 1 and .1 = 3.
. Time period of firstmotion
T1 = 2./.1 = 2./3. = (2/3) s
Eq. (2)mayalso bewritten as
y2 = 5sin 3.t + 5 3 cos 3.t
Let us put
5 = A2 cos . ...(5)
and 5 3 =A2 sin . ...(6)
Then y2 =A2cos . sin 3.t +A2sin . cos3.t
y2 =A2 sin(3.t + .) ...(7)
Squaring (5) and (6) and adding,we have
2 2
A2 . [(5) . (5 3) ] .10 cm
i.e. amplitude of second SHM= 10 cm
and time period of second SHM= T2
2./.2 = 2./3. = 2/3 s
Thus, the ratio of amplitudes
A1 :A2 = 1 : 1 and periodic times are
T1 = T2 = (2/3) s
Example 81:The resulting amplitudeA and the phase of the vibrations .
S =Acos(.t) +
A
2 cos t
2
. .. .. . . . . +
A
4 cos(.t + .) +
A
8 cos
t 3
2
. .. .. . . . . =A cos (.t + .) are _______ and
________ respectively.
Sol. . x
a A A 3A
4 4
. . .
and y
a A A 4A A 3A
2 8 8 8
.
. . . .
.
2 2
2 2
x y
A a a 9A 9A
16 64
. . . .
x
y
a2 = A2
a a1= A 3 = A4
a4 = A8
2 2
2 2
x y
A a
64
.
. .
A=
45A
8 8
.
and
x
a 1
tan
a 2
. .
tan
2
. .
a 36A 9A
.
3 5 A
y
.
1 1
. .. .. . .

Example 82:Aparticle is subjected to twomutuallyperpendicular simple harmonicmot
ions such that its xand y
coordinates are given by
x = 2 sin .t ; y = 2 sin t
4
. .. .. . . . .
The parthof the particlewillbe :
(A) an ellipse (B) a straight line (C) a parabola (D) a circle
Sol: Hence
sin t x
2
. .
.
4 x2 cos t
2
.
. .
. y 2sin t cos 2 cos t sin
4 4
. .
. . . .
or
y 2 sin t 2 cos t
2 2
. . . .
x 4 x2 y 2 2
2 2
.
. . .
or
x 4 x2 y
2 2
.
. .
or 2 y . x . 4 . x2
2 2 xy = 4 x2
or 2y2 + x2
or 2y2 + 2x2 2 2 xy = 4
or x2 + y2 2 xy = 2
This is an equation of ellipse. Hence option (A) is correct.
Example 83: The amplitude of the vibrating particle due to superposition of two
SHMs,
y1 = sin t
3
. .. .. . . . . and y2 = sin .t is :
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 2
Sol: x
a 1cos 1 3
3 2
.
. . .
y 1
a a sin 1 3 3
3 2 2
.
. . . .
y
x
a1 = 1
a2 = 1
/3
.
2 2
2 2
x
A a ay 3 3
2 2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9 3 3
4 4
. . . Hence option (C) is correct.

Example 84: Two simple harmonic motions y1 =Asin .t and y2 =Acos .t are supre im
posed on a particle of
massm. The totalmechanical energy of the particle is :
(A)
1
2 m.2A2 (B) m.2A2 (C)
1
4 m.2A2 (D) zero
Sol: y1 =Asin .t
y2 =Asin (.t + ./2)
ax = A
ay = A
. a = Resultant amplitude = 2 2
ax . ay
. A2 . A2 . 2 A 90
y
x
a2= A
a1= A . E = 1/2ma2.2
E = 1/2 m2a2.2 or E . mA2.2
Example 85:Verticaldisplacement of a plankwith a body ofmassmon it is varying ac
cording to lawy= sin .t +
3 cos .t. Theminimumvalue of .forwhich themass just breaks off the plank and the
moment it occurs first
after t = 0 are given by : (y is positive vertically upwards)
(A)
g , 2
2 6 g
.
(B)
g , 2
2 3 g
.
(C)
g , 2
2 3 g
.
(D)
2g , 2
3g
.
Sol: amax = .2A
or g = .2A
or g = .2 2 2
1 2 A . A
or g = .2 12 . 3
or g = 2.2
.
g
2
. . and if occurs at extreme at upper extreme position.
. A= sin .t + 3 cos .t
or 2 = sin .t0 + 3 cos .t0
or 2 = 2sin(.t0 + .)
But
tan 3 3
1
. . . . 60
3
.
. . .
or 0 2 2sin t
3
. .. . .. . . . . or 0 t
3 2
. .
. . .
or 0 t
2 3 6
. . .
. . . .
or 0
t 2
6 6 g
. .
. .
. Hence option (A) is correct.

THINKING PROBLEMS
1. Which ofthe following functions are (a) aperiodic (b) periodic but not simple
harmonic (c) simple harmonic : (i)
sin 2.t (ii) 1 + cos 2.t (iii) a sin .t + b cos .t (iv) sin .t + sin 2.t + cos 2
.t (v) sin3 .t (v) log (1 + .t) (vii)
exp ( .t) ?
2. Can everyoscillatorymotion be treated as simple harmonicmotionin the limit of
small amplitude ?
3. What would happen to themotionof an oscillating systemif the sign of the forc
e termin equation F =
kx is
changed ?
4. (a) Can amotion be periodic but not oscillatory ?
(b) Can amotion be oscillatory but not simple harmonic ?
If your answer is yes, give an example and if not, explainwhy ?
5. Can a bodyhave accelerationwithout having velocity ?
6. Determine whether or not the following quantitie scan be in the same directio
nfor a simple harmonicmotion :
(a) displacement and velocity, (b) velocityand acceleration, (c) displacement an
d acceleration.
7. (a) Canwe ever construct a simple pendulumstrictlyaccording to its definition
?
(b) Is themotion of a simple pendulumlinear SHMor angular SHM?
8. Agirl is swinging in a sitting position.Howwill the period of swing be affect
ed if :
(a)The girl stands upwhile swinging ?
(b)Another girl of samemass comes and sits next to her ?
9. Ahollowmetal sphere is filledwithwater and a small hole ismade at its bottom.
It is hanging bya long thread
and ismade to oscillate.Howwill the period ofoscillation change ifwater is allow
ed to flowthrough the hole
till the sphere is empty ?
10. The resultant of two simple harmonicmotions at right angles and of the same
frequency is always a circular
motion.True or false?Explain.
1. (a) Functions (vi) log (1 + .t) and (vii) exp ( .t) increase (or decrease) cont
inuouslywith time and can never
repeat themselfso are aperiodic.
(b) Function (ii) (1+ cos 2.t), (iv) sin .t + sin 2.t +cos 2.t and (v) sin3 .t a
re periodic [i.e., f(t + T) = f(t)] with
periodicity (./.), (2./.) and (2./.) respectively but not simple harmonic as for
these functions (d2y/dt2) is
not . y.
(c) Functions (i) sin 2.t and (iii) a sin .t + b cos .t, i.e., (a2 + b2)1/2 sin
[.t + tan 1 (b/a)] are simple harmonic
[with time period (./.) and (2./.) respectively] as for these (d2y/dt2) .. y.
2. No, not at all. In the limit of small amplitudes onlythose oscillatorymotions
can be treated as simple harmonic
for which the restoring force (or torque) becomes linear. For example, the oscil
latorymotion of a simple or
spring pendulumormotion of atoms inamolecule becomes simple harmonic in the limi
t ofsmall amplitude as
restoring force (or torque) becomes linear while in case of oscillatorymotion of
a ballbetween two inclined
planes or two perfectly elasticwalls, themotion does not become simple harmonic
evenfor vanishingysmall
amplitude.
3. If the sign is changed in the force equation, accelerationwill not be opposit

e to displacement and hence the
particlewillnot oscillate, butwillaccelerate inthedirectionofdisplaement. So the
motionwillbecome accelerated
translatory. However, equations ofmotion cannot be applied to analyse themotion
as acceleration (= .2y) is
not constant.
Mathematical analysis shows that in this situation both velocity and displacemen
t will increase exponentially
withtime.

4. Yes;Uniformcircularmotion, (b)Yes;When a ball is thrown froma height on a per
fectlyelastic plane surface
themotion is oscillatory but not simple harmonic as the restoring force F =mg =
constt. and not F .
x]
5. Yes; In SHMat extreme position velocityis zero but acceleration ismaximum= .2
A.
6. (a)Yes;whenthe particle ismoving fromequilibriumposition to extreme position,
(b)Yes;whenthe particle is
moving fromextreme to equilibriumposition, (c)No; as inSHMdisplacement is always
opposite to acceleration.]
7. (a) No, (b)Angular SHM.
8. (a) decreases, (b) unchanged
9. Time periodwill first increase, reaches amaximumand thenwill decrease.
10. False. The generalmotion is elliptical.Acircle is a particular case of ellip
sewhen itsmajor axis is equal to its
minor axis. In general, themotion is described by
2 2
2
2 2
d y 2xy
cos sin
a b ab
. . . . .
When a = b and . = ./2,
x2 + y2 = a2
1. Statement-1 : The force acting on a particle moving along x axis is F = kx + v0t
, where k is a constant.
Statement-2 :To an observermoving along x-axiswith constant velocity v0, it repr
esents SHM.
2. Statement-1 : Aparticle executing simple harmonicmotioncomes to rest at the e
xtreme positions.
Statement-2 :The resultant force on the particle is zero at these positions.
3. Statement-1 : Soldiers are asked to break stepswhile crossing the bridges.
Statement-2 :The frequencyofmarchingmaybe equalto the naturalfrequencyof bridge
andlead to resonance
which can break the bridge.
4. Statement-1 : The functionY= cos2 .t + sin .t does not represent a simple har
monicmotion.
Statement-2 : Sumof two harmonic functionmaynot be harmonicmotion.
5. Statement-1 : Ablock ofmassmis attached to a spring inside a trolley of
mass 2mas shown in figure, all surfaces are smooth. Spring is stretched and
released. Both trolleyand block oscillate simple harmonicallywith same time
period and same amplitude.
m
2m
Statement-2 : Inabsence ofexternalforce,centreofmass ofsystemofparticles
does not accelerate.

MATCH THE COLUMN
1. Asimple harmonic oscillator consists ofa block attached to a spring
with k= 200N/m.Theblock slides ona frictionless horizontal surface,
with equilibriumpoint x = 0.Agraph of the block s velocity v as a
function of time t is shown. Correctlymatch the required information
in the column Iwith the values given in the column II. (use .2= 10)
2
2
0 0.10 0.20
t(s)
V(m/s)
Column-I Column-II
(A) The block smass in kg (P) 0.20
(B) The block s displacement at t = 0 inmetres (Q) 200
(C) The block s acceleration at t = 0.10 s inm/s2 (R) 0.20
(D) The block smaximumkinetic energyin Joule (S) 4.0
2. Matchthe following
Column-I Column-II
(A) Linear combination of two SHM s (P) T = 2.
R
g (R is radius of the earth)
(B) y =Asin .1t +Asin(.2t + .) (Q) SHMfor equal frequencies and amplitude
(C) Time periodof a pendulumofinfinite length. (R) Superpositionmay not be a SHM
always.
(D) Maximumvalue of time period ofan oscillating (S) amplitude will be 2 A for .
1 = .2 and
pendulum. phase difference of ./2.
3. Matchthe following
Column-I Column-II
(A) Aconstant force acting along the line of (P) The time period
SHMaffects
(B) Aconstant torque acting along the arc of (Q) The frequency
angular SHMaffects.
(C) Aparticle falling on the block executing SHM (R) themeanposition
when the later crosses themean position affects
(D) Aparticle executing SHMwhen kept on a (S) The amplitude
uniformly accelerated car affects.

LEVEL
1
1. Two particlesP andQdescribe SHMof same amplitude a, same frequencyf along the
same straight line.The
maximumdistance between the two particles is a 2 . The phase difference between
the particle is :
(A) zero (B) ./2 (C) ./6 (D) ./3
2. Arod of length l is inmotion such that its endsA and B aremoving along x-axis
and
y-axis respectively. it is given that
d 2
dt
.
. rad/s always. P is a fixed point on the rod.
LetMbe the projection ofPon x-axis. For the time interval inwhich . changes from
0 to ./2, choose the correct statement,
y
x
P
M
l
A
B
(A) The acceleration ofMis always directed towards right
(B)Mexecutes SHM
(C)Mmoveswith constant speed (D)Mmoveswith constant acceleration
3. The coefficient of frictionbetween block ofmassmand 2mism= 2 tan .. There is
no
friction between blockofmass 2mand inclined plane. Themaximumamplitude of two
block systemfor which there is no relativemotion between both the blocks.
k
m
2m
(A) g sin .
k
m (B)
mg sin
k
.
(C)
3mg sin
k
.
(D) None of these
4. Graph shows the x(t) curves for three experiments involving a particular spri
ng-block systemoscillating in
SHM. The kinetic energy of the systemismaximumat t = 4 sec. for the situation :
1
2
4sec.
t(in sec)
3
0
x
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) Same in all
5. Aparticle ofmassm= 2 kg executes SHMin xy-plane between pointsAand B
underaction of force x y
F . F i . F j
.
.Minimumtime taken by particle to move
fromAto B is 1 sec.At t = 0 the particle is at x =2 and y=2.Then Fx as function
of time t is
A(2, 2)
y
x
B( 2, 2)
(A) 4.2 sin .t (B) 4.2 cos .t (C) 4.2 cos .t (D) None of these
6. The speed v of a particlemoving along a straight line,when it is at a distanc
e (x) froma fixed point of the line
is given by
v2 = 108 9x2
(allquantities are in cgs units) :
(A) themotionis uniformlyaccelerated along the straight line
(B) themagnitude of the acceleration at a distance 3cmfromthe point is 27 cm/sec
2
(C) themotionis simple harmonic about the given fixed point.
(D) themaximumdisplacement fromthe fixed point is 4 cm.

7. The time period of an ideal simple pendulumis given by : T = 2. l / g
The time period of actual simple pendulum(T) is slightlydifferent due to smalldam
ping (friction). Then
(A) T > T (B) T < T (C) T = T (D) None
8. Asmallbob of a simple pendulumcontainswater. Its periodic time isT.During osc
illation, the temperature of
surrounding is lowered so that water gets freezed. The newtime period is T. Then
:
(A) T > T (B) T < T (C) T = T (D) None
9. Two simple pendulaAand B are shown in the figure. The phase difference betwee
n
A and B is :
(A) . (B) ./2
l l
(C) 0 (D) ./4 A B
10. Abodyexecutes simple harmonicmotionunder the action of a force F1witha time
period (4/5) second. If the
force is changed to F2 it executes SHM with a time period (3/5) second. If both
the forces F1 and F2 act
simultaneously in the same direction on the body, its time period in second is :
(A) 12/25 (B) 24/25 (C) 35/24 (D) 25/12
11. What should be the displacement of a simple pendulumwhose amplitude is A, at
which potential energy is
1/4th of the total energy ?
(A) A/ 2 (B)A/2 (C)A/4 (D) A/ 2 2
4)2} J.Totalmechan
12. The potential energyUof a particle is given byU= {20 + (x
ical energy of the particle
is 36 J. Select the correct alternative(s)
(A) The particle oscillates about point x= 4m
(B) The amplitude of the particle is 4m
(C) The kinetic energy of the particle at x = 2mis 12 J
(D) Themotion of the particle is periodic but not simple harmonic
13. Arod ofmassMand lengthL is hinged at its centre ofmass so that it can rotate
in a vertical plane. Two springs each of stiffness k are connected at its ends,
as
shown in the figure. The time period of SHMis
L, M
k
Hinge
k
(A)
2 M
6k
. (B)
2 M
3k
. (C)
2 ML
k
. (D)
M
6k
.
14. Aparticlemoves along the x-axis according to the equation x =Asin2 .t
(A) The particle oscillates about the origin (B) The particle oscillates about t
he point x =A
(C) The particle oscillateswith a period T = ./. (D) The particle oscillateswith
amplitudeA/2
15. In the arrangement shown in figure the pulleys are smooth and massless. The
spring k1 and k2 aremassless. The time period of oscillation of themassmis
m
k k1 (A) 2
1 2
2 m
k k
.
. (B)
1 2
2 2m
k k
.
.
(C) 1 2
1 2
m(k k )
2
2k k
.
. (D) 1 2
1 2
m(k k )
2
k k
.
.

16. The equationofSHMofa particle oscillating alongthe x-axis is givenbyx=3 sin
t
6
. .. . . . . . . cm.The acceleration
of the particle at t = 1 s is
(A) 1.5 .2 cms 2 (B) 2.6 .2 cms 2 (C) 2.6 .2 cms 2 (D) 1.5 .2 cms 2
17. For the systemshown in the figure, initiallythe spring is compressed bya
distance a fromits natural lengthandwhenreleased, itmoves to a distance
b fromits equilibriumposition. The dicrease in amplitude for one half cycle ( a to +b) is
k
m
a b
(A)
mg
k (B)
2mg
k (C)
mg
2k (D) none of these
18. Themotion of a particle is given x =Asin .t +B cos .t. Themotion of the part
icle is
(A) not simple harmonic (B) simple harmonicwith amplitudeA+B
(C) simple harmonicwith amplitude (A+B)/2 (D) simple harmonicwith amplitude A2 .
B2
19. Two massesm1 and m2 are suspended together by amassless spring of force cons
tant K.When the masses
are in equilibriumis removedwithout disturbing the system. The amplitude of osci
llation is
(A)m2g/K (B)m1g/K (C) (m1+m2)g/K (D) (m1 m2)g/K
20. Two bodiesMandNof equalmasses are suspended fromtwo seperatemassless springs
of spring constants
k1 and k2 respectively. If the two bodies oscillate vertically such that theirma
ximumvelocities are equal, the
ratio of the amplitude of vibration ofMto that onNis :
(A) k1/k2 (B) 1 2 k / k (C) k2/k1 (D) 2 1 k / k
21. Aparticle executing SHMwhilemoving fromone extremityis found at distance x1,
x2, x3 fromthe centre at the
ends of three successive seconds, the period is
(A) . (B) ./2. (C) 2./. (D) 1/.
where ..= cos 1(x1 + x3)/2x2
22. One end of a spring of force constant k is fixed to a verticalwall and the o
ther to a body ofmassmresting on
a smooth horizontal surface. There is anotherwall at a distance x0 fromthe
body. The spring is then compressed by 2x0 and released. The time taken m
x0
to strike thewall is
(A)
1 k
6 m
. (B)
m
k (C)
2 m
3 k
.
(D)
k
3 m
.
23. In the above problemthe velocitywithwhich the body strikes the other wall is
(A) 0
x m
k (B) 0
3k x
m (C) 0
k x
m (D) 0
2x m
k
24. Aparticlemoves intheX Yplane according to the equation: r . .2 i . 4 j.
.
sin .t. Themotion ofthe particle is:
(A) parabolic (B) circular (C) straight line (D) None of these

25. The speed v of a particlemoving along a straight line, when it is at a dista
nce x froma fixed point on the line is
given byV= (108
9x2)1/2.All quantities are in SI units.
(A) Themotionis uniformlyaccelerated along the straight line.
(B) Themagnitude of acceleration at a distance 3mfromthe fixed point is 27m/s2.
(C) Themagnitude of acceleration at a distance 3mfromthe fixed point is 9m/s2.
(D) Themaximumdisplacement of the particle fromthe fixed point is 4m.
26. The potential energyUof a particle is given byU= (2.5X2 + 100) Joule. If the
mass of the particle is 0.2 kg,
then:
(A) themotion of the particle is SHM. (B) themean position isX= 0.
(C) angular frequency of the oscillation is 5 rad/s (D) the time period of oscil
lation is 1.26 sec.
27. In SHM:
(A) displacement and velocitymaybe in the same direction.
(B) displacement and velocity can never be in the same direction.
(C) velocity and accelerationmay be in the same direction.
(D) displacement and acceleration can never be in the same direction.
28. Aparticlemoves in theX Yplane according to the equation r . .3 i . j.cos5 t
.
. Themotionof theparticle is:
(A)Along a straight line (B) along an ellipse (C) periodic (D) along a parabola
29. The potential energyof a particle ofmass 2 kg,moving alongthe x axis is given
byU(x) = 16(x2 2x) J,where
x is inmetres. Its speed at x = 1 mis 2 ms 1 :
(A) Themotion of the particle is uniformlyaccelerated
(B) Themotion of the particle is oscillatory fromx = 0.5mto x= 1.5m.
(C) Themotion of the particle is simple harmonic
(D) The period of oscillation of the particle is ./2 s.
30. If a SHMis given by y= (sin .t + cos .t)m,which of the following statements
is/are true ?
(A) The amplitude is 1m (B) The amplitude is 2 m.
(C) Particle starts itsmotion fromy= 1m. (D) Particle starts itsmotion fromy= 0m
.
31. Three simple harmonic motions in the same direction having the same amplitud
e a and same period are
superposed. If each differs in phase fromthe next by45, then :
(A) the resultant amplitude is (1 + 2 ) a.
(B) the phase of the resultantmotion relative to the first is 90.
(C) the energy associatedwith the resultingmotion is (3 + 2 2 ) times the energy
associatedwith any single
motion.
(D) the resultingmotion is not simple harmonic.
32. Alinear harmonic oscillator offorce constant 2 103N/mand amplitude 0.01mhas
a totalmechanical energy
of 160 J. Its :
(A)maximumpotentialenergyis 100 J. (B)maximumkinetic energy is 100 J.
(C)maximumpotential energy is 160 J. (D)minimumpotentialenergyis zero.

33. Auniformcylinder of lengthLandmassMhaving cross-sectional areaAis suspended,
with its lengthvertical,
froma fixed point by amassless spring, such that it is half-submerged in a liqui
d of density . at equilibrium
position.When the cylinder is given a small downward push and released it starts
oscillating verticallywith
small amplitude. If the force constant of the spring is k, the frequencyof oscil
lation of the cylinder is :
(A)
1/ 2 1 k A g
2 M
. . . .
. .. .. (B)
1/ 2 1 k A g
2 M
. . . .
. .. .. (C)
1 k gL2 1/ 2
2 M
. . . .
. .. .. (D)
1/ 2 1 k A g
2 A g
. . . .
. .. . ..
34. A particle of mass m is executing oscillations about the origin on the x-axi
s. Its potential energy is
V(x) = k|x|3where k is a positive constant. If the amplitude of oscillations is
a, then its time period Tis
(A) proportional to 1/ a (B) independent of a [JEE, 98]
(C) proportional to a (D) proportional to a3/2
35. Aparticle free to move along the x-axis has potential energy given by
exp( x2)] for . < x < +., where k is a positive constant of appropriate
U(x) = k[1
dimensions. The
(A) at point awayfromthe origin, the particle is in unstable equilibrium.
(B) for any finite nonzero value of x, there is a force directed awayfromthe ori
gin.
(C) ifits totalmechanical energyis k/2, it has itsminimumkinetic energyat the or
igin.
(D) for smalldisplacements fromx= 0, themotion is simple harmonic. [JEE, 99]
36. Three simple harmonic motions in the same direction having the same amplitud
e a and same period are
superposed. If each differs in phase fromthe next by45, then [JEE, 99]
(A) the resultant amplitude is (1. 2) a
(B) the phase of the resultantmotion relative to the first is 90
(C) theenergyassociatedwiththeresultingmotionis (3. 2 2) timesthe energyassociat
edwithanysinglemotion.
(D) the resultingmotion is not simple harmonic.
37. The period of oscillation of simple pendulumof lengthL suspended fromthe roo
f of a vehiclewhichmoves
without friction down an inclined plane of inclination . is given by [JEE, 2000]
(A)
2 L
gcos
.
. (B)
2 L
gsin
.
. (C)
2 L
g
. (D)
2 L
g tan
.
.
38. Aparticle executes simple harmonicmotionbetween x= Aand x= +A.The time taken
for it to go from0 to
A/2 is T1 and to go fromA/2 toAisT2. Then [JEE(Scr), 01]
(A) T1 < T2 (B) T1 > T2 (C) T1 = T2 (D) T1 = 2T2
39. Aparticle is executing SHMaccording to y = a cos .t. Thenwhich of the graphs
represents variations of
potential energy: [JEE(Scr), 03]
I II
i
P.E.
III IV
P.E.
x
(A) (I)&(III) (B) (II)&(IV) (C) (I)&(IV) (D) (II)&(III)

40. Ablock Pofmassmis placed on a frictionless horizontal surface.Another blockQ
of same mass is kept on P and connected to the wallwith the help of a spring of
spring constant k as shownin the figure. S is the coefficient of friction
Q
P
k S
between P andQ. The blocksmove together performing SHMof amplitudeA.
Themaximumvalue of the friction force between P andQis [JEE, 04]
(A) kA (B) kA/2 (C) zero (D)Smg
41. Asimple pendulumhas time period T1.When the period of suspensionmoves vertic
ally up according to the
equation y= kt2where k = 1m/s2 and t is time then the time period of the pendulu
mis T2 then (T1/T2)2 is
[JEE(Scr), 05]
(A) 5/6 (B) 11/10 (C) 6/5 (D) 5/4
42. Function x =Asin2.t + B cos2.t + C sin .t cos .t represents SHM [JEE, 06]
(A) for any value ofA, B and C (expect C = 0) (B) ifA= B; C = 2B, amplitude = | B
2 |
(C) ifA= B; C = 0 (D) ifA= B; C = 2B, amplitude = | B |
43. Astudent performs an experiment for determination of g = (4.2l/T2)l = 1mand
he commits anerror of .l.For
the takes the time on n oscillationswiththe stopwatch of least count .T and he c
ommits a humanerror of 0.1
sec. For which of the following data, themeasurement of gwillbemost accurate ? [
JEE, 06]
. l .T n Amplitude of oscillation
(A) 5mm 0.2 sec 10 5mm
(B) 5mm 0.2 sec 20 5mm
(C) 5mm 0.1 sec 20 1mm
(D) 1mm 0.1 sec 50 1mm
44. Thex tgraphofaparticleundergoing simpleharmonicmotionis shown
below. the acceleration of the particle at t = 4/3 s is
1
1
0 4 12
t(s)
x(cm)
8
(A) 3 / 32 .2cm/s2 (B) .2/32 cm/s2
(C) .2/32 cm/s2 (D)
3 / 32 .2cm/s2 [JEE, 09]
45. Auniformrod of lengthLandmassMis pivoted at the centre. Its two ends are
attached to two springs of equal spring constants k. The springs are fixed to ri
gid
supports as shown in the figure, and the rod is free to oscillate in the horizon
tal
plane. The rod is gently pushed through a small angle . in one direction and
released. the frequencyof oscillation is [JEE, 09]
(A)
1 2k
2. M (B)
1 k
2. M (C)
1 6k
2. M (D)
1 24k
2. M
46. ThemassMshownin the figure oscillates in simple harmonicmotionwith amplitude

A.The amplitude of the
point Pis [JEE, 09]
P M
(A) k1 k2 1
2
k A
k (B) 2
1
k A
k
(C) 1
1 2
k A
k . k (D) 2
1 2
k A
k . k

PASSAGE
Passage
1
Ablock ofmassmis suspended fromone end of light spring as shown. The originO
is considered at distance equal to natural length of spring fromceiling and vert
ical
downward direction as +veYaxis.When the sytemis in equilibriuma bullet ofmass
m/3moving in verticalupward directionwith velocityv0 strikes the block and embed
s
into it.As a result theblock (withbullet embeddedinto it)moves upand starts osci
llating.
v0
m
m/3
Y
O
k l
Based onabove information, answer the following equations :
1. Mark the correct statement(s).
(A) The block-bullet systemperforms SHMabout y=mg/k.
(B) The block-bullet systemperforms oscillatorymotionbut not SHMabout y=mg/k.
(C) The block-bullet systemperforms SHMabout y = 4mg/3k.
(D) The block-bullet systemperformoscillatorymotion but not SHMabout y= 4mg/3k.
2. The amplitude ofoscillationwould be
(A)
2 20
4mg mv
3k 12k
. . . .. .. (B)
2 20
mv mg
12k 3k
. . . .. .. (C)
2 20
mv mg
6k k
. . . .. .. (D)
2 2
mv0 4mg
6k 3k
. . . .. ..
3. The time taken by block-bullet systemto move fromy=mg/k (initial equilibriump
osition) to y= 0 (natural
length of spring) is [Arepresents the amplitude ofmotion]
(A) 4m cos 1 mg cos 1 4mg
3k 3kA 3kA
.. . .. .. . . .. .. .. . . . . . .
(B) 3k cos 1 mg cos 1 4mg
4m 3kA 3kA
.. . .. .. . . .. .. .. . . . . . .
(C) 4m sin 1 4mg sin 1 mg
6k 3kA 3kA
.. . .. .. . . .. .. .. . . . . . .
(D) None of the above
Passage 2
A platform is executing SHM in a vertical direction, with an amplitude of 5 cm a
nd a frequency of 10/.
vibrations/sec.Ablock is placed on the platformat the lowest point of its path.
[Take g = 10m/s2]
Answer the following questions based on above information :
4. At what point will the block leave the platform?
(A) 2.5 cmfrommean positionwhen acceleration is acting down and velocity is in u
pward direction.
(B) 2.5 cmfrommean positionwhen platformismoving up.
(C) 2.5 cmabovemean positionwhen platformismoving down.
(D) 2.5 cmbelowthemean position.
5. Mark the correct statement(s).
(A) Normal contact force between the platformand block is constant.
(B)As platformapproachesmean position frombottom, the normal contact force betwe
en the block and
platformincreases.
(C)As platformmoves up awayfrommean position, the normalcontact force between th
e block and platform
decreases.
(D) Both (B) and (C) are correct.
6. At what point, the block returns to the platform?
(A) 1.3 cmabove equilibriumposition (B) 1.3 cmbelowequilibriumposition
(C) 4.3 cmabove equilibriumposition (D) 4.3 cmbelowequilibriumposition

LEVEL
2
1. Aringofmassmcanfreelyslide ona smoothverticalrod.Thering is symmetrically
attached with two springs, as shown in the fig., each of stiffness k. Each sprin
g
makes an angle . with the horizontal. If the ring is slightly displaced vertical
ly,
determine its time period.
k k
m
rod
2. Ablock B ofmassm= 0.5 kg is attachedwith upper end of a vertical spring of fo
rce
constant K= 1000Nm 1 as shown in fig.Another identical block A falls froma height
h = 49.5 cmon the block B and gets stuckwith it. The combined body starts to per
form
verticaloscillations.
h
A
B
Calculate amplitude of these oscillations. (g= 10ms 2)
3. One end of an ideal spring is fixed to awall at originOand axis of spring is
parallel to x-axis.Ablock ofmass
m= 1 kg is attached to free end of the spring and it is performing SHM. Equation
of position of the block in
co-ordinate systemshown in Figure is x = 10 + 3 sin(10t), where t is in second a
nd x in cm.
Another block ofmassM=3 kg,moving towards the originwith velocity
30 cm/sec collides with the block performing SHM at t = 0 and gets
stuck to it. Calculate
1 kg
3 kg
x
(i) newamplitude of oscillations, O
(ii) newequation for position of the combined bodyand (iii) loss of energyduring
collision.Neglect friction.
4. Two identical blocks Aand B ofmassm= 3 kg are attached with ends of an ideal
spring of force constant
K = 2000 Nm 1 and rest over a smooth horizontal floor.Another identical block C mo
ving with velocity
v0 = 0.6ms 1 as shown in fig. 100 strikes the blockA and gets stuck to it. Calcula
te for subsequent motion
m V K 0
(i) velocityofcentre ofmass of the system, m m
(ii) frequencyof oscillations of the system,
(iii) oscillation energyof the system, and (iv)maximumcompressionof the spring.
5. In the arrangement shown in fig, pulleys are small and light and springs are
ideal.
K1, K2, K3 and K4 are force constants of the springs.
Calculate period ofsmall vertical oscillations of block ofmassm.
K2 K4
K1 K3
m
6. Fig., shows a particle ofmassm= 100 gm, attachedwith four identical springs,
eachoflengthl =10 cm. InitialtensionineachspringisF0 =25 newton.Neglecting
gravity, calculateperiodofsmalloscillationsoftheparticle alonga line perpendicul
ar
to the plane of the figure. p
A m
B
C
D
7. In the arrangement shown in Fig., bodyB is a solid cylinder of radius R = 10
cm
withmassM= 4 kg. It can rotatewithout friction about a fixed horizontal axisO
Ablock A ofmass m = 2 kg suspended by an inextensible thread is wrapped
around the cylinder.Ahorizontal light spring of force constant K= 100 Nm 1
fixed at one end keeps the systemin static equilibrium. Calculate
A
R
O
(i) initial elongationinthe spring and B
(ii) period of small vertical oscillations of the block. (g = 10ms 2)

8. Arigid rod ofmassmwith a ballofmassMattached to the free end is restrained
to oscillate in a verticalplane as shown in the figure. Find the naturalfrequenc
yof
oscillation.
M
3/4L
L/4
k
m
9. Find the period of small oscillations in a vertical plane performed by a ball
ofmassmfixed at themidle of a
horizontally stretched string of length l. The tension of the string is assumed
to be constant and equal to
F >> mg.
10. Aparticlemoves along the x-axis according to the lawx = a cos .t. Find the d
istance that the particle covers
during the time interval t =0 to t.
11. Find the amplitude, frequencyand epoch ofthe simple harmonicmotionrepresente
d byx=3 sin .t +4 cos .t.
12. Ahelical spring elongates 10 cmwhen subjected to a tension of 5N. Find thema
sswhich should be attached
to the bottomof the spring so that when pulled down and released themasswillvibr
ate twice per second. Find
also itsmaximumvelocitywhen the amplitude of vibration is 1 cm.
13. Find the frequency of small oscillations of the arrangement illustrated in f
igure. The
radius of the pulley isR, itsmoment of inertia relative to the axis of rotation
is I, the
mass of the body ism, and the spring stiffness is k. The mass of the thread and
the
spring are negligible, the thread does not slip over the pulleyand there is no f
riction in
the axis of the pulley.
m
R
14. Aplankwith a body ofmassmon it executes simple harmonicmotionof cyclic
frequency .= 11 rad s 1 between the levels 1 and 2 separated by a distance 2a
as shown infig. Find :
(a) the force that the body exerts on the plank as it moves fromlevel 1 to 2 whe
n
a = 4 cm;
a m
a
O
2
(b) theminimumvalue of awhenthe bodystarts falling behind the plank; 1
(c) the amplitude of oscillation at whichthe body jumps up to a height h= 50 cmr
elative to level 1.
15. (a)Ablock ofmassmis tied to one end of a stringwhich passes over a smoothfix
ed pulleyAand under a light
smoothmovable pulleyB. Theother end of the string is attached to the lower end o
fa spring ofspring constant
k2. Find the period of smalloscillations ofmassmabout its equilibriumposition.
m
A
B
k2
k1
Figure (a)
m
A
B
k2
k1
Figure (b)
(b)Ablock ofmassmis attached to one end ofa light inextensible string passing ov
er a smooth light pulleyB
and under another smooth light pulleyAas shownin the figure.The other end of a s
tring is fixed to a ceiling.A
and B are held by springs of spring constants k1 and k2. Find angular frequency
of small oscillation of the
system.

16. Find the angular frequencyofmotion of blockmfor smallmotion of rodBDwhenwe
neglect the inertial effects of rod BD. Spring constant are k1 and k2.Neglect fr
iction
forces.
B
D
C
k b 1
k2
m
17. Find the angular frequency for small oscillation of block ofmassmin the arra
ngement shown in the figure.
Neglect themass of the rod.
l/2 l/2
k2
k1
m
k3
18. ArodAB ofmassMis attached as shown belowto a spring of constant k.A
small block ofmassmis placed on the rod at its free endA.
(i) if endAismoved down througha smalldistance d and released, determine the
period of vibration. b
m
k
B
A
l
(ii) determine the largest allowable value of d if the blockmis to remain at all
times in contactwith the rod.
19. A rod ofmass mand length l is hinged at its upper end and carries a block of
mass M at its lower end. Two springs having the spring constants k1 and k2
respectively are attached to the rod at the distances b and c fromthe hinge as
shown in the figure. Find the angular frequencyofvibrationfor smalloscillationof
the system. M
l
b
m
k1
k2
C
20. Auniformbroad of lengthL andweightWis balanced on a fixed semi-circular
cylinder of radiusR as shown in the figure. If the plank is tilted slightlyfromi
ts
equilibriumposition, determine the period ofits oscillations.
l
r
21. Aplankwith a body ofmassmplaced on it start moving straight up according to
cos .t),
the lawy = a(1
where y is the displacement fromthe initial position, .= 11 rad/s. Find :
(a) The time dependence of the force that the body exerts on the plank.
(b) Theminimumamplitude of oscillation ofthe plank at which the bodystarts falli
ng behind the plank.
22. Aparticle ofmassmfree to move in the x y plane is subjected to a forcewhose co
mponents are Fx = kx and
Fy = ky, where k is a constant. The particle is released when t = 0 at the point

(2, 3). Prove that the
subsequentmotion is simple harmonic along the straight line 2y
3x = 0.
23. In the shown arrangement, both the springs are in their natural lengths. The
coefficient of friction betweenm2 andm1 is. There is no friction betweenm1
and the surface. If the blocks are displaced slightly, they together perform
simple harmonicmotion.Obtaion.
m
m
1
2 k1
k2
(a) Frequencyof such oscillations.
(b) The conditionif the frictional force on blockm2 is to act in the direction o
f its displacement frommean position.
(c) If the condition obtained in (b) ismet, what canbemaximumamplitude of their
oscillations ?

LEVEL
3
1. Statewhether true or false
Two simple harmonicmotions are represented by the equations
x1 = 5sin [2.t + ./4] and x2 = 5 2 (sin 2.t + cos2.t) their amplitudes are in th
e ratio 1 : 2 [REE,96]
2. Ablock is kept on a horizontal table. the table is undergoing simple harmonic
motion of frequency 3Hz in a
horizontalplane.The coefficient of static frictionbetweenblock and the table sur
face is 0.72. Find themaximum
amplitude of the table at which the block does not slip on the surface. [REE,96]
3. Abob ofmassMis attached to the lower end of a vertical string of lengthL and
cross sectional areaA.The
Young smodulus of thematerial of the string isY. If the bob executes SHMin the ver
ticaldirection, find the
frequencyofthese oscillations. [REE, 2000]
4. Adiatomicmolecule has atoms ofmassesm1 andm2. The potentialenergyof themolecu
le for the interatomic
separation r is given byV(r) = A+B(r
r0)2,where r0 is the equilibriumseparation,
andAandBare positive
constants. The atoms are compressed towards eachother fromtheir equilibriumposit
ions and released.What
is the vibrational frequencyof themolecule ? [REE, 01]
5. Two massesm1 andm2 connected bya light spring ofnatural length l0 is compress
ed completelyand tied bya
string. This systemwhilemoving with a velocity v0 along +ve x axis pass through th
e origin at t = 0.At this
position the string snaps. Position ofmassm1 at time t is given bythe equation.
x1(t) = v0t A(1 cos .t)
Calculate : [JEE, 03]
(a) Position of the particlem2 as a function of time.
(b) l0 in terms ofA.
6. Asmallbodyattached to one end of a verticallyhanging spring is performing SHM
about it s
mean position with angular frequency . and amplitude a. If at a height y* fromth
e mean
position the bodygets detached fromthe spring, calculate the value of y* so that
the height
m
y0
H attained by the mass ismaximum. The body does not interact with the spring dur
ing it s
subsequent motion after detachment. (a.2 > g). [JEE, 05]

Answer Key
Q. 1 2 3 4 5
Ans. A C A B D
MATCH THE COLUMN
1. [(A R), (B P), (C Q), (D S)]
2. [(A QR), (B QRS), (C P), (D P)]
3. [(A RS), (B RS), (C PQS), (D RS)]
LEVEL
1
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. B B C A B BC A B A A
Q. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. C ABC A CD D D B D B D
Q. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. C C B C B ABC ACD AC BCD B
Q. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. AC BC B A D AC A A A B
Q. 41 42 43 44 45 46
Ans. C ABD D D C D
PASSAGE
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Ans. C B A A C D
LEVEL 2
1.
T 2 m
2k
. . 2. 5 cm 3. (i) 3 cm; (ii) x = 10 + 3sin(5t + .)cmor x = 10
) 0.135 Joule
4. (i) 0.2m/sec.; (ii)
5 10 Hz
.
; (iii) 0.09 Joule; (iv) 3 10 mm. 5.
1 2 3 4
T 4 m 1 1 1 1
k k k k
. .
. . . . . . . . .
6. 0.02 . sec. 7. (i) 20 cm; (ii) 0.4 . sec. 8.
f 1 3k
2 27M 7m
.
. . 9.
T m
F
. . l
3sin(5t) cm; (iii

10. S = a[n + 1
cos (.t
n
2
.
)] when n is even; S = [n + cos (.t
n
2
.
)] when n is odd.
11. A= 5, f = ./2. and epoch = 53 12. m= 310 g, vmax = 12.5 cm/sec. 13. 2
f 1 k
2 m 1/R
.
. .
14. (a)
a 2 N mg 1 cos t
g
. . .
. . . . . . . ; (b) min 2
a . g
. ; (c) a = 0.2 m.
15. (a) 1 2
1 2
m(k k )
T 2
k k
.
. . ; (b) 1 2
1 2
1 k k
2 m(k k )
. .
. 16. . .
2
1 2
2 2
1 2
k k C
m k C k (a b)
. .
. .
17. 2 3
1
2 3
1 4k k k
m k 4k
. .
. . . . . . . .
18. (i)
2
2
T 2 (m M/ 3)
kb
.
. . l
; (ii)
2
max 2
g (m M/ 3)
d
kb
.
. l
19.
2 2
1 2
2
(k b k c ) (M/m/ 2)g
(M m/ 3)
. .
. .
.
l
l 20.
T 2 L 3 gr
4
. . 21. (a) N = m(gta.2 cos.t); (b) 8 km.
23. (a) 1 2
1 2
1 k k
2 m m
.
. . ; (b) 1 1
2 2
k m
k m
. ; (c) 1 2 2
1 2 2 1
(m m )m g
m k m k
.
.
3
LEVEL
1. True 2. 2cm 3.
1 YA
2. ML 4. 1 2
1 2
1 m m 2
f 2B(m m )
. .
.
5. (a) 1
2 0
2
m
x v t A(1 cos t)
m
. . . . ; (b) 1
0
2
m
1 A
m
. .
. . . . . .
l 6. 2
y mg g a
k
. . .
.
OPTICS
DHANALAKSHMI NAGAR
TIRUPATI.
PH NO. 9440025125
OPTICS
Review of Concepts
(a) Due to reflection, none of frequency, wavelength and speed of light change.
(B) Law of reflection :
(i) Incident ray, reflected ray and normal on inident point are coplanar.
(ii) The angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection.
Some important points : In case of plane mirror :
(i) For real object, image is virtual.
(ii) For virtual object, image is real.
(iii) Image size = Object size.
(iv) The converging point of incident beam behaves as object.
(v) If incident beam on optical instrument (mirror, lens etc) is converging in n
ature, object is
virtual.
(vi) If incident beam on the optical instrument is diverging in nature, the obje
ct is real.
(vii) The converging point of reflected or refracted beam from an optical instru
ment behaves a
image.
(viii) If reflected beam or refracted beam from an optical instrument is converg
ing in nature,
image is real.
Real
Image
P
Virtual
Object
P
n
n
(ix) If reflected beam or refracted beam from
an optical instrument is diverging in nature,
P
P
Real
Object
Virtual
Object
n
n .
.
.
.
image is virtual.
(x) For solving the problem, the reference frame is chosen in which optical inst
rument (mirror,
lens, etc.) is in rest.
(xi) The formation of image and size of image is independent of size of mirror.
(xii) Visual region and intensity of image
depend on size of mirror.
OPTICS
(xiii) If the plane mirror is rotated through an angle . , the reflected ray and
image is rotated
through an angle 2 . in the same sense.
(xiv) If mirror is cut into a number of pieces, then the focal length does not c
hange.
(xv) The minimum height of mirror required to see the full image of a man of hei
ght h is h/2.
Image
Rest
Object
(xvi)
v
Image
Rest
Object
(xvii)
v sin.
v sin.
v cos. v cos.
.
Image
Rest
Object
(xviii)
v
vm 2 vm - v Object Image
In rest
(xix)
vm 2 vm
Image
Object
(xx)
v
vm 2 vm + v
(C) Number of images formed by combination of two plane mirrors : The images for
med by
combination of two plane mirrors are lying on a circle whose centre is at the me
eting points of mirrors.
Also, object is lying on that circle.
Here, .
.
n . 360
where . = angle between mirrors.
(i) If .
360.
is even number, the number of image is n 1.
(ii) If .
360.
is odd number and object is placed on bisector of angle between mirrors, then
number of images is n 1.
(iii) If .
360.
is odd and object is not situated on bisector of angle between mirrors, then the
number of images is euqal to n.
(D) Law of reflecteion in vector form :
Let e 1 = unit vecotr along incident ray.
Let e 2 = unit vector along reflected ray

n
n
1 .
2 .
n = unit vector along normal on point of incidence
Then, e 2 . e 1 . 2 .e 1.n .n
(e) Spherical mirrors :
(i) It is easy to solve the problems in geometrical optics by the help of co-ord
inate sign convention.
OPTICS
x x
y
y
x x
y
y
x x
y
y
x x
y
y
x x
y
y
(ii) The mirror formula is .
. .
.
1
u
1 1
Also, R = 2 .
These formulae are only aplicable for paraxial rays.
(iii) All distances are measured from optical centre. It means optical centre is
taken as origin.
(iv) The sign convention are only applicable in given values.
(v) The transverse magnification is
object size u
image size ..
. . .
1. If object and image both are real, . is negative.
2. If object and image both are virtual, . is negative
3. If object is real but image is virtual; . is positive.
4. If object is virtual but image is real, . is positive.
D
F
d
Sun
.
.
5. Image of star; moon or distant object is formed
at focus of mirror.
If y = the ddistance of sun or moon from earth.
D = diameter of moon or sun s disc.
. = focal length of the mirror
d = diameter of the image
. = the angle subtended by sun or moon s disc
Then tan . = . = .
. d
y
D
Here, . is in radian.
Laws of Refraction
1. (a)The incident ray, the refracted ray and normal on incidence point are copl
anar.
(B) .1 sin.1 . .2 sin.2 ...cons tant .
.1
.2
.2
.1
(C) Snell s law in vector form:
.1
.2
2 .
1 .
n
Let, e 1 = unit vector along incident ray
e 2 = unit vecotr along refracted.
OPTICS
n = unit vector along normal on incidence point.
Then .1 .e 1 . n . . .2 .e 2 . n ..
Some important points :
(i) The value of absolute retractive index . is always greater or equal to one.
(ii) The value of refractive index depends uponmaterial of medium, colour of lig
ht and temperature
of medium.
(iii) When temperature increases, refractive index decreases.
(iv) Optical path is defined as product of geometrical path and refractive index
.
i.e., optical path = .x
(v) For a given time, optical path remains constant.
i.e., .1 x1 . .2 x2 . . cons tant
. dt
dx
dt
dx 2
2
1
.1 . .
. .1 c1 . .2 c2
.
2
1
1
2
c
. c
.
.
i.e., c
. . 1
(vi) The frequency of light does not depend upon medium.
. c1 . ..1 , c2 . . .2
.
1
2
1
2
2
1
c
c
.
.
. .
.
.
. .
. . 1
2. (a) When observer is in rarer medium and object is in denser medium:
Then apparent depth
. . real depth
(B) When object is in air and observer is in
Air
Observer
Denser medium
(.)
P
Object
Apparent
depth
P
Real
depth
denser medium:
real position
. . apparent position
(C) The shift of object due to slab is . ..
.
. ..
.
.
x . t 1. 1
(i) This formula is ony applicable when observer is in
rarer medium.
(ii) The object shiftness does not depend upon the
P P Q
Object
shiftness
= x
t
position of object.
(iii) Object shiftness takes place in the direction of
incidence ray.
(D) The equivalent rerfractive index of a combination of a number of slabs for n
ormal incidence
is
i
i
i
t
t
.
.
.
. .
Here, .ti = t1 + t2 + .......
t1 .1
.2 t2
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
2
2
1
1
i
ti t t
OPTICS
(e) The apparent depth due to a number of media is
i
ti
.
. .
i
t
r
d
.
(f) The lateral shifting due to a slab is d = t sec r sin (i
r).
3. (a) Cricital angle : When a ray passes from denser medium ( .2 )
to rarer medium ( .1), then for 90 angle of refraction, the
c
Rarer
.1
Denser
.2
90
corresponding angle of incidence is critical angle.
Mathematically,
2
sinC 1
.
.
.
(B) (i) When angle of incidence is lesser than
critical angle, refraction takes place. the
corresponding deviation is
sin sini i
1
1 2 . . ..
.
. ..
.
.
.
. . .
for i = C
Rarer medium
(. ) 1
i
r
c i i
i < C i = C Denser medium
(. ) 2
(ii) When angle of incidence is greater than
critical angle, total internal reflection takes
place. the corresponding deviation is
. . . . 2i when i > C
4. The . . i graph is
(i) Critical angle depends upon colour of light, material of medium,
c
i
.
./2
and temperature of medium.
(ii) Critical angle does not depend upon angle

PRISM
(a) Deviation produced by prism is ..i.i..A.
(B) r + r = A
(C) For grazing incidence, i = 90
(D) For grazing emergence, i = 90
(e) For not transmitting the ray from prism, .
2
A
A
B C
n n
r r
i i
(f) For limiting angle of prism, i = i = 90,
angle of prism = 2C where C is critical angle.
of prism exceeds the limiting values, then the
are totally reflected.
(g) . . i graph for prism:
(h) For minimum deviation,
(i) i = i and r = r (ii)
2
sin A
2
A sin m ..
.
..
. . .
. .
i
.
.m
of incidenct.
> cosec
the limiting
If angle
rays
OPTICS
In the case of minimum deviation, ray is passing through prism symmetrically.
(i) For maximum deviation ..max ..
i = 90 or i = 90
(j) For thin prism, . . .. .1. A
(k) Angular dispersion, D . ... . .r . A
(l) Angular deviation, .y . ..y .1.A
(m) dispersive power = . .
.
.
. .
.
.
. .
. . .
. . .
y 1
r
(n) ..
.
..
. . . .
. . .
2
r
y
(o) For dispersion without deviation, ..y . 0
(p) For deviation without dispersion, .D . 0 x A x
B
O C
.1 .2
Refractive surface formula,
u r
2 1 .2 . .1
.
.
.
.
.
Here, . = image distance, u = object distance, r = radius of curvature of spheri
cal surface
(a) For plane surface, r = .
(B) Transverse magnification,
object size u
m Image size
2
1
.
. .
. .
(C) Refractive surface formula is only applicable for paraxial ray.
LENS
1. Lens formula : .
. .
.
1
u
1 1
(a) Lens formula is only applicable for thin lens.

(B) r = 2 . formula is not applicable for lens.
(C) object size u
m image size
.
. .
(D) Magnification formula is only applicable when object is perpendicualr to opt
ical axis.
(e) Lens formula and the magnification formula is only applicable when medium on
both sides of
lenses are same.
(f) f(+ve)
(i)
f(-ve)
(ii)
f(-ve)
(iii)
f(+ve)
(iv)
f(-ve)
(v)
f(+ve)
(vi)
(g) This lens formula is applicable for converging as well diverging lens. .1 .1
.Thin lens maker s formula : 2
. ..
.
. ..
.
. . ..
.
. ..
.
.
. . .
.
. 1 1 2
2 1
r
1
r
1 1
OPTICS
2. (a) Thin lens formula is only applicable for paraxial ray.
(B) This formula is only applicable when medium on both sides of lens are same.
(C) Intensity is proportional to square of aperture.
(D) When lens is placed in a medium whose refractive index is greater than that
of lens. i.e.,
.1 . .2 . Then converging lens behaves as diverging lens and vice versa.
(e) When medium on both sides of lens are not same. Then both focal lengths are
not same to
each other.
(f) If a lens is cut along the diameter, focal length does not change.
(g) If lens is cut by a vertical, it converts into two lenses of different
+
f
f1 f2
focal lengths.
i.e.,
1 2
1 1 1
.
.
.
.
.
(h) If a lens is made of a number of layers of different refractive
index (shown in figure).
Then number of images of an object formed by the lens is
+ + +
+ + +
.1.
2
.3
.4
.5
.6
equal to number of different media.
(i) The minimum distance between real object and image in is 4 . .
(j) The equivalent focal elngth of co-axial combination of two d<f1 d<f2
o1 o2
f1 f2
d
lenses is given by
1 2 1 2
1 1 d
F
1
. .
.
.
.
.
.
(k) If a number of lenses are in contact, then
..
.
.
.
.
1 2
1 1
F
1
(l) (i) Power of thin lens,
F
P . 1
(ii) Power of mirror is
F
P . . 1
(m) If a lens is silvered at one surface, then the system behaves as an equivale
nt mirror, whose
power P = 2PL + Pm
Here, PL = Power of lens = . ..
.
. ..
.
. . ..
.
. ..
.
.
. . .
1 1 2
2 1
r
1
r
1
Pm = Power of silvered surface
Fm
. . 1
Here,
2
F r2
m . , where r2 = radius of silvered surface.
F
P . . 1
Here, F = focal length of equivalent mirror.
OPTICS
ASSERTION & REASION
THE NEXT QUESTIONS REFER TO THE FOLLOWING INSTRUCTIONS
A statement of assertion (A) is given and a Corresponding statement of reason (R
) is given just
below it of the statements, mark the correct answer as
(A) If both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(B) If both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(C) If A is true but R is false.
(D) If both A and R are false.
(E) If A is false but R is true.
1. Assertion (A) : A single ray can t be isolated from a source however small it m
ay be.
Reason (R) : The concept of single ray is hypothetical.
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
2. Assertion (A) : Virtual images can be photographed.
Reason (R) : Rays from virtual images are diverging.
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
3. Assertion (A) : Virtual object can t be seen by human eye.
Reason (R) : Virtual object is formed by converging rays.
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
4. Assertion (A) : A Convex mirror is used as rear view mirror.
Reason (R) : The Convex mirror always forms virtual, erect and diminished image.
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
5. Assertion (A) : The behavior of any lens depends on surrounding medium.
Reason (R) : A lens can be looked upon as a collection of small prism with varyi
ng prism angle.
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
6. Assertion (A) : Human eye can see virtual object.
Reason (R) : Virtual object is formed by apparent intersection of incident rays.
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
7. Assertion (A) : Real image is formed by real intersection of reflected or ref
racted rays.
Reason (R) : Real image can t be obtained on screen.
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
8. Assertion (A) : If a portion of lens or mirror is blocked or removed, then in
tensity of image reduces.
Reason (R) : As every portion of lens or mirror forms image, hence blocking or r
emoving a portion
will result in intensity reduction.
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
9. Assertion (A) : A rectangular glass slab produces no deviation and no dispers
ion.
Reason (R) : Dispersive power of glass is zero.
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
10. Assertion (A) : A double convex lens .. .1.5. has focal length 10 cm. When i
mmersed in water
4
3
... . ..
. . , its focal length becomes 40 cm.
Reason (R) :
1 2
1 1 1 l m
m f R R
. .
.
. . .
. . . .
. .
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
OPTICS
11. Assertion (A) : A convex lens of glass .. .1.5. behave as diverging lens whe
n immersed in carbon
disulphide of higher refractive index .. .1.65..
Reason (R) : A diverging lens is thinner in the middle and thicker at the edges.
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
12. Assertion (A) : A biconvex lens of focal length 10 cm is split into two equa
l parts by a plane parallel to
its principal axis. The focal length of each part will be 20 cm.
Reason (R) : The focal length depends on how many parts the convex lens has been
split.
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
13. Assertion (A) : Radius of curvature of a convex mirror is 20 cm. If a real o
bject is placed at 10 cm
from pole of the mirror, image is formed at infinity.
Reason (R) : When object is placed at focus, its image is formed at infinity.
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
14. Assertion (A) : For a prism of refracting angle 60 and refractive index 2 , m
inimum deviation is
30.
Reason (R) : At minimum deviation, 1 2 30
2
r . r . A . .
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
15. Assertion (A) : Image formed by concave lens is not always virtual.
Reason (R) : Image formed by a lens if the image is formed in the direction of r
ay of light with
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
16. Assertion (A) : Minimum deviation for a given prism does not depend on the r
efractive index . of
the prism.
Reason (R) : Deviation by a prism is given by . . 1 2 . . i . i . A and does not
have the term . .
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
Level # 1.
Objective Type Question
Multiple Choice Question with ONE correct answer :
1. Two plane mirrors M1 and M2 are inclined to each other at 70. A ray incident o
n the mirror M1 at an angle
. falls on M2 and is then reflected parallel to M1 for
(A) . = 45 (B) . = 50 (C) . = 55 (D) . = 60
2. A light ray is incident on a horizontal plane mirror at an angle of 45.
At what angle should a second plane mirror be placed in order that the
reflected ray finally be reflected horizontally from the second mirror,
as shown in figure.
(A) . = 30 (B) . = 24
(C) . = 22.5 (D) . = 67.5
3. A plane mirror is placed in y-z plane facing towards negative x-axis. The mir
ror is moving parallel to yaxis
with a speed of 5 cm/s. A point object P is moving infront of the mirror with a
velocity (3 cm/s)i
+ (4
cm/s) j
+ (5 cm/s)k
. Find the velocity of image with respect to mirror
(A) ( 3 cm/s)i
+ (4 cm/s) j
+ (5 cm/s)k
(B) (3 cm/s)i
+ (4 cm/s) j
+ (5 cm/s)k
(C) (3 cm/s)i
(4 cm/s) j
(5 cm/s)k
(D) none of the above.
OPTICS
4. The size of the face of a dancer is 24 cm x 16 cm. Find the minimum size of a
plane mirror required to see
the face of dancer completely by
(i) one eyed dancer. (ii) two eyed dancer.
(Distance between the eyes is 4 cm.)
(A) (i) 12 x 8 cm2 (ii) 12 x 6 cm2
(B) (i) 8 x 10 cm2 (ii) 12 x 2 cm2
(C) (i) 10 x 12 cm2 (ii) 9 x 8 cm2
(D) (i) 12 x 2 cm2 (ii) 6 x 13 cm2
5. A bullet of mass m2 is fired from a gun of mass m1 with horizontal velocity v
. A plane mirror is fixed at gun
facing towards bullet. The velocity of the image of bullet formed by the plane m
irror with respect to bullet
is
(A) . ..
.
. ..
.
.
1
2
m
1 m (B) . . ..
.
. ..
. .
1
1 2
m
m m
(C)
. . .
.
1
2 1m
2 m m
(D) none of these
6. In the given figure, the angle of reflection is
(A) 30 (B) 60
(C) 45 (D) none of these.
7. Two plane mirrors A and B are aligned parallel to each other, as shown in
figure. A light ray is incident at an angle of 30 at a point just inside one
end of A. The plane of incidence coincides with the plane of figure. The 0.2 m
A
B
30
2 3 m
maximum number of times the ray undergoes reflections (excluding the
first one) before it emerges out is
(A) 28 (B) 30 (C) 32 (D) 34
8. A point source of light B is placed at a distance L in front of the centre of
a
mirror of width d hung vertically on a wall as shown. A man walks in front of
the mirror along a line parallel to the mirror at a distance 2L from it as shown
.
d
B
L
2 L
The greatest distance over which he can see the image of the light source
in the mirror is
(A) d (B) d (C) 2d (D) 3d
9. A plane mirror having a mass m is tied to the free end of a massless
spring of spring constant k. The other end of the spring is attached to
a wall. The spring with the mirror held vertically to the floor can slide
along it smoothly. When the spring is at its natural length, the mirror
Wall
is found to be moving at a speed of v cm/s. The separation between k
the images of a man standing before the mirror, when the mirror is
in its extreme positions
(A)
k
v m (B) k
m
2
v
(C)
k
2v m (D) k
4v m
10. Two spherical mirrors M1 and M2, one convex and other concave having same ra
dius
of curvature R are arranged coaxially at a distance 2R (consider their pole sepa
ration
to be 2R). A bead of radius a is placed at the pole of the convex mirror a shown
. The
M1 M2
ratio of the size of the first three images of the bead is
(A) 1 : 2 : 3 (B) 1 : 3
: 1
2
1
(C) 41
: 1
11
: 1
3
1
(D) 3 : 11 : 41
11. An object is placed in front of a convex mirror at a distance of 50 cm. A pl
ane mirror is introduced
covering the lower half of the convex mirror. If the distance between the object
and the plane mirror is 30
cm, there is no parallax between the images formed by the two mirrors. The radiu
s of curvature of the
convex mirror (in cm) is
(A) 60 (B) 50 (C) 30 (D) 25
OPTICS
12. A rectangular glass slab ABCD of refractive index n1, is immersed in water o
f refractive index n2 (n1 > n2).
A ray of light is incident at the surface AB of the slab as shown. The maximum v
alue of the angle of
incidence .max , such that the ray comes out only from the other surface CD is g
iven by
(A) ..
.. .
..
.. .
. .
.
.
. .
.
.
. ..
.
. ..
. . .
1
1 2
2
1 1
n
cos sin n
n
sin n (B) ..
.. .
..
.. .
. .
.
.
. .
.
.
. ..
.
. ..
. . .
2
1
1
1
n
sin n cos sin 1
(C) . ..
.
. ..
. .
2
1 1
n
sin n (D) . ..
.
. ..
. .
1
1 2
n
sin n
13. Two thin slabs of refractive indices .
1 and .
2 are placed parallel to
each other in the x-z plane. If the direction of propagation of a ray
in the two media are along the vectors j
b i
a r 1 . . and j
d i
r 2 . c .
x
y
.2
.1
then we have
(A) .1a . .2b (B) 2 2
2
2 2
1
c d
c
a b
a
.
.
.
.
.
(C) .
1 (a2 + b2) = .
2 (c2 + d2) (D) none of these
14. A man stands on a glass slab of height . and inside an elevator accelerated
upwards with a . The
bottom of the slab appears to have shifted with respect to the man by a distance
(if the R. I. of the glass
is .
g)
(A) less then . .g (B) greater than . .g (C) equal to . .g (D) can t be said.
15. A ray of light travels from a medium of refractive index . into air. If the
angle of incidence at the plane
surface of separation is . and the corresponding angle of deviation is D, the va
riation D with . is shown
correctly by the figure.
C C C
D
D D D
D1 D1 D1 D2 D2
D2
(0, 0) . ./2 (0, 0) . (0, 0) . ./2 (0, 0) . ./2
(A) (B) (C) (D)
16. An observer can see through a pin hole at the top end of a thin rod of heigh
t
h placed as shown in the figure. Beaker height is 3h and its radius is h.
When the beaker is filled with a liquid up to a height 2h, he can see the
h
2 h
3 h
Eye
lower end of the rod. Then refractive index of the liquid is
(A) 2
3
(B)
2
3 (C) 2
5
(D) 2
5
.
(Assume that the distance between rod and the wall is negligible).
17. A glass sphere of radius 5 x 10 2 m has a small bubble 2 x 10 2 m from its centr
e. Bubble is viewed along
the diameter of the sphere, from the side on which it lies. If refractive index
of glass is 1.5 then how far
from the surface will the bubble appear?
(A) 2.1 cm (B) 2.5 cm (C) 1.5 cm (D) 2.0 cm
OPTICS
18. A ray of light travelling in a transparent medium falls on a surface separat
ing the medium from air at an
angle of incident 45. The ray undergoes total internal reflection. If . is the re
fractive index of the medium
with respect to air, select the possible value(s) of . from the following :
(A) 1.3 (B) 1.4 (C) 1.5 (D) 1.7
19. A tank contains a transparent liquid of refractive index n the bottom of whi
ch
is made of a mirror as shown. An object O lies at a height d above the mirror.
A person P vertically above the object sees O and its image in the mirror and
d
O
P
finds the apparent separation to be
(A) 2nd (B) n 1
2d
. (C)
n
2d
(D) .1 n.
n
d .
20. A fish looks up at the surface of a perfectly smooth lake. The surface appea
rs dark except a circular
area directly above it. The plane angle . that this illuminated region subtends
is
(A) 48.6 (B) 24.3 (C) 97.2 (D) 12.15
21. A ray of light enters an anisotropic medium from vacuum at grazing incidence
. If . is the angle made by
the reflected ray inside the medium with the interface and n( . ) is the refract
ive index of the medium
then,
(A) n( . ) sin . = 1 (B) n( . ) cos . = 1 (C) 1
sin
n( ) .
.
.
(D) 1
cos
n( ) .
.
.
22. The slab of a material of refractive index 2 shown in figure has
a curved surface. APB of radius of curvature 10 cm and a plane
surface CD. On the left of APB is air and on the right of CD is
water with refractive indices as given in figure. An object O is
placed at a distance of 15 cm from pole P as shown. The
distance of the final image of O from P, as viewed from the left is
(A) 20 cm (B) 30 cm (C) 40 cm (D) 50 cm
23. An object is placed at a distance of 12 cm from a convex lens on its princip
al axis and a virtual image of
certain size is formed. On moving the object 8 cm away from the lens, a real ima
ge of the same size as
that of virtual image is formed. The focal length of the lens in cm is
(A) 15 (B) 16 (C) 17 (D) 18
24. A spherical surface of radius of curvature R separates air (refractive index
1.0) from glass (refractive
index 1.5). The centre of curvature is in the glass. A point object P placed in
air is found to have a real
image Q in the glass. The line PQ cuts the surface at the point O and PO = OQ. T
he distance PO is equal
to
(A) 5 R (B) 3 R (C) 2 R (D) 1.5 R
25. A lens of focal length . is placed in between an object and screen fixed at
a distance D. The lens forms
two real images of object on the screen for two of its different positions, a di
stance x apart. The two real
images have magnifications m1 and m2 respectively (m1 > m2).
(A)
m1 m2
x
.
. . (B) m1 m2 = 1 (C) 4D
D2 . x2
. . (D) all the above
OPTICS
26. A liquid of refractive index 1.33 is placed between two identical
plano-convex lenses, with refractive index 1.50. Two possible
P Q
arrangement P and Q are shown. The system is
(A) divergent in P, convergent in Q.
(B) convergent in P, divergent in Q.
(C) convergent in both
(D) divergent in both.
27. A lens of refractive index . is put in a liquid of refractive index .. . If
the focal length of the lens in air is
. , its focal length in liquid will be
(A)
. .
.. . .
. ... . .1
(B)
. .
.. .. .1.
. .. . .
(C)
. .
. ... . ..
.. . .1
(D) .. . ...
... .
28. A convergent lens is placed inside a cell filled with a liquid. The lens has
a focal length +20 cm when in
air and its material has a refractive index 1.50. If the liquid has a refractive
index 1.60, the focal length of
the system
24 cm (D) 80 cm (D) + 80 cm
(A) 160 cm (B)
29. A double convex lens, made of glass of refractive index 1.5, has focal lengt
h 6 cm. The radius of curvature
of one surface is double than that of other surface. The small radius of curvatu
re has value
(A) 4.5 cm (B) 6 cm (C) 4 cm (D) 9 cm
30. If the distance between a projector and screen is increased by 1%, then illu
mination on the screen
decreases by
(A) 1 % (B) 2 % (C) 3 % (D) 4 %
31. A lens forms a sharp image of a real object on a screen. On inserting a para
llel slide between the lens
and the screen with its thickness along the principal axis of the lens it is fou
nd necessary to shift the
screen parallel to itself d away from the lens for getting image sharply focused o
n it. If the refractive
index of the glass relative to air is ., the thickness of slab is
(A) .
d
(B) .d (C) 1
d
. .
.
(D) . .
.
. .1 d
32. A thin convex lens in used to form a real image of a bright point object. Th
e
apeture of the lens is small. A graph, shown is obtained by plotting a suitable
O
X
Y
-1
.
parameter Y against another suitable parameter x.
If . = the focal length of the lens
u = object distance
v = image distance
and Real Positive Convention is used then
(A) (uV) . x; (u + V) . y (B) (u + V) . x; (uV) . y
(C) u . x;
v
u
. y (D) u
1
. x;
v
1
. y
OPTICS
33. Which of the following best represents object distance u vs image distance v
graph for a convex lens.
(A)
y
.
(B)
y
.
(C)
y
.
(D)
y
.
34. Three thin prisms are combined as shown in figure. The refractive indices of
the crown glass for red,
yellow and violet rays are .
r, .
y and .
v respectively and those for the flint glass are . r, . y and . v
respectively. The ratio A /A for which there is no net angular dispersion.
(A)
. .
1
2 1
y
y
. .
. .
(B)
y y
y y
2 .
.
. .
. . .
(C)
. .
. . y y
y y
1
1
. . .
. . .
.
.
(D)
y y
2 y . y
.
.
. . .
. .
35. A point object is placed at distance of 0.3 m from a convex lens of focal le
ngth
0.2 m cut into two equal halves, each of which is displaced by 0.0005 m, as show
n
in figure. If C1 and C2 be their optical centres then,

(A) an image is formed at a distance of 0.6 m from C1 or C2 along principal axis
.
(B) two images are formed, one at a distance of 0.6 m and other at a distance O
C1
C2
of 1.2 m from C1 or C2 along principal axis.
(C) an image is formed at a distance of 0.12 m from C1 or C2 along principal axi
s.
(D) two images are formed at a distance of 0.6 m from C1 or C2 along principal a
xis
at a separation of 0.003 m.
36. A glass prism of refractive index 1.5 is immersed in water (refractive index
4/3). A light beam incident
normally on the face AB is totally reflected to reach on the face BC if (1983)
A B
.
(A)
sin 8
9
. . (B)
2 sin 8
3 9
. . (C)
sin 2
3
. .
37. A ray of light from a denser medium strike a rarer medium at an angle of inc
idence i (see Figure). The
reflected and refracted rays make an angle of 90 with each other. The angles of r
eflection and refraction
are r and r The critical angle is
i r
r'
(A) sin.1 .tan r . (B) sin.1 .tani. (C) sin.1 .tan r.. (D) tan.1 .sin i.
OPTICS
38. Two coherent monochromatic light beams of intensities . and 4 . are superpos
ed. The maximum and
minimum possible intensities in the resulting beam are
(A) 5 . and . (B) 5 . and 3 . (C) 9 . and . (D) 9 . and 3 .
39. An isosceles prism of angle 120 has a refractive index 1.44. The parallel mon
ochromatic rays enter
the prism parallel to each other in air as shown. The rays emerge from the oppos
ite faces
120
(A) are parallel to each other (B) are diverging
(C) make an angle 2 [sin 1 (0.72)
30] with each other
(D) make an angle 2 sin 1 (0.72) with each other
40. A diminished image of an object is to be obtained on a screen 1.0 m from it.
This can be achieved by
appropriately placing
(A) a concave mirror of suitable focal length (B) a convex mirror of suitable fo
cal length
(C) a convex lens of focal length less than 0.25 m (D) a concave lens of suitabl
e focal length
41. A concave lens of glass, refractive index 1.5 has both surfaces of same radi
us of curvature R. On
immersion in a medium of refractive index 1.75, it will behave as a
(A) convergent lens of focal length 3.5 R (B) convergent lens of focal length 3.
0 R
(C) divergent lens of focal length 3.5 R (D) divergent lens of focal length 3.0
R
42. A hollow double concave lens is made of very thin transparent material. It c
an be filled with air or either
of two liquids L1 and L2 having refractive indices 1 . and .2 respectively ..2 .
.1 .1. . the lens will
diverge a parallel beam of light if it is filled with
(A) air and placed in air (B) air and immersed in L1
(C) L1 and immersed in L2 (D) L2 and immersed in L1
43. A diverging beam of light from a point source Is having divergence angle . ,
falls symmetrically on a
glass slab as shown. The angles of incidence of the two extreme rays are equal.
If the thickness of the
glass slab is t and the refractive index n, then the divergence angle of the eme
rgent beam is
(A) zero (B) . (C)
sin 1 1
n
. . .
. .
. . (D)
2sin 1 1
n
. . .
. .
. .
44. A ray of light passes through four transparent media with refractive indices
1 . , 2 . , 3 . and 4 . as
shown in the figure. the surfaces of all media are parallel. If the emergent ray
CD is parallel to the
incident ray AB, we must have
(A) 1 2 . . . (B) 2 3 . . . (C) 3 4 . . . (D) 4 1 . . .
OPTICS
45. A given ray of light suffers minimum deviation in an equilateral prism p, Ad
ditional prism Q and R of
identical shape and of the same material as P are now added as shown in the figu
re. The ray will now
suffer
P Q R
(A) greater deviation (B) no deviation
(C) same deviation as before (D) total internal reflection
46. Which one of the following spherical lenses does not exhibit dispersion? The
radii of curvature of the
surfaces of the lenses are as given in the diagrams.
(A) R1 R2 (B) R (C) R R (D) R
47. Two plane mirrors A and B are aligned parallel to each other, as shown in th
e figure A light ray is
incident at an angle 30 at a point just inside one end of A. The plane of inciden
ce coincides with the
plane of the figure. The maximum number of times the ray undergoes reflections (
including the first
one) before it emerges out is
(A) 28 (B) 30 (C) 32 (D) 34
48. The size of the image of an object, which is at infinity, as formed by a con
vex lens of focal length 30 cm
is 2 cm. If a concave lens of focal length 2 0 cm is placed between the convex l
ens and the image at a
distance of 26 cm from the convex lens, calculate the new size of the image.
(A) 1.25 cm (B) 2.5 cm (C) 1.05 cm (D) 2 cm
49. A ray of light is incident at the glass-water interface at an angle i, it em
erges finally parallel to the
surface of water, then the value of g . would be
(A) .4 3.sini (B) 1 sin i (C) 4 3 (D) 1
50. A beam of white light is incident on glass air interface from glass to air s
uch that green light just suffers
total internal reflection. The colors of the light which will come out to air ar
e
(A) Violet, Indigo, Blue (B) All colors except green
(C) Yellow, Orange, Red (D) White light
OPTICS
51. An equilateral prism is placed on a horizontal surface. A ray pQ is incident
onto it. For minimum deviation
P
Q
R
S
(A) PQ is horizontal (B) QR is horizontal
(C) RS is horizontal (D) Any one will be horizontal
52. A source emits sound of frequency 600 Hz inside water. The frequency heard i
n air will be equal to
(velocity of sound in water = 1500 m/s, velocity of sound in air = 300 m/s)
(A) 3000 Hz (B) 120 Hz (C) 600 Hz (D) 6000 Hz
53. A point object is placed at the centre of a glass sphere of radius 6 cm and
refractive index 1.5. The
distance of virtual image from the surface is
(A) 6 cm (B) 4 cm (C) 12 cm (D) 9 cm
54. A convex lens is in contact with concave lens. the magnitude of the ratio of
their focal length is 2 3 .
Their equivalent focal length is 30 cm. What are their individual focal lengths?
(A) 15, 10 (B) 10, 15 (C) 75, 50 (D) 75, 50
55. A container is filled with water .. .1.33. upto a height
of 33.25 cm. A concave mirror is placed 15 cm above
the water level and the image of an object placed at
the bottom is formed 25 cm below the water level.
Focal length of the mirror is
(A) 15 cm
(B) 20 cm
(C) 18, 31 cm
(D) 10 cm
Multiple Choice Question with ONE or MORE THAN ONE correct answer:
56. A convex lens of focal length 40 cm is in contact with a concave lens of foc
al length 25 cm. The power
of the combination is
(A) 1.5 dioptres (B) 6.5 dioptres (C) +6.5 diopres (D) +6.67 dioptres
57. A converging lens is used to form an image on a screen. When the upper half
of the lens is covered by
an opaque screen
(A) half the image will disappear
(B) complete image will be formed
(C) intensity of the image will increase
(D) intensity of the image will decrease.
58. A short linear object of length b lies along the axis of a concave mirror of
focal length f at a distance u
from the pole of the mirror. The size of the image is approximately equal to
(A)
1 2 b u f
f
. . .
. .
. .
(B)
1 2 b f
u f
. .
. . . . .
(C)
b u f
f
. . .
. .
. .
(D)
2 b f
u f
. .
. . . . .
59. A beam of light consisting of red, green and blue colours is incident on a r
ight angled prism, figure. The
refractive indices of the material of the prism for the above red, green and blu
e wavelengths are 1.39,
1.44 and 1.47 respectively. The prism will
OPTICS
45
(A) separate part of the red colour from the green and blue colours
(B) separate part of the blue colour from the red and green colours
(C) separate all the three colours from one another.
(D) not separate even partially any colour from the other two colours.
60. A thin prism P1 with angle 4 and made from glass of refractive index 1.54 is
combined with another
thin prism P2 made from glass of refractive index 1.72 to produce dispersion wit
hout deviation. The
angle of the prism P2 is
(A) 5.33 (B) 4 (C) 3 (D) 2.6
61. Two thin convex lenses of focal lengths f1 and f2 are separated by a horizon
tal distance d (where
d . f1 . d . f2 ) and their centres are displaced by a vertical separation . as
shown in Figure.
Taking the origin of coordinates O, at the center of the first lens the x and y
coordinates of the focal
point of this lens system, for a parallel beam of rays coming from the left, are
given by:
(A)
1 2
1 2
x f f , y
f f
. . .
. (B)
. . 1 2
1 2 1 2
,
f f d
x y
f f d f f
. .
. .
. . .
(C)
. . . . 1 2 1 1
1 2 1 2
,
f f d f d f d
x y
f f d f f d
. . . .
. .
. . . . (D)
. . 1 2 1
1 2
, 0
f f d f d
x y
f f d
. .
. .
. .
62. Which of the following form(s) a virtual and erect image for all positions o
f the object?
(A) Convex lens (B) Concave lens (C) Convex mirror (D) Concave mirror.
63. A ray of light travelling in a transparent medium falls on a surface separat

ing the medium from air at an
angle of incidence of 45. The ray just undergoes total internal reflection. If n
is the refractive index of
the medium with respect to air, select the possible value(s) of n from the follo
wing:
(A) 1.3 (B) 1.4 (C) 1.5 (D) 1.6
64. A concave mirror is placed on a horizontal table, with its axis directed ver
tically upwards. Let O be the
pole of the mirror and C its centre of curvature. A point object is placed at C.
It has a real image, also
located at C. If the mirror is now filled with water, the image will be.
(A) real, and will remain at C
(B) real, and located at a point between C and .
(C) virtual, and located at a point between C and O
(D) real, and located at a point between C and O
OPTICS
Fill in the blanks:
1. A light wave of frequency 5 x 1014 Hz enters a medium of refractive index 1.5
, In the medium the
velocity of the light wave is .................. and its wavelength is .........
....... (2 Marks)
2. A convex lens A of focal length 20 cm and a concave lens B of focal length 5
cm are kept along the
same axis with a distance d between them. If a parallel beam of light falling on
A leaves B as a parallel
beam, then d is equal to .......... cm.
3. A monochromatic beam of light of wavelength 6000 in vacuum enters a medium of
refractive index
1.5. In the medium its wavelength is ..., its frequency is ............. (1985)
4. In young s double-slit experiment, the two slits act as coherent sources of equ
al amplitude A and of
wavelength . . In another experiment with the same set-up the two slits are source
s of equal amplitude
A and wavelength . , but are incoherent. The ratio of the intensity of light at the
midpoint of the
screen in the first case to that in the second case is ................. (1986)
5. A thin lens of refractive index 1.5 has 7a focal length of 15 cm in air. when
the lens is placed in a
medium of refractive index
4
3 , its focal length will become ........... cm. (1987)
6. A point source emits sound equally in all directions in a non-absorbing mediu
m. Two points P and Q
are at a distance of 9 meters and 25 meters respectively from the source. The ra
tio of amplitudes of
the waves at P and Q is .................... (1989)
7. A slab of a material of refractive index 2 shown in Figure, has a curved surf
ace APB of radius of
curvature 10 cm and a plane surface CD. On the left of APB is air and on the rig
ht of CD is water with
refractive indices as given in the figure.
A
B
C
D
P C O
n1=1.0 n2=2.0
20 cm
15 cm
3
4
3
n =
An object O is placed at a distance of 15 cm from the pole P as shown. The dista
nce of the final image
of O from P, as viewed from the left is ............... (1991)
8. A thin rod of length 3
f
is placed along the optic axis of a concave mirror of focal length f such that i
ts
image which is real elongated, just touches the rod. The magnification is ......
....... (1991)
9. A ray of light undergoes deviation of 30 when incident on an equilateral prism
of refractive index 2 .
The angle made by the ray inside the prism with the base of the prism is .......
...... (1992)
10. A light of wavelength 6000 in air, enters a medium with refractive index 1.5.
Inside the medium its
frequency is ........ Hz and its wavelength is ............... . (1997)
OPTICS
11.
Two thin lenses, when in contact, produce a combination of power +10 diopters. W
hen they are 0.25 m
apart, the power reduces to +6 diopters. The focal length of the lenses are ....
.. m and .... m.
(1997)
12.
A ray of light is incident normally on one of the faces of a prism of apex angle
30 and refractive index
2 . The angle of deviation of the ray is .......... degrees.
(1997)
True / False :
13. Theintensityof light at adistance r from theaxisof alongcylindrical sourceisinve
rselyproportional
to r . (1981)
14. A convex lens of focal length 1 meter and a concave lens of focal length 0.2
5 meter are kept 0.75
meter apart. A parallel beam of light first passes through the convex lens, then
through the concave
lens and moves to a focus 0.5 m away from the concave lens. (1983)
15. A beam of white light passing through a hollow prism give no spectrum. (1983
)
16. A parallel beam of white light fall on a combination of a concave and a conv
ex lens, both of the same
material. Their focal lengths are 15 cm and 30 cm respectively for the mean wave
length in white light.
On the other side of the lens system, one sees coloured patterns with violet col
our at the outer edge.
(1988)
Table Match
17. Match List I and List II and select the correct answer using the codes given
below the lists:
The arrangement shows different lenses made of substance of refractive index 1.5
and kept in air. R1
= 30 cm, R2 = 60 cm. Match the focal lengths
Table I Table II
I.
R1 R2 A. 120 cm
II.
R1 R2 B. +40 cm
III. R1 R2 C. 40 cm
R1
R2
IV.
D.
+120 cm
(A) I-A, II-B, III-D, IV-C
(B) I-C, II-A, III-B, IV-D
(C) I-D, II-C, III-A, IV-B
(D) I-B, II-D, III-C, IV-A
OPTICS
18.
Table I Table II
I. An object is placed at focus before A. Magnification is
.
a convex mirror
II. An object is placed at the centre of B. Magnification is +0.5
curvature before a concave mirror
III. An object is placed at focus before C. Magnification is +1
a concave mirror.
IV. An object is placed at centre of curvature D. Magnification is
1
before a convex mirror.
(A) I-B, II-D, III-A, IV-E (B) I-A, II-D, III-C, IV-B
(C) I-C, II-B, III-A, IV-E (D) I-B, II-E, III-D, IV-C
19. Match the followings:
Table I Table II
A. Magnification m = +1 (i) Convex mirror
B. Magnification
2
3
m . . (ii) Plane mirror
C. Magnification
3
2
m . . (iii) Concave mirror
(A) A . (ii) B . (iii) C . (i) (B) A . (i) B . (ii) C . (iii)
(C) A . (ii) B . (i) C . (iii) (D) A . (iii) B . (ii) C . (i)
20. For a concave mirror of focal length 20 cm, match the followings:
Table I Table II
Objective distance Nature of image
A. 10 cm (i) Magnified, inverted and real
B. 30 cm (ii) Equal size, inverted and real
C. 40 cm (iii) Smaller, inverted and real
D. 50 cm (iv) Magnified, erect and virtual
(A) A . II, B . I, C . III, D . IV (B) A . IV, B . I, C . II, D . III
(C) A . I, B . IV, C . III, D . II (D) A . IV, B . I, C . III, D . II.
PASSAGE TYPE QUESTIONS
THE NEXT QUESTIONS REFER TO THE FOLLOWING PASSAGE
The ciliary muscles of eye control the curvature of the lens in the eye and henc
e can alter the effective
focal length of the system. When the muscles are fully relaxed, the focal length
is maximum. When the
muscles are strained the curvature of lens increases (that means radius of curva
ture decreases) and
focal length decreases. For a clear vision, the image must be on retina. The ima
ge distance is therefore
fixed for clear vision and it equals the distance of retina from eye-lens. It is
about 2.5 cm for a grownup
person.
OPTICS
A person can theoretically have clear vision of objects situated at any large di
stance from the eye. The
smallest distance at which a person can ciliary muscles are most strained in thi
s position. For an
average grown-up person, minimum distance of object should be around 25 cm.
A person suffering for eye defects uses spectacles (eye glass). The function of
lens of spectacles is
to form the image of the objects within the range in which person can see clearl
y. The image of the
spectacle lens becomes object for eye-lens and whose image is formed on retina.
The number of
spectacle lens used for the remedy of eye defect is decided by the power of the
lens required and the
number of spectacle-lens equal to the numerical value of the power of lens with
sign. For example,
power of lens required is +3 D (converging lens of focal length
100
3 cm), then number of lens will be
+3.
For all the calculations required you can use the lens formula and lens maker s fo
rmula. Assume that
the eye lens is equiconvex lens. Neglect the distance between eye lens and the s
pectacle lens.
1. Minimum focal length of eye-lens of a normal person is
(A) 25 cm (B) 2.5 cm (C)
25
9
cm (D)
25
11
cm
2. Maximum focal-length of eye lens of normal person is
(A) 25 cm (B) 2.5 cm (C)
25
9
cm (D)
25
11
cm
3. A near-sighted man can clearly see object only upto a distance of 100 cm and
not beyond this. The
number of the spectacles lens necessary for the remedy of this defect will be
(A) + 1 (B)
1 (C) + 3 (D)
3
4. A far-sighted man cannot see object only upto a distance of 100 cm from his e
yes. The number of the
spectacles lens that will make his range of clear vision equal to an average gro
wn up person is
(A) + 1 (B) 1 (C) + 3 (D)
3
5. A person who can see objects clearly from distance 10 cm to . , then we can s
ay that the person is
(A) normal sighted person (B) near-sighted person
(C) far-sighted person (D) a person with exceptional eyes having no eye defect.
Spherical aberration in spherical mirrors is a defect which is due to dependence
of focal length ' f '
on angle of incidence '. ' as shown in figure. is given by
sec
2
f . R . R .
C F
Principal axis Pole (P)
f
.
.
where R is radius of curvature of mirror and . is the angle of incidence. The ra
ys which are closed to
principal axis are called paraxial rays and the rays far away from principal axi
s are called marginal
rays. As a result of above dependence different rays are brought to focus at dif
ferent points and the
image of a point object is not a point.
OPTICS
6. If p f and m f represent the focal length of paraxial andmarginal rays respec
tively, then correct relationship
is:
(A) f p . fm (B) p m f . f (C) p m f . f (D) None
7. If angle of incidence is 60, then focal length of this rays is:
(A) R (B) 2
R
(C) 2R (D) 0
8. The total deviation suffered by the ray falling on mirror at an angle of inci
dence equal to 60 is:
(A) 180 (B) 90 (C) Can t be determined (D) None
9. For paraxial rays, focal length approximately is:
(A) R (B) 2
R
(C) 2R (D) None
10. Which of the following statements are correct regarding spherical aberration
:
(A) It can be completely eliminated
(B) it can t be completely eliminated but is can t be minimised by allowing either p
araxial or marginal
rays to hit the mirror
(C) It is reduced by taking large aperture mirrors
(D) None
Rainbow is formed during rainy season due to refraction and total internal refle
ction of rays falling on
suspended water droplets. When rays of the sun fall on rain drops, the rain drop
s disperse the light and
deviate the different colours by refraction and total internal reflection to the
eye of the observer. A
person observing the drops will see different colours of the spectrum at differe
nt angles. The rainbow
which results from single total internal reflection is called primary rainbow an
d secondary rainbow is
formed due to two total internal reflections suffered by rays falling on water d
rops.
A
B
C
D
V
R
R
V
Red
Red
violet
violet
Rays from
sun
Secondary
rainbow
Primary
rainbow
Figure shows formation of rainbow due to four drops A, B, C and D. The light sur
ffers only one total
linternal reflection in drops C and D forming primary rainbow. Secondary rainbow
is
and
11.
(A)
(C)
12.
(A)
(C)
formed by drops A
B where light suffers two total linternal reflections.
Rainbow is an arc of:
Circle (B) Ellipse
Parabola (D) Can t be determined
The visibility of the rainbow is due to:
All rays (B) Rays undergoing maximum deviation
Rays undergoing minimum deviation (D) None
OPTICS
13. In primary rainbow, the colour of outer edge is:
(A) Blue (B) Violet (C) Red (D) None
14. In secondary rainbow, the colour of inner edge is:
(A) Red (B) Violet (C) Indigo (D) None
15. The necessary condition for the observer to see rainbow is:
(A) Sun, observer s eye and the centre of the rainbow arc lie on the same line
(B) Sun, observer s eye and the centre of the rainbow arc lie on the different lin
e
(C) From any position provided sun is at the back of the observer (D) None
The laws governing the behavior of the rays namely rectilinear propagation, laws
of reflection and
refraction can be summarised in one fundamental also known as Fermat s principle.
According to this
principle a ray of light travels from one point to another such that the time ta
ken is at a stationary value
(maximum or minimum). If c is the velocity of light in a vacuum, the velocity in
a medium of refractive
index n is
c
n , hence time taken to travel a distance l is
nl
c . If the light passes through a number of
media, the total time taken is
1 nl
c
. . . ..
. . and
1 n dl
c . . If refractive index varies continuously. Now, .nl
is the total optical path, so that Fermat s principle states that the path of a ra
y is such that the optical
path in at a stationary value. This principle is obviously in agreement with the
fact that the ray are
straight lines in a homogenous isotropic medium. It is found that it also agrees
with the classical laws of
reflection and refraction.
16. If refractive index of a slab varies as . .1. x2 where x is measured from on
e end, then optical path
length of a slab of thickness 1 m is:
(A)
4
3
m (B)
3
4
m (C) 1 m (D) None
17. The optical path length followed by ray from point A to B given that laws of
reflection are obeyed as
shown in figure is:
A B
P
(A) Maximum (B) Minimum (C) Constant (D) None
reflection are obeyed as
shown in figure is
A B
OPTICS OPTICS
refraction are obeyed as
shown in figure is
A
B
refraction are obeyed as
shown in figure is
A and B are focii
of ellipse
A B
One hard and stormy night you find yourself lost in the forest when you come upo
n a small hut.
Entering it you see a crooked old woman in the corner hunched over a crystal bal
l. You are about to
make a hasty exit when you hear the howl of wolves outside. Taking another look
at the gypsy you
decide to take your chances with the wolves, but the door is jammed shut. Resign
ed to bad situation
your approach her slowly, wondering just what is the focal length of that nifty
crystal ball.
21. If the crystal ball is 20 cm in diameter with R.I. = 1.5, the gypsy lady is
1.2 m from the central of ball,
where is the image of the gypsy in focus as you walk towards her?
(A) 6.9 cm from the crystal ball (B) 7.9 cm from the crystal ball
(C) 8.9 cm from the crystal ball (D) None
22. The image of old lady is:
(A) real, inverted an enlarged (B) erect, virtual and small
(C) erect, virtual and magnified (D) real, inverted and diminished
23. The old lady moves the crystal ball closer to her wrinkled old face. At some
point you can no longer get
an image of her. At what object distance will there be no change of the gypsy fo
rmed?
(A) 10 cm (B) 5 cm (C) 15 cm (D) None
The table below contains some physical properties of common optical materials. T
he refractive index
of a material is a measure of the amount by which light is bent upon entering th
e material. The
transmittance range is the range of wavelengths over which the material is trans
parent.
OPTICS
Physical Properties of Optical Materials
Material Refractive
index for light
of 0.589 .m
Transmittance
range (.m)
Useful range
for prisms
(.m)
Chemical
resistance
Lithium
fluoride
1.39 0.12-6 2.7-5.5 Poor
Calcium
fluoride
1.43 0.12-12 5-9.4 Good
Sodium
chloride
1.54 0.3-17 8 16 Poor
Quartz 1.54 0.20-3.3 0.20-2.7 Excellent
Potassium
bromide
1.56 0.3-29 15 28 Poor
Flint glass* 1.66 0.35 2.2 0.35-2 Excellent
Cesium iodide 1.79 0.3 7.0 15-55 Poor
*Flint glass is lead oxide doped quartz.
24. According to the table, which material(s) will transmit light at 25 .m
(A) Potassium bromide only (B) Potassium bromide and cesium iodide
(C) Lithium fluoride and cesium iodide (D) Lithium fluoride and flint glass
25. A scientist hypothesizes that any material with poor chemical resistance wou
ld have a transmittance
range wider than 10.m. The properties of which of the following materials contra
dicts this hypothesis
(A) Lithium fluoride (B) Flint glass
(C) Cesium iodide (D) Quartz
26. When light travels from one medium to another, total internal reflection can
occur if the first medium
has a higher refractive index than the second. Total internal reflection could o
ccur if light were travelling
from
(A) Lithium fluoride of flint glass
(B) potassium bromide to cesium iodide
(C) quartz to potassium bromide
(D) flint glass to calcium fluoride
27. Based on the information in the table, how is the transmittance range relate
d to the useful prism
range
(A) The transmittance range is always narrower than the useful prism range
(B) The transmittance range is narrower than or equal tot he useful prism range
(C) The tranmittance range increases as the useful prism range decreases
(D) The tranmittance range is wider than and includes within it the useful prism
range
28. The addition of lead oxide to pure quartz has the effect of
(A) decreasing the transmittance range and the refractive index
(B) decreasing the transmittance range and increasing the refractive index
(C) increasing the transmittance range and the useful prism range
(D) increasing the transmittance range and decreasing the useful prism range.
A periscope viewing system is to be used to observe the behavior of primates in
a large environmentally
controlled room on the upper floor of a large research facility. The periscope,
like those used on
OPTICS OPTICS
submarines, is essentially a large, folded-path, low power telescope (using pris
ms to fold the light path).
A sketch of the preliminary design appears below. Like all Newtonian telescopes,
it uses a relatively long
focal length objective lens to form a real image in front of the eyepiece lens (
of shorter focal length). The
observer looks through the eyepiece lens to see the final image, in the same man
ner that one would use
a magnifying glass.
The distance between the lenses is approximately equal to the sum of their focal
lengths. The eyepiece,
(A) The focal length of the eyepiece lens is too short.
in this design, can be moved forward or back in order to focus on the primates a
s they move closer to
or further away from the objective lens.
29. The total tube length of the three sections is to be 4 m. The objective lens
available has a focal length
of 3 m. What should the focal length of the eyepiece lens be?
(A) 0.75 m (B) 1 m (C) 1.33 m (D) 7 m
30. A visitor seeing the sketch points out an important flaw that will require a
design change. what is the
flaw?
(B) The images of the primates will be inverted
(C) The objective lens should be a diverging lens.
(D) The prisms cannot be used in this way.
31. A visitor seeing the sketch points out an important flaw that will require a
design change. What is the
flaw?
(A) The focal length of the eyepiece lens is too short.
(B) The images of the primates will be inverted
(C) The objective lens should be a diverging lens.
(D) The prisms cannot be used in this way.
32. What will be the approximate magnification of this periscope?
(A) 0.67x (B) 1x (C) 3x (D) 300x
33. The prisms (45 45 90 prisms) turn the light path through 90 by total internal refle
ction from the
inside hypotenuse faces of the prisms when the incident angle is 45 as in the ske
tch.
(C)
Can one use crown glass with an index of refraction of 1.52 for the prism?
(A) yes, because the critical angle for crown glass is 47
(B) yes, because the critical angle for crown glass is 41.
No, because the critical angle for crown glass is exactly 47
(D) No, because the critical angle for crown glass is exactly 41.
34.
Describe the properties of the image that one sees with this preliminary design
(A) real, inverted, magnified
(B) real, upright, magnified
(C) virtual, upright, same size as object.
(D) virtual, inverted, magnified
35.
The telescope is focused on a primate rather far away on the farside of the larg
e habitat. As the
primate moves rather closer to the telescope, what must the observer do to see t
he primate clearly?
(A) No change, the image remains clear.

(B) Move the eyepiece away from the objective.
(C) Move the eyepiece closer to the objective.
(D) Use an inverting eyepiece because the image flips.
OPTICS
In the normal human eye, light from an object is refracted by the cornea-lens sy
stem at the front of the
eye and produces a real image on the retina at the rear of the eye. For a given
eye, its lens-to-retina
distance is fixed at about 2.5 cm. Most of the focusing of an image is done by t
he cornea, which has a
fixed curvature that is convex with respect to incoming light. The importance of
the lens is that its
radius of curvature ccan be changed, allowing the lens to fine-tune the focus.
The lens is surrounded by the ciliary muscle. Contraction of the muscle decrease
s tension on the
lens. This allows the natural elasticity of the lens to produce an increase in t
he radius of curvature.
when the muscle relaxes, the lens flattens out, decreasing tis radius of curvatu
re. Unfortunately, the
lens losses elasticity with age and the ability to alter curvature decreases.
The range over which clear vision is possible is bounded by the far point and th
e near point. In normal
vision the far point is infinity and the near point depends on the radius of cur
vature of the lens. For
normal eyes the average near point for reading is 25 cm.
AGE, years NEAR POINT, cm
10 7
20 10
30 14
40 22
50 40
60 200
In the myopic (nearsighted) eye, the lens-to-retina length is too long and/or th
e radius of curvature of
the cornea is too great. This causes rays from an object at infinity to focus at
a point in front of the
retina. The far point is closer than normal .A corrective lens will put a virtua
l image of a distant object
at the position of the actual far point of the eye.
In the hyperopic (farsighted) eye, the lens-to-retina length is too short and/or
the radius of curvature
of the cornea is not great enough. This causes rays from an object at infinity t
o focus at a point behind
the retina. The near point is farther away than normal. A corrective lens will p
ut a virtual image of the
close object at the position of the actual near point.
The relation among the object (o) and image (i) distances from the eye and the f
ocal length (f) of the
lens is given by the lens-distance rule : 1 o .1 i .1 f .
When using this equation, all distances are given in centimeters.
The power of corrective lenses is usually given in units called diopters. Power,
in diopters, is the
reciprocal of the focal length in meters : 1 diopter meter P . f .
By convection
I.Converging lenses have positive focal lengths, and diverging lenses have negat
ive focal lengths.
II. Real images have positive distances from the lens, and virtual images have n
egative distances from
the lens.
36. The lens system of the myopic eye is best described as
(A) producing too much convergence.

(B) producing too little convergence.
(C) producing too much divergence.
(D) producing too little divergence.
37. An optometrist examined John s eyes. The farthest object he can clearly focus
on with his right eye is
50 cm away. What is the power of the contact lens required to correct the vision
in his right eye
(A) 0.50 diopters
(B) 2.0 diopters
(C) +2.0 diopters
(D) +5.0 diopters
OPTICS OPTICS
38.
In a mildly hyperopic eye, the focal length of the eye s natural lens can be corre
cted by
(A) contracting the muscle and increasing the radius of curvature.
(B) contracting the ciliary muscle and decreasing the radius of curvature
(C) relaxing the ciliary muscle and increasing the radius of curvature.
(D) relaxing the ciliary muscles and decreasing the radius of curvature.
39.
Jane must wear a contact lens with a power of +3.00 diopters in one eye to be ab
le to clearly focus on
an object 2.5 cm in front of the eye. Based on the vision in this eye, which of
the following is the most
likely age range for Jane
(A) Less than 40 years old
(B) From 40 to 49 years old
(C) From 50 to 59 years old
(D) 60 years or older
(B) RK corrects myopia by increasing the focal length of the eye.
(C) RK corrects hyperopia by decreasing the focal length of the eye.
40. George wears eyeglasses that sit 2.0 cm in front of his eyes. His incorrect
far point is 50 cm. What is
the focal lengths of his eyeglasses
(A) 50 cm (B) +50 cm (C) 48 cm (D) +48 cm
41. In a surgical procedure called radial keratotomy, (RK), a laser is used to f
latten the cornea by placing
as series of hairline cuts around the perimeter of the cornea. Which statement i
s most accurate
(A) RK corrects myopia by decreasing the focal length of the eye.
(D) RK corrects hyperopia by increasing the focal length of the eye.
Student are given a variety of lenses and optics equipment, such as lens holders
, lighted object
sources. Optical benches, meter sticks and tapes, image screens, and several exa
mples of commercial
optical equipment, such as microscopes and telescopes. They are to work in an op
en-ended optics lab
in order to learn the general principles of lenses and the optical devices that
can be constructed using
lenses.
42. A student is given a short focal length converging lens and long focal lengt
h converging lens. One lens
is placed in a holder. A lighted object is placed 18 cm in front of the lens and
it is found that a clear
image can be focused on a screen placed 36 cm behind the lens. what is the focal
length of this lens?
(A) 8 cm (B) 12 cm (C) 27 cm (D) 46 cm
43. What magnification is produced by the above lens when the object is 18 cm in
front of the lens and the
image is 36 cm behind the lens?
(B) 3x (C) 4x (D) 6x
44.
(A) 2x
is the image and which kind of image is it?
A lighted object is placed 6 cm in front of the second lens, which has a focal l
ength of +24 cm. Where
(A) 8 cm in front of the lens: a virtual image. (B) 8 cm behind the lens: a real
image
(C) 16 cm in front of the lens: a real image (D) 16 cm behind the lens; a virtua
l image.
45.
The 24 cm focal length lens is used as the objective of a simple refracting tele
scope and a third
converging lens of focal length +8 cm is used as the eyepiece. What is the magni
fication of this simple
refractor?
(A) 0.6x (B) 3x (C) 4x (D) 6x
46.
A commercial microscope is examined by the student. The objective is marked 20x
and the eyepiece
is marked 10x. what power objective should replace the above objective so that t
he microscope s
magnification will be 400x
(A) 5x (B) 10x (C) 40x (D) 100x
OPTICS
47. A lighted object is placed 24 cm in front of a +12 cm focal lengths lens. Th
e image formed by this lens
is the object for a second lens of +24 cm focal length. The second lens is place
d 72 cm behind the first
lens. where is the final image with respect to the second lens?
(A) 24 cm in front of # 2 (B) 24 cm behind # 2
(C) 36 cm in front of # 2 (D) 48 cm behind # 2
48. A lens of focal length +24 cm is used to view an object placed 12 cm in fron
t of the lens. The object is
5 cm tall. How tall is the image?
(A) 2.5 cm (B) 3.3 cm (C) 7.5 cm (D) 10 cm
49. A diverging lens of focal length 24 cm is now used with the object 12 cm in f
ront of the lens. How tall
is the image if the object is 5 cm tall?
(A) 2.5 cm (B) 3.3 cm (C) 8 cm (D) 10 cm
50. A near sighted student cannot see objects clearly unless they are as close a
s 80 cm (his far-point ).
The image that he sees through his new contact lens is a virtual image because h
e looks through the
lens to see the image. what focal length lenses does he need in order to see ver
y distance objects,
such as the starts?
(A) 20 cm (B) 30 cm (C) 4 cm (D)
25 cm
The phenomenon of refraction has long intrigued scientists and was actually used
to corroborate
one of the major mysteries of early science: the determination of the speed of l
ight.
The refractive index of a transparent material irrelated to a number of the phys
ical properties of light.
In terms of velocity, the refractive index represents the ratio of the velocity
of light in a vacuum to its
velocity in the material. From this ratio, it can be seen that light is retarded
when it passes through
most types of matter. It is worth noting that prisms break up white light into t
he seven colors of the
rainbow because each color has a slightly different velocity in the medium.
Snell s law allows one to follow the behavior of light in terms of its path when m
oving from a material
of one refractive index to another with the same, or different refractive index.
It is given by:
n1 sin.1 . n2 sin.2 , where I refers to the first medium through which the ray pas
ses, 2 refers to the
second medium, and the angles refer to the angle of incidence in the first mediu
m . . 1 .
and the angle
of refraction in the second . . 2 . .
A ship went out on a search for a sunken treasure chest. In order to locate the
chest, they shone a
beam of light down into the water using a high intensity white light source as s
hown in Figure. The
refractive index for sea water is 1.33 while that for air is 1.00.
51. From the information in the passage, how would you expect the speed of light
in air to compare with
the speed of light in a vacuum (which is given by c )?
(A) It would be the same (=c) (B) It would be greater than c.
(C) It would be less than c. (D) This cannot be determined from the information
given.
OPTICS
52. Using the information in the passage, what must the approximate value of 2 .
be such that it hit the
chest as shown in Figure?
(A) 15.2 (B) 30.4 (C) 45.6 (D) 63.4
53. How does the refractive index in water light compare with that of red light
given that violet light travels
more slowly in water than red light?
(A) nviolet . nred (B) violet red n . n
(C) violet red n . n (D) This depends on the relative speeds of the different co
lors in a vacuum.
54. Total internal reflection first occurs when a beam of light travels from one
medium to another medium
which has a smaller refractive index at such an angle of incidence that the angl
e of refraction is 90.
This angle of incidence is called the critical angle. What is the value of the s
ine of this angle when the
ray moves from water towards air?
(A) 2 (B) 0.75 (C) 0.50 (D) 0
55. What would happen to the critical angle, in the previous question, if the be
am of light was travelling
from water to a substance with a greater refractive index than air, but a lower
refractive index than
water?
(A) It would increase (B) It would decrease
(C) It would remain the same (D) Total internal reflection would not be possible
.
56. Which of the following would you expect to remain constant when light travel
s from one medium to
another and the media differ in their refractive indices?
(A) Velocity (B) Frequency (C) Wavelength (D) Intensity.
The invention of the compound microscope by Jansen in the late 1500 s truly revolu
tionized the world
of science, particularly the field of cellular and molecular biology. The discov
ery of the cell as the
fundamental unit of living organisms and the insight into the bacterial world ar
e two of the contributions
of this instrument to science.
It is unseemly that such a relatively simplistic apparantus took generations to
be developed. Its main
component are two convex lenses: one acts as the main magnifying lens and is ref
erred to as the
objective, and another lens called the eyepiece. The two lenses act independentl
y of each other when
bending light rays. The actual lens set-up depicted in Figure.
Light from the object (O) first passes thought he objective and an enlarged, inv
erted first image is
formed. The eyepiece then magnifies this image. Usually the magnification of the
eyepiece is fixed
(either x 10 or x 10) and three rotating objective lenses are used : x 10, x 40
and x 60. The most recent
development in microscope technology is the electron microscope which uses a bea
m of electrons
instead of light. Photographic film must be used otherwise no image would be for
med on the retina.
This microscope has a resolution about a hundred times that of the light microsc
ope.
57. Based on the passage, what type of image would have to be produced by the ob
jective magnification?
(A) Either virtual or real (B) Virtual
(C) Real (D) It depends on the focal length of the lens.
OPTICS
58. Where would the first image have to be produced by the objective relative to
the eyepiece such that a
second, enlarged image would be generated on the same side of the eyepiece as th
e first image (first
image distance = d1)?
(A) di . Fe (B) i e d . F (C) 2 e i e . F . d . F (D) 2 i e d . . F
59. Two compound microscopes A and B were compared. Both had objectives and eyep
ieces with the
same magnification but A gave an overall magnification that was greater than tha
t of B. Which of the
following is a plausible explanation?
(A) The distance between objective and eyepiece in A is greater than the corresp
onding distance in B.
(B) The distance between objective and eyepiece in A is less than the correspond
ing distance is B.
(C) The eyepiece and objective positions were reversed in A.
(D) The eyepiece and objective positions were reversed in B.
60. A student attempted to make a compound microscope. However, when she tried t
o view an object
through the apparatus, no image was seen. Which of the following could explain t
he mishap?
I. The object distance = focal length of objective.
II. The object distance for eyepiece lens as her eyepiece.
III. The student used a diverging lens as her eyepiece.
IV. The student used a converging lens as her objective
(A) I, II, III and IV (B) I, II, III
(C) I, II, IV (D) II, III, IV
61. The magnification of the eyepiece of a compound microscope is x15. The image
height is 25 mm and
the magnification of the objective is x40. What is the object height?
(A) 1.67 mm (B) 0.60 mm (C) 0.38 mm (D) 0.04 mm
62. What is the refractive power of an objective lens with a focal length of 0.5
0 cm?
(A) 0.2 diopters (B) 2.0 diopters (C) 20 diopters (D) 200
Magnification by a lens of an object at distance 10 cm from it is 2. Now a second
lens is placed
exactly at the same position where first was kept, without changing the distance
object and lens. The
magnification by this second lens is 3.
63. Now both the lenses are kept in contact at the same place. What will be the
new magnification.
(A)
13
5
. (B)
12
7
. (C)
6
11
. (D)
5
7
.
64. What is the focal length of the combination when both lenses are in contact.
(A)
60
17
cm (B)
5
17
cm (C)
12
7
cm (D)
13
9
cm
In the case of convex lens, when object is moved from f to 2f, its image is real
, inverted and magnified.
It moves from f to infinity on other side.
65. Focal length of a convex lens is 10 cm. When the object is moved from 15 cm
to 25 cm, the magnitude
of linear magnifications.
(A) will increase (B) will decrease
(C) will first increase then decrease (D) will first decrease than increase.
OPTICS
66. Image of object AB shown in figure will be like:
2F A F
B
(A) F 2F
A'
B'
(B) F 2F
A'
B'
(C) F 2F
A'
B'
(D) F 2F
A'
B'
Figure shows a simplified model of the eye that is based on the assumption that
all of the refraction
of entering light occurs at the cornea. The cornea is a converging lens located
at the outer surface of
the eye with fixed focal length approximately equal to 2 cm. Parallel light rays
coming from a very
distant object are refracted by the cornea to produce a focused image on the ret
ina. The retina then
transmits electrical impulse along the optic nerve to the brain.
cornea
retina
Two common defects of vision are myopia and hyperopia. Myopia, sometimes referre
d to as
nearsightedness, occurs when the cornea focuses the image of a distance object i
n front of the retina.
Hyperopia, sometimes referred to as farsightedness, occurs when the cornea focus
es the image of a
nearby object behind the retina. Both of these problems can be corrected by intr
oducing another lens
in front of the eye so that the two lens system produces a focused image on the
retina. If an object is
so far away from the lens system that its distance may be taken as infinite, the
n the following relationship
holds:
1 1 1
c l f f x v
. .
. , where c f is the focal length of the cornea, l f , is the focal length of th
e correcting
lens, x is the distance from the correcting lens to the cornea, and v is the ima
ge distance measured
from the cornea. (Note : The index of refraction is 1.0 for air and 1.5 for glas
s).
67. How far away should the retina be from the cornea for normal vision?
(A) 0.5 cm (B) 1.0 cm (C) 2.0 cm (D) 4.0 cm
68. For a distant object, the image produced by the cornea is:
(A) real and inverted (B) real and upright
(C) virtual and inverted (D) virtual and upright.
69. What kind of lens would be suitable to correct myopia and hyperopia respecti
vely? (Note : Assume that
the correcting lens is at the focal point of the cornea so that c x . f .)
(A) Converging, converging (B) Converging, diverging

(C) Diverging, diverging (D) Diverging, converging
70. The focal length of a woman s cornea is 1.8 cm, and she wears a correcting len
s with a focal length of
.16.5 cm at a distance x = 1.5 cm from her cornea. What is the image distance v
measured from the
cornea for a distant object?
(A) 1.0 cm (B) 1.5 cm (C) 2.0 cm (D) 2.5 cm
OPTICS
71. In the case of contact lens, the cornea and the correcting lens are actually
touching and act together
as a single lens. If the focal length of both the cornea and the contact lens ar
e doubled, then the image
distance v for a distant object would:
(A) be 1/4 the old value (B) be 1/2 the old value.
(C) be the same as the old value (D) be twice the old value.
Level # 2
1. In what direction should a beam of light be sent from point A (Figure) contai
ned in
a mirror box for it to fall onto point B after being reflected once from all fou
r walls?
A
B
Point A and B are in one plane perpendicular to the walls of the box (i.e., in t
he
plane of the drawing).
2. A concave mirror has the form of a hemisphere with a radius R = 55 cm. A thin
layer of an unknown
transparent liquid is poured into this mirror, and it was found that the given o
ptical system produces, with
the source in a certain position two real image, one of which (formed by direct
reflection) coincide with
source and the other is at a distance of . = 30 cm from it. Find the refractive
index . of the liquid.
3. A point source of light S is placed on the major optical axis of concave mirr
or at a distance of 60 cm. At
what distance from the concave mirror should a flat mirror be placed for the ray
s to converge again at
the point S having been reflected from the concave mirror and then from the flat
one?Will the position of
the point where the rays meet change if they are first reflected from the flat m
irror? The radius of the
concave mirror is 80 cm.
4. A pile 4 m high driven into the bottom of a lake is 1 m above the water.
Determine the length of the shadow of the pile on the bottom of the lake if the
sun rays make an angle of
45 with the water surface. The refractive index of water is 4/3.
5. In figure, a fish water watches a fish through a 3.0 cm thick glass wall of a
fish tank. The watcher is in
level with the fish; the index of refraction of the glass is 8/5 and that of the
water is 4/3.
Observer
8.0 cm
Wall Water
3.0 cm 6.8 cm
(a) To the fish, how far away does the watcher appear to be?
(B) To the watcher, how far away does the fish appear to be?
6. A hollow sphere of glass of refractive index . has a small mark on its interi
or surface which is observed
from a point outside the sphere on the side opposite the center. The inner cavit
y is concentric with
external surface and the thickness of the glass is every where equal where equal
to the radius of the
inner surface. Prove that the mark will appear nearer than it really is, by a di
stance
. .
.3 1.
1 R
. .
. .
, where R is
the radius of the inner surface.
OPTICS
7. A long rectangular slab of transparent medium of thickness d
is placed on a table with length parallel to the x-axis and width
parallel to the y-axis.
A ray of light is travelling along y-axis at origin. the refractive
index . of the medium varies as 1 .x r.
0
.
.
. . , where .0 and
A
Y
O X
medium
d
r (> 1) are constants. The refractive index of air is 1.
(a) Determine the x-coordinate of the point A, where the ray
intersects the upper surface of the slab-air boundary.
(B) Write down the refractive index of the medium at A.
(C) Indicate the subsequent path of the ray in air.
8. A man of height 2.0 m is standing on level road where because of temperature
variation the refractive
index of air is varying as . . 1. ay , where y is height from road. If a = 2.0 x
10 6 m 1. Then find distant
point that he can see on the road.
9. A portion of straight glass rod of diameter 4 cm and refractive index 1.5 is
bent into an arc of circle of radius R. A parallel beam of light is incident on
R
it as shown in the figure. Find the smallest value of R which permits all the
light to pass around the arc.
10. A glass sphere has a radius of 5.0 cm and a refractive index of
1.6. A paperweight is constructed by slicing through the sphere
on a plane that is 2.0 cm from the centre of the sphere and
perpendicular to a radius of the sphere that passes through the 8.0 cm
3.0 cm
5.0 cm
Observer
center of the circle formed by the intersection of the plane and
the sphere. The paperweight is placed on a table and viewed
directly above by an observer who is 8.0 cm from the table
top as shown in figure. when viewed through the paperweight,
how far away does the tabletop appear to the observer?
11. A ray of light is incident on a composite slab at a angle of
incidence i as shown in the figure. Find the lateral shift x
of the ray when it comes out from the otherside.
12. A prism of apex angle A is made up of a material of refractive
index .. The refractive indices of the mediums on the left and
right sides are .
1 and .
2 respectively. A ray of light is incident
A
.1
.2
.
i
from the side of medium of refractive index .
1 at an angle i and
comes out from the other side as shown in the figure. Find the
angle of deviation.
OPTICS
13. A hemisphere of radius a/2 and made up of a material of variable refractive
index is placed with its base centre O at the origin as shown in the figure.
The refractive index of the material of the hemisphere varies as a x
a
.
. . .
A ray of light is incident at the point O at an angle . with the normal in
the xy plane and comes out through a point P on its curved surface.
Find the coordinate of the point P if . . 0 .
14. A ray of light is incident on the sphere of radius R and refractive index .
as
shown in the figure. The incident ray is parallel to a horizontal diameter and b
R
u
the distance between the incident ray and the horizontal diameter is b. Find
the angle of deviation . suffered by the ray.
15. An intense beam parallel to the principal axis is incident on
a convex lens. Multiple extra images F1, F2, ...... are formed
due to feeble internal reflections, called flare spots as shown
in the figure. The radius of curvature of the lens is 30 cm and
Principal
axis F1 F2 F0
60 cm and the refractive index is 1.5.
Find the position of the first flare spot.
16. The image of the object shown in the figure is formed at the bottom of the t
ray filled with water. From the
details given in the figure, calculate the value of h.
O
36 cm 1 m
h
85 cm
./4
. = 30 cm
17. In the given figure there are two thin lenses of same focal
length . arranged with their principal axes inclined at an
angle .. The separation between the optical centers of the
lenses is 2 . . A point object lies on the principal axis of the O X
Y
.
2.
convex lens at a large distance to the left of convex lens.
(a) Find the coordinates of the final image formed by the
system of lenses taking O as the origin of coordinate axes, and
(B) Draw the ray diagram.
OPTICS
18. (a) A prism has refracting angle equal to . /2. It is given that . is the an
gle of minimum deviation and
. is the deviation of the ray entering at grazing incidence. Prove that sin . =
sin2 . and cos . = .cos .
(b) A ray of light passes through a prism in a principal plane the deviation bei
ng equal to angle of
incidence which is equal to 2.. It is given that . is the angle of prism. Show t
hat 8 . 1.
cos 12
2
. .
. .
where . is the refractive index of the material of prism.
19. A thin flat glass plate is placed in front of a convex mirror.
At what distance b from the plate should a point source of
light S be placed so that its image produced by the rays
reflected from the front surface of the plate coincides with
the image formed by the rays reflected from the mirror?
a b
S
The focal length of the mirror is . = 20 cm and the
distance from the plate to the mirror a = 5 cm. How can
the coincidence of the images be established by direct
observation?
20. A concave mirror forms the real image of a point source lying on the
optical axis at a distance of 50 cm from the mirror. The focal length
of the mirror is 25 cm. The mirror is cut in two and its halves are drawn 1 cm
a distance of 1 cm apart in a direction perpendicular to the optical axis.
How will the images formed by the halves of the mirror be arranged?
21. A glass hemisphere of radius 10 cm and . = 1.5 is silvered over tis curved s
urface. There is an air
bubble in the glass 5 cms from the plane surface along the axis. Find the positi
on of the images of this
bubble seen by observer looking along the axis into the flat surface of the hemi
sphere.
22. The height of a candle flame is 5 cm. A lens produces an image of this flame
15 cm high on a screen.
Without touching the lens, the candle is moved over a distance of . = 1.5 cm awa
y from the lens, and a
sharp image of the flame 10 cm high is obtained again after shifting the screen.
Determine the main
focal length of the lens.
23. A thin converging lens of focal length . is moved between a candle and a scr
een. The distance between
the candle and the screen is d (> 4 . ). Show that for two different positions o
f the lens, two different
images can be obtained on the screen. If the ratio of dimensions of the image is
. , find the value of ( .
+ 1/ . ).
24. Three convergent thin lenses of focal lengths 4a, a and 4a respectively are
placed in order along the
axis so that the distance between consecutive lenses is 4a. Prove that this comb
ination simply inverts
every small object on the axis without change of magnitude or position.
25. A converging bundle of light rays in the shape in the shape of a cone with t
he vertex angle of 40 falls on
a circular diaphragm of 20 cm diameter. A lens with a focal power of 5 diopters
is fixed in the diaphragm.

What will the new cone angle be?
26. A ray of light is incident on the spherical surface of radius of curvature R
as shown in the figure. Therefractive index on the right side of spherical
surface is .. The medium ont he left side of the spherical surface is air.
The distance of the incident ray from the axis of the spherical surface is
b. After refraction the ray intersects the axis at a point. F. Find the
distance . of the point F from the pole O.
OPTICS
27. Consider an arrangement of two equibi convex lenses of focal length
in air 10 cm. The refractive index of the glass of which the lenses are
between the made is .
g = 3/2 and the refractive index of water filling
10 cm 10 cm
O AIR AIR
.g .g
the space two lenses is .
w = 4/3. A small object O is placed on the axis
at a distance of 10 cm from the first lens in air as shown in the figure. The
distance of separation between the two lenses is 10 cm. Find the
position and magnification of the final image.
28. A thin convex lens of focal length 1m is cut into three parts A, B and
C along the diameter. The thickness of the middle layer C is 1 cm. The
middle layer is now removed and the two parts A nad B are put together
to form a composite lens. Then the part C is also placed infront of this
A
A
B
B
C
C
1 cm
composite lens symmetrically as shown in the figure. A paraxial beam
of light is incident along tyhe axis of the part C. Find the distance
between the two images formed.
29. An equi biconvex lens of focal length 10 cm in AIR and made up
of material of refractive index 3/2 is polished on one side. Another
identical lens (not polished) is placed infront of the polished lens
at a distance of 10 cm as shown in the figure. The space between
10 cm 10 cm
the two lenses is filled with a liquid of refractive index 4/3. An object
O is placed infront of the unpolished lens at a distance of 10 cm.
Find the final position of the image.
30. Consider an equilateral prism ABC as shown in the figure. A ray
of light is incident on the face AB and gets transmitted into the
prism. Then total internal reflection takes place at the face BC
and the ray comes out of prism through the face AC. The total
A
B
C
60
60 60
angle of deviation is 120. Find the refractive index . of the
material of the prism.
Level # 3
1. An object is placed 21 cm in front of a concave mirror of radius of curvature
10 cm. A glass slab of
thickness 3 cm and refractive index 1.5 is then placed close to the mirror in th
e space between the
object and the mirror.
Find the position of the final image formed.
(You may take the distance of the near surface of the slab from the mirror to be
1 cm). [IIT 1980]
2. The x-y plane is the boundary between two transparent media. Medium 1 with z .
0 has refractive
index 2 and medium 2 with z . 0. 0, has a refractive index 3 . A ray of light in
medium 1 given by
the vector k
10 j
3 8 i A . 6 3 . .
.
is incident on the plane of separation. Find the unit vector in the direction
of the refracted ray in medium
2. [IIT 1999]
3. An object is placed in front of a convex mirror at a distance of 50 cm. A pla
ne mirror is introduced
covering lower half of the convex mirror. If the distance between the object and
the plane mirror is 30
cm, it is found that there is no parallux between the images formed by two mirro
rs. What is the radius of
curvature of the convex mirror? [IIT 1973]
OPTICS
4. A rectangular block of glass is placed on a printed page lying on a horizonta
l surface. Find the value of
the refractive index of glass for which the letters on the page are not visible
from any of the vertical faces
of the block. [IIT 1979]
5. A glass lens has focal length 5 cm in air. What will be its focal length in w
ater. (Refractive index of glass
is 1.51 and that of water is 1.33). [IIT 1977]
6. A ray of light is travelling form diamond to glass. Calculate the minimum ang
le of incidence of the ray as
the diamond glass interface such that no light is refracted into glass. What wil
l happen if the angle of
incidence exceeds the angle? (refractive index of glass is 1.51 and that of diam
ond is 2.47)[IIT 1977]
7. What is the velocity of light in glass of refractive index 1.5? (Velocity of
light in air = 3 x 1010 cm/sec.)
[IIT 1976]
8. Photographs of the ground are taken from an aircraft flying at an altitude of
2000 meters by a camera
with a lens of focal length 50 cm. the size of the film in the camera is 18 cm x
18 cm. What area of the
ground can be photographed by this camera at any one time? [IIT 1976]
9. A rectangular glass block of thickens 10 cm and refractive index 1.5 is place
d over a small coin. A
beaker filled with water of refractive index 3
4
to a height of 10 cm and is placed over the glass block.
(a) Find the apparent position of the object when it is viewed at near normal in
cidence.
(b) Draw a neat ray diagram.
(c) If the eye is slowly moved away from the normal at a certain position the ob
ject is found to disappear
due to total internal reflection. At which surface does this happen and why? [II
T 1975]
10. A ray of light travelling in air is incident at grazing angle
(incident angle = 90) on a long rectangular slab of a
transparent medium of thickness t = 1.0 m (see figure).
The point of incidence is the origin A (0, 0). The medium
has a variable index of refraction n (y) given by
n(y) = [Ky3/2 + 1]
where K = 1.0 (meter) 3/2
The refractive index of air is 1.0.
(a) Obtain a relation between the slope of the trajectory of
the ray at a point B (x, y) in the medium and the incident
angle at that point.
(b) Obtain an equation for the trajectory y (x) of the ray
in the medium.
(c) Determine the coordinates (x1, y1) of the point P, where the ray intersects
the upper surface of the
slab-air boundary.
(d) Indicate the path of the ray subsequently. [IIT 1995]
11. A quarter cylinder of radius R and refractive index 1.5 is
placed on a table. A point object P is kept at a distance
of mR from it. Find the value of m for which a ray from P
will emerge parallel to the table as shown in the figure.
[IIT 1999]
12. A light ray is incident on an irregular shaped slab of refractive index
2 at an angle of 45 with the normal on the incline face as shown

in the figure. the ray finally emerges from the curved surface in the
medium of the refractive index . = 1.514 and passes through point E.
If the radius of curved surface is equal to 0.4 m, find the distance OE
correct up to two decimal places. [IIT 2004]
OPTICS OPTICS
13.
A point object O is placed at a distance of 12 cm on the axis of a convex lens o
f focal length 10 cm. On the
other side of the lens, a convex mirror is placed at a distance of 10 cm from th
e lens such that the image
formed by the combination coincides with the object itself. What is the focal le
ngth of the convex mirror?
[IIT 1976]
14. An object of height 4 cm is kept to the left of and on
the axis of a converging lens of focal length 10 cm as
shown in figure. A plane mirror is placed inclined at 45
to the lens axis 10 cm to the right of the lens (see
figure). Find the position and size of the image
formed by the lens and mirror combination.
trace the rays forming the image. [IIT 1972]
15. An object is placed at 20 cm left of the convex lens of focal
length 10 cm. If a concave mirror of focal length 5 cm is placed
at 30 cm to the right of the lens find the magnification and the
nature of the final image. Draw the ray diagram and locate the
position of the final image. [IIT 1974]
16. An object is approaching at thin convex lens of focal length 0.3 m
with a speed of 0.01 m/s. Find the magnitudes of the rates of change
of position and lateral magnification of image when the object is at a
distance of 0.4 m from the lens. [IIT 2004]
17. A thin biconvex lens of refractive index
3
is placed on a horizontal
2
plane mirror as shown in the figure. The space between the lens
4
andthemirroristhenfilledwithwaterofrefractiveindex .
3
It is found that when a point object is placed 15 cm above the
lens on its principle axis, the object coincides with its own image.
On repeating with another liquid, the object and the image again coincide at a d
istance 25 cm from the
lens. Calculate the refractive index of the liquid. [IIT 2001]
18.
A convex lens of focal length 15 cm and a concave mirror of focal length
30 cm are kept with their optic axes PQ and RS parallel but separated
in vertical direction by 0.6 cm as shown. The distance between the lens
and mirror is 30 cm. An upright object AB of height 1.2 cm is placed
on the optic axis PQ of the lens at a distance of 20 cm from the lens.
If A B is the image after refraction from the lens and reflection from the
mirror, find the distance of A B from the pole of the mirror and obtain
its magnification. Also locate position of A and B with respect to the
optic axis RS. [IIT 2000]
OPTICS
19. A thin equiconvex lens of glass of refractive index
2
. . 3 and
of focal length 0.3 m in air is sealed into an opening at one
end of a tank filled with water ..
.
..
.. .
3
4
. On the opposite side
of the lens, a mirror is placed inside the tank on the tank wall
perpendicular to the lens axis, as shown in figure. The separation
between the lens and the mirror is 0.8 m. A small object is placed outside the t
ank in front of the lens at
a distance of 0.9 m from the lens along its axis. Find the position (relative to
the lens) of the image of the
object formed by the system. [IIT 1997, May]
20. A thin plano-convex lens of focal length . is split in to two halves:
one of the halves is shifted along the optical axis (see figure).
The separation between object and image planes is 1.8 m. The
magnification of the image formed by one of the half-lenses is 2.
Find the focal-length of the lens and separation between the two
halves. Draw the ray diagram for image formation. [IIT 1996]
21. A plano convex lens has a thickness of 4 cm. When placed on a horizontal tab
le with the curved surface
in contact with it, the apparent depth of the bottom most point of the lens is f
ound to be 3 cm. If the lens
is inverted such that the plane face is in contact with the table, the apparent
depth of the centre of the
plane face is found to be 25/8 cm. Find the focal length of the lens. [IIT 1984]
22. The convex surface of a thin concavo-convex lens of glass of
refractive index 1.5 has a radius of curvature 20 cm. The concave
surface has a radius of curvature 60 cm. The convex side is
silvered and placed on a horizontal surface.
(a) Where should a pin be placed on the optic axis such that
its image is formed at the same place?
(b) If the concave part is filled with water of refractive index
3
4
,
find the distance through which the pin should be moved so
that the image of the pin again coincide with the pin. [IIT 1981]
23. Find the focal length of the lens shown in the figure. The
radii of curvature of both the surfaces are equal to R.
[IIT 2003]
24. The refractive indices of the crown glass for blue and red lights are 1.51 a
nd 1.49 respectively and those
of the flint glass are 1.77 and 1.73 respectively. An isosceles prism of angle 6
is made of crown glass.
A beam of white light is incident at a small angle of this prism. The other flin
t glass isosceles prism is
combined with the crown glass prism such that there is no deviation of the incid
ent light. Determine the
angle of the flint glass prism. Calculate the net dispersion of the combined sys
tem. [IIT 2001]
25. A prism of refracting angle 30 is coated with a thin film of transparent mate
rial of
refractive index 2.2 on face AC of the prism. A light of wavelength 5500A.
is
incident on face AB such that angle of incidence is 60, find
(a) the angle of emergence,
[Given refractive index of the material of the prism is 3 ].
OPTICS
(b) the minimum value of thickness of the coated film on the face AC for which t
he light emerging
from the face has maximum intensity. [IIT 2003]
26. A right angle prism (45
90
45) of refractive index n has a plate of refractive
index n1 (n1 < n) cemented to its diagonal face. The assembly is in air. A ray i
s
incident on AB (see figure),
(a) Calculate the angle of incidence at AB for which the ray strikes the
diagonal face at the critical angle.
(b) Assuming n = 1.352, calculate the angle of incidence at AB for which
the refracted ray passes through the diagonal face undeviated.
[IIT 1996]
27. A right angled prism is to be made by selecting a proper material
and the angles A and B (B . A), as shown in figure. It is desired
that a ray of light incident on the face AB emerges parallel to the
incident direction after two internal reflections.
(a) What should be the minimum refractive index n for this
to be possible?
(b) For n = 3
5
is it possible to achieve this with the angle B
equal to 30 degrees ? [IIT 1987]
28. Monochromatic light is incident on a plane interface AB
between two media of refractive indices n1 and n2 (n2>n1)
at an angle of incidence . as shown in the figure. The
angle . is infinitesimally greater than the critical angle
for the two media so that total internal reflection takes place.
Now if a transparent slab DEFG of uniform thickness and of
refractive index n3 is introduced on the interface (as shown in
the figure), show that for any value of n3 all light will ultimately
be reflected back again into medium II. Consider separately the cases.
(i) n3 < n1 and (ii) n3 > n1. [IIT 1986]
29. A parallel beam of light travelling in water (refractive index = 3
4
) is refracted by a spherical air bubble of
radius 2 mm situated in water. Assuming the light rays to be paraxial,
(a) find the position of the image due to refraction at the first surface and th
e position of the final
image.
(b) draw a ray diagram showing the positions of both the images. [IIT 1988]
30. Light is incident at an angle . on one planar end of a transparent cylindric
al rod of refractive index n.
Determine the least value of n so that the light entering the rod does not emerg
e from the curved surface
of the rod irrespective of the value of .. [IIT 1992]
31. The radius of curvature of the convex face of a plano convex lens is 12 cm a
nd its refractive index is 1.5.
(i) Find the focal length of this lens.
(ii) The plane surface of the lens is now silvered. At what distance from the le
ns will parallel rays
incident on the convex face converge.
(iii) Sketch the ray diagram to locate the image, when a point object is placed
on the axis, 20 cm from
the lens (polished).
(iv) Calculate the image distance when the object is placed as in (iiii). [IIT 1
979]
32. A ray of light is incident at an angle of 60 on one face of prism which has a
n angle of 30 with the

incident ray. Show that the emergent ray is perpendicular to the face through wh
ich it emerges and
calculate the refractive index of the material of the prism. [IIT 1978]
OPTICS
33. A pin is placed 10 cm in front of a convex lens of focal length 20 cm., made
of a material of refractive index
1.5. The surface of the lens farther away from the pin is silvered and has a rad
ius of curvature are 22 cm.
Determine the position of the final image. Is the image real as virtual? [IIT 19
78]
34. The refractive index of the material of a prism of refracting angle 45 is 1.6
for a certain monochromatic
ray. What should be minimum angle of incidence of this ray on the prism so that
no total internal reflection
takes place as the ray comes out of the prism. [ I I T
1976]
35. A prism of refractive index n1 and another prism of refractive index n2
are stuck together without a gap as shown in the figure. The angles
of the prisms are as shown n1 and n2 depend on . , the wavelength
of light, according to
2
4
1
n 1.20 10.8 10
.
.
. . and 2
4
2
n 1 45 1 80 10
.
.
. . . .
where, . is in nm.
(a) Calculate the wavelength . 0 for which rays incident at any angle on the int
erface BC pass through
without bending at that interface.
(b) For light of wavelength . 0, find the angle of incidence i on the face AC su
ch that the deviation
produced by the combination of prisms is minimum. [IIT 1998]
36. A projector lens has a focal length 10 cm. It throws an image of a 2 cm x 1
cm slide on a screen 5 metre
from the lens. Find :
(a) the size of the picture on the screen and
(b) ratio of illuminations of the slide and of the picture on the screen. [IIT 1
975]
37. A ray of light incident normally on one of the faces of a right angled
isosceles prism is found to be totally reflected as shown in the figure.
What is the minimum value of the refractive index of the material of
the prism? When the prism is immersed in water, trace the path of
the emergent rays for the same incident ray, indicating the values
of all the angles. ..
.
..
.. . . 3
4
. [IIT 1973]
OPTICS OPTICS
Answer Key
Assertion & Reasion
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. A A A A B E C A C A
Que. 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. B D D B B D
Assertion & Reasion
Level # 1
Objective Type
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Ans. B C A A C C
Que. 11 12 13 14
Ans. D A B C A D
Que. 21 22 23 24
Ans. B B B A D C
Que. 31 32 33 34
Ans. C C C A D A
Que. 41 42 43 44
Ans. A D B D C C
Que. 51 52 53 54
Ans. B C A A B A
Que. 61 62 63 64
Ans. C BC CD D
7 8 9 10
B D D C
15 16 17
B CD C C
25 26 27
A A A B
35 36 37
A C D C
45 46 47
B B B C
55 56 57
BD D A C
18 19 20
28 29 30
38 39 40
48 49 50
58 59 60
Fill in the Blanks / True False / Match Table

1. 2 x 108 m/s, 0.4 x 10 6 m 2. d = +15 cm 3. 4000, 5 x 1014 Hz 4. 2
25
5. 60 cm 6. 7. 35 cm 8. 1.3
9
9. Zero 10. 5 x 1014 Hz, 4000 11. 0.125 m, 0.5 m 12 .
15
Que. 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. T F T T D A C B
OPTICS
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. D B B C D B D D B A A C C A A
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. A B A B C A D B B A D D B B B
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. C C B D B A B C C C B B A A B
Que. 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. C D D B C A B C B A B C A A B
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Ans. D D C A B C C A D C D
Passage Type
Level # 2.
2. 1.6 3. 90 cm., Yes. 4. 2.88 m 5. (a) 13.3 cm (b) 14.975 cm
7. (a) . .
.
.
. .
.
.
..
.
..
. . . . . . . .
2
2
0
20
A 1
r
x r 1 d (b) 2
1
2
20
20
0
A
1
r
d
..
.. .
..
.. .
...
..
. . . . . .
.
. .
(c) Ray will become parallel to y-axis.
8. 2 Km. 9. R . 12 cm . 10. 7.42 cm 11. sin i
sin i
t 1 cosi
sin i
x t 1 cos i
2 2 2 2 2
1
1
. . .
.
.
. . .
.
.
. . .
.
.
. . .
.
.
. .
. .
. . .
.
.
. . . .
.
. .
. .
12. ..
.. .
..
.. .
. .
.
.
.
.
. . i . A . sin. sin A sin2 i cosAsin i
2 1
1 1 13. ..
.
..
. 15
8
, a
8
a
14. . .
.
.
. .
.
.
. . . .
.
. . .
2
2 2
1 2
R
1 b
R
b
R
2sin b 15. The first spot is at 12 cm on left side from the optical
centre.
16. 20 cm 17. ..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
. .
. .
. . , 0
cos 1
2cos 1
19. b = 15 cm.
20. At a distance of 15 cm. from the mirror 2 cm. from each other.
21. First Image at a distance of 3.33 cm from flat surface and the second at inf
inity. 22. 9 cm
23. 2 2 d 2
. . ..
.
. ..
.
.
. 25. 8140 26.
. . . . .
.
.
. . . . .
.
.
. . . .
. . .
2
2
2
2
2
R
1 b
R
b
R 1 1
27. 25 cm from the second lens on the right side magnification m = 2. 28. 0.5 cm
29. 6 cm back side of unpolished lens. 30. 3
. . 7
OPTICS
Level # 3
1. 7.67 cm from the mirror. 2. 5 2
k
5 j
4 i
3 . .
3. 25 cm 4. 2
5. 18.84 cm 6. . = sin 1 0.6115 = 38 No ray is refracted into glass.
7. 2 x 1010 cm per second. 8. 720 m x 720 m
9. (a) 14.16 cm below the water surface. (b) No glass water interface.
10. (a) cot i
dx
Slop dy . (b)
4
2
4
x K y ..
.
..
. . (c) (4m, 1m) (d) Ray emerges parallel to the positive x-axis.
11. 3
m . 4 12. OE = 6.06 m 13. 25 cm.
14. At a perpendicular distance of 20 cms from the lens axis 8 cm is size orient
ed parallel to lens axis.
15. At the position of the object magnification = 1. 16. 0.09 m/s, 0.3 per second
. 17. 1.6
18. Distance of A B from pole of mirror a15 cm, magnification = 1.5.
Distance of A above RS is 0.3 cm, Distance of B below RS is 1.5 cm.
19. 0.9 m from the lens (0.1 m behind the mirror) 20. (a) . = 0.4 m, d = 0.6 m.
21. 75 cm
22. (a) 15 cm (b) 1.15 cm towards the lens 23.
3 1
3 R
. . .
.
24. 4, 0.04
25. (a) 0 (b) 1250 26. (a) ..
.
..
.
.. .
.. .
. . .
1
2
1
1 n2 n n
2
sin 1 (b) . . 73.
2
sin 1 1.352
27. (a) sin B
1
(b) No.
29. (a) Image due to first surface at a distance of 6 mm before the first surfac
e final image at a distance of
1mm before the first surface.
30. 2 31. (a) 24 cm (b) 12 cm (d) 80 cm. 32. . . 3 .
33. 17 cm infront of lens, Real. 34. sin.1.0.176. . 10.1. 35. (a) .0 . 600 nm (b
) i . sin.1
36. (a) 100 cm x 50 cm (b) 2401
picture
slide .
.
.
37. . . 2 , Angle of refraction in water r = sin.1 .
X X X X
ELECTROSTATICS
DHANALAKSHMI NAGAR
TIRUPATI.
PH NO. 9440025125
ELECTROSTATICS
ELECTROSTATICS
ELECTRIC CHARGE
Charge is the propertyassociatedwithmatter due towhichis produces and experience
s electrical andmagnetic
effects. The study of electrical effects of charge at rest is called electrostat
ics.
The strength ofparticle s electric interactionwithobjects around it depends on its
electric charge,whichcan be
either positive or negative.An object withequal amounts of two kinds of charge i
s electricallyneutral,whereas
onewith an imbalance is electricallycharged.
In the table given below, if a body in the first column is rubbed against a body
in the second column, the body
in first columnwill acquire positive charge,while that in the second columnwilla
cquire negative charge.
TABLE
S.No. FirstColumn SecondColumn
1. Glass rod Silk rod
2. Flannes or cat skin Ebonite rod
3. Woollen cloth Amber
4. Woollen cloth Rubber shoes
5. Woollen cloth Plastic objects
Electric Charge :
Electric charge canbewritten as newhere n is a positive or negative integer and
e is a constant ofnature called
the elementarycharge (approximately1.60 10 19C). Electric charge is conserved, the
(algebraic) net charge
of any isolated systemcannot be changed.
Regarding charge following points areworthnothing :
(a) Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.
(b) Charge is a scalar and can be of two types; positive or negative.
(c) Charge is quantized, i.e., the charge on anybodywill be some integralmultipl
e of e, i.e., q = ne.
where n = 1, 2, 3,...........
Charge on any body can never be
1 e
3
. .
.. .. , 1.5e etc.
(d) The electrostatic unit of charge is stat-coulomb and electromagnetic unit is
ab-coulomb inCGS system. But in
SI systemthe unit of charge is coulomb, 1 coulomb 1 ab coulomb 3 109 stat coulom
b.
10
. . . . .
NOTE : Recently, it has been discovered that elementary particles such as proton
or
neutron are composed of quarks having charge
. .
.. ..
1 e
3 and
. .
.. ..
2 e
3 . However,
as quarks do not exist in free state, the quantum of charge is still e.
Example-1 : Howmanyelectrons are there in one coulomb of negative charge ?

Sol. : The negative charge is due to presence of excess electrons, since they ca
rry negative charge. Because an
electron has a charge whosemagnitude is e = 1.6 10 19 C, the number of electrons
19
n q 1.0
e 1.6 10. . .
.
n = 6.25 1018
ELECTROSTATICS
COULOMB S LAW
The force acting between two point charges is directly proportional to the produ
ct of the charges and it is
inverselyproportional to the square of distance between them.Mathematically.
1 2
2
F q q
r
.
1 2
2
F kq q
r
.
9 2 2
0
k 1 9.0 10 Nm /C
4
. . .
..
where .0 = permittivityof free space
.0 = 8.854 10 12 C2/N m2
RegardingCoulomb s lawfollowing points areworthnoting :
(a) When two charges exert forces simultaneously on a third charge, the total fo
rce acting on that charge is the
vector sumof forces that the two chargeswould exert individually.This important
property, called the principle
of superposition of forces, holds for anynumber of charges. Thus,
Fnet . F1 . F2 . F3 . ...... Fn
. . . . .
(b) If some dielectric (K) is placed in the space between the charges, the net f
orce acting on eachcharge is altered
because charges are induced in themolecules of intervenningmedium.
q1 q2 Fe Fe r
In vacuum
Thus, 1 2
e 2
0
F 1 . q q
4 r
.
.. (invacuum)
1 2
e 2
0
F' 1 . q q
4 k r
.
.. (Inmedium)
or 1 2
e 2
F' 1 . q q
4 r
.
..
Here 0. . . K is called permittivityof themedium
(c) The coulomb s lawexpresses the force betweentwo point charges at rest. Inapply
ingit to the case of extended

bodies of finite size care should be taken in assuming the whole charge of a bod
y to be concentrated at its
centre as that is true onlyfor sphercal charged body, that is too for external p
oint.
(d) Acharged paritcle under the action of coulombian forces onlycan never be stab
le. This statement is called
Earnshow s theorem.
IMPORTANT FEATURE
1. Suppose the position vectors of two charges q1 and q2 are 1 r .
and 2 r .
then electric force on charges q1 due to
charge q2 is
1 2 . .
12 3 1 2
0 1 2
F 1 . q q r r
4 r r
. .
.. .
. . .
. .
Similarly, electric force on q2 due to charges q1 is
1 2
21 3 2 1
0 2 1
F 1 . q q (r r )
4 |r r |
. .
.. .
. .. ..
... ..
ELECTROSTATICS
Here q1 and q2 are to be subsitiuted with sign.
.
r1. x1i . y1 j. z1k
. . . and .
2 2 2 2 r . x i . y j. z k
. . . where 1 1 1 (x , y ,z ) and 2 2 2 (x , y , z ) are the co-ordinates of
charges q1 and q2.
2. Suppose two charges q1 and q2 are placed in vacuumat a distance r0 and the el
ectric force between themis
1 2
0 2
0 0
F 1 . q q
4 r
.
..
Now, the same charges are placed in a dielecricmediumof dielectric constant K at
distance r (<r0) such that
the electric force between them
1 2
2
0
F 1 . q q
4 k r
.
..
remains the same or F = F0
Then, 1 2 1 2
2 2
0 0 0
1 . q q 1 q q
4 k r 4 r
.
.. ..
or 0 r . k r
Thus, we see that for the electric force between two charges at distance r in a
dielectricmediumis equivalent
to a distance 0 r . k r in vacuum.
Example-2 :What is the smallest electric force between two charges placed at a d
istance of 1.0 m?
Sol. 1 2
e 2
0
F 1 . q q
4 r
.
..
For Fe to bemimimumq1 q2 should bemimimum.
19
1 2 q . q . e . 1.6 .10. C
Substituting in above relationwe have
9 19 19
e 2
(F ) (9.0 10 )(1.6 10 )(1.6 10 )
(1.0)
. . . . .
.
. 2.304 .10.28N
Example-3 :Three point charges +q, q and +q are placed at the vertices P, Q and R
of an
equilateral triangle as shown in fig. If
2
2
0
1 q
F ,
4 r
.
.. where r is the side of the triangle,
+q
y
P x
r r
q r +q
the force on charge at P due to charges at Q and R is : Q R
(A) F along positive x-direction (B) F along negative x-direction
(C) 2 F along positive x-direction (D) 2 F along negative x-direction.
Sol. Refer to Fig. The charge at Q exerts an attractive force F on charge at P
along PQ. The charge at R exerts a repulsive force on charge at P along
PS ofmagnitude F. The angle between these two forces is 120. From
parallelogramlaw, the magnitude of the resultant force is
2 2 2 2
r F = F + F + 2F cos 120
+q
y
x
r
q r +q
Q R
120 P
Fr
S
F
F
= 2F2
F2 = F2
or Fr = F.As shown in the figure, the direction of the resultant force is along
the
negative x-direction. Hence the correct choice is (b).
Example-4 : Three charges q1 = 1c, q2 = 2c and q3 = 3c are placed on the vertices of
an equilateral triangle
of side1.0m.Find the net electric force acting on charge q1.
ELECTROSTATICS
Sol. Let us assume a co-ordinate axeswith q1 at origan as shown infigure. The
co-ordinates of q1, q2 and q3 in this co-ordinate systemare (0,0,0), (1m, 0,0)
and (0.5m, 0.87m, 0) respectively.
q3
q1 q2
x
y
Now, 1 F .
= force on q1 due to charge q2.
1 2
3 1 2
0 1 2
1 . q q (r r )
4 |r r |
.
.. .
.. ..
.. ..
9 6 6
3
(9.0 10 )(1.0 10 )(3.0 10 )
(1.0)
. . . . .
.
.[(0 . 0.5).i . ?(0 . 0.87).j. (0 . 0)k.]
. (1.8 .10.2 i)N
and F2 .
. force on q1 due to charge q3
1 3
3 1 3
0 1 3
1 . q q (r r )
4 |r r |
.
.. .
.. ..
.. ..
9 6 6
3
(9.0 10 )(1.0 10 )(3.0 10 )
(1.0)
. . . . .
.
.[(0 . 0.5).i . (0 . 0.87).j. (0. 0)k.]
. (.1.35.i . 2.349.j) .10.2N
Therefore net force on q1 is
F . F1 . F2
. . .
. (0.45.i . 2.349.j) .10.2N
ELECTRIC FIELD
Electirc field is the region around an electric charge (or a group of electric c
harges) inwhich the electric force
can be experienced. If an electric charge is placed in such region, it experienc
es either an attractive or a
repulsive force.
Electric field at a point can be defined in terms of either a vector functionE..
called electric field strength or a
scalar functionVcalled electric potential. The electric field can also be visual
ised graphicallyinterms of lines of
force.
Electric Field Intensity :
The intensity of electric field at anypoint is defined as the force acting on a
unit positive charge placed at that
point. If the electrostatic force experienced by a small test charge q0 is e F .
, then intensity of electric field
e
0
E F
q
.
.. .
The electric field is a vector quantityand its directionis the same as the direc
tion of the force e F .
on a positive
test charge. The SI unit of electric field isN/C.
Example-5 : An electric field of 105N/C points duewest at a certain spot.What ar
e themagnitude and direction
of the force that acts on a charge of + 2C and 5C at this spot ?
ELECTROSTATICS
Sol. Force on + 2C = qE = (2 10 6) (105)
= 0.2 N (due west)
Force on 5C = (5 10 6) (105)
= 0.5 N (due east)
Example-6 : An inclined planemaking an angle 30 with the horizontal is
placed in a uniformhorizontal electric field . of 100 V/m(see figure).
Particle of mass 1 kg and charge 0.01 C is allowed to slide down 1m
e= 100 V/m
q
30
fromrest froma height of 1 m. If the coefficient of friction is 0.2,
find the time it will take the particle to reach the bottom.
Sol. The different forces on the particle are shown in figure.
Fromfigure, N = mg cos 30 + q. cos 60
Friction f = N = mg cos 30 + q. cos 60
Now the total force F acting along the inclined plane is
F = mg sin 30 N
q..cos 30
q
30
mg sin 30
q cos 30 e
qe
N
q sin 30 e
mg cos 30
N
30
30
or F = mg sin 30
mg cos 30 q. cos 60
q..cos 30
Thus acceleration is
or
a F g sin 30 g cos30 q cos 60 q cos30
m m m
. . . . .
. .
or a 9.8 0.5 0.2 9.8 . 3 / 2. 0.2 0.01 100 0.5 0.01 100 3
1 1 2
. . .
. . . . . . . . .
or = 4.9 0.98 1.732
0.10 0.551.732
or = 4.9 1.697
0.10
0.866 = 2.237
Now, distance travelled in time t is
s 0 1 at2
2
= +
or
t 2 2
a
. . . . . . . . [As s = 1/sin30 = 2]
or
4 1.345 sec.
2.237
. . . . .. ..
Example-7 : In space horizontalElectric field (E= (mg)/q) exist as shown in figu
re
and a massm attached at the end of a light rod. Ifmassmis released fromthe
positionshown infigure find the angular velocityof the rodwhenit passes through
m
m
+q
q
q=45 mg E
q
=
the bottommost position
(A)
g
l (B)
2g
l (C)
3g
l (D)
5g
l
Sol. According towork energytheorm:
w = .T
WE + Wg =
1
2 mv2
0 ...(1)
WE = qE l sin ., Wg = mg (l
l cos .)
m
m
+q
q q=45
l mg E
q
= +q l sinq
qE
l cosq
l l cosq
qE l sin . + mg (l
l cos.) =
1
2 mv2 fromeqn (1)
mg l sin. +mg l mg l cos. =
1
2 mv2 {
E mg
q
. = }
ELECTROSTATICS
g g g 1 mv2
2 2 2
l + l - l = . v = 2gl
v 2g 2g w = = =
l
l l l
.
w = 2g
l Ans.
TABLE : Electric field Intensity of Various System
S.No. System Electric Field Intensity
1. Isolated charge 2
0
E 1 . q
4 r
.
..
q r p
Isolated charge E
2. Aring of charge . .2 2 3/ 2
0
E 1 . qx
4 R x
.
.. .
3. Adisc of charge 2 2
0
E 1 x
2 x R
. . .
. . . . . . . .
4. Infinite sheet of charge
0
E
2
.
.
.
5. Infinitelylongline ofcharge
0
E
2 r
.
.
..
r
ELECTROSTATICS
6. Finite line of charge . .
0
E sin sin
4 x .
.
. . . .
..
. . | |
0
E cos cos
4 x
.
. . . .
..
7. Charged spherical shell (a) Inside 0 . r . R, E = 0
(b) Outside r . R
2
0
E q
4 r
.
..
8. Solid sphere of charge (a) Inside 0 . r . R
0
E r
3
.
.
.
(b) Outside r . R
2
0
E q
4 r
.
..
where q = charge on sphere
Electric Lines of Force :
Faraday gave a newapproach for representationof electric field in the formof ele
ctric lines of force. Electric
lines offorce are graphical representationof electric field. Anelectric line of f
orce is animaginarylineor curve
drawn through a region of space so that its tangent at any point is in the direc
tion of the electric field vector at
that point.
EP
EQ
Q
P
Thismodelofelectric field has the following characteristics :
(i) Electric lines of force are originated frompositive charge and terminated in
to negative charge.
(ii) The number of electric lines of force originates froma point charge q is q/
.0. Electric lines of forcemay be
fraction.
(iii) The number oflines per unit area that pass througha surface perpendicular
to the electric field lines isproportional
to the strength of field inthat region.
ELECTROSTATICS ELECTROSTATICS
(iv) No electric lines of force cross each other. If two electric lines of force
cross each other, it means electric field
has two directions at the point of cross. This is not physically possible.
E1
E2
Lineofforce
Lineofforce
(v) Electric lines of force for two equal positive point charges are said to hav
e rotational symmetryabout the axis
joining the charges.
(vi) Electric lines offorce for point positive charge and a nearby negative poin
t charge that are equal in magnitude
are said to have rotational symmetry about an axis passing through both charges
in the plane of the page.
(vii) Electric lines of force due to infinitely large sheet ofpositive charge is
normalto the sheet.
(viii) No electrostatic lines of force are present inside a conductor.Also elect
ric lines of force are perpendicular to
the surface of conductor. For example if a conducting sphere is placed in a regi
on where uniform electric field
is present, then induced charges are developed on the sphere.
(ix) Ifachargedparticleisreleasedfromrestinregionwhereonlyuniformelectricfieldis
present,thencharged
particle move along an electric line offorce. But if charged particle has initia
lvelocity, thenthe charged particle
mayormaynor followtheelectriclinesofforce.
(x)
Electriclinesofforceinsidetheparallelplatecapacitorisuniform.Itshows
that field inside the parallel plate capacitor is uniform. But at the edge of
plates, electric lines of force are curved. It shows electric lines of force at
the
edge of plates is non-uniform. This is knownas fringing effect.
If the size of plates are infinitelylarge, then fringing effect can be neglected
.
(xi) If a metallic plate is introduced between plates of a charged capacitor, th
en electric lines of force can be
discontinuous.
ELECTROSTATICS
(xii) If a dielectric plate is introduced between plates of a charged capacitor,
then number of lines of forces in
dielectric is lesser than that in case of vacuumspace.
(xiii) Electrostatics electric lines of force can never be closed loops, as a li
ne can never start and end on the same
charge.Also if a line offorce is a closed curve,work done round a closed pathwil
lnot be zero and electric field
willnot remain conservative.
(xiv) Lines of force have tendency to contract longitudinally like a stretched e
lastic string producing attraction
between opposite charges and repel each other laterally resulting in, repulsion
between similar charges and
edge-effect (curving of lines of force near the edges ofa charged conductor).
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE :
Electric Potential :
Electric potential at anypoint in a electric field is equalto the ratio of thewor
k done in bringing a test charge
frominfinityto that point, to the value of test charge.
Suppose,Wbe thework required in bringing a test charge q0 frominfinity to a poin
t b against the repulsive
force F acting on it, then potential at the point b is
b
b
0
W
V
q
.. .
Since,Wand q0 both are scalar quantities, the potential is also a scalar quantit
y.
Electric Potential Difference :
The potentialdifference between two points in an electric field is equal to the
ratio ofwork done inmoving a
test charge fromone point to the other, to the value oftest charge. SupposeWwork
be done inbringing a small
test charge q0 fromthe point a to a point b against the repulsive force acting o
n it, then potential difference
between the points is
a b
b a
0
V V W
q
. . .
Obviously, potentialdifference is also a scalar quantity.
IMPORTANT FEATURES
1. Following three formulae are veryusefulin the problems related to work done i
nelectric field.
(Wa b)electric force = q0 (Va
Vb)
(Wa b)external force = q0 (Vb
Va) = (Wa b)electric force
(W. a)external force = q0Va
2. Electric potential due to a point charge q : Fromthe definition of potential,
0
0
0 0
1 . qq
U 4 r V
q q
..
. .
ELECTROSTATICS
or
0
V 1 . q
4 r
.
..
Here, r is the distance fromthe point charge q to be point at which the potentia
l is evaluated.
If q is positive, the potential that it produces is positive at allpoints; if q
is negative, it produces a potential that
is negative everywhere. In either case, Vis equal to zero at r = ..
3. Electric potential due to a systemof charges : Just as the electric field due
to a collection of point charges
is the vector sumof the fields produced by each charge, the electric potential d
ue to a collection of point
charges is the scalar sumof the potentials due to each charge.
i
0 i i
V 1 q
4 r
.
.. .
4. In the equation i
0 i i
V 1 q
4 r
.
.. . , if the whole charge is at equaldistance r0 fromthe point where Vis to be
evaluated, thenwe canwrite,
net
0 0
V 1 . q
4 r
.
..
where qnet is the algebraic sumof all the charges ofwhich the systemismade.
Example-8 : The electric potential at pointAis 20Vand at Bis 40V. Find thework do
ne by a external force and
electrostatic force inmoving an electron slowly fromBtoA.
Sol. Here, the test charge is an electron, i.e.,
q0 = 1.6 10 19 C
VA = 20V
and VB = 40 V
Work done by external force
(WB A)external force = q0(VA
VB)
= ( 1.6 10 19)[(20)
( 40)]
= 9.6 10 18 J
Work done by electric force
(WB A)electric force = (WB
A)external force
= ( 9.6 10 18 J) = 9.6 10 18 J
Example-9 : Find thework done bysome external force inmoving a charge q = 2Cfromi
nfinityto a point where
electric potential is 104V.
Sol. using the relation,
(W. a)external force = q Va
We have (W.
a)external force = (2 10 6) (104)
= 2 10 2 J
Example-10 : Three point charges q1 = 1C, q2 = 2C and q3 = 3C are placed at (1m, 0,

0), (0, 2m, 0) and (0,
0, 3m) respectively. Find the electric potential at origin.
Sol. The net electric potential at origin is,
1 2 3
0 1 2 3
1 q q q V
4 r r r
. .
. . . . . .. . .
Substituting thevalues,we have
ELECTROSTATICS
V .9.0 109 . 1 2 3 10 6
1.0 2.0 3.0
. . .. . . .. . . . .
V = 9.0 103 volt
TABLE : Electric Potential of Various Systems
S.No. FirstColumn SecondColumn
1. Isolated charge
0
V q
4 r
.
..
q p
r
2. Aring of charge 2 2
0
V q q
4 R x
.
.. .
3. Adisc of charge 2 2
0
V R x x
2
. . . . . . . . .
4. Infinite sheet of charge Not defined
5. Infinitelylongline ofcharge Not defined
r
6. Finite line of charge
0
V ln sec tan
4 sec tan
. . . .
.
.. . . .
p
x
++++++++
ELECTROSTATICS
7. Charged spherical shell (a) Inside 0 . r . R
0
V q
4 R
.
..
(b) Outside r > R
0
V q
4 r
.
..
8. Solid sphere of charge (a) Inside 0 . r . R
2 2
2
0
V R 3 r
6 R
. . .
. . . . . . .
(b) Outside r . R
0
V q
4 r
.
..
Example-11 : In a regular polygon of n sides, each corner is at a distance r fro
mthe centre. Identicalcharges are
1) corners.At the centre, the intensityis E and the potential isV.
placed at (n
The ratioV/E hasmagnitude.
(A) r n (B) r(n
1) (C)(n 1)/r (D) r(n
1)/n
Sol. 2
0
E q
4. r
.
.
and
0
v (n 1)q
4. r
.
.
.
.
0
2
0
(n 1)q
v 4 r q (n 1)r E
4 r
.
.
.
.
. . .
.
Example-12 : The figure shows a nonconducting ring which has positive and negati
ve
charge non uniformly distributed on it such that the total charge is zero.Which
of the following statements is true ?
(A) The potential at all the points on the axis will be zero. axis
O
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
(B) The electric field at all the points on the axiswill be zero.
(C) The direction of electric field at all points on the axis will be along the
axis.
(D) If the ring is placed inside a uniformexternal electric field then net torqu
e and force acting on the ring
would be zero.
Sol. 2 2
0
V q 0
4 R x
.
. .
.. . ( . .q = 0)
There for the potential at all the points on the axis will be zero.
O
++
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
x
R2 + x2
Hence (A) is correct.
Example-13 : Two concentric rings, one of radius a and the other of radius b have
the charges +q and (2/5) 3/2 q respectively as shown in the figure. Find the ratio
b
a
q =+q A
q = (2/5) q B
3/2
z=a
b/a if a charge particle placed on the axis at z = a is in equilibrium.
ELECTROSTATICS
Sol. At equilibrium
F = 0
. QE = 0
. E = 0
A B
3 3
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0
q z q z 0
4 (z a ) 4 (z b )
. .
. . . . . .
.
A B
3 3
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0
q z q z
4 (z a ) 4 (z b )
. .
. . . . . .
3
2
3 3
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0
2 qa
qa 5
4 (a a ) 4 (a b )
. . .
.. ..
.
. . . . . .
.
. .
. .
3 3 2 2 2 2
3
2 2 2
a b 2
a a 5
. . . . . . . . .
.
. .
. .
3 3 2 2 2 2
3
2 2
a b 5
2a 2
. . . . . . . . .
2 2
2
a b 5
2a 2
.
.
b
a
q =+q A
q = (2/5) q B
3/2
z=a
2a2 + 2b2 = 10a2 . 2b2 = 8a2
2
2
b
4
a
. .
b
2
a
. Ans.
Example-14 : Acircular ring of radiusRwith uniformpositive charge density. per u
nit lengthis located in the yz
planewith its centre at the originO.Aparticle ofmassmand positive charge q is pr
ojected fromthe point
P(R 3 , O,O) on the positive x-axis directly towardsO,with an initial kinetic en
ergy
0
q
4
.
. .
(A) The particle crossesOand goes to infinity. (B) The particle returns to P
(C) The particlewill just reachO. (D) The particle crosses Oand goes to R 3 .
Sol. According tomachenical energyconser
Ui + Ti = Uf + Tf ...(i)
1
i
0
U q q
4. (x)
.
.
Where q1 is the charge on ringh q
+ +
+
+
+
++ +
+
+
+
+
O
R
l
R 3
R2 + 3R2 = x
. q1 = (2.R).
i
0
U q(2 R )
4 (2R)
. .
.
.
.
i
0
U q
4
.
.
.
i
0
T q
4
.
.
.
1
f
0
U q q
4. R
.
.
f
0 0
U q(2 R ) q
4 R 2
. . .
.
. .
. .
2
f
T 1 mv
2
=
where v is a velocityofcharge putting the volues in eqn (1)
ELECTROSTATICS
2
0 0 0
q q q 1 mv
4 4 2 2
. . .
. . .
. . .
2
0 0
q q 1 mv
2 2 2
. .
. .
. . . 1 mv2 0
2
. . v . 0
The particlewill just reach centre of ring.
Example-15 : Find the electric field at centre of semicircular ring shown in fig
ure.
+ ++++
+
Y
R X
q
q
Sol. . 2 2
0 0 0 E . E . E . 2 E
But 0
0
E sin
2 R 4
. .
.
.
.
But
0
K
4
l
.
.
. , 2
2q
R
.
.
.
+ ++ ++
+ 45 45 45
q +q
E0
E0
O
X
E
Y
45
. 2
E 4Kq
.R
. directed negative x-axis.
Example-16 : Asimple pendulumof length l and bobmassmis hanging in front ofa lar
ge
nonconducting sheet having surface charge density.. Ifsuddenlya charge +q is giv
en
to the bob&it is released fromthe position shown in figure. Find the maximum
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
l
s
angle throughwhich the string is deflected fromvertical.
Sol. The electric field intensitydue to nonconducting sheet is
0
E
2
.
.
. ...(1)
According towork energy theorem
Wnet = .k = 0
Since initial and finalvelocity ofbob is zero
Therefore, WE + Wg = 0 ...(2)
WE = qE . sin .
. cos.)
Wg = mg ( .
Putting the values in eqn (2)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
cosq
s
mg
v=0
qE q
sinq
qE . sin. mg. (1 cos.) = 0
qE . sin. =mg. (1 cos.)
qE 1 cos
mg sin
.
.
.
. .
. .
2 sin2 qE 2
mg 2sin
2 2
.
. .
.
qE tan
mg 2
.
. . tan
2 mg
. . . .
. . . .
2 tan 1
mg
. . . .
. . . .
Putting
1
0
2 tan q
2 mg
.
. . . .
. . . .
0
2 tan q
2 mg
.
. . . .
. . . .
cos
1 qE
.
qE
.
the value ofE fromeqn (1)
. . . 1
. . Ans.
ELECTROSTATICS
Example-17 : A particle ofmassmand negative charge q is thrown in a gravityfree
spacewith
speed u fromthe pointAon the large non conducting charged sheet with surface cha
rge
density ., as shown in figure. Find themaximumdistance fromAon sheet where the
particle can strike.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ u
A Sol. Electric field intensitydue to nonconducting sheet
0
E
2
.
.
. ...(1)
where ux = u sin.
uy = u cos.
x
a qE
m
=
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ u
A
ucos
usin X
Y
2
x x
x u T 1 a T
2
= +
where x = 0
2
x x
0 u T 1 a T
2
= + . 0 .u sin .T 1 qE T2
2 m
. . .
.u sin .T 1 qE T2
2 m
. . .
T 2umsin
qE
.
.
y = uyT
y= (u cos.)T
y
u cos 2u msin
qE
.
. . . . y
u2msin 2
qE
.
.
y
2
0 2u m sin 2
q
.
.
.
. fromeqn (1) .
2
0 y 2u msin 2
q
.
.
.
.
2
0
max
y 2u m
q.
.
.
At ymax, sin2. = 1
Example-18 : The figure shows three infinite non-conducting plates of charge per
pendicular
to the plane of the paper with charge per unit area +., +2. and ., Find the ratio
of
the net electric field at that pointAto that at point B.
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
A B
2.5m 2.5m
5 m 5 m
+s +2s s
Sol. The electric field intensity at point Adue to plate x, y and z
EA = Ex + Ey + Ez
0 0 0
2
2 2 2
. . .
. .
. . .
EA = 0 ...(1)
A B
+s +2s s
x y z
2s
2 0
s
2 0
s
0
At point B
B
0 0 0
E 2
2 2 2
. . .
. . .
. . .
B
0
E 4
2
.
.
. ...(2)
Fromeqn (1) and (2)
A
B
E 0
E
=
ELECTROSTATICS
Example-18 : A metallic solid sphere is placed in a uniformelectric field.
The lines of force follow the path(s) shown in figure as :
(A) 1 (B) 2
1
2
3
4 4
3
2
1
(C) 3 (D) 4
Sol. Electric field lines never enter a metallic conductor (E = 0, inside a cond
uctor) and they fall normally on
the surface of a metallic conductor (because whole surface is at same potential
and lines are perpendicular
to equipotential surface).
Example-19 : Anon-conducting solid sphere of radius Ris uniformly charged. Thema
gnitude of electric field
due to the sphere at a distance r from its centre :
(A) increases as r increases for r < R (B) decreases as r increases for 0 < r <
.
(C) decreases as r increases for R < r < . (D) is discontinuous at r = R
(E) both (a) and (c) are correct
Sol.
0
E r
3
.
.
. r < R
E .r r < R
2
0
E Q
4.. r
. r > R
2
E 1
r
. Hence, both (a) and (c) are correct.
Example-20 :Aparticle ofmassmand charge qmoves along a diameter of a uniformlycha
rged sphere of radius
Rand carrying a total charge+Q. Find the frequencyofS.H.M. of the particle if th
e amplitude does not exceed
R.
Sol. Electric field intensitydue to nonconducting sphere
0
E x
3
.
.
. ...(1) (where x < R)
Where . is volume charge density.
The force onnegative charge is opposite direction of electric field.
qE = ma
Fromeqn (1)
0
q x ma
3
.
. .
. .
0
a q x
3 m
. .
.
. ...(2) x
R q
For S.H.M. a = .2x ...(3)
Fromeqn (2) and (3)
2
0
q
3 m
.
. .
. .
0
q
3 m
.
. .
.
0
2 f q
3m
.
. .
. {. . . 2.f }
0
1 q
f
2 3m
.
.
.
. . 3
0
1 qQ
f
2 4 mR
.
. .. 3
Q
4 / 3 R
. . . . . . . . .
.
Example-21 : Apositive chargeQis uniformlydistributed throughout the volume of a
dielectric sphere of radius
R.Apointmass having charge +q andmassmis fired towards the centre of the spherew
ith velocityv froma
point at distance r (r >R) fromthe centre of the sphere. Find theminimumvelocity
vso that it canpenetrateR/
ELECTROSTATICS
2 distance of the sphere. Neglect any resistance other than electric interaction
. Charge on the smallmass
remains constant throughout themotion.
Sol. Frommachenicalenergyconservation
U i + T i = Uf + Tf
qV i + mv2 = qVf + 0 ...(1)
i
0
V Q
4. r
.
. ,
2 2
f 3
0
1 Q(3R r )
V
2 4. R
.
.
.
where
r R
2
=
R
O vmin
2
R
r
+q
2
2
f 3
0
Q 3R R
1 4
V
2 4. R
. .
. . . . .
.
.
.
. 2 2 .
f 3
0
Q 12R R
V
32. R
.
.
.
f
0
V Q(11)
32. R
.
. . f
0
V 11Q
32. R
.
.
Putting the values ofVi andVf ineqn. (1)
2
0 0
qQ 1 mv 11qQ
4. r 2 32. R
. .
. . . 2
0 0
1 mv 11qQ qQ
2 32. R 4. r
. .
. .
2
0 0
mv 11qQ qQ
16. R 2. r
. .
. . . 2
0
mv qQ 11 1
2. 8R r
. . . . . .. ..
2
0
v qQ 11 R
2m. R 8 r
. . . . . .. .. . v2 2kqQ 1 3 R
mR 8 r
. . . . . .. ..
v2 2kqQ r R 3
mR r 8
. . . . . . . . .
.
1
2kqQ r R 3 2 v
mR r 8
. . . .. . . . . .. . . ..
Example-22 : The diagramshows a small bead ofmassmcarrying charge q. The beamcan
freelymove on the smooth fixed ring placed on a smooth horizontal plane. In the
same
plane a charge +Qhas alos been fixed as shown. The potential at the point P due
C
4a a
+Q
B
x
g
P
to +Q isV.
The velocitywithwhich the bead should projected fromthe point P so that it can
complete a circle should
be greater than
(A)
6qV
m (B)
qV
m (C)
3qV
m (D) none
Sol. According to conservationprincipalofmechanical energy.
Ui + Ti = Uf + Tf
20
0
qV 1 mv qQ 0
2 4. a
. . .
. ...(1)
where v0 is velocityof at point p
the potential at the point p due to +Qis C
4a a
+Q
B
x
g
P
v0
0
v Q
4. (4a)
.
.
fromeqn (1)
ELECTROSTATICS
2
0
qv 1 mv 4qV
2
. .
20
1 mv 3qV
2
.
20
v 6qV
m
. . 0
v 6qV
m
= Ans.
Example-23 : Two spherical, nonconducting, and verythin shells of uniformlydistr
ibuted
positive chargeQand radius d are located a distance 10d fromeach other.A
positive point charge q is placed inside one of the shells at a distance d/2 fro
m d/2
10 d
d
Q Q
the center, on the line connecting the centers of the two shells, as shown in th
e figure.
What is the net force on the charge q ?
(A) 2
0
qQ
361.. d to the left (B) 2
0
qQ
361.. d to the right
(C) 2
0
362qQ
361.. d to the left (D) 2
0
360qQ
361.. d to the right
Sol. Electric force on charge q due to sphreAis zero.
But electric force due to sphere B on charge q is
2
0
F qQ towards left
4 19 d
2
..
.
. .
.. ..
Q Q
B
q F
19 d
2
A d/2
2
0
qQ towards left
361.. d
.
Example-24 : The diagramshows three infinitely long uniformline charges placed o
n the
X, Yand Z axis. The work done in moving a unit positive charge from(1, 1, 1) to
(0, 1, 1) is equal to
Y
X
Z
l
3l
2l (A) (. ln 2) /2..0 (B) (. ln 2)/..0 (C) (3. ln 2) /2..0 (D) None
Sol. Here r = 1+ x2
E1 = The magintude of electric field due to wire
along y-axis = 2
0
3
2 1. x
.
.. directed paerpendicular to y-axis
E2 = The magnitude of electric field due to wire 1+ x2
E
along z-axis = 2 1 x
l
+
directed perpendicular to z-axis.
The electric field due to wire along x-axis is directed perpendicular to x-axis.
. The net component of electric field along x-axis is x 2 2
0 0
E 3 cos cos
2 1 x 2 1 x
. .
. .
. . .
.
.. ..
where . = angle made by E1 with x-axis
and . = angle made by E2 with x-axis
But 2
cos cos x
1 x
. .
.
. .
. x . 2 .
0
E 4 x
2 1 x
.
.
.
..
ELECTROSTATICS
. dV = Ex dx
or . .
x 0
2
x 1 0
dV 4 x dx
2 1 x
.
.
. .
. . . .
..
2
1
v x 0
2
v 0 x 1
dV 4 x dx
2 1 x
.
.
. .
. . . .
..
x 0
1 2 2
0 x 1
V V 4 x dx
2 1 x
.
.
. .
. . .
..
Put 1 + x2 = z
or
2x dz
dx
=
or dz = 2 xdx
x 0
1 2
0 x 1
V V 2 x dz
z 2x
.
.
. . . . .
..
x 0
0 x 1
dz
z
.
.
. . .
..
x 0
x 1
0
lnz .
. . .. ..
.
..
0
1
0
. 2 ln(1.x) .. ..
.
..
0
1
0
. ..ln1.ln2..
.
..
2 1
0
v . v . ln 2
.
..
Example-25 : A particle ofmass 1 kg & charge
1 C
3 is projected towards
a non conducint fixed spherical shell having the same charge uniformly
V
from
1 mm
distributed on its surface. Find the minimuminitial velocity of projection
required if the particle just grazes the shall.
(A)
2 m/ s
3 (B)
2 2 m/ s
3 (C)
2 m/ s
3 (D) none of these
Sol. Apply conservation principle of angular momentum,
m vd = mv0 r
. 0
v vd v
r 2
. .
d r 0.5 mm
2
. . . . ... ..
Applying mechanical energy conservation principle.
Ui + Ti = Uf + Tf
2
2 2
0
0
1 q 1
0 mv mv
2 4 r 2
. . .
..
or
2
2 2
0
0
1 q 1
mv mv
2 4 r 2
. .
..
ELECTROSTATICS
or
2 2
2
0
1 mv q 1 m v
2 4 r 2 2
. . . . .. .. ..
or
2 2
2
0
1 mv q
mv
2 8 4 r
. .
..
or
2
2
0
1 3 q
mv
2 4 4 r
. .
..
or
2
2
0
1 q
mv
2 3 r
.
..
or
2
2
0
8q
v
3 4 mr
.
. ..
9 12
3
8 9 10 1 10 9 8
3 1 1 10 3
.
.
. . . .
. .
. . .
v 8 2 2 m/ s
3 3
= =
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY
Two like charges repel each other while the two unlike charges attract each othe
r. So, when the charges are

moved awayfromeach other or they are brought near each other, either somework is
obtained or somework
is done.Thiswork is stored in the systemofcharges in formof electric potential e
nergy.
The electric potential energyof a systemof different point charges is equal to th
ework done inbringing those
charges frominfinityto formthe system. It is represented byU.
The electric potentialenergyof a systemof two point charges q1 and q2 invacuumat
a separation r is given by,
1 2
0
U 1 q q J
4 r
.
..
Electric Potential Energy of a System of Charges :
The electric potential energy of a systemof charges is given by
i j
i j
0 ij
1 q q U J
4 . r
. .
..
This sumextends over allpairs of charges.We do not let i=j, because that would b
e an interaction ofa charge
with itself andwe include onlytermswith i < j to make sure that we count each pa
ir only once.
For example, electric potential energyof four point charges q1, q2, q3 and q4 wo
uld be given by,
4 3 4 2 4 1 3 2 3 1 2 1
0 43 42 41 32 31 21
1 q q q q q q q q q q q q U
4 r r r r r r
. .
. . . . . . . . .. . .
Here, all the charges are to be substitutedwith sign.
NOTE : Total number of pairs formed by n point charges are
n.n - 1.
.
2
Example-26 : Four charges q1 = 1C, q2 = 2C, q3 = 3C and q4 = 4C are kept
on the vertices of a square of side 1m. Find the electric potential energy of th
is
systemof charges.
q4 q3
q1 q2
1 m
1 m
Sol. In this problem,
ELECTROSTATICS
r41 = r43 = r32 = r21 = 1m
and 2 2
r42 . r31 . (1) . (1) . 2 m
Substituting the proper valueswith signin the relation givenabove in the theory,
we get
U = (9.0 109) (10 6) (10 6)
(4)( 3) (4)(1) (4)(1) ( 3)(2) ( 3)(1) (2)(1)
1 2 1 1 2 1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.9.0 10 3 . 12 5
2
. . . .. . . .. ..
= 7.62 10 2 J
NOTE : Here negative sign of U implies that positive work has been done by elect
rostatic
force in assembling these charges at respective distances from infinity.
Example-27 : Consider the configurationof a systemof four charges each
of value +q. Find thework done byexternal agent in changing the
+q +q
+q +q
a
a
fig (i) fig (ii)
+q
+q
+q
+q
a
configuration of the systemfromfigure (i) to fig (ii).
Sol. Ui =Electricalpotential energyinsquare arrangement
2 2
i
0 0
U 4q 2q
4 a 4 2a
. .
. . . .
Uf = Electric potential energyof circular arrangement of charge
q
a2
a
a q q
q
2 2
f
0 0
U 4q 2q
4 2a 4 (2a)
. .
. . . .
ext w . .U
. . 2
f i
0
q
U U 3 2
4 a
. . . . .
. .
Example-28 : Aconemade of insulatingmaterialhas a total chargeQspread
uniformly over its sloping surface.Calculate the energyrequired to take a
test charge q frominfinity to apexAof cone. The slant length is L.
B
A
AB = L Sol. ext f i w . .U . U . U
A q(V V ) . . .
wext A A . q(V . 0) . qV ...(1)
HereVA = Electric potential at pointA.
The electric charge on the considered ring
dq Q2 rdx
RL
. .
.
.
. Electric potentialdue to consideredring is
0
dV dq
4 x
.
. .
.
0
dV Q2 rdx
RL4 x
.
.
.
. .
.
sin r R
x L
. . . Ar
dx
q
x
ELECTROSTATICS
.
r Rx
L
. .
0
2 Q R x dx
dV L
RL4 x
. .
.. ..
.
.
.
. .
.
L
A 2
0 0
V dv Q dx
2 L
. .
. . . . 0
Q L
2
=
p
. ext A
0
w q V qQ
2 L
. .
. . fromeqn (1)
RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC FIELD AND POTENTIAL
In case of cartesian co-ordinates
x y z
E . E i . E j. E k
..
Here, x
E V
x
.
. . . .
. (partialderivative ofVw.r.t. x)
y
E V
y
.
. . . .
. (partialderivative ofVw.r.t. y)
z
E V
z
.
. . . .
. (partial derivative ofVw.r.t. z)
.
E V i V j V k
x y z
. . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
..
This is alsowritten as,
E . .grad V . ..V
.. ..
Example-29 : The electric potential in a region is represented as, V= 2x + 3y
Obtain expression for electric
field strength.
Sol.
E V i V j V k
x y z
. . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
..
Here, . . V 2x 3y z 2
x x
. .
. . . .
. .
V .2x 3y z. 3
y y
. .
. . . .
. .
V .2x 3y z. 1
z z
. .
. . . . .
. .
. E . .2 i . 3 j. k
..
In polar co-ordinates
r
E V
r
.
. .
. and
E 1 . V
r .
.
. .
..
For example, electric potential due to a point charge q at distance r is
0
V 1 . q
4 r
.
..
. E. = 0
V 0
. . . . . . . .. . .
and r 2
0
E 1 . q
4 r
.
..
z,
ELECTROSTATICS
Thus, electric field
E dV
dr
. .
or E =
(slope of v r graph)
NOTE : If electric field ..
E is known, then electric potential can be determined
from the relation as given below:
. d
.. .
dV = -E r
or . . d
b .. .
b a a
V -V = - E r
Here, dr . dx i . dy j. dz k
.
In uniform electric field
V = Ed
Example-30 : FindVab in an electric field
E .2 i 3 j 4 k . N
C
. . .
..
where . . a r . i . 2 j. k m
.
and . . b r . 2 i . j. 2k m
.
Sol. Here, the given field is uniform(constant). So using,
dV . .E . dr
.. .
or
a
ab a b b
V . V . V . .. E . dr
.. .
. . . . . .
.1, 2, 1.
2, 1, 2
2 i 3 j 4k . dx i dy j dz k
.
.
. .. . . . .
. . . .
.1, 2,1.
2,1, 2
2dx 3dy 4dz
.
.
. .. . .
. .. .
.1, 2, 1.
2,1, 2 2x 3y 4z .
. . . . .
= 1 V
Example-31 : Auniformelectric field having strengthE.. is existing in x yplane as
shown in figure. Find the p.d. between originO &A(d, d, 0)
(A) Ed(cos. + sin.) (B) Ed(sin. cos.)

E
A(d,d,0)
o x
y
z
(C) 2 Ed (D) none of these
Sol. Here E . Ecos. i . Esin. j
..
. OA . d i . d j
. ....
.
..v . E .
.. .
.
..v . Ed cos. . Ed sin.
. Ed(cos. . sin. )
A 0 . . (V .V ) . Ed(cos. . sin.)
0 A . V . V . Ed(cos. . sin. )
Example-32 : Uniformelectric field ofmagnitude 100V/min space is directed along
the line y= 3 + x. Find the
potential difference between pointA(3, 1)&B (1, 3)
(A) 100 V (B) 200 2 V (C) 200 V (D) 0
Sol. . y = 3 + x
. tan. = 1
ELECTROSTATICS
. . = 45
E .100cos. i .100sin. j
..
E 100 i 100 j
2 2
. .
..
.r . AB . i . 3 j. 3 i . j . .2 i . 2 j
... ....
.V . .E . .r
.. ...
100 100
V i j r
2 2
. .
. . .. . . . . . .
...
V 100 i 100 j . 2 i 2 j.
2 2
. .
. . .. . . . . . . .
. .V . .100 2 .100 2
. A B V - V = 0
Example-33 : A, B, C, D, P andQare points in a uniformelectric field. The potent
ials a
these points are V (A) = 2 volt. V(P) =V(B) =V(D) = 5 volt. V(C) = 8 volt. The
electric field at P is
0.2m
A
B
P
C
Q
D
0.2m
(A) 10 Vm 1 along PQ (B) 15 2 Vm 1 along PA
(C) 5 Vm 1 along PC (D) 5Vm 1 along PA
Sol. A D
x
E V V 2 5 30 15 v /m
0.2 0.2 2
. .
. . . . . .
Also A B
y
E V V 2 5 30 15 v /m
AB 0.2 2
. .
. . . . . .
E = - 15 i - 15 j
.. P
y
x
15
15
x
A
45
| E |= (- 15)2 + (- 15)2 = 15 2 v /m
..
PA E .15 2 Hence (B) is correct.
Example-34 : Variation of electrostatic potential along x-direction iswhosn in t
he
graph. The correct statement about electric field is
(A) xcomponent at point Bismaximum
(B) x component at pointAis towards positive x-axis
x
A B C
v
(C) x component at point C is along negative x-axis
(D) x component at point C is along positive x-axis
Sol. The negative slope v
x graph give x component of electric field. In the giv
en graph, slope at C is
negative.
Hence, x component of electric field is positive.
EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACE
Equipotential surface is an imaginarysurface joining the points of same
potential inan electric field. So,we can say that the potential difference
between anytwo points on anequipotential surface is zero.The electric
lines of force at each point ofan equipotential surface are normal to the
surface. Fig. shows the electric lines of force due to a point charge +q.
+q
This spherical surfacewillbe the equipotential surface and the electrical
lines of force emanating fromthe point chargewill be radial and normal to the sp
herical surface.
ELECTROSTATICS
Regarding equipotentialsurface, following points areworth noting :
(a) Equipotential surfacemaybe planar, solid etc.But equipotential surface never
be a point.
(b) Equipotential surface is single valued. So, equipotential surfaces never cro
ss each other.
(c) Electric field is always perpendicular to equipotential surface.
(d) electric lines of force cross equipotentialsurface perpendicularly.
(e) Work done to move a point charge q between two points on equipotential surfa
ce is zero.
(f) The surface ofa conductor in equilibriumis equipotential surface.
(g) equipotential surface due to isolated point charge is spherical.
(h) Equipotential surface are planar in uniformelectric field.
(i) Equipotential surface due to line charge is cylindrical.
(j) Equipotential surface due to an electric dipole is shown inthe figure.
q +q
Example-35 : The electric field in a region is givenby : E . .4axy z . i . .2ax2 z
. j. .ax2y / z .k , where a is
a positive constant.The equation of anequipotential surfacewill be of the form
(A) z = constant/[x3y2] (B) z= constant/[xy2]
(C) z = constant/[x4y2] (D) none
Sol. At equipotential surface potential is constant.
Therefore
E v
r
= - d
d
.. dv . . E . dr
.. .
. E .d r . constant
.. .
r . x i . y j. z k
.
. dr . dx i . dy j. dzk
.
. E . (dx i . dy j. dz k )
..
= Constant
ELECTROSTATICS
.(4axy z )i . (2ax2 z) j. (ax2y / z)k . . (dx i . dy j. dzk ) . . . = constant
2
4axy z dx 2ax2 z dy ax ydz
z
. . . . . = constant.
2
4ax y z 2ax2y z 2ax2y z
2
. . = constant
6 ax2 y z = constant
2
z constant
6ax y
= .. 4 2
z constant
x y
.
Example-36 : The equation of an equipotential line an electric field is y= 2x, t
henthe electric field vector at (1, 2)
may be
(A) 4 i +3 j (B) 4 i +8 j (C) 8i + 4 j (D) 8 i + 4 j
Sol. Electric field is perpendicular to equipotential line
. y = 2 x
or
dy 2
dx
=
. m1 = 2
. m1m2 = 1
. 2
m 1
2
= .
tan 1
2
. . . where . is anglewith x-axis.
In option (D),
tan 4 1
8 2
. . .
.
.
ELECTRIC DIPOLE
Electric dipole is a systeminwhich two equal and opposite point
charges are placed at a smalldistance. The product of any of the
charges and distance between two charge is called electric dipole 2l
q P +q
moment p. It is directed fromnegative charge to positive charge (fig.). The line
joining the two charges is called
axis of dipole.
Let charges of an electric dipole are q and +q and are separated by a small dista
nce 2l. The dipolemoment
of such a dipole is given by
p = q 2l = 2ql
Electric Potential and Field due to an Electric Dipole
Let an electric dipole is placed along y-axis and its centre is at origin, thene
lectric potential at pointA(x, y, z)

due to this dipole.
+q
q
z
y
l
l
x2 + z2 + (y+l)2
x2 + z2 + (y l)2 A(x, y, z)
x
ELECTROSTATICS
2 2 2 2 2 2
0
1 q q
V
4 x (y ) z x (y ) z
. .
. . . .
.. .. . . l . . . l . ..
x
E V
x
.
. .
. , y
E V
y
.
. .
. and z
E V
z
.
. .
.
Special Cases :
(i) On the axis of dipole (axial position) : x = 0, z = 0
(a) 2 2
0
V 1 p
4 (y )
.
.. . l
2 2
0
V 1 p
4 (r )
.
.. . l If y = r
or axis 2
0
V 1 P
4 r
.
.. If r > > l
(b) Ex = 0 = Ez and
y 2 2 2
0
E E 1 2py
4 (y )
. .
.. . l (alongp .
)
2 2 2
0
1 2pr
4 (r )
.
.. . l If y = r
axis 3
0
E 1 2p
4 r
.
..
(ii) On the perpendicular bisector of dipole (equatorical position) :
Say along x-axis (it may be along z-axis also) y = 0, z = 0
(a) bisec tor V 0 . .
(b) Ex = 0, Ez = 0
and y 2 2 3/ 2
0
E 1 p
4 (x )
. .
.. . l (opposite to p .
)
Here, negative sign implies that the electric field is along negative y-directio
n or antiparalleltop .
.
Further at a distance r fromthe centre of dipole (x= r), then
2 2 3/ 2
0
E 1 . p
4 (r )
.
.. . l
or bisec tor 3
0
E 1 p
4 r . .
.. if r >> l
(iii) In polar co-ordinates (r, .) :
(a) 2
0
V 1 p cos
4 r
.
.
..
(b) r
E V
r
.
. .
. 3
0
1 . 2pcos
4 r
.
.
..
E 1 . V
r .
.
. .
.. 3
0
1 psin
4 r
.
.
..
E
Er
E
P r
O
A(r, )
. 2 2
r E E E. . . . 2
3
0
E p 1 3cos
4 r
. . .
..
(c) In Figure,
tan tan
2
.
. .
ELECTROSTATICS
Example-37 : 4 charges are placed each at a distance a fromorigin. The dipolemomen
t of
configurationis
(A) 2qa j (B) 3qa j
3q
2q 2q
q
y
x
(C) 2aq[i + j] (D) none
Sol. Here 1 P . 2q . 2 a
1 P = 2 2 qa
2 P . q . 2a . 2 qa
3 P . q . 2a . 2 qa
3q
2q
2q
q
y
x
P1
45
45
45
P3
P2
2a
2a 2a
. x 1 2 3 P = P cos 45 - P cos 45 - P cos 45
x P = 2 2qa cos 45 - 2qa cos 45 - 2qa cos 45
x P = 0
y 1 2 3 P = P sin 45 + P sin 45 - P sin 45
y
2 2qa 2qa 2qa
P 2qa
2 2 2
= + - =
. P . 2 q a j
..
Example-38 : Two point charges +3 C and 3 C are placed at a small distance 2 10 3 mfr
omeach other.
Find:
(a) electric field and potential at a distance 0.6mfromdipole in its equatorialp
osition.
(b) electric field and potential at the same distance fromdipole as in (a) if th
e dipole is rotated through 90.
Sol. Dipolemoment
p = q 2l = (3 10 6) (2 10 3)
p = 6 10 9 C-m
(a) Electric field in equatorialposition,
3
0
E 1 . p
4 r
.
..
. . 9
9
3
E 9 10 6 10
(0.6)
. . . .
. . . . . .
E = 250 N/C
Electric potential,V= 0
(b) On rotating the dipole through 90, the same point nowwill be in axial positio
n.
So, electric field
3
0
E 1 . 2p 500 N/C
4 r
. .
..
and electric potential
2
0
V 1 p
4 r
.
..
. . 9
9
2
V 9 10 6 10
(0.6)
. .
. . = 150 V
ELECTROSTATICS
Example-39 : Ashort electric dipole is situated at the origin of coordinate axis
with its axis along x-axis and
equator along y-axis. It is found that the magnitudes of the electric intensity
and electric potential due to
the dipole are equal at a point distance r = 5 m fromorigin find the position ve
ctor of the point.
Sol. Let P be such a point at distance r and angle . fromequator.
Now |EP| = |VP|
or P 2 P
3 2
K 1 3sin K sin
r r
. .
.
.
or
1 3sin2 sin
5
.
.
.
.
Squaring both nets
y
x
r
P
q
1 + 3 sin2. = 5 sin2.
or
sin 1
2
. .
or ..= 45
Positive vector of r .
point P is
r 5 ( i j)
2
= +
.
Electric Dipole in Uniform Electric Field :
(i) Torque :When a dipole is placed in a uniformelectric field as shown in Fig.
the net force on it,
F . ..qE . ..q. E.. . 0
.. ..
while the torque,
q
+q
P
qE
qE
l E
. = qE 2l sin .
. . pEsin .
.
or . . p . E
. . ..
Fromthis expression it is clear that torque acting on a dipole ismaximum(= pE)wh

en dipole is perpendicular
to the field andminimum(=0) when dipole is parallel or antiparallel to the field
.
NOTE :If the electric field is not uniform the dipole will experience both a res
ultant force
and a torque so its motion will be combined translatory and rotatory (if .. 0 or
180)
(ii) Work :Work done in rotating a dipole in a uniformfield througha small angle
d.willbe,
dW= .d..= pE sin .d.
So,work done in rotating a dipole fromangular position .1 to .2with respect to f
ield,
2
1
1 2 W pEsin d pE [cos cos ] .
.
. . . . . . . .
So, if a dipole is rotated fromfield direction, i.e., .1 = 0 to position ., i.e.
, .2 = ..
W= pE[1
cos.]
ELECTROSTATICS
q +q
P
= 0
E
Wmin = 0
(a)
+q q
P
= 180
E
(b)
Wmax = 2pE
(iii) Potential energy : In case of a dipole (in a uniformfield), potential ener
gy of dipole is defined aswork done
in rotating a dipole froma directionperpendicular to the field to the given dire
ction.
i.e., U = (W.
W90)
U = pE (1 cos .) pE (1
cos 90)
U . .pE cos. . .p . E
. ..
(iv) AngularSHM:Adipolewhen placed in a uniformelectric field, align itself para
llel to the field. If it is given a
small angular displacement . about its equilibriumposition, the restoring torque
produced in itwillbe,
. = pE sin . =
pE. (. sin . . .)
or
2
2
d
I pE
dt
.
. . . or
2
2
2
d
dt
.
. .. . with 2 pE
I
. .
This is standard equation of angular SHMwith period
T 2
. .. . . . . . . . So, dipolewill execute angular SHMwith
time period
T 2 I
PE
. .
Interaction of Two Dipoles :
If a dipole is placed in the field ofother dipole, then depending onthe position
s of dipoles relative to eachother,
force, torque and potential energyare different.
TABLE : Dipole-Dipole Interaction
S.No. Relative position of Dipole Force F Torque . PotentialEnergyU
1.
r
p1
F F
p2
1 2
0 4
1 6p p (along r)
4 r
.
.. zero 1 2
3
0
1 2p p
4 r
.
..
2. p r 1 p2
F F
1 2
4
0
1 3p p
4.. r (along r) zero 1 2
3
0
1 p p
4.. r
3. r
F
p F p 2 1 1 2
4
0
1 3p p
4 r
.
.. on 1 2
1 3
0
p , 1 2p p
4.. r zero
(perpendicular to r) on 1 2
2 3
0
p , 1 p p
4.. r
Example-40 : Two point charges +3.2 10 19 C and 3.2 10 19 C are placed at a distance 2
.4 10 10m, from
each other. This dipole is placed in a uniformelectric field of 4.0 105V/m.
(a) Find the necessarytorque required to rotate the dipole through 180 fromits eq
uilibriumposition.
(b) What is thework done inrotating the dipole through 180 ?
ELECTROSTATICS
(c) What is the potential energy of dipole in this position ?
Sol. Electric dipolemoment
p = q 2l
Here, q = 3.2 10 19 C
2l = 2.4 10 10 m
. p = (3.2 10 19) (2.4 10 10)
p = 7.68 10 29 C-m
(a) necessary torque
. = pE sin .
..= 7.68 10 29 4 105 sin 180
..= 0 ( . sin 180 = 0)
(b) Work done inrotating the dipole through 180 is given by
W= pE (cos.1 cos.2)
Here, .1 = 0, .2 = 180, p = 7.68 10 29 C-m
and E = 4.0 105 V/m
. W = 7.68 10 29 4 105 (cos 0
cos 180)
W = 7.68 10 29 4 105 (1 + 1)
W = 6.14 10 23 J
(c) The potential energyof dipole in this positionis given by
U. = pE cos .
where ..is the angle between the axis of dipole and electric field.
In equilibriumposition, ..=0
. U0 = pE
or U0 =
(7.68 10 29) (4.0 105)
U0 = 3.07 10 23 J
Example-41 : Awheelhavingmassmhas charges +q and q on diametrically opposite
points. It remains in equilibriumon a rough inclined plane in the presence of un
iform
vertical electric field E =
+q
q
E
(A)
mg
q (B)
mg
2q (C)
mg tan
2q
q
(D) none
Sol. The torque of electric force about centre is balanced bytorque due to frict
ion about the centre.
r f= PE sin.
. . = PE sin.
But f=mg sin. (for equilibrium)
. mgr sin. =PE sin.
+q
-q
mgsin
9090E
f
P
E mgr mgr
P q 2r
. .
.
. P = q 2r (dipolemoment)
E mg
2q
.
ELECTROSTATICS
Example-42 : Anonconducting ring ofmassmand radius Ris charged as shown.
The charged densityi.e. charge per unit length is .. It is then placed on a roug
h
nonconducting horizontalsurface plane.At time t = 0, a uniformelectric
field E = E0i
..
is swithced on and the ring start rollingwithout sliding.
y
x
+
+
+ +
Determine the frictionforce (magnitude and direction) acting on the ring,
whenit startsmoving.
Sol. Where f is friction surface.
f = macm ...(1)
Let d. element on ring then dq . . d.
dq . .Rd. {
d d
R
. . .
. }
y
x
+
+
+ +
p
f
rough non-conducting
surface
d dP E . . . .
.. ..
d. . 2RdqEsin .. .. . {. dp = (2Rdq)}
d. . 2RE .Rsin.d.
/ 2
2
E
0
. 2R E . sin d
.
. . . .
2
E . . 2R .E
2R2 .E
fR = mR2.
dq
f
dqq
q
dq E
d p
p- q
2R.E
f = mR.
2R.E
macm = mR. (fromeqn (1))
for pure rolling,
acm = R.
. 2R.E = macm + mR.
2R.E = 2 macm
macm = .RE
cm 0 f . ma . .RE
Example-43 : In the figure shown S is a large nonconducting sheet of uniformchar
ge density
..Arod Rof length l andmass m is parallel to the sheet and hinged at itsmid point.
The linear charge densities on the upper and lower half of the rod are shown in
the x l
- l
R S
s
figure. Find the angular acceleration of the rod just after it is released.
Sol. Electric field due to non-conducting sheet is
0
.
2 .
.
d. = x E dq 2 = 2x Edq
/ 2 2 /2
0 0
d 2x E dx 2E x
2
. .
. . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. .
2E 2 E 2
8 4
. .
. .
. . .
.
E 2
I
4
.
.
. . Edq
S
s
Edq dq
+dq
x
x
or
m 2 E 2
12 4
.
.
. . .
ELECTROSTATICS
.
2
2
E 12 3E
4 m m
. . .
. .
. .
.
.
0
3
2 m
.
.
. .
.
ELECTRIC FLUX
Electric flux throughan elementaryarea dS is defined as the scalar product of ar
ea and field, i.e.,
d.E . E . dS
.. .
d.E = EdS cos .
n E
i.e., E dS . . . E . dS
.. .
It represents the total lines offorce passing through the given area.
Regarding electric flux following points areworthnoting :
(a) Electric fluxwillbemaximumwhen cos. = 1, i.e., . = 0, i.e., electric field i
s
normal to the area with (d.E)max = EdS.
E
n
(d ) = EdS E max
(b) Electric fluxwillbeminimumwhen cos. = 0, i.e., . = 90, i.e., field is
parallel to the surfacewith
(d.E)min = 0.
E
n
(d ) = 0 E min
(c) For a closed body outward flux is taken to be positive [Fig. (a)] while inwa
rd negative [Fig. (b)]
n
(a) Positive flux (b) Negative flux
GAUSS S LAW
This lawgives a relation between the net electric flux through a closed surface
and the charge enclosed by the
surface.
According to this law, the net electric flux through any closed surface is equal
to the net charge inside the
surface divided by .0. In symbols it can bewritten as,
in
E
S 0
. . E . n dS . q
. . ..
. ...(i)
but this formofGauss s lawis applicable only under following two conditions :
(i) The electric field at every point onthe surface is either perpendicular or t
angential.
(ii) Magnitude ofelectric field at everypoint where it is perpendicular to the s
urface has a constant value (sayE).
Here, S is the areawhere electric field is perpendicular to the surface.
Applications of Gauss s Law :
To calculate Ewe choose animaginaryclosed surface (calledGaussian surface) inwhi
chEqs. (i) or (ii) can be
applied easily. Inmost of the caseswewill use Eq. (ii). Let us discuss fewsimple
cases.
ELECTROSTATICS
(i) Electric field due to a point charge :
FromEq. (ii), in
0
ES . q
.
Here, S = are of sphere = 4.r2
and qin = charge enclosing theGaussian surface = q
q
r
E
. . 2 .
0
E 4.r . q
.
. 2
0
E 1 q
4 r
.
..
It is nothing but Coulomb s law.
(ii) Electric field due to a linear charge distribution :
Consider a long line chargewith a linear charge density(charge per unit
length) ..We have to calculate the electric field at a point, a distance r
fromthe line charge.We construct aGaussian surface, a cylinder of any
arbitrary length l of radius r and its axis coinciding with the axis of the
l
r
E
++++
+ + + +
E
line charge.
Hence, we can apply theGauss s lawas,
in
0
ES . q
.
E
Curved Surface
E
Plane Surface
Here, S = area of curved surface = (2.rl)
and qin = net charge enclosing this cylinder = .l
.
0
E(2 )
.
.. .
.
l l
.
0
E
2 r
.
.
..
i.e.,
E 1
r
.
(iii) Electric field due to a plane sheet of charge :
FromGauss s Law
in
0
ES . q
.
. 0
0
0
E(2S ) ( ) (S )
.
.
.
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + + +
E E
S0
.
0
E
2
.
.
.
(iv) Electric field near a charged conducting surface :
This is similar to the previous one the onlydifference is that this time charges
are on bothsides.Hence, applying
in
0
ES . q
.
ELECTROSTATICS
Here, S = 2S0 and qin = (.) (2S0)
+
E
S0
E
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
+
. + 0
0
0
E(2S ) ( ) (2S )
.
.
.
.
0
E
.
.
.
Example-44 : Which of the following statements is/are correct ?
(A) Electric field calculated byGauss lawis the field due to only those charges,
which are enclosed inside
the Gaussian surface.
(B) Gauss law is applicable onlywhen there is symmetrical distribution of charge
.
(C) Electric flux through a closed surface is equal to total flux due to all the
charges enclosed within that
surface only.
(D) None of these
Sol. Since, electric field at a point is equal to electric flux passing per unit
area, therefore, . E. dS
.. .
. is the net
flux emanating from a closed surface. Though net flux through the closed surface
depends upon the
charges enclosed in that surface only but electric field E at a point depends no
t onlyupon charges enclosed
but it depends upon charges lying outside the surface also. Hence (A) is wrong.
Gauss lawis applicable to a closed surface. The surfacemay have any shape. It me
ans, it is a general law.
Hence (B) is wrong.
Gauss law is
0
E. dS q .
.
.
. . .. .
. It means, net flux through a closed surface depends upon .q. But it is equal
to net charge enclosed within the surface only. Hence (C) is correct.
Obviously (D) is wrong.
Example-45 : In a region of uniformelectric field E, a hemispherical body is

placed in such away that field is parallel to its base (as shown in figure).
E
O
C The flux linked with the curved surface is :
(A) zero (B) .R2E (C) .R2E (D)
R2
E
2
.
Sol. The flux linked with the body is zero as it does not enclose any charge.
. = .cs + .pb = 0
As field is parallel to base, the flux linked with base
.pb = E .R2 cos 90 = 0
E
n
. .paralled to base = 0
.curved surface = 0
Example-46 : If a point charge q is placed at the centre of a cubewhat is the fl
ux linked (a) with the cube (b) with
each face of the cube ?
Sol. (a)According to Gauss s Law,
in
total
0 0
. . q . q
. .
(b) Nowas cube is symmetrical bodywith 6-faces and the point charge is at its ce
ntre, so electric flux linkedwith
each facewill be
total
0
q
6 6
.
. . .
.
ELECTROSTATICS
NOTE : If charge is not at the centre of cube (but any where inside it), total f
lux will not
change but the flux linked with different faces will be different.
Example-47 : If a point charge q is placed at one corner of a cube, what is the
flux linkedwith the cube ?
Sol. By placing three cubes at three sides of given cube and four cubes above, t
he chargewill be in the centre. So,
the fluxwith each facewillbe one-eight of the flux (q/.0).
. Flux throughthe cube
0
q
8
.
.
Example-48 : Calculate flux through the cube and flux through the each surface o
f cube
when q is placed at one of its corner.
Sol. To cover charged particle completlywe have to use 7 extra cubes around the
charged particle.
So, Flux Through cube
0
( ) q
8
.
.
.
Flux through
0
ABCD q
3 24
. .
.
.
Flux through
0
ABFE q
3 24
. .
.
.
D
C
A
E
F
B
H
G
q
Flux through
0
ADEH q
3 24
. .
.
.
Flux through EFGH = 0
Flux through FGCB = 0

Flux through GCDH = 0
Example-49 : The electric field in a region is given by 0 E = E x i
.. .
l . Find the charge contained inside a cubical
volume bounded by the surfaces x = 0, x = a, y = 0, y = a, z = 0 and z = a. Take
E0 = 5 103N/C, l = 2cm
and a = 1cm.
Sol. 0 E . E x i
..
.
Totalflux
0
. q
.
0
EA . q
. whereAis area of surface
0 2
0
E a . a . q
. . .
3
0
0
E a q .
. .
3
0
0
E a
q . .
.
. q . .3 12 2 3
2
5 10 8.85 10 1 10
2 10
. .
.
. . . . .
.
.
q
5 103 8.85 10 4
2
. . . .
. . q.2.2.10.12 C
ELECTROSTATICS
ELECTRIC FIELD AND POTENTIAL DUE TO CHARGED SPHERICAL SHELL OR SOLID
CONDUCTING SPHERE
Electric Field
The allpoints inside the charged spherical conductor or hollowsphericalshell, el
ectric field E . 0,
..
as there is
no charge inside such a sphere.We can construct a Gaussian surface (a sphere) of
radius r > R.
FromGauss s Law
C
0
E . ds . q
. . .. .
2
0
E(4.r ) . q
. . 2
0
E 1 q
4 r
.
..
r R
Gaussian
surface
E
+ q
+
+
+
+
+ + + +
+
+
+
Hence, the electric field at anyexternalpoint is the same as if the total
charge is concentracted at centre.
At the surface of sphere r = R,
. 2
0
E 1 q
4 R
.
..
Thus, we canwrite, Einside = 0
surface 2
0
E 1 q
4 R
.
..
outside 2
0
E 1 q
4 r
.
..
The variation ofelectric field (E) with the distance fromthe
E
O R
r
1 q
R2 =
E r2
1
centre (r) is as shown in fig.
NOTE :
At the surface graph is discontinuous.
2
surface 2
0 0 0
E = 1 q = q/4pR = s
4pe R e e
Potential :
As we have seen,
outside 2
0
E 1 q
4 r
.
..
. outside
2
0
dV 1 q
dr 4 r
. . . . . . . . ..
E dV
dr
. . . . .. ..
.
V r
0 outside 2
0
dV q dr
4 . r
. .
.. . . (V. = 0)
.
0
V 1 q or V 1
4 r r
. .
..
Thus, at externalpoints the potentialat anypoint isthe samewhenthewhole charge i
s assumedto the concentrated
at the centre.At the surface of the sphere, r = R.
.
0
V 1 q
4 R
.
..
At some internalpoint electric field is zero everywhere, therefore, the potentia
l is same at allpointswhich is
equal to the potential at surface. Thus,we canwrite,
inside surface
0
V V 1 q
4 R
. .
..
ELECTROSTATICS
and outside
0
V 1 q
4 r
.
..
V
O R
r
1 q
R =
V r 1
R
The potential (V) varieswith the distance fromthe
centre (r) as shown in Fig.
Example-50 : The diameter of hollowmetallic sphere is 60 cmand charge on sphere
is 500 C. Find the electric
field and potential at a distance 10 cmfromcentre of sphere.
Sol. The point at 10 cmdistance fromcentre of spherewillbe inside the sphere. In
side hollowconducting sphere,
electric field is zero everywhere and potential is uniform(same as at the surfac
e).
Hence, intensityof electric field E = 0
and potential
0
V 1 q
4 R
.
..
Here, q = 500 C = 500 10 6 C and R = 30 cm= 0.30 m
. . . . .
6
9 500 10
V 9.0 10
0.30
. .
. . .
V = 1.5 107 V
ELECTRIC FIELD AND POTENTIAL DUE TO A UNIFORMALY NON-CONDUCTING SPHERE
Electric field :
Let positive charge q is uniformlydistributed throughout the volume of a solid s
phere of radius R.We have to
find the intensityof electric field due to this charged sphere at point P distan
ce r fromcentreO.
ApplyingGauss s law
in
0
ES . q
. ...(i)
Here, S = 4.r2 and 3
in
q ( ) 4 r
3
. . . . . .. ..
Here, 3
. = charge per unit volume = q
4/3.R
Substituting these values inEq. (i),we have

3
0
E 1 . q . r
4 R
.
.. or E . r
At the centre r = 0, so, E = 0
At surface r = R, so, 2
0
E 1 q
4 R
.
..
To find the electric field outside the charged sphere,we use a sphericalGaussian
surface ofradius r(>R).This
surface encloses the entire charged sphere, so qin = q, and Gauss s law gives.
2
0
E(4.r ) . q
. or 2
0
E 1 q
4 r
.
.. or 2
E 1
r
.
Thus, for a uniformly charged solid sphere,we have the following formulae formag
nitude of electric field.
inside 3
0
E 1 . q . r
4 R
.
..
surface 2
0
E 1 . q
4 R
.
..
outside 2
0
E 1 . q
4 r
.
..
E
O R
r
1 q
R
E r
E r2
2 1
ELECTROSTATICS
The variation of electric field (E)with the distance fromthe centre of the spher
e (r) is shownin fig.
Potential :
The field intensityoutside the sphere is,
outside 2
0
E 1 . q
4 r
.
..
outside
outside
dV E
dr
. .
.
V r
outside 2
0
dV 1 . q dr
. . 4 r
. .
.. . .
.
0
V 1 q as V 0
4 r . . .
..
or
V 1
r
.
At r = R,
0
V 1 q
4 R
.
..
i.e., at the surface of the sphere potential is S
0
V 1 q .
4 R
.
..
The electric intensityinside the sphere,
inside 3
0
E 1 . q . r
4 R
.
..
inside
inside
dV E
dr
. .
.
S
V r
V inside 3 R
0
dV 1 q r dr
4 R
. .
.. . .
.
2 r
S 3
0 R
V V 1 q r
4 R 2
. .
. . . . . .. . .
Substituting
S
0
V 1 . q ,
4 R
.
.. we get
2
2
0
V 1 . q 3 1 r
4 R 2 2 R
. .
. . . . .. . .
At the centre r = 0 and C S,
0
V 3 1 q 3 V
2 4 R 2
. .
. . . . . .. . i.e., potential at the centre is 1.5 times the potential at
surface.
Thus, for a uniformlycharged solid spherewe have the following formulae for pote
ntial.
outside
0
V 1 q
4 r
.
..
surface
0
V 1 q
4 R
.
..
and
2
inside 2
0
V 1 q 3 1 r
4 R 2 2 R
. .
. . . . .. . .
1 q
R
1 q
R
32
V
The variationof potential (V)withdistance formthe
centre (r) is as shown in figure.
ELECTROSTATICS
Example-51 : The radius of a solidmetallic non-conducting sphere is 60 cmand cha
rge on the sphere is 500 C.
Find the electric field and potential at a distance 10 cmfromcentre of sphere.
Sol. The point 10 cmfromcentre of spherewill be inside the sphere. Hence,
inside 3
0
E 1 . qr
4 R
.
..
Here, q = 500 10 6 C, r = 10 cm = 0.10 m
R = 60 cm= 0.6 m
. . . 6
9 6
inside 3
E 9.0 10 500 10 0.10 2 10 N/C
(0.60)
. . .
. . . . .
and
2
inside 2
0
V 1 q 3 1 r
4 R 2 2 R
. .
. . . . .. . .
. . 6 2
9
2
9 10 (500 10 ) 3 1 (0.10)
(0.60) 2 2 (0.60)
. . . .
. . . . . .
. .
7.5 106 3 1
2 72
. . . . . . .. ..
7.5 106 107
72
. . .
= 1.1 107 V
Example-52 : Asolid non conducting sphere ofradiusRhas a non-uniformcharge distr
ibution ofvolume charge
density, 0
r ,
R
. . . where .0 is a constant and r is the distance fromthe centre of the sphere.
Showthat:
(a) the total charge on the sphere isQ = ..0R3 and
(b) the electric field inside the sphere has amagnitude given by,
2
4
KQr
E .
R
.
Sol. (a) dv = 4.r2dr

0 2 dq dV r 4 r dr
R
. .
.
. .
0 3 4 r dr
R
.
..
R
0 3
0
4
Q r dr
R
. . .. r
dr
R
4
0 3
0
4 R
Q Q R
R 4
. . . .
..
..
(b)
r
0 3
in
0
4
q r dr
R
. . ..
4 4
0 0 4 r 4 r
R 4 4R
. . .
.. ..
in
2
0
E q
4 r
.
. .
4
0
2
0
4 r
E
4R 4 r
.
. .
..
.
But Q = ..0R3
ELECTROSTATICS
0 3
Q
R
.. . and
0
K 1
4
.
. .
.
2
4
E KQr
R
.
Example-53 : Three concentric metallic shellsA, B and C of radii a, b and c (a <
b < c) have surface charge
densities ., . and . respectively.
(i) Find the potential of three shellsA, B and C.
(ii) If the shellsAand C are at the same potential, obtain the relation between
the radii a, b and c.
Sol. The three shells are shown in figure.
(i) Potential ofA= (Potential ofAdue to + ..onA)
+ (Potential ofAdue to
..on B)
+ (Potential ofAdue to + ..on C)
4 a2 4 b2 4 c2 K
a b c
. .
. . . . .
. .
. . . . . .
. .
0
. a . b . c
.
.
c
b
C B A a
+s
+s
- s
Potential of B = (Potential due to + ..onA) + (Potential due to
..on B)
+ (Potential due to + ..on C)
4 a2 4 b2 4 c2 K
a b c
. .
. . . . .
. .
. . . . . .
2
0
a b c
b
. .
. . . . . . . .
.
Potential of C = (Potential due to + ..onA) + (Potential due to

..on B) + (Poten
tial due to + ..on C)
4 a2 4 b2 4 c2 K
a b c
. .
. . . . .
. .
. . . . . .
2 2
0
a b c
b c
. .
. . . . . . . .
.
(ii) Given that VA =VC
or . . 2 2
0 0
a b c a b c
b c
. .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
or
a2 b2
a b c c
b c
. . . . .
Solving we get, c = (a + b).
Example-54 : An electric field converges at the originwhosemagnitude is givenby
the expression E = 100N/C,
where r is the distancemeasured fromthe origin.
(A) total charge contained in any sphericalvolumewith its centre at origin is ne
gative.
(B) total charge contained at anysphericalvolume, irrespective ofthe location of
its centre, is negative.
(C) total charge contained in a spherical volume of radius 3 cm with its centre
at origin has magnitude
310 13 C.
(D) total charge contained in a spherical volume of radius 3 cm with its centre
at origin has magnitude
310 9 C.
ELECTROSTATICS
Sol. Since, electric lines of forces are terminated into the sphere.
Hence, total charge contained by should the sphere should be negative.
So, options (A) and (B) are correct E
E
E
E
. 2
0
E q
4 r
.
..
Here r = 3 10 2C
. q = 3 10 13 m . Hence, option (C) is correct.
Example-55 : Figure shows a section through two long thinconcentric cylinders of
radii a&bwith a < b. The cylinders have equal and opposite charges per unit
length .. Find the electric field at a distance r fromthe axis for
b
a
(A) r < a (B) a < r < b (C) r > b
Sol. a l
b
- l
(A) r < a
C 0
0
E . ds .
. .
.. . r
b
E
a
0
E . 2 r . O
.
. .
E = 0
(B) a < r < b
C 0
q
E . ds .
. .
.. . r
b
a
0
E . 2 r .
.
.
. . .
0
E
2 r
.
.
.
.
(C) r > b
C 0
E ds 0
.
. . .
. . .. . . . . .
E . 2.r. . 0
a
b
r
E . 0
THINKINGTYPEPROBLEMS
1. The electric charge ofmacroscopic bodies is actually a surplus or deficit of
electrons.Why not protons?
2. What are insulators and conductors?
3. Acharged rod attracts bits of dry cork dust which, after touching the rod, of
ten jump away fromit violently.
Explain.
4. Atruck carrying explosives has ametal chaing touching the ground.Why?
5. Howis the Colulomb force between two charges affected bythe presence of a thi
rd charge ?
6. Aperson standing on an insulating stool touches a charged insulated conductor
. Is the conductor completely
discharged ?
7. Electric lines of fore never cross.Why ?
ELECTROSTATICS ELECTROSTATICS
8.
The electric field inside a hollow charged conductor is zero. Is this true or fa
lse ?
9.
The electric field inside a hollow charged sphericalconductor is the same at all
points and is equalto the field at
the surface. Is this true or false ?
10.
Theelectricpotentialinsideahollowchargedsphericalconductor isthesameat allpoints
andisequalto the
potential of the surface. Is this true or false ?
11.
AchargeAsituatedoutsideanunchargedhollowconductorexperiencesaforceifanother char
geBisplaced
insidetheconductor, but Bdoesnot experienceanyforce.Why?Doesitnotviolatethethird
lawofmotion?
12. If only one charge is available, can it be used to obtain a charge many time
s greater than it in magnitude?
13. In the previous question, does it make a difference which face of B is touch
ed in order to remove the free
charge (include positive charge) from B?
14. Can a small spherical body of radius 1 cm have a static charge of 1 C?
15. A metal leaf is attached to the internal wall of an electrometer insulated f
rom
the earth. The rod and housing of the electrometer are connected by a wire,
and then a certain charge is imparted to the housing. Will the leaves of the
electrometer be deflected ? What will happen to the leaves if the wire is
removed and the rod is then charged ?
16. Abroad metalplate is connected to the earth through a galvanometer. Apositiv
ely
charged ball flies along a straight line above the plate at a distance much less
than
the linear dimensions of the plate. Draw an approximate diagram showing how the
current flowing through the galvanometer depends on time.
17. The work done in carrying a point charge from one point to another in an ele
ctrostatic field depends on the path
along which it is taken. Is this true of false? Briefly explain your answer.
18. The figure shows lines of constant potential in a region in which on electri
c
field is present. The values of the ptentials are written in brackets. Of the po
ints
A, B and C, the magnitude of the electric field is greatest at the point...... G
ive
reasons for your answer in brief.
19. Can two balls with like charges be attracted to each other?
20. The housing of the electrometer of question no.15 is given a charge. Will th
e leaves of the electrometer be
deflected in this case? Will the deflection change if the rod is earthed ?There
is no connecion between the rod
and the housing.
21. By touching different points of a metal bucket with a test ball B connected
by a wire to an earthed electrometer
it can be observed that deflection ofthe leaves of the electrometer is the same
for any position of the ball. But
if the wire is removed and the charge is transferred by the ball to the ball of
the electrometer, the deflection
depends on which surface of the bucket (external or internal) is touched before
that. Why ?
22. The gravitationalfield strength is zero inside a sphericalshellof matter. Th

e electric field strength is zero not only
inside anisolated charged spherical coonductor but inside an isolated conductor
of anyshape. Is the gravitational
fieldinside,say, acubicalshellofmatter zero ?Ifnot, inwhatrespect istheanalogyno
t complete?
23.
Cantwo equipotentialsurfacesintersect?
24.
An isolated, conducting spherical shell of radius R carries a negative charge Q.
What will happen if a small,
positivelychargedmetalobject isplacedinsideandconnectedbyawire?Assume that thepo
sitivechargeis
(a) less than, (b) equal to and (c) greater than Q.
25.
Anunchargedmetalspheresuspendedbyasilkthreadisplacedinauniformexternalelectricfi
eldE.What is
the magnitude of the electric field for points inside the sphere ? Will your ans
wer change if the sphere carries a
charge?
26.
Is charge uniformlydistributed over the surface of an insulated conductor of any
shape ? If not, what is the rule
for the distribution of charge over a conductor?
27.
Areequipotentialsurfaceswhichariseduetoapointchargeandwhosepotentialsdiffer byac
onstant amount
(say 1 volt) evenly spaced in radius ?
28.
Two point charges Q and 4Q are fixed at a distance of 12cm from each other. Sket
ch the lines of force and
ELECTROSTATICS
locate the neutralpoint, if any.
29. Acharge +Qis fixed at a distance d in front of an infinite metal plate. Draw
the lines of force indicating the
direction clearly.
30. Indicate the surface distribution of charge on a squaremetal plate byusing d
ots in
such away that the greater the surface densityof charge, the farther awaythe dot
s
are fromthe plate (shown in fig.).
31. Ametal plate ismoved with a constant acceleration a parallel to its plane. D
oes any charge develop on its
surfaceswhich are perpendicular to itsmotion?
32. Is an electric field of the type shown by the electric lines in the figure
physicallypossible?
33. Zero work is donewhen a charged particle is transferred fromone equipotentia
l surface to another. Is this true
or false ?
34. ApotentialdifferenceVis set up betweena filament emitting electrons in avacc
umtube and a thinmetallic ring.
The electron beampasses past the ring through its central regionwithout spreadin
g. The kinetic energyof the
electrons inthe beamincreaseswhile the batteryproducing the potentialdifferenceV
performs nowork, since
no current flows through the circuit.
Howcan his fact be reconciledwith the principle of conservation of energy?
35. There is an electric field near the surface of a conductor carrying direct c
urrent. Is this true or false?
36. Ordinary rubber is an insulator. But the special rubber tyres of aircrafts a
re made conducting.Why is this
necessary?
37. Asmall sphere is charged to a potentialof 50Vand a big hollowsphere is charg
ed to a potentialof 100V. How
can youmake electricityflowfromthe smaller sphere to the bigger one?
38. An electric dipole is placed in a non-uniformelectric field. Is there a net
force on it?
39. Apoint charge is placed at the centre of a spherical gaussion surface. Does
electric flux e . change
(a) if the sphere is replaced by a cube of the same volume,
(b) if a second charge is placed near, and outside, the original sphere, and
(c) if a second charge is placed inside the gaussion surface?
40. Aspherical rubber balloon carries a charge that is uniformlydistributed over
its surface.As the balloon is blown
up, how does E vary for points (a) inside the balloon, (b) on the surface of the
balloon, and (c) outside the
balloon?
THINKINGPROBLEMS SOLUTION
1. Because protons are tightlybound in the nucleus.They cnnot be removed fromthe
re easily.
2. Conductors arematerials inwhichthere are a fewfree electrons per atomof thema
tter. Insulators arematerials
inwhich the electrons are not as free as in conductors.
3. Acharged rod first attracts the dust by producing unlike charge at the near e
nd and like charge at the far end.
When the cork dust touches the rod, however, it acquires like charge and so is r
epelled strongly bythe charge
on the rod.
4. To conduct away the charge produced by friction. This charge, unless conducte
d away to the earth, may

produce sparks causing the explosives in the truck to catch fire and explode.
5. The force on the charge due to another does not depend on the presence of oth
er charges, that is, electrical
forces are physically independent.
6. No, theman acts as a conducting body. He shares chargewith the charged body.
7. Because if theycross, the electric field at the point ofintersectionwillhave
two directions simultaneously,which
is physicallyimpossible.
8. It is true. The electric field inside a hollowcharged conductor is zero. This
follows fromthe conditionthat all
points on conductor have the same potential.
ELECTROSTATICS
9. It is false. The field inside is zero but on the surface, the field is finite
. 10. It is true.
11. This is so because there is an electric field overAbut there is no electric
field over B as it lies inside a hollow
conductor.No, this is not in violationof the third lawofmotion. In fact, force a
rises betweenAand the hollow
sphere, the charge B is simplyan internal part of the sphere.
12. Yes, by repeating the induction process. Place an insulated conductor B
close to the charged body.A. yinduction, an equal unlike charge is induced
at the near end ofBand equal like charge at the far end.Touch the body
B with your finger tip in the presence ofA.The like charge at the far end
will flowto the earth. But the unlike charge at the near endwill remain
bound due to the force of attraction. Nowremove the bodyB to a distant place.
The unlike charge, equal inmagnitude to the inducing charge,will spread over the
surface ofB as there is no
force of attraction to keep it on one side. Next, deliver this charge to a big b
ody by conduction, that is, by
touching this bodywithB. Repeat the process after completely dischargingB. To ob
tain a similar charge in
largemagnitude, first deliver unlike charge to a bodyC and thenrepeat the induct
ion process betweenC and
the body inwhich like charge is to be stored.
13. No. The free chargewillgo to the earth via the finger, irrespective ofwhich
part ofB is touched, because the
free positive charge inB exists at a higher potential due to the positive charge
onA. It is a fact that positive
charge always flows fromhigher to lower potential, irrespective ofthe path.
14. E 9 109 1 9 1013 NC 1
0.01
. . . . . .The field is everylarge.Air cannot sustain sucha strong electric fiel
d, so a
small bodycannot have a charge of 1 coulomb.
15. The housing and the rod connected togetherwillhave the same potential, so th
e leaveswillnot be deflected.
After thewire is removed and the rod is charged, both the leaves will be deflect
ed because of the potential
difference between the rod and the housing.
16. As the charge approaches the plate, electrostatic induction causes the
induced positive charge to pass into the earth,while the induced
negative charge accumulates on the upper surface of the plate.Apositive
current pulse passes through the galvanometer. No current is produced
when the chargemoves above the plate.An opposite current is producedwhen the cha
rgemoves away from
the plate.
17. It is false. thework done in carrying a point charge fromone point to anothe
r does not depend on the path
alongwhich it is carried because electric field is conservative.
18. It is greatest at the pointB. Since the electric field is the rate of fallof
potential, the stronger the field, the closer
the equipotentialsurfaces. In the figure, the equipotential surfaces are closest
in the neighbourhood ofB, so the
field at Bis the greatest.
19. Theycan, if the charge of one ball ismuch greater than that of the other.The
forces of attraction caused by the
induced chargesmay exceed the forces of repulsion.
20. When the housing of the electrometer is given some charge, the potentialof t
he rod cannot be the same as that
of the interior of the housing because the rod lies partlyoutside.On account of
thepotentialdifference between
the rod and the housing, the leaveswill be deflected.
When the rod is earthed, the potentialdifference between the rod and the housing
is increased further, so the
deflectionwillbe greater.
21. The electrometermeasures the potentialdiference between the bodyand
the housing of the electrometer. Since the surface of the bucket is
equipotential, the leaves showthe same deflectionwherever the testing
ballBmaytouch the surface of the bucket. But when the ballB is
disconnected fromA, the ballBcollects charge by conduction.When it
delivers this charge toA, the potentialof the leaves (and also of the rod)
is raised above the potential of the housing, so there is deflection of the leav
es.When B touches the inner
ELECTROSTATICS
surface, it collects no charge because there is no potential difference between
it and the inner surface of the
bucket. Unless there is a potentialdifference, there can be no flowof charge fro
mone body to another. So no
deflection takes placewhen the ballB touches the inner surface and then touchesA
. But when it touches the
outer surface, it collects a certain amount of charge, so there is deflection.
22. No, the field inside a cubical shellofmatter is not zero. The analozyis not
complete in respect of distribution of
mass and charge.Mass is uniformlydistributed but charge is not distributed unifo
rmly. It ismore concentrated
at the edges and corners.
23. No, two equipotentialsurfaces can never intersect because if they intersect
at a point, the electric field at that
point can have two directions simultaneously,whichis physicallyimpossible.
24. For the sake of simplicity, let us consider themetal bodyto be a sphere plac
ed at the centre of the shell.
VA (potentialof the surface of the shell)
0
1 Q q
4 R
. .
.
..
where R= radius of the shell and q is the charge of themetal body.
VB (potential of themetal body)
0
1 q Q
4 r R
.. . .. . . . . . ..
.. .
. B A
0
V V q 1 1
4 r R
. ..
. . .. . .. ..
.. .
. B A V . V
So chargewillflowfromthemetalbodyto the shell. SinceVB =VA at equilibrium, qmust
be reduced to zero,
i.e., the entire charge on themetalbodymust flowto the outer shell.
V, the common potential
0
q Q
4 R
.
.
.. . Thus, (a) when q <Q,Vis negative, (b) when q =Q,V= 0, (c) when q
> Q, Vis positive.
25. The field inside themetal sphere at all points is zero because r . is infini
tyformetals and 0
r
E ,
E
. . So E = 0.
No, the answer does not change if the sphere carries a charge.
26. Charge is not distributed uniformlyover the surface ofa conductor ofanyshape
. Charge is distributed according
to the curvature of the surface.The greater the curvature, the greater the surfa
ce density of charge.
27. No.
. . 2 1
1 2
0 1 2 0 1 2
q 1 1 q r r V V
4 r r 4 r r
.. .. . . . .. . ... .. .. .. ..
or . . 0 1 1
1 q r
4 r r r
.
.
.. . . where 2 1 .r . r .r
Obviously, . r is not constant. So the equipotential surfaces differing by 1Vare
not equispaced.
28. The lines of force are shown in the figure. Here, all the lines near the
edge of the figurewill appear to radiate uniformlyfromthe point P,
the centre ofgravity of the charges.At the neutral point N, the total
field is zero. Let it be at a distance x from4Q.
Then . .2 2
0 0
1 4Q 1 Q
4 x 4 12 x
.
.. .. . or x = 8 cm
29. The lines of force are shown in the figure.
Explanation Since it is ametalplate, its surface is an equipotential surface.
So lines of forcemust terminate normallyon it.
Note : One everyimportant result follows fromthismap of electric flued due to
a point charge and the induced charges on ametalplate. If a charge Qis placed as
far behind the plate as +Q
ELECTROSTATICS
is infront and the plate is removed,AB(positionof the plate) is still an equipot
ential surface. So for interaction
between +Qand the plate or for electric fields between them,wemayuse the formali
smof replacing the plate
by Q. This is called the electrical image of +Q.
30. The distributionof charge is shownin the figure.
Explanation Since the surface density of charge is proportional to curvature and
corners have the greatest
curvature and a plane surface has zero curvature, dots are equidistant fromthe s
traight portion and far away
fromthe corners.
31. Since the plate is accelerated, the electrons inside are also acceleratedwit
h the same acceleration.Aforcemay
be applied on an electron, onlywhen an electric field is created. So theremust d
evelop charges on the faces
that are perpendicular to the direction ofmotion, so that there develops an elec
tric field inside themetal plate.
The front facewill be charged positively, and the rear one negatively.The intens
ityof the electric field is given
by eE = ma.
Since E = ./.0, the surface density of charge developed is given by . = .0E = .0
ma/e
32. No. The concentration of lines at the botomindicates a field which is strong
er at the botoomthan on top.
Imagine a rectangular pathwith its two sides perpendicular to the electric lines
.Nowmove a charge along this
path. Some networkwillbe performed.But inanelectric field,work done is essential
lyzero as it is a conservative
field. Hence, an electric field of the type represented is physically impossible
.
33. False,Work is always done byanexternal agent when a charged particle is tran
sferred fromone equipotential
surface to another. Thework done per unit charge = potential difference.
34. There is an electric field between the filament and the ring.As the electron
is emitted fromthe filament, it experiences a force towards the ring and so it
is accelerated. It electricalpotential energy,which it acquires on emerging
fromthe filament, is converted into its kinetic energy. Thus, though the
batterydoes not supply any energy, the electron can gain velocityat the cost of
its ownpotential energy.
35. True. There is an electric field inside a current-carrying conductor.This is
equal
to V/l, whereVis the voltage across the conductor and l is the length of the
conductor. Now, consider a closed path abcda as shown in the figure.Work
done byan external agent along abcda is zero.
. inside outside inside E .ab.0.E .cd.0.0 . E . Eoutside
Hence, there is a field near the surface of the conductor.
36. To conduct awayelectricityproduced byfriction.
37. Place the smaller one inside the bigger one.As potential inside a hollowcond
uctor is the same as that of its
surface, the potential inside the hollow conductor is 100V. The potential of the
smaller conductor is now
100+50 =150V. Connecte the two conductors byawire. Chargewill flowfromthe smalle
r one to the bigger
one as the smaller one is at 150Vand the bigger one at 100V.
38. Yes, there is a net force on the dipole given by
F p E .
. .
.l
39. Total flux E
0
. . E ..s. 1 q
. . .. .
, byGauss s law.
(a) No, the fluxwill not change as it depends onlyon the total charge inside the
surface and not on the extent
and shape of the surface. (b)No, it remains the same as the total fluxis determi
ned solely bythe charge inside
the surface and not the charge outside. (c) Yes, flux will change as the total c
harge inside the surface has
changed.
40. (a) For points inside the balloon,E = 0, (b)E decreases as the surface densi
tyof charge decreases . . 0 E ../ . ,
(c) E remains constant because 2
0 E . q / 4.. r , where r is the distance of the point fromthe centre of the
balloon.
ELECTROSTATICS
Reasioning Type Questions
THE NEXT QUESTIONS REFER TO THE FOLLOWING INSTRUCTIONS
) is given just below it
of the statements, mark the correct answer as
(C) If A is true but R is false. (D) If both A and R are false. (E) If A is fals
e but R is true.
1. Assertion (A) : If there exists colomb attraction between two bodies, both of
them may not be charged.
Reason (R) : Due to induction effects a charged body can attract a neutral body.
2. Assertion (A) : A small metal ball is suspended in a uniform electric field w
ith an insulated thread. If high
energy X-ray beam falls on the ball, the ball will be deflected in the electric
field.
Reason (R) : X-rays emit photoelectrons and metal becomes negatively charged.
3. Assertion (A) : Electric current will not flow between two charged bodies whe
n connected if their charges
are same.
Reason (R) : Current is rate of flow of charge.
4. Assertion (A) : The surface densities of two spherical conductors of radii r1
and r2 are equal. Then the
electric field intensities near their surfaces are also equal.
Reason (R) : Surface charged density = charge/area.
5. Assertion (A) : When charges are shared between two bodies, there occurs no l
oss sof charge, but there
does occur a loss of energy.
Reason (R) : In case of sharing of charges, the energy of conservation fails.
6. Assertion (A) : Two adjacent conductors, carrying the same positive charge ha
ve a potential difference
between them.
Reason (R) : The potential of a conductor depends upon the charge given to it.
7. Assertion (A) : Dielectric breakdown occurs under the influence of an intense
light beam.
Reason (R) : Electromagnetic radiations exert pressure.
8. Assertion (A) : The tyres of aircrafts are slightly conducting.
Reason (R) : If a conductor is connected to ground, the extra charge induced on
conductor will flow to
ground.
9. Assertion (A) : Metallic shield in the form of a hollow shell, can be built t
o block an electric field.
Reason (R) : In a hollow spherical shell, the electric field inside it is zero a
t every point.
10. Assertion (A) : A bird perches on a high power line and nothing happens to t
he bird.
Reason (R) : The level of bird is very high from the ground.
11. Ametal sphere is suspended from a nylon thread. Initially, the metal sphere
is uncharged . When a positively
charged glass rod is brought close to the metal sphere, the sphere is drawn towa
rd the rod. But if the sphere
touches the rod, it suddenly flies away from the rod. Explain why the sphere is
first attracted, then repelled.
Level # 1.
Objective Type Question
1. Two copper spheres of same radii one hollow and other solid are charged to th
e same potential then

(A) both will hold same charge (B) solid will hold more charge
(C) hollow will hold more charge (D) hollow cannot be charged
2. Through the exact centre of a hydrogenmolecule, an . -particle passes rapidly
, moving on a line perpendicular
to the internuclear axis. The distance between the two hydrogen nuclei is b The
maximum force experienced
by the . -particle is
(A)
2
2
0
4
3 3..
e
b (B)
2
2
0
8
3..
e
b (C)
2
2
0
8
3 3. .
e
b (D)
2
2
0
4
3..
e
b
3. A uniform electric field pointing in positive x-direction exists in a region.
Let A be the origin, B be the point on
the x-axis at x = +1 cm and C be the point on the y-axis at y = +1 cm. Then the
potential at the points A, B
and C satisfy
(A) VA > VB (B) VA < VC (C) VA < VB (D) VA > VC
ELECTROSTATICS
4. On an equilateral triangle of side 1 m there are three point charges placed a
t its corners of 1C, 2C and 3C. The
work required to move these charges to the corners of a smaller equilateral tria
ngle of side 0.5 m is
(A) 19.8 x 1010 J (B) 39.6 x 1010 J (C) 9.9 x 1010 J (D) 4.45 x 1010 J
5. The potential field depends on x and y coordinates as V = (x2
y2). Correspond
ence electric field lines in x.y
plane as shown in figure.
(A) (B) (C) (D)
6. Two circular rings A and B, each of radius a = 130 cm are placed coaxially wi
th
their axes horizontal in a uniform electric field E = 105 NC 1 directed vertically
upwards as shown in Figure. Distance between centers of these rings A and B
is h = 40 cm, ring A has a positive charge q1 .10.C while ring B has a negative
charge of magnitude 2 q . 20.C . A particle of mass m = 100 gm and carrying a po
sitive charge q . 10.C
is released from rest at the centre of the ring A. Calculate its velocity when i
t has moved a distance of 40 cm.
(A) v . 6 2ms.1 (B) v . 4 2ms.1 (C) v . 7ms.1 (D) v . 32ms.1
7. Three identical spheres each having a charge q and radius R, are kept in such
a way that each touches the
other two. the magnitude of the electric force on any sphere due to other two is
(A)
. . 2
0
1 3
4 4
q
.. R
. .
.. ..
(B)
. . 2
0
1 2
4 4
q
.. R
. .
.. ..
(C)
. . 2
0
1 2
4 4
R
.. q
. .
. .
. .
(D)
. . 2
0
1 3
2 4
q
.. R
. .
.. ..
8. A system consists of a uniformly charged sphere of radius R and a surrounding
medium filled by a charge with
the volume density . .. r , where . is a positive constant and r is the distance
from the centre of the
sphere. Find the charge of the sphere for which the electric field intensity E o
utside is independent of r.
(A) 0 . 2 . (B) 0 2 . .
(C) 2.. R2 (D) None of the above
9. Three charges each of +q, are placed at the vertices of an equilateral triang
le. The charge needed at the
centre of the triangle for the charges to be in equilibrium is
(A) 3
.q
(B) . 3q (C) 3q (D) . 3q
10. Hollow spherical conductor with a charge of 500.C is acted upon by a force 5
62.5 N. What is electric
intensity at its surface?
(A) zero (B) 1.125 x 106 N/C (C) 2.25 x 106 N/C (D) 4.5 x 106 N/C
11. A hemisphere of radius R is charged uniformly with surface density of charge
. What will be the potential at
centre?
(A)
0 2
. R
. (B)
0 4
.
. (C)
0 2
.
. (D)
0
4
3
. R
.
ELECTROSTATICS
12. A circular cavity is made in a conductor. A positive charge q is placed
A
B
at the centre
(A) The electric field at A and B are equal
(B) The electric charge density at A = the electric charge density at B
(C) Potential at A and B are equal
(D) All the above.
13. An isolated metallic object is charged in vacuum to potential v0, its electr
ostatic energy being W0. It is then
disconnected from the source of potential, its charge being left unchanged and i
s immersed in a large volume
of dielectric, with dielectric constant k. The electrostatic energy will be.
(A) kW0 (B) 0 W
k (C) 0
2
W
k (D) W0.
14. A charge +q is fixed at each of the points x = x0, x = 3x0, x = 5x0 .... ad
inf. on the x-axis, and a charge
q is fixed at each of the points x = 2x0, x = 4x0, x = 6x0 .... ad inf. Here x0
is a positive constant. Take the
electric potential at a point due to a charge Q at a distance r from it to be Q/
( 4...r ). Then, the potential at
the origin due to the above system of charges is.
(A) Zero (B) 8 x log 2
q
..0 0 e (C) . (D)
0 0
e
4 x
q log 2
..
15. Apositively charged thinmetal ring of radius R is fixed in the xy-plane with
its centre at the originO. Anegatively
charged particle P is released from rest at the point (0, 0, z0) where z0 > 0. T
hen the motion of P is.
(A) Periodic, for all values of z0 satisfying 0 < z0 < .
(B) Simple harmonic, for all values of z0 satisfying 0 < z0
. R
(C) Such that P crosses O and continues to move along the negative z-axis toward
s z =
.
(D) None of these
16. For an infinite line of charge having charge density . lying along
x-axis, the work done in moving charge from C to A arc CA is.
(A) log 2
2
q
e
..0
.
(B) log 2
4
q
e
..0
.
(C) log 2
4
q
e
..0
.
(D) 2
log 1
2
q
e
..0
.
17. A particle A has charge +q and particle B has charge + 4q with each of them
having the same mass m.
When allowed to fall from rest through same electrical potential difference, the
ratio of their speeds vA : vB will
be
(A) 2 : 1 (B) 1 : 2 (C) 4 : 1 (D) 1 : 4
18. Three point charges q1, q2 and q3 are taken such that when q1 and q2 are pla
ced close together to form a
single point charge, the force on q3 at distance L from this combination is a re
pulsion of 2 units inmagnitude.
when q2 and q3 are so combined the force on q1 at distance L is an attractive fo
rce of magnitude 4 units. Also
q3 and q1 when combined exert an attractive force on q2 of magnitude 18 units at
same distance L. The
algebraic ratio of charges q1, q2 and q3 is.
3 : 4 (C) 4 :
3 : 1 (D) 4 :
3 : 2
(A) 1 : 2 : 3 (B) 2 :
19. An electric potential is given by V = k(xy), where k is a constant. A partic
le of charge q0 is first taken from
(0, 0) to (0, a) to (a, a), then directly from (0, 0) to (a, a) and lastly from
(0, 0) to (a, 0) to (a, a). If W1, W2 and
W3 be the work done for the individual paths respectively then
(A) W1 = W2 = W3 = q0ka2 (B) W1 = W3 =
2q0ka2
(C) W1 = W3 > W2 (D) W1 > W2 > W3
ELECTROSTATICS
20. Four charges 2C,
3C,
4C and 5C respectively are placed at all the corners of
a square. Which of the
following statements is true for the point of intersection of the diagonals ?
(A) Electric field is zero but electric potential is non-zero
(B) Electric field is non-zero but electric potential is zero
(C) Both electric field and electric potential are zero (D) Neither electric fie
ld nor electric potential is zero
21. Two metallic identical spheres A and B carrying equal positive charge + q ar
e a certain distance apart. The
force of repulsion between them is F. A third uncharged sphere of the same size
is brought in contact with
sphere. A and removed. It is then brought in contact with sphere B and removed.
What is the new force of
repulsion between A and B ?
(A) F (B) 8
3F
(C) 2
F
(D) 4
F
22. An electron of mass me, initially at rest, moves through a certain distance
in a uniform electric field in time
t1. A proton of mass mp, also initially at rest, takes time t2 to move through a
n equal distance in this uniform
electric field. Neglect the effect of gravity, the ratio t2 /t1 is nearly equal
to
(A) 1 (B) (mp /me)1/2 (C) (me /mp)1/2 (D) 1836
23. Eight dipoles of charges of magnitude are placed inside a cube. The total el
ectric flux coming out of the
cube will be
(A)
0
8e
. (B)
0
16 e
. (C)
0
e
. (D) Zero
24. A particle of mass m and charge q is released from rest in a uniform electri
c field E. The kinetic energy
attained by the particle after moving a distance x is.
(A) qEx2 (B) qEx2 (C) qEx (D) q2Ex
25. Two point charges +q and q are held fixed at ( d, 0) and (d, 0) respectively of
a x-y coordinate system. Then
(A) The electric field E at all points on the x-axis has the same direction.
(B) Work has to be done in bringing a test charge from . to the origin [1995]
(C) Electric field at all points on y-axis is along x-axis. (D) The dipole momen
t is 2qd along the x-axis.
26. Three charges Q, +q and +q are placed at the vertices of a
ring-angled isosceles triangle as shown. The net electrostatic
a
Q
+q +q
energy of the configuration is zero if Q is equal to [2000]
(A) 1 2
.q
. (B)
2
2 2
. q
. (C) 2q (D) +q
27. Three positive charges of equal value q are placed at the vertices of an equ
ilateral triangle. The resulting lines
of force should be sketches as in [2001]
(A) (B) (C) (D)
28. Two equal point charges are fixed at x = -a and x = +a on the x-axis. Anothe
r point charge Q is placed at the
origin. The change in the electrical potential energy of Q, when it is displaced
by a small distance x along the
x-axis, is approximately proportional to [2002]
(A) x (B) x2 (D) x3 (D) 1 x
ELECTROSTATICS
29. A metallic shell has a point charge q kept inside its cavity. Which one of the
following diagrams correctly
represents the electric lines of forces? [2003]
(A) (B) (C) (D)
30. Six charges of equal magnitude, 3 positive and 3 negative are to
be placed on PQRSTU corners of a regular hexagon, such that
field at the centre is double that of what is would have been if only
P Q
R
T S
U
O
one +ve charge is placed at R. [2004]
(A) +, +, +, , , (B) , +, +, +, ,
(C) , +, +, , +,
(D) +, , +, , +,
31. A Gaussian surface in the figure is shown by dotted lime. q1
q1
q2
The electric field on the surface will be [2004]
(A) due to q1 and q2 only (B) due to q2 only
(C) Zero (D) due to all
32. Three infinitely long charge sheets are placed as shown in
figure. The electric field at point P is [2005]
(A)
0
2 k
.
. (B)
0
4 k
.
.
Z
Z=a
Z= a
Z= 2a
P
x
2.
.
.
(C)
0
2 k
.
.
. (D)
0
4 k
.
.
.
33. Two equal negative charges q are fixed at points (0, a) on y-axis. A positive
charge Q is released from rest
at the point (2a, 0) on the x-axis. The charge Q will [1984]
(A) execute simple harmonic motion about the origin. (B) move to the origin rema
in at rest
(C) move to infinity (D) execute oscillatory but not simple harmonic motion
34. A charge q is placed at the centre of the line joining two equal charges Q.
The system of the three charges will
be in equilibrium if q is equal to: [1987]
(A) 2
. Q (B) 4
. Q (C) 4
. Q (D) 2
. Q
35. A solid conducting sphere having a charge Q is surrounded by an uncharged co
ncentric conducting hollow
spherical shell. Let the potential difference between the surface of the solid s
phere and that of the outer
surface of the hollow shell be V. If the shell is now given a charge of 3Q, the n
ew potential difference between
the same two surfaces is: [1989]
(A) V (B) 2V (C) 4V (D) 2V
36. A metallic solid sphere is placed in a uniform
electric field. The lines of force follow the path(s)
shown in Figure as [1996]
(A) a (B) 2
(C) 3 (D) 4
ELECTROSTATICS
37. A non-conducting solid sphere of radius R is uniformly charged. The magnitud
e of the electric field due to the
sphere at a distance r from its center [1998]
(A) increases as r increases, for r < R (B) decreases as r increases, for 0 < r
< .
(C) is discontinuous at r = R. (D) None of these
38. An ellipsoidal cavity is carved within a perfect conductor Figure. a
positive charge q is placed at the centre of the cavity. The points A A
B
q
and B are on the cavity surface as shown in the figure. Then [1999]
(A) electric field near A in the cavity = electric field near B in the cavity
(B) charge density at A = charge density at B
(C) potential at A = potential at B
(D) total electric field flux through the surface of the cavity is 0 q . .
More Than One Choice Questions:
39. Three concentric spherical metallic shells A, B and C of radii a, b and c (a
< b < c) have charge densities of
. , .. , and . respectively. The potentials of A, B and C are:
(a) . .
0
1
A V a b c .
.
. . . (b)
2
0
1
B
V a b c
c
.
.
. .
. . . . .
. .
(c)
2 2
0
1
C
V a b c
c c
.
.
. .
. . . . .
. .
(d) . .
0
1
A B C V V V a b c .
.
. . . . .
40. When positively charged spheer is brought near a metallic sphere, it is obse
rved that a force of attraction
exists between two. It means:
(a) metallic sphere is necessarily negatively charged. (b) metallic sphere may b
e electrically neutral.
(c) metallic sphere may be negatively charged. (d) mothing can be said about cha
rge of metallic sphere.
41. A conducting sphere of radius R has a charge. Then:
(a) the charge is uniformly distributed over its surface, if there is no externa
l electric field.
(b) distribution of charge over its surface will be non-uniform, if an external
electric field exists in the space.
(c) electric field strength inside the sphere will be equal to zero only when no
exxternal electric field exists.
(d) potential at every point of the sphere must be same.
42. A small sphere of amss m and having charge q is suspended by a light thread,
then:
(a) tension in the thread may reduce to zero if anohter charged sphere is placed
vertically below it.
(b) tension in the thread may increase to twice of its original value if another
charged sphere is placed
vertically below it.
(c) tension in the thread is greater than mg if another charged sphere is held i
n the same horizontal line in
which first sphere stays in equilibrium.
43. Two point charge: Q and Q/4 are separated by a distance x. Then:
(a) potential is zero at a point on the axis which is x/3 on the right side of t
he charge Q/4.
(b) potential is zero at a point on the axis which is x/5 on the left side of th
e charge Q/4.
(c) electric field is zero at a point on the axis which is at a distance x on th
e right side of the charge Q/4.
(d) there exist two points on the axis, where electric field is zero.
44. Two equal and oppositely charged particles are kept some distance apart from
each other. A spherical surface
having radius equal to separation between the particles and concentric with thei
r midpoint is considered.
Then:
(a) electric field is normal to the surface at two points only.
(b) electric field is zero at no point.
(c) electric potential is zero at every point of one circle only.
(d) net electric flux through the surafce is zero.
ELECTROSTATICS
45. Two identical charges +Q are kept fixed some distane apart. A small particle
P with charge q is placed midway
between them. If P is given a small displacement . , it will undergo simple harm
onic motion if:
(a) q is positive and . is along the line joining the charges.
(b) q is positive and . is perpendicular to the line joining the charges.
(c) q is negative and . is perpendicular to the line joining the charges.
(d) q is positive and . is along the line joining the charges.
(a) Charge cannot exist without mass but mass can exist without charge.
(b) Charge is conserved but mass is not.
(c) Charge is independent of state of rest or motion. (d) None of these
47. Which of the following quantities do not depend on the choice of zero potent
ial or zero potential energy?
(a) Potential at a point. (b) Potential difference between two points.
(c) Potential energy of a system of two charges. (d) Change in potential energy
of system of two charges.
Fill in the blanks:
1. Figure shows line of constant potential in a region in which an
electric field is present. The value of the potential are written in
brackets. Of the points A, B and C, the magnitude of the electric
A
B
C
(50 V)
(40 V)
(30 V)
(20 V)
(10 V)
field is greatest at the point ............. [1984]
2. Two small balls having equal positive charges Q (coulomb0 on each are suspend
ed by two insulating strings
of equal length L (metre) from a hook fixed to a stand. The whole set up is take
n in a satellite into space
where there is no gravity (state of weightlessness). The angle between the two s
tring is ............ and the
tension in each string is ......... newtons. [1988]
3. A point charge q moves from point P to point S along the path
PQRS (figure) in a uniform electric field E pointing parallel to
the positive direction of the X-axis. The coordinates of the points
X
Y
P
Q
R
S
E
P, Q, R and S are (a, b, O), (2a, O, O) (a, b, O) and (O, O, O)
respectively. The work done by the field in the above process is
given by the expression ..................... [1989]
4. The electric potential V at any point x, y, z (all in metres) in space is giv
en by V = 4x2 volts. The electric field
at the point (1m, 0.2 m) is ............... V/m. [1992]
5. Five point charges, each of value +q coul, are placed on five vertices
of a regular hexagon of side L metres. the magnitude of the force on
the point charge of q coul. Placed at he centre of the hexagon
1
2
3
5 4
q q
q
q q
q
L
is .......... newton. [1992] 6
True / False :
6. The work done in carrying a point charge from one point to another in an elec
trostatic field depends on the
path along which the point charge is carried. [1981]
7. Two identical metallic spheres of exactly equal masses are taken. One is give
n a positive charge Q coulombs
and the other an equal negative charge. Their masses after charging are differen
t. [1983]
8. A small metal ball is suspended in a uniform electric field with the help of
an insulated thread. If high energy
X-ray beam falls on the ball, the ball will be deflected in the direction of the
field. [1983]
ELECTROSTATICS
9. A ring of radius R carries a uniformly distributed charge +Q. A point charge q
is placed in the axis of the ring
at a distance 2R from the center of the ring and released from rest. The particl
e executes a simple harmonic
motion along the axis of the ring. [1988]
Table Match
10. Match List I and List II and select the correct answer using the codes given
below the lists:
The electric fields due to various charge distribution are (q is the total charg
e on the body, . is the surface
charge density, . is the linear charge density)
List I List II
I. At a distance x from the centre of a A. 2 2
0
1
2
E x
x R
. . .
. . . . . . . .
uniformly charged ring of radius R. The
point is on the line passing through the centre
of the ring and perpendicular to the plane
of the ring
II. At a distance x from the centre of a uniformly B.
0 2
E
x
.
.
.
.
charged ring of radius R. The point is on the
line passing through the centre of the ring and
perpendicular to the plane of the disc.
III. At a distance x from an infinite sheet of C.
0 2
E
.
.
.
uniform distribution of charge
IV. At a distance x from an infinite line of charge D. 2 2 3 2
0
1
4
E qx
. R x
.
. . . . . .
.
(A) I-A, II-C, III-B, IV-D (B) I-D, II-A, III-C, IV-B
(C) I-C, II-B, III-D, IV-A (D) I-B, II-D, III-A, IV-C
Passage Type Questions
E is the electric field created by q1. V is the voltage at a given point in the
field E. Assume that the
electric field created by q2 is negligible compared to E. k is Coulomb s Law const

ant. m1 si the mass of q1,
and m2 is the mass of q2.
1. E can best be described as
(A) constant (B) decreasing as r increases
(C) increasing as r increases (D) increasing as q2 increases
2. What is the work done on q2 when it is moved at constant velocity along the d
istance d?
(A) Zero (B) 1 Vq (C) 2 Vq (D) 2 Edq
3. Which of the following represents the work done on q2 when moved from its pre
sent position to a distance r
from q1?
(A) 1 2
1
2
kq q r (B) 1 2 kq q r (C) 1 2 2kq q r (D) 2
1 2 kq q r
4. If q1 and q2 have opposite charges, then when q2 is moved from its present lo
cation to a distance r from q1, the
force on q2 due to q1
(A) decreases by a factor of 4 (B) remains the same
(C) increases by a factor of 2 (D) increases by a factor of 4
d r
2r
q1
q2
ELECTROSTATICS
5. If q1 is positive then when q2 is moved from its present location to a distan
ce r from q1, the magnitude of the
voltage experienced by q2 due to E
(A) decreases by a factor of 4
(B) remains the same
(C) increases by a factor of 2 (D) increases by a factor of 4
6. The strength of the electric field E at r is
(A) half the field strength at 2r (B) the same as the field strength at 2r
(C) twice the field strength at 2r (D) four times the field strength at 2r
7. If q1 and q2 are both positively charged and q2 is released, what is the maxi
mum velocity that can be achieved
by q2?
(A)
1 2
2
kq q
m r (B)
1 2
2
2
kq q
m r (C)
1 2
2
2
2kq q
m r (D)
1 2
2
2kq q
m r
8. Electrostatic precipitators use electric forces to remove pollutant particles
from smoke, in particular in the
smokestacks of coal-burning power plants. One form of precipitator consists of a
vertical hollowmetal cylinder
with a thin wire, insulated from the cylinder, running along its axis. A large p
otential difference is established
between the wire and the outer cylinder, with the wire at lower potential. This
sets up a strong radial electric
field directed inward, producing a region of ionized air near the wire. Smoke en
ters the precipitator at the
bottom, ash and dust in the smoke pick up electrons, and the charged pollutants
are accelerated toward the
outer cylinder wall by the electric field. Suppose the radius of the central wir
e is 80.0 .m, the radius of the
cylinder is 12.0 cm, and the potential difference between the wire and the cylin
der is 60.0 kV. Assume that
the wire and cylinder are both very long in comparison to the cylinder radius.
(a) What is the electric-field magnitude midway between the wire and the cylinde
r wall?
(b) What magnitude of charge must a 30.0- .g ash particle have if the electric f
ield computed in part (a) is
to exert a force ten times the particle s weight?
9. A Geiger counter detects radiation such as alpha particles by using the fact
that the radiation ionizes the air
along its path. The device consists of a thin wire on the axis of a hollow metal
cylinder and insulated from it.
A large potential difference is established between the wire and the outer cylin
der, with the wire at higher
potential; this sets up a strong radial electric field directed outward. When io
nizing radiation enters the
device, it ionizes a few air molecules. The free electrons produced ar accelerat
ed by the electric field toward
the wire and, on the way there, ionize many more air molecules. Thus a current p
ulse is produced that can be
detected by appropriate electronic circuitry and converted to an audiable click. S
uppose the radius of the
central wire is 50.0.m and the radius of the hollow cylinder is 2.00 cm.
What potential difference between the wire and the cylinder is required to produ
ce an electric field of 6.00 x
104 N/C at a distance of 1.50 cm from the wire?
(Assume that the wire and cylinder are both very long in comparison to the cylin
der radius.
ELECTROSTATICS
Level # 2
1. As shown a solid spherical region having a spherical cavity
whose diameter R is equal to the radius of spherical region
P C
Q
R
that has a total charge Q. Find the potential at a point P, which
is at a distance x from C.
2. A spherical water drop of radius a has a charge Q spread uniformly over its f
ace. The drop is split into two
identical spherical droplets (each of which has charge Q/2 spread uniformly over
its face), which are kept
very far from one another.
(a) Compute the change in the electrostatic potential energy caused by the split
ting.
(b) Repeat the above calculation for the case in which the charge is uniformly d
istributed in the drop
volume, before and after the splitting.
3. An electric dipole is placed at distance x from centre
O on the axis of a charged ring of radius R and charge
Q uniformly distributed over it.
(a) Find the net force acting on the dipole.
(b) What is the work done in rotating the dipole through 180.
(c) If the dipole is slightly rotated about its equilibrium position, find the t
ime period of oscillation. Assume
that the dipole is linearly restrained.
4. Particle 1 located far from particle 2 and possessing the kinetic
energy T0 and mass m1 strikes particle 2 of mass m2 through
the aiming parameter ., the arm of the momentum vector relative
to particle 2 as; in the figure. Each particle carries a charge +q.
1
2
r
P
P0
.
Find the smallest distance between the particles when m1 < < m2.
5. An electric field line emerges from a positive point charge
+q1 at an angle . to the straight line connecting it to a
negative point charge q2. At what angle . will the field +
. .
enter the charge q q1 q2 2 ?
6. Two point charges each carrying a positive charge of 5e
(e being the magnitude of the electronic charge) are separated
by a distance 2d. An electron describes a circular
path due to the attraction of the charges in a plane biseA B
d
5e 5e
O d
P
R
cting perpendicularly the line joining the two point charges.
If the radius of the circular path described by the electron
is R, determine the orbital speed of the electron.
7. Five thousand lines of forces enter a certain volume of space, and three thou
sand lines emerge from it.
What is the total charge in coulombs with in the volume ?

8. Determine the strength E of the electric field at the centre of a hemisphere
produced by charges uniformly
distributed with a density . over the surface of this hemisphere.
9. Two small identical balls lying on a horizontal plane are connected by a
weight-less-spring. One ball (ball 2) is fixed and the other (ball 1 is free.
The balls are charged identically as a result of which the spring length +
1
2
increases . = 2 times. Determine the change in frequency. O
10. A semi-circular ring of mass M and radius R with linear charge
density . hinged at its centre is placed in a uniform electric field
as shown in the figure.
(i) Find the net force acting on the ring.
(ii) It the ring is slightly rotated about O and released, find its time
period of oscillation
(iii) What is the work done by an external agency to rotate it through an angle
..
ELECTROSTATICS
11. Determine the force F of interaction between two hemispheres of radius R tou
ching each other along the
equator if one hemisphere is uniformly charged with a surface density, . 1 and t
he other with a surface
density . 2.
12. Suppose in an insulating medium, having di-electric constant k = 1,
volume density of positive charge varies with y-coordinate to law . = ay.
A particle of mass m having positive charge q is placed in the medium
at point A(0, y0) and projected with velocity v = v0 . i and assuming
o x
y
v A 0
electric field strength to be zero at y = 0, calculate slope of trajectory of
the particle as a function of y.
13. A metal ball of radius r and density . is charged by direct contact from the
Earth s surface till it acquires its
maximum value. What should be this charge Qmax on the ball and the charge Q on t
he Earth (assuming it to
be uniform sphere of mass m and radius R) such that it may be launched from the
Earth s surface with zero
launch velocity.
14. A particle of mass m having negative charge q moves along an ellipse around
a fixed positive charge Q so
that its maximum and minimum distances from fixed charge are equal to r1 and r2
respectively. Calculate
angular momentum L of this particle.
15. Three concentric, conducting spherical shells A, B and C have radii a = 10 c
m, b = 20 cm and c = 30 cm
respectively. The innermost shell A is earthed and charge q2 = 4 .C and q3 = 3 .
C are given to shells B and
C respectively. Calculate charge q1 induced on shell A and energy stored in the
system.
16. The system consists of a hemispherical dielectric with volume charge
density
. . Find the potential difference between points A and B.
.
B
A
17. A space is filled up with volume density of charge r 3
0 e . . . . . where .0 and . are positive constants, r is
the distance from centre of the system. Find the magnitude of the electric field
strength vector as a function
of r.
18. Two identical balls are suspended from the same point by two threads. The ba
lls are given equal charges
and immersed in kerosene. Determine the density of the material of the balls if
the threads deflect equally
in vacuum and kerosene. The density of kerosene .0 = 0.8 g/cm3 and its relative
permittivity .0 = 2.
19. A charge q is placed on the surface of an originally uncharged soap bubble of
radius R0. Due to the mutual
repulsion of the charged surface, the radius is increased to a somewhat large va
lue R. Show that q =
1/ 2
2
0 0
2
0 0
2. PR R(R RR R )
3
32 ..
.
..
. . . . . in which P is the atmospheric pressure.
Level # 3
1. Two fixed charges 2Q and Q are located at the points with coordinates ( 3a, 0) a
nd (+3a, 0) respectively
in the x-y plane.
(a) Show that all points in the x-y plane where the electric potential due to th
e two charges is zero, lie on
a circle. Find its radius and the location of its centre.
(b) Given the expression V(x) at a general point on the x-axis and sketch the fu
nction V(x) on the whole xaxis.
(c) If a particle of charge +q starts form rest at the centre of the circle, sho
w by a short quantitative
argument that the particle eventually crosses the circle. Find its speed when it
does so. [IIT 91]
2. A blank to be filled appears in each of the following statements. Write in yo
ur answer book the subquestion
number and write down against it your answer corresponding to each blank. In you
r answer, the sequence
of the sub-questions should be the same as given in the question paper.
(i) If .0 and .0 are respectively, the electric permittivity and magnetic permea
bility of free space, . and
. the corresponding quantities in a medium, the index of refraction of the mediu
m in terms of the above
parameters is .....
ELECTROSTATICS
(ii) The electric potential V at any point x, y, z (all in meters) in space is g
iven by V = 4x2 volts. The electric
field at the point (1m, 0, 2m) is ...... V/m.
(iii) Five point charges, each of value +qC, are placed on five
vertices of a regular hexagon of side L metre. The magnitude
q q
q
q q
of the force on the point charge of value
qC placed at the
centre of the hexagon is ..... newton. [IIT 92]
3. A circular ring of radius R with uniform positive charge density . per unit l
ength is located in the y-z plane
with its centre at the origin O. A particle of mass m and positive charge q is p
rojected from the point P(R 3,
0, 0) on the positive x-axis directly towards O, with an initial speed v. Find t
he smallest (non-zero) value of
the speed v such that the particle does not return to P.
4. Consider the classical-model of an atom such that a nucleus of charge +e is u
niformly distributed within a
sphere of radius 2 . An electron of charge ( e) at a radial distance 1 moves insid
e the sphere. Find the
force attracting the electron to the centre of the sphere. Calculate the frequen
cy with which the electron
would oscillate about the centre of the sphere. [REE 95
5. A charge 10 9 coulomb is located at origin in free space and another charge Q a
t (2, 0, 0). If the
x-component of the electric field at (3, 1, 1) is zero calculate the value of Q.
Is the y-component zero at (3,
1, 1) ? [REE 95]
6. A radioactive source in the form of ametal sphere of radius 10 2m, emits beta p
articles at the rate of 5 1010
particles per s. The source is electrically insulated. How long will it take for
its potential to be raised by 2
volt assuming that 40% of the emitted beta particles escape the source ? [REE 97
]
7. A non-conducting disc of radius a and uniform positive surface charge density
. is placed on the ground,
with its axis vertical. A particle of mass m and positive charge q is dropped, a
long the axis of the disc, from
a height H with zero initial velocity. The particle has q/m = 4.0g/.. [IIT 99]
(a) Find the value of H if the particle just reaches the disc.
(b) Sketch the potential energy of the particle as a function of its height and
find its equilibrium position.
8. A particle of charge q and mass m moves rectilinearly under the action of an
electric field E = A Bx where
B is a + ve constant and x is a distance from the point where the particle was i
nitially at rest. Calculate
(a) Distance travelled by the particle till it comes to rest and (b) Acceleratio
n at that moment.
9. Four point charges + 8 .C,
1 .C,
1 .C and + 8 .C are fixed at the points 27 /
2m, . 3 / 2 m, . 3/ 2m
and . 27 / 2 m respectively on the y-axis. A particle of mass 6 10 4 kg and of cha
rge + 0.1 .C moves
along the x direction. Its speed at x = + . is v0. Find the least value of v0 fo
r which the particle will cross the
origin. Find also the kinetic energy of the particle at the origin. Assume that
space is gravity free. Given
1/(4..0 ) = 9 109 Nm2/C2. [IIT 2000]

10. Eight point charges are placed at the corners of a cube of edge a as
shown in figure. Find the work done in disassembling this system of
charges. [JEE 2003]
ELECTROSTATICS
Answer Key
Assertion-Reason
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. A C D B C B B A A C
Level # 1
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. A C A C A A A C A B
Q. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. A A B D A A B D A B
Q. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. B B D C C B C B C C
Q. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. D C D B A D A C BC BC
Q. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47
Ans. ABD ABC ABC ABCD AC ABC BD
Fill in the blanks, True-False & Match the column
1. B 2. 180,
2
2
0
1
4 4
Q
.. L
. 3. qEa 4. 8 5. 2
0
1
4
q q
.. L
.
6. F
7. T 8. T 9. F 10. B
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Ans. B A A D C D D
Passage Type
8. (a) 1.37 x 105 volt/m (b) 2.15 x 10 11 C
Level # 2
1.
. . .
.
. .
.
.
.
.
..
.
0 2 R2 4x2
1
x
2
7
V Q
2. (a) The fractional change = ..
.
..
. . .
22 / 3
1 1 (b) The fractional change in this case is also the same,.
3. (a)
2 2
2 2 5/2
0
aqQ R 2x
2 (R x )
. . .
. .. . . . .
(b) 2 2 3/ 2
0
aqQx
.. (R . x ) 4. 2 2
0
0
2
min (1 1 (2 T / q )
2T
r q . . .
.
. . ,
4 0
1
..
. .
ELECTROSTATICS
5. sin / 2
q
q
2
sin
2
1 . . ..
.
..
. .
6. 2 2 3 / 2
2 0 (R d )
V Re 5
.. .
. 7. 17.7 nc
8.
4.0
.
9. n
3n . 2
times 10. (i) ..RE (ii)
2 N
2 E
.
. (iii) 4.ER2
11. 1 2
0
2
2
F R . .
.
.
. 12. (y y )
3m v
a q 30
3
20
0
.
. 13. 2 0
max
Q 4 r Rg
3
..
. . ,
3
0Q 4 r gR
3
..
. .
14. 2 (r r )
mr r Qq
0 1 2
1 2
3 .C, Energy = 9.45 J 16.
.. . 15. q1 =
0
3
0
2
3
V R 2 2 R
.
.
.
.
.
.
17.
. r3 .
0
2
0
1 e
3 r
. . ..
..
18. 1.6 gm/cm3
Level # 3
1. (a) radius = 4a, centre dt (5a, 0) (b) ..
.
..
.
.
.
.. .
.
| x a |
2
| x 3a |
1
4
V Q
0
(c) At x = 9a where V = 0, the charged
particle eventually crosses the circle, 8 ma
V 9q
..0
.
2. (i)
.0.0
..
8 V/m (iii) 2
(ii)
9 2
L
9 .10 q (N)
3. 2 m
V q
.0
.
. 4. 9 1014 Hz
5. Q = 4.27 10 10 C, 0
4 11 11
E 2 10
0
9
y .
..
.
. .
.
6. 700 .F
4a
and H = 0
a
.0 . 8. x
B
2A
, a =
n
. qA
9. Vmin =
.
. ..
.
.. a
. q
4
1 2
0
X X X X
7. (a) H = 3
(b) 3
= 0, x =
3 m/s, K.E at origin = 2.5 10 4 J 10. W = 5.824 . ..
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
DHANALAKSHMI NAGAR
TIRUPATI.
PH NO. 9440025125
ELECTRIC CURRENT
THEORY OF ELECTRICCURRENT
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
The time rate of flow of charge through any cross-section is called current. The
refore, if through a crosssection,
.q charge passes in time .t, the average electric current through that area
av
i q
t
.
.
.
and instantaneous current
t 0
i lim q dq
. . t dt
.
. . .
.
Regarding electric current following points areworth noting :
(a) Current is assumed to be a fundamentalquantityin physicswith unit ampere and
dimension [A].TheCGS unit
of current is emu of current and is called biot (Bi), i.e.,
1A = 1C = (1/10)emu of charge
s s
1A = 1 Bi
10
(b) The current is same for allcross-sections of a conductor of non-uniformcross
-section. Similar towater flow,
charge flows fasterwhere the conductor is smaller in cross-section and slowerwhe
re the conductor is larger in
cross-section, so that charge rate remains unchanged.
(c) Though conventionallya direction is associatedwith current (opposite to the
motion of electrons) it is not a vector as the directionmerely represents the
sense of charge flow and not a true direction. Further current does not obey
i1
i2
i = i1 + i2
the lawof parallelogramof vectors, i.e., iftwo currents i1 and i2 reach a point
we always have i = i1 + i2 whatever be the angle between i1 and i2.
(d) By convention, the direction of current is taken to be that inwhich positive
chargemoves and opposite to the
direction of flowof negative charge.
(e) As charge is conserved and current is the rate of flowof charge, the charge
entering at one end per second of
a conductor is equal to the charge leaving the other end per second.
(f) Current indifferent situations is due to motion of different charge carries.
Current inconductors and vacuum
tubes isdue tomotion ofelectrons, inelectrolytes due tomotion ofbothpositive and
negative ions, indischarge
tube due tomotion of positive ions and negative electrons and in semiconductors
due tomotion of electrons
and holes.
Example 1. The current in awire varieswith time according to the relation
i (3.0A) 2.0 A t
s
. . . . .. ..
(a) How many coulombs of charge pass a cross-section of the wire in the time int
erval between t = 0 and

t = 4.0 s?
(b)What constant current would transport the same charge in the same time interv
al ?
Sol. (a)
i dq
dt
.
.
q 4
0 0
. dq . . idt
.
4
0
q . . (3. 2t)dt
. . 2 4
0 q . ..3t . t .. . 12 .16 . 28 C
ELECTRIC CURRENT
(b)
i q 28 7 A
t 4
. . .
Types of Electric Current
According to itsmagnitude and direction current is usuallydivided into two types
:
(i) Direct current : If themagnitude and direction of current does not varywith
time, it is said to be direct current
(DC). Cell, battery or DC dynamo are its sources.
(ii) Alternating current : If a current is periodic (with constant amplitude) an
d has half cycle positive and half
negative, it is said to be alternating current (AC).ACdynamo is the source of it
.
NOTE : It is worthy to note here that rectifier converts
AC into DC while inverter DC into AC.
Rectifier
Inverter
DC AC
Current Density
Current densityJ .
at at a point is defined as a vector havingmagnitude equalto current per unit ar
ea surrounding
that point and normal to the directionof charge flowand directioninwhich current
passes through that point.
So, if at point P current .I passes normally through area .S as shown in Fig., c
urrent densityJ .
at P will be
given by
S 0
J lim i n
. . S
.
.
.
. . +
dS
i P n J
i.e.,
J di n
dS
.
. .
Regarding current densityfollowing points areworth noting :
(a) If the cross-sectional area is not normal to the current, the cross-sectiona
l area normal to the current in
accordancewith Fig., will be
dS . dS cos .
.
J di
dScos
.
.
i J
dS
i.e., di = JdS cos . dS cos
or di . J . dS
. .
i.e., i . . J . dS
. .
(b) In case of conductors asV= iRand by definitions,
E V and R V
L S
. . .
So, .EL. i L
S
. .
i.e.,
J i 1 E
S
. .
.
or J . . E
. .. . 1 .
. . . . . . .
.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
(c) In case of uniformcharge flowthrough a cross-section normal to it as
i = nqvS
So,
J i n (nqv) n
S
. .
. . .
or charge J . nq v . v (.)
. . .
[(.)charge = nq]
Drift Velocity
The average uniformvelocity acquired by free electrons inside ametalby the appli
cation of an electric field
which is responsible for current through it is called drift velocity. It is repr
esented by vd .
The current flowing throughconductor
d d
i neAv or v i
neA
. .
where n= number ofmoving electrons per unit volume
A= area of cross-section
NOTE : Some books have taken average drift velocity as half of initial and final
drift
velocities of an electron giving vd = (eE./2m). This is wrong as vd is the avera
ge of drift
velocities of large number of electrons at same instant and as for each electron
v .
.
d = a f with .. / . .
. ..
a= e E m constant , . . . . v
v . . /
. ..
d
a
= e E m .
Example 2. An n-type silicon sample ofwidth 4 10 3m, thickness 25 10 5 mand length 6
10 2 mcarries a
current of 4.8mAwhen the voltage is applied across the length of the sample.What
is the current density ? If
the free electron density is 1022 m 3, then find howmuch time does it take for the
electrons to travel the full
length of the sample ?Given that charge on an electron e = 1.6 10 19C.
Sol. Bydefinition,
. .
J i i
S b d
. .
. [as s = (b d)]
So, . . . .
3
3 2
5 3
J 4.8 10 4.8 10 A/m
25 10 4 10
.
. .
.
. . .
. . .
and as in case of electric conduction inmetals
J = nevd
or d
v J
ne
.
So,
3
d 22 19
4.8 10
v 3 m/ s
10 1.6 10.
.
. .
. .
Hence, time taken by electron to travel the length L (= 6 10 2 m) of the conductor
2
d
L 6 10
t 0.02 s.
v 3
. .
. . .
Example 3. The area of cross-section, length and density of a piece of a metal o
f atomicweight 60 are 10 6m2,
1mand5 103 kg/m3 respectively. Find the number of free electrons per unit volume
ifeveryatomcontributes
one free electron.Also find the drift velocityof electrons in themetalwhen a cur
rent of 16Apasses through it.
Given thatAvogadro s number NA = 6 1023/mol and charge on an electron e = 1.6 10 19C
.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
Sol. As according toAvogadro s hypothesis,
A
A
A
N m so n N N m N d as d m
N M V VM M V
. . . . . . . .. ..
.
. .
. .
23 3
28 3
3
6 10 5 10
n 5 10 /m
60 10.
. . .
. .
.
Nowas each atomcontributes one electron, the number of electrons per unit volume
ne = 1 n = 1 5 1028 = 5 1028/m3
Further as here,
6 2
6
J i 16 16 10 A/m
A 10. . . . .
and as J = nevd
. . . .
6
3
d 28 19
v J 16 10 2 10 m/ s
ne 5 10 1.6 10
.
.
.
. . . .
. . .
NOTE : From this example it is clear that : An electron will take 1/(2 10 3), i.e.
,
500 s = (8.3 min.) to travel 1 m length of wire if it can.
If resistivity of metal . is taken to 2 10 8 ohm m, the electric field inside the me
tal
E = .J = (2 10 8) (16 106) = 0.32 V/m and not zero as in electrostatics.
RESISTANCE AND OHM S LAW
For somematerials, especiallymetals, at a given temperature, J .
is nearlydirectly proportional to E.. and the
ratio ofthemagnitudesE and J is constant.This ratio is called the resistivity(.)
and this relationship is called the
Ohm s law.
Thus, resistivity
E
J
. .
SI units ofresistivity are . m(ohm metre).The reciprocalof resistivityis conductivit
y(.).
Thus,
. . 1
.
Amaterial that obeysOhm s lawreasonablywell is called an ohmic conductor or a line
ar conductor.Materials
which show substantial departures fromOhm slaw arecalled non-ohmic or non-linear.
Resistance
Suppose a conductingwire has a uniformcross-sectional areaAand length
l as shown in Fig. Let Vbe the potentialdifference between the ends of the
wire. If themagnitudes of the current densityJ .
and the electric field E.. are
J
E
A
+
V
l
i
uniformthroughout the conductor, the total current i is given by i= JAand
the potential differenceVbetween the ends isV= El.
.
V E
i JA A
. l . . l
Here, A
. l
is constant for ohmicmaterials. This is called the resistance R.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
Thus,
R V
i
.
The resistanceR of a particular conductor is related to the resistivity . ofitsm
aterial by
R
A
. . l
The equation, V = iR
is often calledOhm s law.
NOTE : The equation
R= V
i defines resistance R for any conductor, whether or not it obeys ohm s law, but
only when R is some constant we can correctly call this relationship Ohm s law.
Thus, for ohmic conductors V i group is a straight line possing through origin.
The slope of this line is equal to the resistance of the conductor.
V
i
.
R = V = tan
i
.
Reciprocal of resistance is called conductance (G),
i.e.
G = 1 = i
r V
SI unit of G is ohm 1 which is called mho.
Example 4. Two copper wires of the same length have got different diameters, whi
chwire has :
(a) greater resistance and (b) greater specific resistance ?
Sol. (a) For a givenwire,
R
A
. . l
i.e.
R 1
A
.
So, the thinner wirewill have greater resistance.
(b) Specific resistance (.) is amaterial property. It does not depend on l orA.
So, both thewireswillhave same specific resistance.
Example 5. Awire has a resistance R.What will be its resistance if it is stretch
ed to double its length ?
Sol. Let Vbe the volume ofwire, then
V =Al
A . V
l
Substituting this in R
A
. . l
,we have
2
R
V
. . l
So, for given volume andmaterial, (i.e., Vand . are constant)
R . l2
When l is doubled, resistancewill become four times, or the newresistancewill be
4R.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
VARIATION OF RESISTANCE WITH TEMPERATURE
The resistance of a conductor varieswith temperature. The graph of variation of
resistance of puremetalwith temperature is shown.
Mathematically the dependence of resistance R on temperature is expressed as
R0 0
T0
T
R
Slope = R
R (T) = R O 0[1 + .(T
T0)]
In this equationR(T) is the resistance at temperature T and R0 is the resistance
at temperature T0, often taken to be 0C or 20C. The factor . is temperature coeffi
cient of resistivity.
Example 6. The resistance of thin silver wire is 1.0 ..at 20C. Thewire is placed
in a liquid bath and its resistance
rises to 1.2 ..What is the temperature of the bath ?
..for silver is 3.8 10 3 per C.
Sol. R (T) = R0[1 + .(T T0)]
Here, R (T) = 1.2 ., R0 = 1.0.
..= 3.8 10 3 per C and T0 = 20C
1.2 = 1.0[1 + 3.8 10 3(T 20)]
or 3.8 10 3 (T
20) = 0.2
Solving this, we get T = 72.6 C
Example 7. Aresistance Rof thermal coefficient of resistivity= . is connected in
parallelwith a resistance = 3R,
having thermal coefficient of resistivity= 2.. Find the value of .eff .
Sol. The equivalent resistance at 0C is
10 20
0
10 20
R R R
R R
.
. ...(i)
The equivalent resistance at tC is
1 2
1 2
R R R
R R
.
. ...(ii)
But R1 = R10 (1 + .t) ...(iii)
R2 = R20(1 + 2.t) ...(iv)
and R = R0(1 + .efft) ...(v)
Putting the value of (i), (iii), (iv), (v) in eqn (ii),
eff
5
4
. . .
Example 8. (a) The current density across a cylindrical conductor of radius R va
ries according to the equation
0
J J 1 r
R
. . . . .. .. , where r is the distance fromthe axis. Thus the current density i
s a maximumJ0 at the axis

r = 0 and decreases linearlyto zero at the surace r = R.Calculate the current in
terms of J0 and the conductor s
cross sectional area isA= .R2.
(b) Suppose that instead the current densityis amaximumJ0 at the surace and decr
eases linearlyto zero at the axis
so that 0
J J r .
R
. Calculate the current.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
Sol. (a)We concider a hollowcylinder of radius r and thickness dr.
The cross-sectional area of considered element is dA= 2.rdr
The current in considerd element is
0
dI JdA J 1 r 2 rdr
R
. . . . . . .. ..
or 0
dI 2 J 1 r rdr
R
. . . . . .. ..
.
R
0 0
I 2 J 1 r rdr
R
. . . . . . .. ..
2
0 0
R A
I J J
3 3
.
. .
(b)
R 2
0 0
r
I 2 J dr
R
. . .
3 R
0
0
I 2 J r
R 3
. . .
. . .
. .
3
0
0
2 J R 2A
I J
R 3 3
.
. .
Example 9.Anetwork of resistance is constructedwith
R1&R2 as shown in the figure. The potential at the
points 1, 2, 3,......, N are V1, V2, V3,........, VN
respectivelyeach having a potential k time smaller than R2 R2 R2 R3
V0 R1 V
VN
N 1
R1
R1 V1= V0
k
I I1
V2= V0
k2
VN= V0
kN
I I1 I2 I2
previous one. Find:
(i) 1
2
R
R and 2
3
R
R in terms of k
(ii) current that passes through the resistance R2 nearest to theV0 in termsV0,
k&R3.
Sol. R2 R2 R2 R3
V0 R1 V
VN
N 1
R1
R1 V1= V0
k
I I1
V2= V0
k2
VN= V0
kN
I I1 I2
(i) According to kcL,
I = I1 + I2
or
0 0 0 0
0 2
1 2 1
V V V 0 V V
k k k k
R R R
. . .
. .
or
. . . . 0 0 0
2
1 2 1
k 1 V V k 1 V
kR kR k R
. .
. .
ELECTRIC CURRENT
.
. .2
1
2
R k 1
R k
.
.
Also,
I = I1 + I2
or
0 0 0 0
N 2 N 1 N 1 N 1
1 2 1 3
V V V 0 V 0
k k k k
R R R R
. . . . . . .
. .
.
After solving,
2
3
R k
R k 1
.
.
(ii)Here,
0
1
1
2 2
V 0 V 0 k I
R R
. .
. .
. . 0 0 0
1 2
2 3
3
V V k 1 V
I
kR k k R k R
k 1
.
. . .
. .
.. . ..
Example 10. Arod of length Land cross-sectionareaAlies along the x-axis between
x= 0 and x= L.Thematerial
obeysOhm s lawand its resistivityvaries along the rod according to .(x) = .0 e x/L.
The end of the rod at x =
0 is at a potentialV0 and it is zero at x = L.
(a) Find the total resistance of the rod and the current in thewire.
(b) Find the electric potential in the rod as a function of x.
Sol. (a) The resistance of considered element is
0 x / L dR dx e dx
A A
. .
. . .
.
0 L x / L 0 x /L L
0 0
R e dx L e
A A
. . . .. . . . . . . .
x dx
0 1 0 L L 1 R e 1 1
A A e
. . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . .
0L e 1 R
A e
. . . . . . . . .
. . .
0 0 0
0
I V 0 V AeV
R R L e 1
.
. . .
. .
(b) . E = .J
or x /L
0 E . . e. J
E = 0 x /L I Ie
A A
. .
. , . .
x / L
0 0
0
e AeV
E
A L e 1
. .
.
. .
. .
x /L
0
1
E e V
L 1 e
.
. .
.
. 0 x E V V
x
.
.
Vx = Ex
. V0
ELECTRIC CURRENT
or
. .
. .
x /L 1
0
x 0 1
V e e
V V Ex
1 e
. .
.
.
. . .
.
ELECTRIC CELL
An electric cell is a devicewhichmaintains a continuous flow of charge (or elect
ric current) in a circuit by a
chemicalreaction.
In an electric cell, there are two rods of differentmetals called as electrodes.
These electrodes are kept in a
solution called electrolyte. On joining two electrodes by a wire the charge begi
ns to flow in the wire, i.e.,
current flows inthewire. Inside the cell, a chemical reaction takes place in the
electrolytewhichmaintains the
charge onthe electrodes and the flowofcharge inthewire is continuouslymaintained
. Thus, a cellconverts the
chemicalenergyinto electricalenergy. Inthe light ofmodernviews inreference to a
cell following terms need to
be reviewed.
Electromotive Force (EMF)
The emf ofa cell is defined aswork done bythe cell inmoving unit positive charge
in thewhole circuit including
the cellonce. Therefore, ifWis thework done bya cell inmoving a charge q once ar
ound a circuit including the
cell,
emf E W
q
.
SI unit of emf is joule/coulomband is called volt. The emf of a cell in a circui
t is taken to be positive, if circuit
current inside a cell, is fromnegative to positive terminal, (i.e., cell is disc
harging) otherwise negative as shown
inFig.
E1 E2
+ i
i +
E = E1 + E2
(a)
E1 E2
i + +
i
E = E1 E2
(b)
E1 E2
i + +
i
E = E2 E1
(c)
NOTE : The term electromotive force is misleading introduced by Volta who though
t it to be
force that causes the current to flow. Actually emf is not a force but work requ
ired
to carry unit charge from lower potential to higher potential inside the cell.
Internal Resistance (r) and Terminal Potential Difference
The potential difference across a real source in a circuit is not equal to the e
mf of the cell. The reason is that
chargemoving throughthe electrolyte ofthe cell encounters resistance.We cellthis
the internalresistance ofthe
source, denoted byr.As the currentmoves through r, it experiences an associated
drops in potential equal to
ir .Thus,whena current is drawnthrougha source, the potentialdifference between the
terminalofthe source
is,
V = E
ir
This can also be shown as below:
E r
i
A B
VA E + ir =VB
or VA
VB = E ir
Following three special cases are possible :
(i) If the current flows in opposite direction (as in case of charging of a batt
ery), thenV= E + ir
(ii)V= E, if the current through the cellis zero
ELECTRIC CURRENT
(iii) V= 0, if the cellis short circuited.
This is because current in the circuit
i E
r
.
or E = ir
Short Circuited
E r
. E
ir = 0
or V = 0
Thus,we can summarise it as follows :
E r
i
V = E
ir or V < E
E r
i
V = E + ir or V > E
E r
V = E if i = 0
E r
i =Er
V = 0 if short circuited
COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES
In Series
Fig., represent a circuit consisting ofa source of emf and two resistors connect
ed in series.
A
B
R1
R2
V
V1
V2
A
B
V R
i
Let equivalent resistor is R as shown.
Then R = R1 + R2
This result can be readily extended to a network consisting of n resistors in seri
es.
. R = R1 + R2 + ....... + Rn
In Parallel
Fig., represents a circuit consisting of a source of emf and two resistors conne
cted in paralle.
A
B
V R1
A
B
V R
i
i1 i2
R2
i
IfR be the equivalent resistance, then
1 2
1 1 1
R R R
. .
This result can be extended to a network consisting of n resistors in parallel.
The result is
ELECTRIC CURRENT
1 2 n
1 1 1 .......... 1
R R R R
. . . .
NOTE : In series combination, the same current flows through each resistance whi
le in parallel
combination, the voltage drop across each resistor is equal to the source voltag
e V.
Example 11. Compute the equivalent resistance of the network shown in Fig., and
find the current idrawn fromthe
battery.
18V
i i
4
6
3
Sol. The 6 . and 3 . resistances are in parallel. Their equivalent resistance is
,
18V i
4 2
1 1 1 or R 2
R 6 3
. . . .
Nowthis 2 . and 4 . resistances are in series and their equivalent resistance is
4 + 2 = 6 ..
Therefore, equivalent resistance of the network = 6 ..
i 18V
6
Current drawn fromthe batteryis,
i = net emf = 18 = 3A
net resistance 6
Star-Delta (.) Conversion
For Fig. (a) . (Delta), to be equivalent to Fig. (b) (Star)Y,
R2
A
B C
R1 R3
R1 R3
R2
RA
A
B C
RB RC
A
B C
RA
RB RC
(a) (b) (c)
1 3 1 2
A B
1 2 3 1 2 3
R R R , R R R
R R R R R R
. .
. . . .
ELECTRIC CURRENT
and 2 3
C
1 2 3
R R R
R R R
.
. .
Example 12. Find the equivalent resistance betweenAand B in Fig. using Star-Delt
a Theorem.
10
A
B
C
D 10
10 10
10 10 10
Sol. Using Star-Delta theorem, the equivalent circuit can be drawn as shown in f
ig.
10
10
10
RC = 5
RB = 5
RD = 2.5
15
22.5
5 9 5
A
C
D
O B A O B A B
CB CD
C
CB CD DB
R R R 20 10 5
R R R 20 10 10
. .
. . . .
. . . .
DC DB
D
DC DB CB
R R R 10 10 2.5
R R R 10 10 20
. .
. . . .
. . . .
BC BD
B
BC BD DC
R R R 20 10 5
R R R 20 10 10
. .
. . . .
. . . .
R 15 22.5 15 22.5 9
15 22.5 37.5
. .
. . . .
.
Hence, RAB = R + 5 = 9 + 5 = 14 .
Example 13.What willbe the change in the resistance of a circuit consisting
of five identical conductors if two similar conductors are added
as shown by the dashed line in figure.
Sol.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
r r
r
r r r
r
B
A
r
r r
r
r
r
B
A
r
2r
2r
A r B
A r r r B
R2 = Req = 3r
But before added the conductors, the equivalent resistance is
1 eq R . R . 5r
. 2
1
R 3
R 5
. .
KIRCHHOFF S LAW
Manyelectric circuits cannot be reduced to simple series-parallel combinations.
For example, two circuits that
cannot be so broken down are shown in fig.
R1
R2
R3
E1
E2
A B
D C
F E
(a) (b)
E1 E2 E3
R1
R2 R3 R4
A B D
E F G
I H
R5
C
However, it is always possible to analyze such circuits byapplying two rules, de
vised byKirchhoff.
First here are two terms that wewill use often.
Junction : Ajunction ina circuit is a point where three ormore conductorsmeet. J
unctions are also called nodes
or branch points.
For example, in figure (a) pointsDand Care junctions. Similarly, in figure (b) p
oint B and F are junctions.
Loop : Aloop is any closed conducting path. For example, in figure (a)ABCDA,DCEF
DandABEFAare loops.
Similarly, in figure (b), CBFEC, BDGFBare loops.

Kirchhoff s rules consists of the following two statements.
(i) Junction rule : The algebraic sumof the currents at any junction is zero.
That is, junction
. i . 0
i2 i2
i3
This lawcan also bewritten as, the sumof all the curents directed towards a i4
point incircuit is equal to the sumof all the currents directed awayfromthat poi
nt.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
Thus, infigure i1 + i2 = i3 + i4
The junction rule is based on conservation of electric charge.
(ii) Loop rule : The angebraic sumof the potentialdifferences in anyloop includi
ng those associated emf s and
those of resistive elements,must equal zero.
That is, closed loop
. .V . 0
The loop rule is based on the fact that the electrostatic field is conservative
in nature.
In applying the loop rule, we need sign convention as discussed below:
(a) Whenwe travel through a source in the direction from to +, the emf is
considered to be positive.
E
A B
Path
(a)
(b) Whenwe travel form+ to , the emf is considered to be negative.
E
A B
Path
(b)
(c) Whenwe travel through a resistor in the same direction as the assumed
current, the iR termis negative because the current goes in the direction
R
A B
Path
(c)
i
of decreasing potential.
(d) Whenwe travel through a resistor in the direction opposite to the assumed
current, the iR termis positive because this represents a rise of potential.
R
A B
Path
(d)
i
Example 14. Find current in different branches ofthe electric circuit shown in f
igure.
2
A B
C
D
4
4 2
F E
2V 4V 6V
Sol. ApplyingKirchhoff s first law(junction law) at junctionB,
i1 = i2 + i3 ...(i)
ApplyingKirchhoff s second lawin loop 1 (ABEFA),
4i1 + 4
2i1 + 2 = 0 ...(ii)
ApplyingKirchhoff s second lawin loop 2 (BCDEB),
2i3
6
4i3
4 = 0 ...(iii)
Solving Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii),we get
i1 = 1A
C
D
2V 1 4V 2 6V
A B
F E
2 4
4 2
i3 i2
i1 i3
i1
2
i 8 A
3
.
3
i 5 A
3
. .
Here, negative sign of i3 implies that current i3 is in opposite direction ofwha
t we have assumed.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
IMPORTANT FEATURES
1. Distribution of current in parallel connections : When
more than one resistances are connected in parallel, the
potential difference across themis equal and the current is i i2 3
i1
i
R
2R
distributed among themin inverse ratio oftheir resistance, as 3R
i V
R
.
or
i 1
R
. for same value ofV
e.g., inthe figure,
1 2 3
i : i : i 1 : 1 : 1 6 : 3 : 2
R 2R 3R
. .
1
i 6 i 6 i
6 3 2 11
. . . . .. . . ..
. 2
i 3 i 3 i
6 3 2 11
. . . . .. . . ..
and 3
i 2 i 2 i
6 3 2 11
. . . . .. . . ..
2. Distribution of potential in series connections :Whenmore than one resistance
s are connected in series,
the current through themis same and the potential distributed in the ratio of th
eir resistance, as
V = iR
or V . R for same value of i.
e.g., inthe figure,
V1 V2 V3
R 2R 3R
i
V1 : V2 : V3 = R : 2R : 3R = 1 : 2 : 3
. 1
V 1 V V
1 2 3 6
. . . . .. . . ..
2
V 2 V V
1 2 3 3
. . . . .. . . ..
and 3
V 3 V V
1 2 3 2
. . . . .. . . ..
COMBINATION OF CELLS
Cells are usuallygrouped in following threeways :

In Series
Suppose n cells each of emfE and internal resistancer are connected in series as s
hown in figure. Then
ELECTRIC CURRENT
r
i
R
E E r E r
Net emf = nE
Total resistance = nr + R
.
Current in the circuit = Net emf
Total resistance
or
i = nE
nr +R
NOTE : If palarity of m cells is reversed, then equivalent emf = (n
while total resistance is still nr + R
.
.n - 2m. E
i=
nr+R
In Parallel : Consider the following three cases :
Ist case : Let n cells each of emfE and internal resistance r are
connected in parallel.
Net emf = E
Total resistance
r R
n
. . i
R
i
E r
E r
E r
. Current inthe circuit
i = net emf
total resistance
or
i = E
R + r/n
IInd case : Let n cells have different E and r .
Net emf = Eeq
. .
. .
E/r
=
1/ r
.
.
Total resistance = Req
. .
R 1
1/ r
. .
.
i2 i3
i1
i
R
E1
2m)E
E2
E3
r1
r2
r3
i
A
B
F
E
Hence, C D
eq
eq
E
i
R
.
or
. .
. .
E / r
i
1 R 1/ r
.
.
. .
IIIrd case : This ismost general case of parallel grouping inwhich E and r of diffe
rent cells are different and the
positive terminals of fewcells are connected to the negative terminals of the ot
hers as shown.
Net emf = Eeq
ELECTRIC CURRENT
. . . . . . 1 1 2 2 3 3
1 2 3
E / r E / r E / r
1 1 1
r r r
. .
.
. .
. . . . . .
i i2 3
i1
i
R
E1
E2
E3
r1
r2
r3
i
1 2 3
R 1
1 1 1
r r r
. .
. .
. . . . . .
Hence,
eq
eq
E
i
R
.
. . . . . . 1 1 2 2 3 3
1 2 3
E / r E / r E / r
i
1 R 1 1 1
r r r
. .
.
. .
. . . . . . .
In Mixed Grouping
There are n identical cells in a rowand number of rows are m .
Net emf = nE
R nr
m
. .
r
i
E
R
i
Hence,
i nER nr
m
.
.
Example 15. Find the emf and internal resistance of a single batterywhich is equ
ivalent to a combination of three
batteries as shown in figure.
4V
10V 2
2
1
6V
Sol. The givencombination consists of two batteries in parallelandresultant ofth
ese two inserieswiththe third one.
For parallel combinationwe can apply,
1 2
1 2
eq
2 2
E E 10 4
E r r 2 2 3V 1 1 1 1
r r 2 2
. .
. . .
. .
Further,
eq 1 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
r r r 2 2
. . . . .
. req = 1 .
Nowthis is in serieswith the third one, i.e.,
ELECTRIC CURRENT
1 1
6V 3V
The equivalent emf of these two is (6
3)Vor 3Vand the internal resistancewill be
, (1 + 1) or 2 ..
r = 2
E=3V
Example 16. Abatteryconsists of a variable number n of identical cells having in
ternal resistance connected in
series. The terminals of the batteryare short circuited and the current Imeasure
d.
Which one of the graph belowshows the relationship between I and n ?
(A)
I/A
O n
(B)
I/A
O n
(C)
I/A
O n
(D) I/A
O n
(E) I/A
O n
Sol.
nE
nr
I nE E
nr r
= = I
n
Example 17. In previous problem, if the cell had been connected in parallel (ins
tead of in series) which of the
above graphswould have shown the relationship between total current I and n ?
(A)
I/A
O n
(B)
I/A
O n
(C)
I/A O n
(D)
I/A
O n
(E)
I/A
O n
Sol.
E
n r
I E nE r r
n
= =
I nE
r
= I
n
Example 18. Underwhat conditioncurrent passing through the resistanceR can be
increased by short circuiting the battery of emfE2. The internal resistances of
the
two batteries are r1 and r2 respectively.
E1 r1 E2 r2
R (A) E2r1 > E1(R + r2) (B) E1r2 > E2(R + r1)
(C) E2r2 > E1(R + r2) (D) E1r1 > E2(R + r1)
Sol. The current throughR before short circuit
ELECTRIC CURRENT
1 2
1 2
I E E
r r R
= +
+ +
After short circuit :
1
1
I' E
r R
=
+
E2 E1
r1
r2
I > I R
1 1 2
1 1 2
E E E
r R r r R
> +
+ + +
E1r1 + E1r2 + E1R > E1r1 + E1R + E2r1 + E2R . 1 2 2 1 2 E r > E r + E R
WHEATSTONE S BRIDGE
This is an arrangement of four resitances inwhich one resistance is unknown
and rest known.TheWheatstone s bridge is shown in fig. The bridge is said
to be balancedwhen deflection in galvanometer is zero, i.e., ig = 0 and hence,
the conditionof deflection is
G
R S
P Q
B
A C
E D
i2
ig = 0
i1
i2
i1
i
P R
Q S
.
NOTE : In Wheatstone s bridge, cell and galvanometer arms are interchangeable.
G
R S
P Q
B
A C
D
G
R S
P Q
B
A C
D
In both the cases, condition of balance bridge is,

P = R
Q S
Example 19.Ahemisphere network of radius a ismade by using a conductingwire
of resistance per unit length r. Find the equavalent resistance acrossOP.
P
B
O
D
A C
Sol. Point (AandC) and (DandB) are symmetricallylocatedwith respect to points
Oand P. Hence, the circuit can be drawn as shown in figure.
This is a balancedWheatstone bridge between P andO
Hence, r3 can be removed.And,
1 2
PO
R r r
4
.
.
Here
. .
1 PB PD
a r
r R R
2
.
. . .
r
2
2 r
2
2
r3
r
2
1 r
2
1
B C
P
O
and r2 = ROB = (a)r
ELECTRIC CURRENT
. .
PO
2 ar
R
8
. .
. Ans.
Example 20. In the circuit shown, what is the potential difference VPQ?
(A) +3V (B) +2V
4V
2V
Q
P 1V
2
1 2
3
(C) 2V (D) none
Sol. In ABCPA
2I + 4
I + 2 = 0
I 6 2A
3
= =
VP VQ = {algebriac sumof rise up
and drop up of voltage}
2V 4V
Q
P
1V
I
A B
C D
I
I
(I I ) 1
I1
I1
I1
2
1
2
3
= (2
2I)
= (2
4) . P Q V - V = 2 V
Example 21. Two batteries one of the emf 3V, internal resistance 1 ohmand the
other of emf 15 V, internal resistance 2 ohmare connected in series with a
resistance R as shown. If the potential difference between a and b is zero
a b
R the resistance of R in ohmis
(A) 5 (B) 7 (C) 3 (D) 1
Sol.According to loop rule,
3 I
IR + 15
2I = 0
I 18
3 R
=
+
. Va Vb =
( 3 + I)
a b
R
15V 3V
I or 0 = 3
I
. I = 3 A
.
3 18
3 R
=
+
or 9 + 3R = 18
.
R 9 3
3
. . .
Example 22. Consider an infinite ladder network shown .
in figureAvoltage V is applied between the points
AandB. This applied velue of voltage is halved after each
R1 R1 R1 R1 R1
R2 R2 R2 R2 R2
A
B section.
(A) R1/R2 = 1 (B) R1/R2 = 1/2 (C) R1/R2 = 2 (D) R1/R2 = 3
Sol. I = I1 + I2
1 2 1
0 v
v
v v v
2 2 2 4
R R R
. .
or
1 2 1
v v v
2R 2R 4R
= +
ELECTRIC CURRENT
or
1 2 1
1 1 v
R R 2R
= +
I2 v
v = 0
v/2 I
I1
v/4
R2 R2 R2 R2 R2
v = 0 v = 0 v = 0 v = 0 v = 0
or
1 2
1 1
2R R
=
or 1
2
R 1
R 2
=
Example 23. If the switches S1, S2 and S3 in the figure are
arranged such that current through the batteryisminimum,
find the voltage across pointsAand B.
6 3
6
S1 1
1 1
S3
S2
9
A
B
Sol. Forminimumcurrent through battery, equivalent resistance 24V
across battery should bemaximum.Aswe know, in series
resistance increases, but in parallel, resistance decreases.
Fromthese points of view, all switches should be open.
9
6 6 3
1
A
7 A
24 V
I I
I
0.5
B
4.5
1 1
24 V
According to loop rule,
7I
4.5I 0.5I = 0
24
. I = 2A
. VAB = VA VB = 0.5 I
= 0.5 2 = 1 V
Example 24. In the circuit shown in figure, calculate the following :
(i) Potentialdifference between points a and b when switch

(ii) Current through S in the circuit when S is closed.
3
6
6
3
a S b
36V
Sol. (i) Here 1
I 36 0 4 A
9
.
. .
Also 2
I 36 0 4 A
9
.
. .
Also, 36 Va = I1 6 = 6 I1
or 36
Va = 6 4 = 24 V
. Va = 36
24 = 12 V
3
6
6
3
a b
V = 0
V0 = 36V
I1 I2
36 Vb = 3 4 = 12 V
and Vb = 36
12 = 24 V
. Va Vb = 12
24 = 12 V
(ii) In loopABCIHA.
6(I
I1) + 3I1 = 0
or 6I + 6I1 + 3I1 = 0
or 9I1 = 6I
S is open.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
. 1 1
I 9 I 3 I
6 2
. . ...(i)
In loop CDEJIC, 3
6 3
6
D
C
B A H
I
E J
F
I G
(I
I1) I1
I2 (I
I1 + I2)
3(I
I (I1
I2) 1 + I2) + 6(I1
I2) = 0
or 3I + 3I1
3I2 + 6I1
6I2 = 0
or 3I + 9I1
9I2 = 0 ...(ii)
In loop EFGHIJE,
36 3I1
6(I1
I2) = 0
or 9I1 6I2 = 36 ...(iii)
After solving eqn(i), (ii) and (iii)
I2 = 3Afrom b to a .
Example 25.An enquiring physics student connects a cell to a circuit andmeasures
the current drawnfromthe cell
to I1.When he joins a second identical cell is serieswith the first, the current
becomes I2.When the cells are
connected are in parallel, the current through the circuit is I3. Show that rela
tion between the current is
3 I3 I2 = 2I1(I2 + I3)
Sol. Let the equivalent resistance of circuit is R. The emf and internal resista
nce of cell is E and r respectively.
. 1
I E
r R
.
.
and 2
I 2E
2r R
.
.
and 3
I E
r / 2 R
.
.
L.H.S. = 3 2 . .
3I I 3E 2E
r / 2 R 2r R
. . . .. . .. .
. .. .
2
3 2
6E
3I I
r / 2 R 2r R
.
. .
R.H.S. = 2I1 (I2 + I3)
2E 2E E
r R 2r R r / 2 R
. . . . . . .. . .. .. . . ..
. .. .
6E2
r / 2 R 2r R
.
. .
Hence, L.H.S. = R.H.S.
Example 26. Find the potential differenceVA
e.
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1V 1V 1V 1V
1V 1V B 1V 1V
A
Sol. i1 + i2 = i
4i + i1 = 0
VB for the circuit shown in the figur
ELECTRIC CURRENT
.
x 4
9
.
4
B
A
3 2 1 0
4i
x
i
i2
i1 3i 2i
x+4 x+3 x+2 x+1
i1
. A B
V V 2 4 22 V
9 9
. . .. . . . . .. ..
Example 27. Power generated across a uniformwire connected across a supply is H.
If the wire is cut into n
equal parts and all the parts are connected in parallel across the same supply,
the totalpower generated in the
wire is :
(A) 2
H
n (B) n2H (C) nH (D)
H
n
Sol. Let the resistance of wire is R
A
= r .
r = the resistance of each piece
R
nA n
= r . =
v2
H t
R
= ...(i)
when all pieces are corrected in parallel,
Then equivalent resistance is
0 2
r r R
n n
= =
.
2 2 2
1
0
v n v
H t t
r R
= = . n2H fromeqn. (i)
Example 28. The ratio of powers dissipatted respectively in R and 3R, as shown i
s :
(A) 9 (B) 27/4
3R
2R
R
(C) 4/9 (D) 4/27
Sol. P1 = Power dissiatted in resistance R
2
2I R 4 I2R
3 9
. . . . .. ..
and P2 = Power dissipatted in
3R = I2(3R) = 3I2R
3R
2R
R
I/3
2I/3
I I
.
2
1
2
2
P 4I R
P 9 3I R
.
. . 1
2
P 4
P 27
=
Example 29. In the figure shown the power generated in y is maximumwhen y = 5..
(A) 2 . (B) 6 . ..........
2R
R
y
10V,
(C) 5 . (D) 3 .
Sol. According to KOL :
2 I
I y
I R = 0
10
.
I 10
2 y R
=
+ +
. P = I2y R
y
10V
I
I
I
or 2
P 100 y
(2 y R)
=
+ +
For maximumpower dissipatted,
ELECTRIC CURRENT
dP 0
dy
.
. By solving,
y = 2 + R
or 5 = 2 + R . R . 3.
Example 30. Find the current through 25Vcell&power supplied by20Vcell in the fig
ure shown.
10
5
11
5
10V 5V 20V 30V
25V
Sol. Fromfigure,
1
I 55 0 5A
11
.
. .
2
I 5 0 1A
5
.
. .
10
5
11
5
10V 5V 20V 30V
25V
25V 25V 25V 25V 25V
V=0 V=0 V=0 V=0 V=0
15V
I4 I3 I2 I1 I=I +I +I +I4 1 2 3
4
30V 5V 55V
3
I 30 0 3A
10
.
. .
4
I 15 0 3A
5
.
. .
. Electric current through 25Vcell
= I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 = 5 + 1 + 3 + 3 = 12A
The power supplied by 20Vcell is
20I2= 20 1 =
20 W
P =
Example 31. The current I through a rod of a certain metallic oxide is given by
I = 0.2 V5/2, where V is the
potential difference across it. The rod is connected in series with a resistance
to a 6Vbattery of negligible
internal resistance.What value should the series resistance have so that :
(i) the current in the circuit is 0.44 (the value of (2.2)2/5 = 1.37)
(ii) the power dissipated in the rod is twice that dissipated in the resistance.
Sol. (i) the potentialdifference across rod for current 0.44 is
2
0.44 5
V
0.2
. . . .. ..
. .2
V . 2.2 5
The potential difference across connected resistor isV= 0.44 R
E = V + V
or . .2
6 . 2.2 5 . 0.44R
or . .2
0.44R . 6 . 2.2 5
. . .2
6 0.2 5 R
0.44 0.44
. .
R = 13.64
3.12
R = 10.52 .
(ii)Total power supplied by battery is used byrod and resistor
. E I = V I + I2 R
ELECTRIC CURRENT
But VI = power dissipated in rod
V I = 2I2R
. EI = 2I2R + I2R = 3I2R
or E = 3IR
or 6 = 3IR
. IR = 2 ...(i)
Also, V + V = E
2
I 5 IR 6
0.2
. . . . .. ..
or
2
I 5 2 6
0.2
. . . . .. ..
or
2
I 5 4
0.2
. . . .. ..
or
2
5 5 I 4 2 32
0.2
. . . . . .. ..
or I = 32 0.2 = 6.4A
Fromeqn (i), IR = 2
.
R 2 20 0.3125
6.4 64
. . . .
Remarks : In the case of rod,V I graph is not straight line. So, ohm s lawis not ap
plicable in the case of the
givenrod.
Example 32. Aperson decides to use his bath tubwater to generate electric power
to run a 40watt bulb. The
bath tub is located at a height of 10mfromthe ground&it holds 200 litres ofwater
. Ifwe installawater driven
wheelgenerator on the ground, at what rate should thewater drain fromthe bathtub
to light bulb?Howlong
canwe keep the bulb on, if the bath tubwas full initially. The efficiency of gen
erator is 90%. (g = 10m/s 2)
Sol.
Power P gh dm
dt
. .
or
40 gh dm 90
dt 100
. .
or
40 0.9 gh dm
dt
.
.
dm 40 40 4 kg / sec.
dt 0.9 gh 9 10 9
. . .
.
. 0
m dm t
dt
. . . .. ..
.
0
t m 200 450 sec. dm 4
dt 9
. . .
. .
.. ..
ELECTRIC CURRENT
Example 33. The circuit shown in figure ismade of a homogeneouswire of uniform
cross-section. 1234 isasquare. Find the ratio Q12/Q34of the amounts of heat
liberated per unit time in conductor 1 2 and 3 4.
3 4
1 2
Sol. Let us represent the central junction ofwires in the formof two junctions c
onnected
by thewire 5 6 as shown in figure. then in follows fromsymmetry that there is no c
urrent through thiswire.
Therefore, the central junction can be removed fromthe initialcircuit. Further,
R12 = R13 = R34 = R24 = r
and 15 25 36 46
R R R R r
2
. . . .
Let Vbe the voltage between 1 and 2.
3 4
1 2
6
5
3 4
1 2
6
5
Then the amount of heat liberated in conductor 1 2.
2
12
V
Q
r
. ...(i)
Current through3 4, 3 4 . .
i V
r 2 3 . .
.
. . .
2
2
3 4 3 4 2
Q i r V
r 2 3
. . . .
.
. . .2
1 2
3 4
Q 2 3 11 6 2
Q
.
.
. . . . Ans.
Metre Bridge
Themetre bridge is the practicalapplication of theWheatstone s network principle.
G
l (100 l)
D
A C
P Q
B
R J S
In such a bridge, the ratio of two resistances sayRand S, can be determined from
the ratio of their balancing
lengths. In Fig.,AC is a 1mlong uniformwire,
Let AD = l cm, thenDC = (100
l) cm
Since, resistance . length
.
P AD
Q DC 100
. .
.
l
l
If P is known, thenQcan be determined.
Example 34. The potentiometer wire AB is 100 cm long. When AC = 40 cm, no deflec
tion occurs in the
galvanometer, findR.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
G
A B
10 R
Sol.
10 AC
R CB
.
.
R 10 CB (10) 100 40 10 60 15
AC 40 40
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example 35. Abatteryof emf .0 = 10Vis connected across a 1 mlong uniform
wire having resistance 10./m. Two cells of emf .1 = 2Vand .2 = 4Vhaving
internal resistances 1 ..and 5 ..respectively are connected as shown in
the figure. If a galvanometer shows no deflection at the point P, find the
G
5
1
10
P
A B
0 =10V
1=2V
2=4V
distance ofpoint P fromthe pointA.
Sol. The resistance inAP is R1 = x. = 10 x
where xis inmetre.
x)10
The resistance in PB is R2 = (1
The equivalent circuit is
According to loop rule
10 IR1
IR2
10I = 0
.
1 2
I 10 10 1
R R 10 10 10 2
. . .
. . .
G
R1 P R2
I 10V I
I
A B
E = r
E1
r1
E2
r2
+ = 56
21
4
+ 5 = 14
6 V
r = 1 5
1 + 5 = 56
But VA VP = E = IR1
.
14 1 10x
6 2
. .
.
x 14 2 0.4667 m 46.67 cm
6 10
. . . .
Example 36. In the figure shown for which values ofR1 and R2 the balance
point for Jockey is at 40 cmfromA.WhenR2 is shunted by a resistance
of 10 ., balance shifts to 50 cm. Find R1 and R2. (AB = 1m) :
G
R1
A B
R2
Sol. Let resistance perunit lengthof potentiometer is ..Assume that P is
contact point of potentiometer.
. The resistance inAP is R3 = x.
and the resistance in PB is
R4 = (1
x). ( . AB = 1 m)
According to balance condition ofwheatstone bridge,
R1R4 = R2R3
or R1(1 x). = R2 x.
or R1(1 x) = R2x ...(i)
whenR2 is shunted.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
Then 2 2
2
2 2
R R 10 10R
R 10 R 10
.
. .
. .
. R1(1
x). = R2 x.
. . 2
1
2
R 1 x 10R x
R 10
. .
. ...(ii)
Fromeqn. (i) and (ii),
1
R 10
3
. . and R2 = 5..
IMPORTANT FEATURES
1. When batteryand galvanometer arms of aWheatstone s bridge are interchanged, the
balance position remains
undisturbedwhile sensitivityof bridge changes.
I I
G
1 R
P
I1 IG (I
I1 + IG)
S I
A B
I
(I1 IG) Q
2. Two other common forms of balancedWheatstone s bridge are shown.
A
B
G P Q
R
S
POTENTIOMETER
Potentiometer is an ideal device to measure the potential difference betweentwo
points. It consists of a long
resistancewireAB of uniformcross-section inwhich a steadydirect current is set u
p bymeans of a battery.
L
E1
i2 = 0
A B
i C
G
E2 , r
i i
Potentialgradient
k Potential difference across AB
Total length
.
AB k V
L
.
AB k iR i
L
. . .
ELECTRIC CURRENT
where AB R
L
. . = resistance per unit lengthof potentiometerwire
The emf of source balanced between pointsB and C
CB
2
E . kl . i R . l
l
E2 = iRCB
Applications
(i) To find emf of an unknown battery :
l
E1
i2 = 0
A B
i C
G
EK
1
E1
i2 = 0
A B
i C
G
EU
2
1 l2
i
We calibrate the device by replacing E2 by a source of known emfEK and then by u
nknown emfEU. Let the
null points are obtained at lengths l1 and l2. Then,
EK = i(. l1)
and EU = i(. l2)
Here, ..= resistance ofwireAB per unit length.
. K 1
U 2
E
E
. l
l
or 1
U K
2
E E
. .
.. ..
l
l
So, bymeasuring the lengths l1 and l2, we can find the emf of an unknown battery
.
(ii) To find the internal resistance of a call : Firstly the emfE of the cell is
balanced against a lengthAD= l1.
For this the switch S is left opened and S is closed.Aknown resistance R is then
connected to the cell as
shown.The terminalvoltageVis nowbalanced against a smaller lengthAD = l2.Here, no
switch S Is opened
and S is closed. Then,
1
2
E
V
. l
l
G
(E, r)
D D
A
S
R
E
l2 S
l1
Since, B
E R r
V R
.
. {. E = i(R + r) and V = iR}
or 1
2
R r
R
.
. l
l
or 1
2
r 1 R
. .
. . . . . .
l
l
Example 37. Apotentiometer wire of length 100 cm has a resistance of 10 .. It is
connected in series with a
resistance and a cell of emf2Vand of negligible internal resistance.Asource of e
mf 10mVis balanced against
a length of 40 cmof the potentiometer wire.What is the value of external resista
nce ?
ELECTRIC CURRENT
Sol. Fromthe theoryof potentiometer,
VCB = E, if no current is drawn fromthe battery
or 1
CB
AB
E R E
R R
. .
. . . . . .
E1
E
A B
C
G
R
i
Here, E1 = 2V, RAB = 10 .
CB
R 40 10 4
100
. . . . . . .. ..
and E = 10 10 3 V
Substituting in above,we get
R = 790 .
MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER
Moving coilgalvanometer is a device used to detect small current flowing in an e
lectric circuit.With suitable
modifications, it can be used to measure current and potentialdifference.
Conversion of galvanometer into an Ammeter
An ammeter is an instrument whichis used tomeasure current in a circuit in amper
e (ormilli-ampere ormicroampere).
Hence, it is always connected in series in the circuit.
Since, the galvanometer coilhas some resistance of its own,
therefore, to convert a galvanometer into an ammeter, its
resistance is to be decreased so, to convert a galvanometer
into ammeter a low resistance, called shunt (S) is connected
is
S
a G b i
Ammeter
in parallelto the galvanometer as shown in figure.
Here, g . .
i S i
S G
.
.
and
. .. .
A . .
S G
R
G S
.
.
where RA = resistance of ammeter
S = resistance of shunt
G= resistance of galvanometer
Conversion of Galvanometer into Voltmeter

AVoltmeter is an instrument which is used tomeasure the potential
difference between two points of an electric circuit directly in volt
(ormilli-volt ormicro-volt). Hence, it is connected in parallel across
those two points of the circuit, betweenwhich the potentialdifference
ig
G
R
is to be measured.When it is connected. Voltmeter
Since, the resistance of coilofgalvanometer of its ownis low, hence, to convert
a galvanometer into a voltmeter,
high resistance Ris series is connectedwith the galvanometer.
Here, g
i V
R G
.
.
where R +G= RV = resistance of voltmeter
Example 38. Amoving coil galvanometer of resistance 10 . produces full scale def
lection, when a current of 25
ELECTRIC CURRENT
mAis passed through it. Describe showing full calculations, howwill you convert
the galvanometer into a
voltmeter reading upto 120V.
Sol. Here, G = 10 .., ig = 25 mA= 25 10 3A
To convert the galvanometer into voltmeter reading upto 120V: To convert a galva
nometer into voltmeter
of rangeV, a large resistance Rhas to be connected in series to it.The value ofR
is given by
g
R V G
i
. .
Here, V = 120 V
. 3
R 120 10 4790
25 10. . . . .
.
Example 39. Amilliammeter of range 10 mAand resistance 9. is joined in
a circuit as shown. Themetre gives full-scale deflection for current I
whenAand B are used as its terminals, i.e., current enters at Aand leaves
, 10 mA
at B (C is left isolated). The value of I is A B C
(A) 100 mA (B) 900 mA (C) 1 A (D) 1.1 A
Sol. According to loop rule,
9 10
0.9 10 + 0.1 (I
10) = 0
or
I 10 90 9 990
0.1
- = + =
10 mA
I
10 mA
I 10
I
. I = 1000 mA . 1 A
Example 40. In the circuit shown in figure reading of voltmeter is V1 when only
S1
is closed, reading of voltmeter is V2 when only S2 is closed. The reading
of voltmeter is V3 when both S1 and S2 are closed then V
6R
3R
R
E
S2
S1
(A) V2 > V1 > V3 (B) V3 > V2 > V1
(C) V3 > V1 > V2 (D) V1 > V2 > V3
Sol. Step-I When S1 is closed,
I
4R
.
.
. 1 v I 3R 3R
4R
. . . .
.
R
3R
1
v 3
4
.
.
Step-II When S2 is closed
I
7R
.
.
. 2 v . I . 6R
R
6R
2
v 6R 6
7R 7
. .
. .
Step-III When S1 and S2 both are closed.
I
3R
.
.
v3 = I 2R
R
2R
ELECTRIC CURRENT
3
2
v 2R
3R 3
. .
. .
Example 41. In the circuit shown in figure the reading of ammeter is
the samewith both switches openaswith both closed. then find the
resistance R. (ammeter is ideal)
+
300 1.5V
R
1000
50
A
Sol. Step-I : Discuss the circuit when both switches open :
According to loop rule : 1.5
300 I
100 I
50 I = 0
.
I 1.5 15 1 A
450 4500 300
. . .
Step-II :Discuss the circuit after closing the switch.
In loopABCDEA
IR + 1.5
300I1 = 0
or 300I1 + IR = 1.5 ...(1)
A
50
I
I I
I
100
300 1.5 V
In loop BCGFB
100I + (I1
I) R = 0
or (I1 I)R = 100 I
I1R = (100 + R)I
.
. .
1
100 R I
I
R
.
. ...(2)
Fromeqn (1) and (2)
.100 R. I
300 IR 1.5
R
.
. .
300 1.5V
R
100
50
A no current
I1
I1
I1
A
F
B
I C D
E
(I1 I)
G
or
.100 R. 1 R
300 1.5
R 300 300
.
. .
. R = 600 .
Example 42. The battery in the diagramis to be charged by the generator G. The
generator has a terminal voltage of 120 volts when the charging current is
10 amperes. The battery has an emf of 100 volts and an internal resistance of
G
R
+
1 ohm. In order to charge the battery at 10 amperes charging current, the

resistance R should be set at
(A) 0.1 . (B) 0.5 . (C) 1.0 . (D) 5.0 .
Sol. VA
VB = {algebraic sumof rise up and drop up of voltage}
120 =
{ IR
1 I
100}
120 = IR + I + 100
100V I B
A R
I or 20 = 10R + 10
. R . 1 .
Example 43. Agalvanometer having 50 divisions providedwitha variable shunt s is us
ed tomeasure the current
when connected inserieswith a resistance of 90 ..and a battery of internal resis
tance 10 .. It is observed that
when the shunt resistance are 10., 50., respectivelythe deflection are respectiv
ely9&30 divisions.What is
the resistance of the galvanometer ?
ELECTRIC CURRENT
Sol. The electric current through galvanometer is proportionalto its deflection.
I .
.
g
g
I 9 3
I 30 10
. .
But . . S
g
g S
IR
I
R R
.
.
Also, g S
g S
I ER R
100
R R
.
.
.
. . .
S
g
g S
g S
g S
ER
I
R R
100 R R
R R
.
. .
. . . . . . .
or
. .
. .
S
g S
g S
g g S
g S
g S
g S
g S
R
R R
100 R R
I R R
I R
R R
100 R R
R R
. .
. . . . . . .
.
. .
. . . . . . .
or
. .
. .
. .
g
g
g
g
g
g
10
10R
100 R 10
3 R 10
10
50 R 50 50R
100
R 50
. .
. . . . . . .
.
. .
. .
. . . . .
. . .
.. . ..
. Rg = 233.3 ..
IMPORTANT FEATURES
1. (a) The reading of an ammeter is always lesser than actual current in the cir
cuit.
E
R
i
(a)
E
R
i
(b)
A G
i
i
S
(c)
For example, in Fig. (a), actual current throughRis,
i E
R
. ...(i)
while the current after connecting an ammeter of resistance
A GS
G S
. . . .. . ..
in serieswithRis,
i E
R A
.
. ...(ii)
FromEqs. (i) and (ii), we see that i< i and i= i ,WhenA= 0, i.e., resistance of an
ideal ammeter should be
zero.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
(b) Percentage error inmeasuring a current throughan ammeter
1 1
i i 100 R R A 100 i 1
R
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. ..
or
% error A 100
R A
. . . . .. . ..
2. (a) The reading of a voltmeter is always lesser than true
V
G
R
RV
r
i i i
r
For example, if a current i is passing through a resistance
V = ir ...(i)
Nowif a voltmeter of resistance RV(=G+R) is connected across
newvaluewill be
. . V
V
i rR
V
r R
.
.
.
or
V
V ir 1 r
R
.
. ...(ii)
FromEqs. (i) and (ii), we can see that
V < V
and V = V if RV = .
Thus, resistance of an idealvoltmeter should be infinite.
(b) Percentage error inmeasuring the potentialdifference bya
V
V V 100 1 100 V 1 r
R
. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
or
V
%error 1 100 1 r
R
. .
. .
. . . .
. . .
. .
RC CIRCUITS
is
value.
r, the actualvalue is,

the resistance
voltmeter is,
r , the
In precedingsectionswe dealt onlywith circuits inwhichthe current did not varywi

th time.Here,were discuss
about time-varying currents.
Charging of a Capacitor
First we consider the charging of a capacitor without resistance.
+
S V
C
+
V
q = CV
+ 0
Consider a capacitor connected to a battery of emfVthrough
a switch S. On
closing the switch, there is no time tag between connecting and
charging.Acharge q0 = CVcomes in the capacitor as soon as
switch is closed and q
t graph in this case is a straight line q0
q
r
parallel to t=axis.
Ifwe employed a resistance in the circuit, charging takes some time Fig.
The q
t equation in this case,
q = q0(1 e t/.)
ELECTRIC CURRENT
Here, q0 = CV
S
C C
and . = CR= time constant V
q t graph is anexponentially increasing graph. The charge q increases
expponentially from0 to q0.
Fromthe graph and equationwe see that,
At t = 0, q = 0
q0
q
t
0.632q0
and at t = ., q = q0
At t = ., q = q0(1
e 1) = 0.632 q0
Here, . can be defined as the time inwhich 63.2%charging is over in a C R circuit
.
Current flows ina C Rcircuit during charging of capacitor.Once charging
as over or the steady state condition is reached the current becomes zero.
The current at any time t can be calculated bay differentiating qwith respect
to t. Hence,
i0
i
t Charging current is, i = i0e t/.
i.e., current decreases exponentiallywith time.
Time i t graph is as shown in fig.
Discharging of a Capacitor
Againwe consider the discharging of capacitor with resistance.
Suppose a capacitor has a charge q0. The positive plate has a charge +q0 and neg
ative plate q0.
S
q = 0
+
q0
When the switch is closed, the extra electrons on negative plate immediately
comes to the positive plate and net charge on both plates become zero. So,
we cansay that discharging takes place immediately. S
C
R
q0
+
In case ofC
Rcircuit discharging also takes time. The q
t equation in this case
is,
t / c
0 q . q e. .
Thus, q decreases exponentially fromq0 to zero, as shown in Fig.
At t = 0, q = q0 q0
q
t
0.368q0
At t = ., q = 0
In case of discharging definition of . is charged.
At time t = .,
q = q0 e 1 = 0.368q0
Hence, in this case . can be defined as the timewhen charge reduces to 36.8%of i
tsmaximumvalue q0.
During discharging current flows inthe circuit till q becomes zero.This current can
be found bydifferentiating
q with respect to t butwithnegative signbecause charge is decreasingwith time.Hence,

discharging current
is,
i = i0e t/.
This is an exponentially decreasing equation. Thus, i
t graph decreases
exponentiallywith time fromi0 to 0. The i t graph is as shown in Fig.
i0
i
t
ELECTRIC CURRENT
Example 44. Acapacitor C= 100 F is connected to three resistor each of resistance
1 k. and a battery of emf 9V.The switch S has been closed for long time so as to
charge the capacitor.When switch S is opened, the capacitor discharges with
1k
1k
1k
C
9V
S
time constant
(A) 33 ms (B) 5 ms
(C) 3.3 ms (D) 50 ms
Sol.
1k
1k at t = 0
C
R = 0.5 k
. Time constant
. = RC = 0.5 103 100 10 6
= 50 10 3 S = 50 m/s
Example 45. In the circuit shown in figure C1 = 2C2. Switch S is closed at time
t = 0. Let i1 and i2 be the currents flowing throughC1 and C2 at any time t ,
then the ratio i1/i2
(A) is constant (B) increases with increase in time t C2
C1
V
S
R
R
(C) decreases with increase in time t
(D) first increases then decreases
Sol. Here 1
t
RC
1
I V e
R
.
.
and 2
t
RC
2
I V e
R
.
.
.
1
1 2
2
t
RC t 1 1
1 R C C
t
2 RC
I e e
I
e
.
. . .
. . . . .
. . .
.
. 1 2 .
1 2
t C C
1 RC C
2
I
e
I
. .
.
Hence option (B) is correct.
Example 46. In the R C circuit shown in the figure the total energy of 3.6 10 3 J is
dissipated in the 10 . resistorwhen the switch S is closed. The initial charge o
n the 2F 10
S
capacitor is
ELECTRIC CURRENT
(A) 60 C (B) 120 C (C) 60 2 C (D)
60
2 C
Sol. According to conservationprinciple of energy:
Total energy stored on capacitor appears as heat in resistor.
.
2
0 3 q
H 3.6 10
2C
. . . . .
or q0
2 = 2C 3.6 10 3
q0
2 = 2 2 10 6 3.6 10 3
q0
2 = 14.4 10 9
. q0 = 12 10 5
q0 = 120 C
Example 47. The capacitors shown in figure has been charged to a potential
difference ofVvolts, so that it carries a charge CVwith both the switches
S1 and S2 remaining open. Switch S1 is closed at t = 0.At t = R1C switch S1
E S2
C
+
R1
R2 S1 is opened and S2 is closed. Find the charge on the capacitor at
t = 2 R1C + R2C.
Sol. When t < R1C
1
t
q CV e R C
.
.
At t0 = R1C,
1
0
q CV e CV
e
. . .
when S2 is closed,
q0 q0
R1
R2
t = t E 0
At instant t (t > t0)
. . 1 2
E q I R R 0
C
. . . .
or (R1 + R2)CI = EC
q
or . . 1 2
R R C dq EC q
dt
. . .
q
R1 R2
E
+
+q
I
I
or . .
0 1
q t
1 2 CV t R C
e
R R C dq dt
EC q .
. .
. . .
or . . . . . . 1
q t
1 2 CV R C
e
R . R C...ln EC. q .. . t
or . . . . 1 2 1
CV
R R C ln EC ln EC q t R C
e
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
or . . 1 2 1
EC CV
R R C ln e t R C
EC q
. . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. .
But t = 2R1C + R2C
Putting the value,
ELECTRIC CURRENT
2
q CE 1 1 CV
e e
. . . . . .. ..
Example 48. Inthe figure shown initiallyswitch is open for a long time.
Nowthe switch is closed at t = 0. Find the charge on the rightmost
capacitor as a function of time given that it was initiallyunchanged. V
R
R C C
S
Sol. Step-I :Discuss the circuit,when switch is open.
Here
I V
2R
.
Also, 0
q CIR CV
2
. .
I
I I
+q
q0
Step-II : Discuss the circuit after closing the switch :
1 V I R q 0
2 2 C
. . .
Also,
. . 0 1 V R q q q I 0
2 2 C
. .
. . .
or 0 1 V I R q q q 0
2 2 C C C
. . . . .
V
R
R
V2
R2
q
q
q1
q1
q +q q0 1
(q +q q0 1)
or 0 V I R q q V IR 0
2 2 C C 2 2
. . . . . .
or 0 V IR q q 0
C C
. . . .
or
. . 0 q q
IR V
C
.
. .
or 0 dq q q R V
dt C
. . . . . . . . .
or
q t
0 0
0
Rdq dt
V q q
C
.
. . . . . . . .
. .
or
q
0
0
q q
RC ln V t
C
. . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . ..
or
0
0
V q q
RC ln C t V q
C
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
. . . .. ..
or
0
t
RC
0
V q q
C e V q
C
.
.
.
.
.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
or
t
V q0 q V q0 eRC
C C
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...(i)
But potentialdiffer accross each capacitors are sume.
0 1 1 q q q q
C C
. .
.
or q0 + q = 2q1
. 0
1
q q q
2
.
.
Putting the value of q,
t
RC
1
q CV 1 1 e
2 2
. . .
. . . .
. .
THINKING PROBLEMS
1. Is a current-carrying conductor electrically charged?
2. Is there an electric field near the surface of a conductor carrying direct cu
rrent?
3. Is current a scallar or vector?
4. A potential difference V is applied to a copper wire of diameter d and length
l.What is the effect on the
electron drift velocity of (a) doubling l, (b) doubling V, and (c) doubling d?
5. A current i enters the top of a copper sphere of radius R and leaves through
the diametrically opposite
point.Are all parts equally effective in dissipating Joule heat?
6. Account for the increase in the resistance ofmetals with rise in temperature.
7. Answer briefly how can three resistances of values 2., 3. and 6. be connected
to produce an
effective resistance of 4. ?
8. How can an electric heater designed for 220V be adopted for 110V without chan
ging the length of the
coil and also without a change in the consumed power ?
9. The brilliance of lamps in a roomnoticeably drops as soon as a highpower elec
tric iron is switched on and
after a short interval, the bulbs regain their original brilliance. Explain.
10. Acurrent is passed through a steelwire which gets heated to a dull red. Then
half the wire is immersed in
cold water. The portion out of the water becomes brighter.Why?
11. For manual control of the current of a circuit, two rheostats in parallel ar
e preferable to a single rheostat.
Why?
12. In a hollow nonconducting pipe, there are two streams of ions in opposite di
rections. The ions of one
streamare negatively charged and constitute a current of strength l and those of
the other stream are

positively charged and constitute a current of the same strength.What is the tot
al current through the
pipe?
13. The drift velocity of electrons is quite small. How then does a bulb light u
p as soon as the switch is turned
on, although the bulbmay be quite far fromthe switch?
14. Consider a voltaic cell in the open circuit with the copper plate at a highe
r potential with respect to the
zinc plate. The electrolyte between the plates is a conducting medium. So the ch
arges on the plates
should be neutralized at once as it happens when two charged conductors are join
ed by a wire.Why are
the charges not neutralized immediately?
15. Does emf have electrostatic origin?
16. Why is it easier to start a car engine on a warmday than on a chilly day?
17. The resistance of the human body is about 10 k.. If the resistance of our bo
dy is so large, why does one
ELECTRIC CURRENT
experience a strong shock from a live wire of 220 V supply?
18. Lay people have the notion that a person touching a high power line gets stuc
k to the line. Is this true?
If not, what is the fact?
19. When a direct current flows through a conductor, the amount of energy libera
ted is VQ, where Q is the
charge passing through the conductor and V is the potential difference, while an
energy of VQ/2 is
liberated when a capacitor is discharged.Why?
20. An ordinary cellwith a small emf can produce larger current than an electros
taticmachine which generates
thousands of volts? Explain.
THINKING PROBLEMS SOLUTIONS
1. No, the amount of positive and negative charge in any elementary volume remai
ns the same through the
electrons are inmotion. So a current-carrying conductor is electrically neutral.
2. There is an electric field inside the conductor. This is equal to the rate of
fall of potentialalong the conductor.
There is continuity of this field outside the surface of the conductor.
3. Current is a scalar but current density is a vector.
4. u = j/ne = .E/ne where s is the conductivity and E is the electric field (byO
hm s law j = .E), or u = (./ne)
(V/l) (. E = V/l). Obviously from this expression (a) u is halved if l is double
d, (b) u is doubled if V is
doubled, and (c) u remains uncharged on doubling d.
5. No, the resistance of elements at right angles to the diameter varies fromele
ment to element but current is
the same through all sections and so heating effect varies fromsection to sectio
n.
6. metals have mobile electrons.With increase of temperature, the lattice vibrat
ions increase in amplitude.
Thus, the probability of electrons striking ionic cores increases. This amounts
to increase in resistance
with temperature.
7. Connect the 3. and 6. resistors in parallel and the 2. resistor in series wit
h the combination of 3. and
6.. Then 3. and 6. in parallel will sumup to 3 6 2
3 6
.
. .
.
and this, with 2. in series, willwork out to
4..
8. Join the ends of the coil and apply the supply voltage (110V) between this co
mmon
terminal and the midpoint of the coil as shown in the figure. Let P be the power
of
the entire coil when the coltage applied is V volts. TheP = V2/R where R is the
resistance of the coil. When it is connected as shown in the figure, the two par
ts
are in parallel and the resistance of each part becomes R/2.
Therefore,
P1 = (V/2)2/(R/2)=P/2
Total power = P/2 + P/2 = P
9. The cold resistance of the coil of the iron ismuch smaller thanwhen it is hot
. So when the iron is switched
on, there is a large drop of voltage and consequently the bulbs do not receive t
he proper voltage.As the
coil gets heated, its resistance increases and so the voltage drop is made up wh
en it is fully heated. This
is why after some time the bulbs region their brilliance.
10. The resistance of the immersed portion decreases and so the current through
the entire wire increases.
This is why the portion outside the water becomes brighter.
11. Suppose, to produce a certain current i in a circuit, the length of the sing
le rheostat wire required is l.
Then i = E/lr where E is the emf of the cell and r is the resistance per unit le
ngth of the wire. To produce
the same current in the same circuit by using two rheostats in parallel, let l be
the length of each rheostat
wire. Then i = E/(l r/2) = 2E/l r. Obviously, l = 2l. Thusmore length of eachwire is r
equired to produce
the same current. This is definitely of advantage.
12. The current constituted by the negative ionsmoving opposite to the positive
ions has the same sense as
the current constituted by the positive ions. Hence the total current is 2I and
not zero.
13. For the bulb to light up, it is not necessary for the same electron to trave
l from the switch to the bulb.
When the switch is turned on, every electron in the circuit begins to move simul
taneoulsy, including those
in the filament of the bulb.
14. The charges are prevented frombeing neutralized because the electrostatic fi
eld due to the charges on the
plates is opposed by the charges of ions that migrate into the solution.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
REASONINGTYPE QUESTIONS
) is given just below it
of the statements, mark the correct answer as
(C) If A is true but R is false.
(D) If both A and R are false.
(E) If A is false but R is true.
1. Assertion (A) : When a wire is stretched so that its thickness is halved, its
resistance would become 16 times.
Reason (R) : The data is insufficient to predict.
2. Assertion (A) : A current flows in a conductor only when there is an electric
field within the conductor.
Reason (R) : The drift velocity of electron in presence of electric field decrea
ses.
3. Assertion (A) : A current carrying wire should be changed.
Reason (R) : The current in a wire is due to flow of free electrons in a definit
e direction.
4. Assertion (A) : The wires supplying current to an electric heater are not hea
ted appreciably.
Reason (R) : Resistance of connected wires is very small and H . R .
5. Assertion (A) : In meter bridge experiment, a high resistance is connected in
series with the galvanometer.
Reason (R) : As resistance increases current through the circuit increases.
6. Assertion (A) : A 60 watt bulb has greater resistance than a 100 watt bulb.
Reason (R) :
V 2 P
R
.
7. Assertion (A) : The conductivity of an electrolyte is very low as compared to
ametal at room temperature.
Reason (R) : The number density of free ions in electrolyte is much smaller comp
ared to number density
of free electrons in metals. Further, ions drift much more slowly, being heavier
.
8. Assertion (A) : Terminal voltage of a cell is greater than emf of cell, durin
g charging of the cell.
Reason (R) : The emf of a cell is always greater than its terminal voltage.
9. Assertion (A) : Material used in the construction of a standard resistance is
constantan or manganin.
Reason (R) : Temperature coefficient of these materials is very small.
10. Assertion (A) : If the current of a lamp decreases by 20%, the percentage de
crease in the illumination of
the lamp is 40%.
Reason (R) : Illumination of the lamp is directly proportional tot he current th
rough lamp.
11. Assertion (A) : Heater wire must have high resistance and high melting point
.
Reason (R) : If resistance is high, the electrical conductivity will be less.
12. Assertion (A) : The range of given voltmeter can be increased.
Reason (R) : By adjusting the value of resistance in series with galvanometer th
e range of voltameter
can be adjusted.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
LEVEL # 1
1. The resistance of tungsten increases with increasing temperature. As a result
, the relation between the
current, . , flowing in the tungsten filament of an electric lamp and the potent
ial difference, V, between its
ends is of the form.
(A)
I
O V
(B)
I
O V
(C)
I
O V
(D)
I
O V
2. The current in a copper wire is increased by increasing the potential differe
nce between its ends. Which one
of the following statements regarding n, the number of charge carriers per unit
volume in the wire, and Vd, the
drift velocity of the charge carriers, is correct?
(A) n is unaltered but vd is decreased. (B) n is unaltered but vd is increased.
(C) n is increased but vd is decreased. (D) n is increased but vd is unaltered.
3. A potentiometer is to be calibrated with a standard
cell using the circuit shown in the diagram.
The balance point is found to be near L. To improve
accuracy the balance point should be nearer M.
This may be achieved by
(A) replacing the galvanometer with one of lower resistance.
(B) replacing the potentiometer wire one of higher resistance
per unit length.
(C) putting a shunt resistance in parallel with the galvanometer.
(D) increasing the resistance R.
4. When the switch 1 is closed, the current
through the 8. resistance is 0.75 A.
When the switch 2 is closed (only), the
current through the 2. resistance is 1 A.
The value of . is
(A) 5 V (B) 5 2 V (C) 10 V (D) 15 V
5. The time constant . for the shown RC circuit is
(A) RC (B) 2
RC
(C) 2 RC (D) not defined
R
R
.
6. Two cells of equal emf of 10 V but different internal resistances 3. and 2. a
re connected in series to an
external resistance R. The value of R that makes the potential difference zero a
cross the terminals of one of
any cells is
(A) 5. (B) 6. (C) 1. (D) 1.5.
7. The resistor in which the maximum heat is produced is given by
(A) 2. (B) 3.
(C) 4. (D) 12.
8. n resistances each of resistance R are joined with capacitors of capacity

C (each) and a battery of emf E as shown in the figure. In steady state
condition ratio of charge stored in the first and last capacitor is E R C R C R
(A) n : 1 (B) (n 1) : R
(C) (n2 + 1) : (n2 1) (D) 1 : 1
ELECTRIC CURRENT
9. What is the equivalent capacitance between A and B in the
circuit shown.
(A) 6.F (B) 1.5 .F
(C) Zero (D) 2.F
10. A resistance R = 12. is connected across a source of emf as shown in the fig
ure. Its emf changes with time
as shown in the graph. What is the heat developed in the resistance in the first
four second.
R = 12 .
.
Source
.
(Volt)
24
4 t(s)
(A) 72 J (B) 64 J (C) 108 J (D) 100 J
11. A source of constant potential difference is connected across a A B
conductor having irregular cross-section as shown in the Figure. Then P Q
(A) electric field intensity at P is greater than that at Q
(B) rate of electric crossing per unit area of cross section at P is less than t
hat at Q
(C) the rate of generation of heat per unit length at P is greater than that at
Q
(D) mean kinetic energy if free electorn at P is greater than that at Q
12. Suppose a voltmeter reads the voltage of a very old cell to be 1.40 V while
a potentiometer reads its voltage
to be 1.55 V. What is the internal resistance of the cell
(A) 20. (B) 30. (C) 10. (D) 40.
13. In the above question, What is the current it would supply to a 5. resistor.
Assume the voltmeter resistance
be be 280..
(A) 44 A (B) 0.044 A (C) 4.4 A (D) None of the above.
14. If 1 . , 2 . and 3 . are conductances of three conductors then their equival
ent conductance when they are
joined in series will be
(A) 1 . + 2 . + 3 . (B)
1 2 3
1 1 1
. . .
. . (C)
1 2 3
1 2 3
. . .
. .. .. (D) None of these
15. A conductor is made of an isotropic material (resistivity .) has rectangular
cross-section. Horizontally dimension of the rectangle decreases linearly from
2x at one end to x at the other end and vertial dimension increases from y to 2y
as shown in Figure. Length of the conductor along the axis is equal to . . A bat
tery
is connected across this conductor then
(A) resistance of the conductor is equal to 4.. 9xy .
(B) rate of generation of heat per unit length is maximum at middle cross-sectio
n.
(C) drift velocity of conduction electrons is minimum at middle section.
(D) at the ends of the conductor, electric field intensity is same.
16. Find the current through 4. resistor just after making the circuit
(A) 0 A (B) 6 A
(C) 12 A (D) 2 A
17. 1 m long metallic wire is broken into two unequal parts P and Q. P part of t
he wire is uniformly extended into
another wire R. Length of R is twice the length of P and the resistance R is equ
al to that of Q. Find the ratio
of the resistance of P and R
(A) 1 : 4 (B) 1 : 3 (C) 1 : 2 (D) 1 : 1
ELECTRIC CURRENT
18. Which of the following statements is/are correct for potentiometer circuit
(A) Sensitivity varies inversely with length of the potentiometer wire
(B) Sensitivity is directly proportional to potential difference applied across
the potentiometer wire.
(C) Accuracy of a potentiometer can be increased only by increasing length of th
e wire
(D) Range depends upon the potential difference applied across the potentiometer
wire.
19. In the given circuit the ammeter reading is zero. What is the value
of resistance R ?
(A) R = 100. (B) R = 10.
(C) R = 0.1. (D) None of these
20. What is the equivalent resistance between A and B in the given
circuit diagram.
(A) 2. (B) 12.
(C) 20. (D) 10.
21. A cell of emf. 1.5 V and internal resistance 0.5. is connected to a (non-lin
ear) conductor whose . -V graph is
shown in Figure. Find the current drawn from the cell and its terminal voltage
(A) 1.5 A and 2 V (B) 1 A and 1 V (C) 1 A and 2 V (D) 2 A and 1.5 V
22. You are given several identical resistances each of value R = 10. and each c
apable of carrying a maximum
current of 1A. It is required to make a suitable combination of these resistance
s to produce a resistance of
5. which can carry a current of 4 A. The minimum number of resistances required
is
(A) 4 (B) 10 (C) 8 (D) 20
23. A conductor or area of cross section A having charge carriers, each having a
charge q is subjected to a
potential V. the number density of charge carriers in the conductor is n and the
charge carriers (along with
their random motion) are moving with a velocity v. If . is the conductivity of t
he conductor and . is the
average relaxation time, then
(A) .
. . nq2
m
(B) nq2
m.
. . (C) 2 nq
2m.
. . (D) 2 2nq
m.
. .
24. A vacuum diode consists of plane parallel electrodes separated by a distance
d and each having an area A.
On applying a potential V to the anode with respect to the cathode a current I f
lows through the diode.
Assume that the electrons are emitted with zero velocity and they do not change
the field between the
electrodes. The electron velocity is v and the charge density is . at any point
between the electrodes at a
distance x from the cathode. If I is the equivalent current, m is the mass of ea
ch charge carrier, then
(A) md
v . 2eVx (B) 2eVxA 2
. . md (C) 2md
v . eVx (D) eVxA 2

. . 2md
25. A long round conductor of cross-sectional area A is made of a material whose
resistivity depends on the
radial distance r from the axis of the conductor as 2 r
.
. . , . is a constant. The total resistance per unit
length of the conductor is R and the electric field strength in the conductor du
e to which a current I flow in
it is . .
(A) 2 A
R 2
..
. (B) 2 A
R 4
..
. (C) 2 A
2 .. I
. . (D) 2 A
4..I
. .
ELECTRIC CURRENT
26. A 100 W bulb B1 and two 60 W bulbs B2 and B3 are connected to a 250 V
source as shown in figure. NowW1, W2 and W3 are the output powers of the
bulbs B1, B2 and B3 respectively. Then
(A) W1 > W2 = W3 (B) W1 > W2 > W3
(C) W1 < W2 = W3 (D) W1 < W2 < W3 [JEE 2002 (Scr)]
27. Variation of current passing through a conductor as the voltage
applied across its ends is varied as shown in Fig. 9.55. If the
resistance is determined at points A, B, C and D. We will find that :
(A) Resistance at C and D are equal
(B) Resistance at B is higher than at A
(C) Resistance at C is higher than at B
(D) Resistance at A is lower than at B
28. The P. D. between the points A and B in the circuit shown here is 16 V. Whic
h is/are the correct statement(s)
out of the following ?
(A) the current through the 2 . resistor is 3.5 A
(B) the current through the 4 . resistor is 2.5 A
4. 1. 1. 3.
2.
A B
9V 3V
(C) the current through the 3 . resistor is 1.5 A
(D) the P.D. between the terminals of the 9 V battery is 7 V.
29. A and B are two points on a uniform ring of resistance R. The .ACB = ., wher
e C is the centre of the ring.
The equivalent resistance between A and B is
(A) . . . .
.
(2 )
4
R
2 (B) . ..
.
. ..
.
.
.
.
2
R 1 (C) R .
.
2 (D) R .
. . .
4
2
30. The charge flowing through a resistance R varies with time t as Q = at bt2.
The total heat produced in R is
(A) 6b
a3R
(B) 3b
a3R
(C) 2b
a3R
(D) b
a3 R
31. A resistance R carries a current I . The heat loss to the surroundings is .
(T T0) where . is a constant, T
is the temperature of the resistance, and T0 is the temperature of the atmospher

e. If the coefficient of linear
expansion is ., the strain in the resistance is
(A) proportional to the length of the resistance wire (B) equal to .
.
I2 R
(C) equal to 2
1
.
.
I2 R (D) equal to . . (IR)
32. The potential of the point O is
(A) 3.5 V (B) 6.5 V
(C) 3 V (D) 6 V
33. In the circuit shown in Figure the heat produced in the 5 ohm resistor
due to the current flowing through it is 10 calories per second.
The heat generated in the 4 ohms resistor is
4. 6.
(A) 1 calorie/sec (B) 2 calories/sec 5.
(C) 3 calories/sec (D) calories/sec [JEE 1981]
ELECTRIC CURRENT
34. A battery of internal resistance 4. is connected to the network of
resistance as shown. In order that the maximum power can be delivered
to the network, the value of R in . should be [JEE 1995]
(A)
4
9 (B) 2 (C)
8
3 (D) 18
35. A steady current flows in a metallic conductor of non-uniform cross-section.
The quantity/quantities constant
along the length of the conductor is/are [JEE 1997]
(A) current, electric field and drift speed. (B) drift speed only
(C) current and drift speed (D) current only.
36. In the circuit P . R, the reading of the galvanometer is
same with switch S open or closed. Then [JEE 1999]
(A) R G . . . (B) P G . . .
(C) Q G . . . (D) Q R . . .
37. A wire of length L and 3 identical cells of negligible internal resistances
are connected in series. Due to the
current, the temperature of the wire is raised by .T in a time t. A number N of
similar cells is now connected
in series with a wire of the same material and cross-section but of length 2L. T
he temperature of the wire is
raised by the same amount .T in the same time t, the value of N is [JEE 2001]
(A) 4 (B) 6 (C) 8 (D) 9
38. The effective resistance between points P and Q of the
electrical circuit shown in the figure is [JEE 2002]
(A)
2Rr
R . r (B)
8 . .
3
R R r
R r
.
.
(C) 2 r + 4 R (D)
5 2
2
R . r
39. Express which of the following set ups can be used to verify Ohm s law?
(A)
A
V (B) A V
(C)
A
V
(D)
A
V
40. The three resistance of equal value are arranged in the different combinatio
n shown below. Arrange them in
increasing order of power dissipation. [JEE 2003]
(I) a (II) b (III) c (IV) c
(A) i (B) i (C) i (D) i
R R
R
R R
4R
E 6R
4.
P Q
R
S
G
v
P Q
r r
2R
2R 2R
2R
2R 2R
ELECTRIC CURRENT
41. In the givencircuit, no current is passing through the galvanometer. If the
crosssectional
diameter ofAB is doubled then for nullpoint ofgalvanometer the value
ofACwould [JEE 2003 (Scr)] G
A x
(A) x (B) x/2 (C) 2x (D) None C B
42. Six equal resitances are connected between points P, Qand R as shown in the
figure. Thenthe net resistancewillbemaximumbetween
[JEE 2004 (Scr)]
P
Q R (A) P and Q (B) Q and R
(C) P and R (D) any two points
43. For the post office box arrangement to determine the value of unknown
resistance, the unknown resistance should be connected between
[JEE 2004 (Scr)]
B1 C1
B C D
(A) B and C (B) C and D
(C) Aand D (D) B1 and C1
44. A capacitor is charged using an external battery with a resistance x in seri
es. The
dashed line shows the variation of .n . with respect to time. If the resistance
is
changed to 2x, the new graph will be [JEE 2004]
(A) P (B) Q
(C) R (D) S
45. A moving coil galvanometer of resistance 100. is used as an ammeter using a
resistance 0.1.. Themaximum
deflection current in the galvanometer is 100.A. Find the minimum current in the
circuit so that the ammeter
shows maximum deflection. [JEE 2005]
(A) 100.1 mA (B) 1000.1 mA (C) 10.01 mA (D) 1.01 mA
46. In the figure shownthe current through 2. resistor is
(A) 2 A (B) 0 A
10V
20V
10
2
5
(C) 4 A (D) 6 A [JEE 2005 (Scr)]
47. Agalvanometer has resistance 100 ..and it requires current 100 Afor full scal
e deflection.Aresistor 0.1 .
is connectedtomake it anammeter. the smallest current required inthe circuit to
produce the fullscale deflection
is [JEE 2005 (Scr)]
(A) 1000.1 mA (B) 1.1 mA (C) 10.1 mA (D) 100.1 mA
48. Consider a cylindricalelement as shown in the figure. Current flowing
through the element is I and resistivityofmaterialof the cylinder is ..
Choose the correct option out the following.
4r I
l/2 l/2
2r
A B
C
(A) Power loss in second half is four times the power loss in first half.
(B) Voltage drop in first half is twice of voltae drop in second half.
(C) Current density in both halves are equal.
(D) Electric field in both halves is equal. [JEE 2006]

P
Q
R
S
t
ln I
ELECTRIC CURRENT
49. Aresistance of 2 . is connected across one gap of a meter-bridge (the length
of thewire is 100 cm) and an
unknown resistance, greater than 2., is connected across the other gap. When the
se resistances are
interchanged, the balance point shifts by20 cm. Neglecting any corrections, the
unknown resistance is
[JEE 2007]
(A) 3 . (B) 4 . (C) 5 . (D) 6 .
MORE THAN ONE CHOICE MAY BE CORRECT
50. Capacitor C1 of capacitance 1micro-farad and capacitor C2 of capacitance 2mi
crofarad are separately charged
fully by a common battery. The two capacitors are then separately allowed to dis
charge through equal resistors
at time t = 0. [JEE 1989]
(A) The current in each of the two discharging circuits is zero at t = 0.
(B) The currents in the two discharging circuits at t = 0 are equal but not zero
.
(C) The currents in the two discharging circuits at t = 0 are unequal.
(D) Capacitor C1, losses 50% of its initial charge sooner than C2 loses 50% of i
ts initial charge.
51. In the circuit shown in Figure the current through
(A) the 3. resistor is 0.50 A. (B) the 3. resistor is 0.25 A
(C) the 4. resistor is 0.50 A (D) the 4. resistor is 0.25 A
52. Which of the following is/are wrong?
(A) A current carrying conductor is electrically charged.
(B) There is an electric field inside a current carrying conductor.
(C) For manual control of the current of a circuit, two rheostats in series are
preferable to a single rheostat.
(D) None of these
53. A constant voltage is applied between the two ensd of a uniform metallic wir
e. Some heat is produced in it.
The heat developed is doubled if:
(A) both the length and radius of the wire are halved. (B) both the length and r
adius of the wire are doubled.
(C) the radius of the wire is doubled.
(D) the length of the wire is doubled and the radius of the wire is halved.
54. All the resistance in the given Wheatstone bridge have different values and
the
current through the galvanometer is zero. The current through the galvanometer
will still be zero if,
(A) the emf of the battery is doubled. (B) all resistance are doubled.
(C) resistance R1 and R2 are interchanged. (D) the battery and the galvanometer
are interchanged.
55. Two cells of equal emf and having different internal resistance R1 and R2 (R
2 > R1) are connected in series. If
resistance of connecting wires is equal to R, which of the following statements
is/are correct?
(A) At a particular value of r, potential difference across second cell can be e
qual to zero.
(B) If R = 0, negative terminal of second cell will be at higher potential than
its positive terminal
(C) Negative terminal of first cell can never be at higher potential than its po
sitive terminal.
(D) None of these
56. When electric bulbs of same power but with different marked voltages are con
nected in series across a power
line, their brightness will be:
(A) proportional to their marked voltages. (B) inversely proportional to their m

arked voltages.
(C) proportional to the squares of their marked voltages.
(D) inversely proportional to the square of their voltages.
57. Two conductors made of the same material have lengths L and 2 L, but have eq
ual resistances. The two are
connected in series in a circuit in which current is flowing. Which of the follo
wing is/are correct?
(A) The potential difference across the two conductors is the same.
(B) The electric drift velocity is larger in the conductor of length 2L.
(C) The electric field n the first conductor is twice that in the second.
(D) The electric field in the second conductor is twice that in the first.
2. 2. 2.
2. 2.
4.
3.
9V 8. 8.
R1 R2
R3 R4
ELECTRIC CURRENT
58. Mark correct statements:
(A) Heat is always generated in a battery whether it charges or discharges.
(B) When a battery supplies current in an external circuit, heat generated in it
is always less than electrical
power developed in it.
(C) Potential difference across terminals of a battery is always less than its e
mf. (D)None of these.
59. A mocrometer has a resistance of 100. and a full scale range of 50. A. It ca
n be used as a voltmeter or as
a higher range ammeter provided a resistance is added to it. Pick the correct ra
nge and resistance combinations.
(A) 50 V range with 10 k . resistance in series. (B) 10 V range with 200 k . res
istance in series.
(C) 5 mA range with 1. resistance in parallel. (D) 10 mA range with 1. resistanc
e in parallel.
60. An electric current is passed through a circuit containing three wires arran
ged in parallel. If the length and
radius of the wires are in ratio 2 : 3 : 4 and 3 : 4 : 5, then the ratio of curr
ent passing through wires would be:
(A) 54 : 64 : 75 (B) 9 : 16 : 25 (C) 4 : 9 : 25 (D) 3 : 6 : 10.
61. When a galvanometer is shunted with a 4. resistance, the deflection is reduc
ed to one-fifth. If the
galvanometer is further shunted with a 2. wire, the further reduction in the def
lection will be (the main
current remains the same).
(A) 8/15 of the deflection when shunted with 4. only. (B) 5/13 of the deflection
when shunted with 4. only.
(C) 3/4 of the deflection when shunted with 4. only. (D) None of these
62. During the charging of a storage battery, the current is 22 A and the voltag
e is 12 V. The rate of heat generated
in the battery is 12 W. The rate of change of internal energy is:
(A) 240 J/s (B) 252 J/s (C) 264 J/s (D) 126 J/s.
63. A cell of emf 5 V, internal resistance 1. will give maximum power output to:
(A) a single resistor of 1. (B) two 1. resistors connected in series.
(C) two 1. resistors connected in parallel. (D) two 2. resistors connected in pa
rallel.
64. In the circuit shown in figure, the current through:
(A) the 3. resistor is 0.50 A. (B) the 3. resistor is 0.25 A.
3. 2. 2.
2. 2. 2.
(C) the 4. resistor is 0.50 A. (D) the 4. resistor is 0.25 A. 9V 8. 8. 4.
65. For the circuit shown in the figure
6k 1.5k
2k R1
R2 24V RL
I
[JEE 2009]
(A) the current I through the battery is 7.5 mA
(B) the potential difference across RL is 18 V
(C) ratio of powers dissipated in R1 and R2 is 3
(D) if R1 and R2 are interchanged, magnitude of the power dissipated in RL will
decrease by a factor of 9
ELECTRIC CURRENT
FILL IN THE BLANKS
1. An electric bulb rated for 500 watts at 100 volts is used in a circuit having
a 200 volts supply. The resistance
R that must be put in series with the bulb, so that the bulb delivers 500 Watts
is ........... ohms. (1997)
2. The equivalent resistance between points A and B of the circuit (Figure) give
n below is ........... ..
3. In the circuit (Figure) shown above, each battery is 5 V and has an internal
resistance of 0.2 ohm.
A 2R 2R R B V
Fig - 1 Fig - 2
The reading in the ideal voltmeter V is ......... V. [JEE 1997]
TRUE / FALSE
4. Electrons in a conductor have no motion in the absence of a potential differe
nce across it. [JEE 1982]
5. The current-voltage graphs for a given metallic wire at two different tempera
tures T1
and T2 are shown in the figure. [JEE 1985]
The temperature T2 is greater than T1.
TABLE MATCH
6. Column I Column II
(A) Current (P) Mircoscopic quantity
(B) Current Density (Q) Macroscopicquantity
(C) Electric field (R) Parallel to the conductor boundaries
(D) Resistance (S) Flux associated with current density
7. Two bulbs A and B consume same power P when operated at voltage VA and VB res
pectively. Bulbs are
connected with a supply of d.c source then:
Column I Column II
(A) In series connection, the ratio of (P) RA/RB
potential difference across A and B
(B) In series connection, the ratio of (Q) V2
A/V2
B
power consumed by A and B
(C) In parallel connection, the ratio of (R) RB/RA
current in A and B
(D) In parallel connection, the ratio of (S) V2
B/V2
A
power consumed in A and B
8. In a R-C circuit.
Column I Column II
(A) Charging current at tiem t = 0 (P) 1 2
2
CV
(B) Discharging current at t = 0 (Q) Maximum
(C) While charging energy stored (R) Capacitor becomes short circuit
(D) While charging energy dissipated as heat (S) Exponential law
V
T1
T2
I
ELECTRIC CURRENT
9. A battery has an emf E and internal resistance r. A variable resistor R is co
nnected across the terminals of the
battery.
Column I Column II
(A) Current in the circuit is maximum (P) R . .
(B) Potential difference across the (Q) R = 0
terminals is maximum
(C) Power delivered to the resistor is maximum (R)
i E
r
.
(D) Power delivered to the load is zero (S) r = R
10. Consider two identical cells each of emf E and internal resistance r connect
ed to a load resistance R.
Column I Column II
(A) For maximum power transfer to load (P)
2
4
E
r
if cells are connected in series
(B) For maximum power transfer to load if (Q)
2
2
E
r
cells are connected in parallel
(C) For series combination of cells (R) eq E . E , eq 2
r . r
(D) For parallel connection of cells (S) 2 eq E . E , 2 eq r . r
PASSAGE TYPE QUESTIONS
PASSAGE # I
A physics instructor devises a simple electrical circuit setup in which one can
easily insert various resistors
and capacitors in series and parallel combinations. One can have only resistor c
ombinations, only capacitor
combinations, or capacitor-resistor combinations. The circuit is usually used fo
r DC (direct current studies
but can also be used for AC (alternating current) studies. The DC battery voltag
e is 6 volts. The AC rms
voltage is 120 volts (at 60 Hz.) The student inserts the resistors and /or capac
itors as instructed and has
available suitable ammeters and voltmeters for both DC and AC experiments. (Ther
e are also three resistors,
each of 2 ohms resistance. There are also three capacitors, each of 1 microfarad
capacitance.)
1. All three resistors are connected in series and the combination is connected
to the 6-volt DC battery. What
voltage drop occurs across each individual resistor as measured by the voltmeter
?
(A) 0.33 V (B) 1.0 V (C) 2.0 V (D) 6.0 V
2. One capacitor and one resistor are connected in parallel. The ends of this co
mbination are then connected t
the 6-V DC battery, what are the final current and voltage, respectively, across
the 1 microfarad capacitor?
(A) 0 A, 6 V (B) 0.33 A, 3 V (C) 0.33 A, 6 V (D) 6 A, 6 V
3. Two of the 2-ohm resistors are connected in parallel and the 120-V AC voltage
is applied to the ends of this

parallel combination. What current will the AC ammeter measure if connected so i
t measures only the current
through one of the resistors?
(A) 1 A (B) 2 A (C) 60 A (D) 120 A
4. Two resistors are connected in parallel and the set of parallel resistors is
then connected in series with the
third resistor. If this series parallel combination is connected across the 6-vo
lt battery. What total DC current
is drawn from the battery?
(A) 0.5 A (B) 2 A (C) 3 A (D) 6 A
5. One capacitor and one resistor are connected is series. The 120 V, 60 Hz, A.C
. voltage is then applied to this
series RC circuit. What is the AC current through this series circuit?
(A) 0.045 A (B) 0.50 A (C) 0.72 A (D) 40.0 A
(A) 0.9 W (B) 2.0 W (C) 4.4 W (D) 18 W

A 6-votl battery is connected across a 2-ohm resistor. What is the heat energy
issipated in the resistor in
5 minutes?
(A) 430 joules (B) 560 joules (C) 4300 joules (D) 5400 joules
minutes is used to heat 2 kg of water (which is thermally insulated so that no
eat escapes). The initial
(A) 0.9 W (B) 2.0 W (C) 4.4 W (D) 18 W
A 6-votl battery is connected across a 2-ohm resistor. What is the heat energy
issipated in the resistor in
5 minutes?
(A) 430 joules (B) 560 joules (C) 4300 joules (D) 5400 joules
minutes is used to heat 2 kg of water (which is thermally insulated so that no
eat escapes). The initial
ELECTRIC CURRENT
PASSAGE # II
h
d
A set of experiments in the physics lab is designed to develop understanding of

simple electrical circuit
principles for direct current circuits. The student is given a variety of batter
ies, resistors, and DC meters; and
is directed to wire series and parallel combinations of resistors and batteries
making measurements of the
currents and voltage drops using the ammeters and voltmeters. The student calcul
ates expected current and
voltage values using Ohm s law and Kirchoff s circuit rules and then checks the resu
lts with the meters.
6.
A student connects a 6-volt battery and a 12-volt battery in series and then con
nects this combination
across a 10-ohm resistor. What is the current in the resistor?
(A) 0.8 A (B) 0.9 A (C) 1.8 A (D) 3.6 A
7.
Resistorsof 4ohmsand8ohmsareconnectedinseries.Abatteryof 6voltsisconnectedacross
theseries
combination. How much power, in watts, is consumed in the 8-ohm resistor?
(D) 24 W
(A) 0.67 W (B) 2W (C) 12 W
8.
Two 4-ohm resistors are connected in series and this pair is connected in parall
el with an 8-ohm resistor. A
12 volt battery is connected across the ends of this parallel set. What power, i
n watts, is consumed in the
8-ohm resistor in this case?
9.
10.
A 12-volt battery is connected across a 4-ohm resistor and the heat energy dissi
pated in the resistor in 10
temperature of the water is 20C and the specific heat of the water is 4184 joule/
kg-C. What is the final
temperature of the water at the end of the 10 minutes of heating?
(A) 22.6 C (B) 28.4C (C) 34.2C (D) 56.4C
PASSAGE # III
In the laboratory, the voltage across a particular circuit element can be measur
ed by a voltmeter. A voltmeter
has a very high resistance and should be connected in parallel to the circuit el
ement whose voltage is being
measured. Connected improperly, the voltmeter will affect the circuit, interrupt
ing it and preventing current

from flowing through the circuit element that it is meant to measure.
An experiment is conducted in which a voltmeter is used to investigate voltages
in a circuit containing a
capacitor and a light bulb. The bulb and the capacitor are connected in series w
ith a battery and the
voltmeter is placed in different position: in the first case across the capacito
r in the second case across the
light bulb, and in the third case across the battery (see figure 1). The voltmet
er reading is recorded every 10
seconds. The voltage for Case 1 as a function of time is shown in figure 2.
Vvoltmeter
capacitor
bulb battery
Case 1
V
voltmeter capacitor
bulb battery
Case 2
Vvoltmeter
capacitor
bulb battery
Case 3
Voltage
Time
Fig. 2
A capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated by a nonconducting mater
ial. When a battery is
connected to a circuit containing a capacitor and a light bulb in series, a curr
ent will flow, causing positive
charge to accumulate on one capacitor plate and an equal amount of negative char
ge to accumulate on the
other. After the current has flowed for a finite time, the capacitor will be ful
ly charged. The ratio of the
absolute amount of charge on one plate to the voltage across the plates is defin
ed as the capacitance; this
is constant for a given capacitor. A light bulb is a resistor that, when enough
current flows through it,
becomes hot enough to emit energy in the form of light. (Note : Assume that the
battery has no internal
resistance and that the resistance of the light bulb is constant).
ELECTRIC CURRENT ELECTRIC CURRENT

11.
In the circuit shows in figure 1, which of the following conditions would indica
te that the capacitor was fully
charged
I. A voltmeter connected across the capacitor reads a constant voltage.
II. The light bulb in the circuit stops shining.
III. The voltage across the bulb equals the voltage across the battery
(A) I Only (B) III Only (C) I and II only (D) I, II, and III
12.
Which one of the following graphs could correctly represent the voltage across t
he battery as a function of
time during the experiment described in the passage
Time
(D)
Time
Voltage
Voltage
Voltage
Voltage
After the experiment described in the passage is completed, the battery is taken
out of the circuit and the
wires are reconnected. Which of the following graphs, represents the voltage acr
oss the capacitor as a
(A)
(B)
(C)
Time
Time
13.
function of time
(A)
Time
Voltage
(B)
Time
Voltage
(C)
Time
Voltage
(D)
Time
Voltage
14. How will the voltage across the light bulb vary with time as the capacitor i
s charging
(A) It will decrease, because as the capacitor plates fill will charge, they wil
l impede further charge, which
will decrease the current and the voltage across the bulb.
(B) It will remain the same, because as the capacitor plates fill with charge an
d impede the current, the
voltage output of the battery will increase to keep the current constant.
(C) It will increase, because as the capacitor plates fill with charge, they wil
l induce further charge, which
will create a greater voltage across the bulb.
(D) It will increase, because as the capacitor plates fill with charge, the volt
age across the capacitor will

decrease, and therefore the voltage across the light bulb will increase.
15. The light bulb shown in figure 1 is replaced first with two identical resist
or in series, and then with the same
two resistors in parallel. The total time taken for the capacitor to charge is m
easured in both cases, and
found to be longer for the first case. It can be deduced that
(A) When the resistance of the circuit si increased, the capacitance of the capa
citor increases.
(B) the presence of resistors affects the final voltage across the capacitor pla
tes.
(C) the more charge is absorbed by the resistors as the resistance of the circui
t increases.
(D) the presence of resistors hinders the flow of charge, thus reducing the curr
ent in the circuit.
16.
withoutremovingthevoltmeter
Inthediagram below, avoltmeterisconnectedinseriestoacircuit that includesabatter
yandtwobulbsin
series. The bulbs, which had been shining in the absence of the voltmeter immedi
ately stop shining. How
might the circuit be modified in order to make the bulbs shine steadily again wi
th their former brilliance
voltmeter
bulb
V
bulb
battery
(A)
V
(B)
V
(C)
V
(D)
V
ELECTRIC CURRENT
LEVEL # 2
1. In the figure shown,
2.
2.
3.
3.
1 .F 3 .F
6V, 0.5 .
find the charge on 2 .F each capacitor in steady state. [in .C ].
2. In the given circuit diaram,
1.
4.
2.
3.
A
B
C
D
E
F
50 V
find the current passing through wire CD [in Ampere]
3. It is required to send a current of 8 A through a circuit whose resistance is
5 . . What is the least number
of cells which must be used for their purpose and how should they be connected?
Emf of each cell is 2V and
internal resistance is 0.5 . .
4. In the circuit shown, the capacitor is charged by a battery of emf
100 V and 1. internal resistance by closing the switch. Calculate
the heat generated across 99 . resistance during the charging of
0.1 F
100 V, 1.
99 .
s
capacitor. [in Joule].
5. In a Wheatstone s bridge a battery of 2 volt and internal resistance 2 ohm is u
sed. Find the value of the
current through the galvanometer in that unbalanced condition of the bridge when
P = 1 ohm, Q = 2 ohm,
S = 30 ohm and resistance of galvanometer is 4 ohm.
6. A 20 volt battery with an internal resistance of 6 . is connected to a resist
or of x ohms. If an additional 6 .
resistance is connected across the battery find the value of x so that external
power supplied by battery
remains the same.
7. Find how the voltage across the capacitor C varies with time t after
capacitors C varies with time t after the shorting of the switch S at
C
S
R
R
E
the moment t = 0.
8. A homogeneous poorly conducting medium of resistivity . fills up the space be
tween two thin coaxial
ideally conducting cylinders. The radii of the cylinders are equal to a and b, (
a < b) the length of each
cylinder is . . Neglecting the edger effects. Find the resistance of the medium
between cylinders.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
9. Find the current flowing through the resistance R in the
circuit shown in figure. The internal resistance of the
batteries are negligible.
10. A circuit shown in figure has resistance R1 = 20. and R2 = 30.. At
what value of the resistance Rx will the thermal power generated in it
be practically independent of small variation of that resistance ? The
A
B
R1
Rx R2
voltage between the points A and B is supposed to be constant in this case.
11. An ammeter and voltmeter are connected in series to a battery with an emf E
= 6.0v. When a certain
resistance is connected in parallel with the voltmeter, the reading of the latte
r decreases . = 2.0 times
whereas the reading of ammeter increases the some number of time. Find the volta
meter reading after the
connecting of the resistance.
12. In the circuit shown in the figure the current through 3 .
resistance is 2A. If E1 = 12V, E2 = 14V, what is the value
E1
E2 E3
3.
1.
1.5.
10. 1.
of E ? Internal resistance of each battery is 1 . .
13. The circuit shows a capacitor C two batteries, two resistors and a switch
S. Initially S has been open for a longtime. It is then closed for a long time
by how much does the change on the capacitor change over this time
period ? Assume C = 10 ., E1 = 1.0 V, E3 = 3.0v, R1 = 0.20 . , R2 = 0.40 . .
14. In the given network switch S is closed at t = 0. Find the current
through the 10 ohm resistor at t = 75 . sec.
10V 20V
S
2.F
10.
..
..
15. Two coils connected in series have resistance of 600 . and 300 . and tempera
ture co-efficient of 0.001
and 0.004 (C) 1 respectively at 20C. Find resistance of the combination at a tempera
ture of 50C. What is
the effective temperature co-efficient of combination.
16. The resistance of the galvanometer G in the circuit is 25.. The meter
deflects full scale for a current of 10 mA. The meter behaves as an
ammeter of three different ranges. The range is 0 10 A, if the terminals
R1 R2 R3
G
O and P are taken; range is 0 1 A between O and R. Calculate the
resistance R1, R2 and R3.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
17. Calculate the steady current in the 2-ohm resistor shown in the circuit in t
he figure. The internal resistance of
the battery is negligible and the capacitance of the conductor C is 0.2 microfar
ad.
OR
Two resistors, 400 ohms, and 800 ohms are connected in series with a 6-volt batt
ery. It is desired to measure
the current in the circuit. An ammeter of a 10 ohms resistance is used for this
purpose. what will be the
reading in the ammeter? similarly, If a voltmeter of 10,000 ohms resistance is u
sed to measure the potential
difference across the 400-ohms resistor, What will-be the reading in the voltmet
er.
LEVEL # 3
1. A part of circuit in a steady state along with the currents flowing in the br
anches, the values of resistances
etc., is shown in the figure. Calculate the energy stored in the capacitor C (4.
F) [JEE 1986]
2. An infinite ladder network of resistances is constructed with a 1 ohm and 2 o
hm resistances, as shown in
figure. [JEE 1987]
The 6 volt battery between A and B has negligible internal resistance:
(i) Show that the effective resistance between A and B is 2 ohms.
(ii) What is the current that passes through the 2 ohm resistance nearest to the
battery?
3. An electrical circuit is shown in Figure. Calculate the
potential difference across the resistor of 400 ohm,
as will be measured by the voltmeter V os resistance
400 ohm, either by applying Kirchhoff s rules or
otherwise. [JEE 1996]
ELECTRIC CURRENT
4. Find the emf (V) and internal resistance (r) of a single
battery which is equivalent to a parallel combination of
two batteries of emfs V1 and V2 and internal resistance
r1 and r2 respectively, with polarities as shown in figure. [JEE 1997]
5. A leaky parallel plane capacitor is filled completely with a material having
dielectric constant K = 5 and
electrical conductivity . = 7.4 x 10 12 . 1 m 1. If the charge on the plane at instant
t = 0 is q = 8.85 mC, then
calculate the leakage current at the instant t = 12 s. [JEE 1997]
6. In the circuit shown in Figure, the battery is an ideal one, with
emf V. The capacitor is initially uncharged. The switch S is
closed at time t = 0. [JEE 1998]
(A) Find the charge Q on the capacitor at time t.
(B) Find the current in AB at time t. What is its limiting value as t ... :
7. A thin uniform wire AB of length 1m, an unknown resistance X
and a resistance of 12. are connected by thick conducting strips,
as shown in the figure. A battery and a galvanometer (with a sliding
A B C D
jockey connected to it) are also available. Connections are to be X 12.
made to measure the unknown resistance X using the principle of
Wheatstone bridge. Answer the following questions. [JEE 2002]
(A) Are there positive and negative terminals on the galvanometer?
(B) Copy the figure in your answer book and show the battery and the galvanomete
r (with jockey) connected
at approxiate points.
(C) After appropriate connections are made, it is found that no deflection takes
place in the galvanometer
when the sliding jockey touches the wire at a distance of 60 cm from A. Obtain t
he value of the resistance
of X.
8. How a battery is to be connected so that the shown rheostat
will behave like a potential divider? Also indicate the points out
A B
C
R
which output can be taken. [JEE 2003]
9. Draw the circuit diagram to verify Ohm s Law with the help of amain resistance
of 100. and two galvanometers
of resistances 106 . and 10 3 . and a source of varying emf. Show the correct posi
tions of voltmeter and
ammeter. [JEE 2004]
10. An unknown resistance is to be determined using resistances R1, R2 or R3. Th
eir corresponding null points are
A, B and C. Find which of the above will give the most accurate reading and why?
[JEE 2005]
A B C
G
X R
R = R1 or R2 or R3
ELECTRIC CURRENT
ANSWER KEY
Reasoning Type
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Ans. C C D A C A A C A D B A
Level # 1
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. C B D D A C C D D B
Q. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. B B B D CD A A ABCD A C
Q. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. B C B AB C D A ACD A A
Q. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. B A B B D A B A A A
Q. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
Ans. A A C B A B D A A BD
Q. 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. D AC B ABD ABC C AC AB BC A
Q. 61 62 63 64 65
Ans. B B AD D AD
Fill in the Blanks / True False / Match Table
1. 20 2. R 2 3. 0 4. F 5. T
6. A .Q, R and S, B .P and R, C .P and R, D .Q
7. A .P and Q, B .P and Q, C .R and S, D .R and S
8. A .Q, R and S, B .Q and S, C .P and S, D .P and S
9. A .Q and R, B .P, C .S, D .Q, P and R
10. A .Q, B .Q, C .S, D .R
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. C A C B A C B D D A
Que. 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. C A B A D A
Passage Type
ELECTRIC CURRENT
Level # 2
1.
72C
11 2. 2 A 3. 160 4. 495 J 5.
1
9
Amp 6. x = 7.5.
7. V = . 2t RC. E 1 e
2
. . 8. ..
.
..
.
.
.
a
n b
2
.
. 9. I =
. .
. . . . 2 3 2 3
2 3 0 3
R R R R R
E R R E R
. .
. .
10. Rx =
1 2
1 2
R R
R R
. = 12. 11. 1
E
. . = 2.0 V 12. E = 7V
13. decreases by 13.3 .c 14. I = 20 mA 15. 954 . , 0.002 (C) 1
16. R1 = 0.025 . , R2 = 0.2275 . , R3 = 2.5275 . 17. 0.9A or 4.96 x 10 3 A, 1.95 V
Level # 3
1. 2.88 x 10 4 J 2. (ii) 1.5 A 3. 10/3 V
4.
1 2 2 1
1 2
V r V r
r r
.
. ,
1 2
1 2
r r
r . r 5. 0.199.A 6. (a) . . 1 2 3
2
CV . e. t RC ; (b) 2 3
2 6
V V e t RC
R R
. . ; 2
V
R
7. (a) No (b)
A B C D
X 12.
G
J
(c) 8.
8. Battery should be connected across A and B. Out put can be taken across the t
erminals A and C or B and C.
9.
G1
G2 103
Ammeter
Voltmeter
106
100
E
10. This is true for r1 = r2; So R2 given most accurate value.
X X X X
MAGNETIC FIELD
DHANALAKSHMI NAGAR
TIRUPATI.
PH NO. 9440025125
MAGNETIC FIELD
THEORY OF MAGNETICEFFECTOFELECTRICCURRENT
CONCEPT OF MAGNETIC FIELD
The space around a current carrying conductor, inwhich itsmagnetic effect can be
experienced, is called
magnetic field.
Inmagnetics, there are basicallytwomethods ofcalculatingmagnetic field at some p
oint.One isBiot Savert s
lawwhich gives themagnetic field due to an infinitesimallysmall current carrying
wire at some point and the
other isAmpere s law, which is useful in calculating themagnetic field of a highly
symmetric configuration
carrying a steadycurrent.
BIOT-SAVART S LAW
According to this law, the magnetic field dB.. at the point P due to the small c
urrent element of length d
.l
is
given by
0 2
2
dB id sin Wb /m or tesla
4 r
.
.
.
l
where 0 is a constant and is called, permeabilityof free space.
i
r
P
0 = 4. 10 7 Wb/A m
Rules to Find the Direction of Magnetic Field
(i) Right hand palm rule no. 1 : Ifwe spread our right hand in such a way
that thumbis towards the directionof current and fingures are towards that
point wherewe have to find the direction of field then the direction of field
i
Current
carrying
conductor
P B
will be perpendicular to the palm
(ii) Maxwell s right handed screw rule : If a right handed cork screw is rotated s
o that its tip moves in the
direction offlowofcurrent throughthe conductor, then the rotationof the head oft
he screwgives the direction
ofmagnetic lines of force.
P2 P1
Magnetic line
of force
i Current carrying
conductor
NOTE : By convention the direction of magnetic field ..B
perpendicular to paper
going inwards is shown by . and the direction perpendicular to the paper
coming out is shown by . .
Applications of Biot-Savart s Law
Let us consider fewapplications ofBiot-Savart s Law:

(i) Magnetic field due to a straight thin conductor is
0 . .
1 2
B i sin sin
4 d
. . . .
.
d 1
2 p
i
(a) For aninfinitelylong straight wire,
.1 = .2 = 90
MAGNETIC FIELD
. B 0i
2 d
.
.
(b)Whenwire is semi-infinite,
1 2 0 and
2
.
. . . .
i
. d 0 i
B sin 0 sin
4 d 2
. .. . . . . . . .
0 i
B
4 d
.
.
(c)
B 1
d
. , i.e., B d graph for aninfinitely long straight wire is a rectangular
hyperbola as shown in figure.
B
(ii) Magnetic field on the axis ofa circular coil havingNturns is d
. .
2
0
2 2 3/ 2
B NiR
2 R x
.
.
Here, R = radius of the coil O x
R
P
x = the distance of point P fromcentre
and i = current in the coil
(a)At the centre of the loop, x = 0
. 0 B Ni
2R
.
(b) For x > > R, x2 + R2 . x2
.
2 2
0 0 0
3 3 3
NiR 2Ni R 2M B
2x 4 x 4 x
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . .
Here, M=magneticmoment of the loop
M = NiA = Ni .R2
NOTE : This result was expected since, the magnetic field on the axis of dipole
is 0
3
2M
4p x
Example 1. Two circular coilsAand Bof radius
5
2 cmand 5 cmrespectively carry current 5Amp and
5
2 Amp
respectively.The plane ofB is perpendicular to plane ofAand their centres coinci
de. Find themagnetic field at
the centre.
Sol. Themagnetic field due to first coil is
7
0 1
1
1 2
I 4 10 5 B 5 2r 2 10
2
.
.
. . .
. .
. .
7
1 2
20 3.14 10
B
5 1.441 10
.
.
. .
.
. .
B1 = 8.88 10 5 web/m2
MAGNETIC FIELD
and
7
0 2
2 2
2
I 4 10 5
B
2r 2 5 10 2
.
.
. . .
. .
. . .
5
5
2
2 3.14 10
B 4.44 10
1.414
.
. . .
. . .
. 2 2
B . B1 . B2
B . (8.88)2 . (4.44)2 .10.5weber /m2
B . 78.85 . 19.71 . 9.93 wb / m2
Example 2. Three rings, each having equal radius R, are placedmutuallyperpendicu
lar
to each other and each having its centre at the origin of co-ordinate system. If
current
I is flowing through each ring then themagnitude ofthemagnetic field at the common
centre is
(A) 0 3 I
2R (B) zero (C) . . 0 2 1 I
2R
. (D) . . 0 3 2 I
2R
.
Sol. Themagnetic field due to ring inx yplane is
0
1
B I k
2R
.
..
themagnetic field due to ring iny z plane is
0
2
B I i
2R
.
..
and themagnetic field due to ring in x z plane is
0
3
B I j
2R
.
..
. B . B1 .B2 .B3
.. .. .. ..
0 . . B i k i
2R
. . .
..
. 0 B 3 I
2R
.
Hence, option (A)
(c)Magnetic field
0 0 i i or B
2R 4 R
. . . . . . . . .
B=
2
O R Inwards
i
(iii) Field along
1
2
R
x
L
O
is correct
due to an arc of a circle at the centre is
. . . . . . . .. . .. . .
the axis of a solenoid is
MAGNETIC FIELD
0 . .
2 1
B Ni cos cos
2
. . . .
(a) For a long solenoid (L >>R),
i.e., .1 = 180 and .2 = 0
B = 0Ni
(b)At the ends of solenoid,
.2 = 0, .1 = 90
we get, 0
B 1 Ni
2
. (for L>>R)
Example 3. In a high tensionwire electric current runs fromeast to west. Find th
e direction ofmagnetic field at
point above and belowthewire.
Sol. When the current flows fromeast to west,magnetic field lines are circular r
ound it as shown infigure (a).And
so, themagnetic field above thewire is towards north and belowthewire towards so
uth.
W
N
E
S
B
i
(a) (b)
Example 4.A0.5 mlong solenoid has 500 turns and has a flux density of 2.52 10 3 T
at its centre. Find the
current in the solenoid. Given, 0 = 4. 10 7Hm 1.
Sol. Here, B = 2.52 10 3 T; 0 = 4. 10 7 Hm 1
Length of the solenoid, l = 0.5m;
Total number ofturns in the solenoid,N= 500
Therefore, number ofturns per unit lengthof the solenoid,
n N 500 1000 m 1
0.5
. . . .
l
If i is the current throughthe solenoid, then
B=0ni
or
3
7
0
B 2.52 10
i 2.0 A
n 4 10 1000
.
.
.
. . .
. . .
Example 5. Arectangular polygon of n sides is formed by bending a wire of total len
gth 2.R which carries a
current i . Find themagnetic field at the centre of the polygon.
Sol. One side of the polygon is,
a 2 R
n
.
.
2
n
2 n
. ..
.. .. .
. . . . .
d
a
i
. .
d cot
a / 2
. .
.
d a cot R cot
2 n n
. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MAGNETIC FIELD
All sides of the polygon produce the magnetic field at the centre in same direct
ion (here . ). Hence, net
magnetic field,
B = (n) (magnetic field due to one side)
0 . . i B n sin sin
4 d
. . . . . . . . . . .
or 0 in B n tan 2sin
4 R n n
. . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .
or
. .
2
0
sin
i n n
B
2R cos / n
. . .. . .
. .. .. . . . . . . .. .. .
Example 6. Infinite number of straight wires eachcarrying current I
are equally placed as shown in the figure.Adjacent wires have
current in opposite direction. Netmagntic field at point P is
30
1 2 3 4 5
y
x
z
a
a
P 30
(A) 0 I n 2 k
4. 3 a
l
(B) 0 I n 4 k
4. 3 a
l
(C) 0 I n 4 ( k )
4 3 a
.
.
l
(D) Zero
Sol. . . 1 2 3 4
B . B . B . B . B ........... k
..
Here 0 . .
1
B I sin 30 sin 30
4 a
. .
.
0
1
I 1 1 B
4 a cos30 2 2
. . . . . .. ..
0
1
2 I
B
4 3 a
.
.
Similarly, 0
2
2 I
B
8 3 a
.
. and so on
. 0 2 I 1 1 1 B 1 ........
4 3 a 2 3 4
. . . . . . .. . .. ..
..
0 2 I
B ln 2k
4 3 a
.
.
..
0 I
B ln 4k
4 3 a
.
.
..
Hence, option (B) is correct.
Example 7. Along straight wire, carrying current I, is bent at itsmidpoint
to formanangle of 45.Magnetic field at point P, distanceRfrompoint
of bending is equal to :
45 I
I
P
R
(A) . . 0 2 1 I
4 R
.
.
(B) . . 0 2 1 I
4 R
.
.
(C)
. . 0 2 1 I
4 2 R
.
.
(D)
. . 0 2 1 I
2 2 R
.
.
MAGNETIC FIELD
Sol.
0 . . B I sin 90 sin135 4 . R
2
. .
.
0 . . B I 2 1
4 R
. .
. Hence option (A) is correct
Example 8. Find themagnetic field at P due to the arrangement shown
(A) 0 i 1
1
2 d 2
. .
. . . . . . . (B) 0 2 i
2 d
.
.
90
45 d
P
(C) 0 i
2 d
.
. (D) 0 i 1
1
2 d 2
. .
. . . . . . .
Sol. B . B1 . B2
.. ..
0 B I sin sin 2 4 d 4 2
2
. . .. . .. . . . . . . .
0 B I 1 1 2 d 2
2
. . . . . .. .. .
90
45
P
45
/4
d2
d20 2 I 2 1 B
2 d 2
. . .
. . . . . . .
. 0 . . B I 2 1
2 d
. . .
.
0 B i 1 1
2 d 2
. . . . . . .. .. Hence option (A) is correct
Example 9.What is themagnitude ofmagnetic field at the centre O of loop of radius
2 mmade of uniformwirewhen a current of 1 amp enters in the loop and taken
out of it by two longwires as shown in the figure. 45
1 amp 90
1 amp
O
Sol. 1 B .. =magnetic field due to left wire is
0
1
I
B sin sin k
4 d 2 4
. . .. . . . . . . .
O
/4 d
2 B .. =magnetic field due to right wire
0 I
sin sin ( k)
4 d 2 4
. . .. . . . . . . . .
In circularwire,
I 1
R
. . 1
2
I
I 2
.
.
. . .
I1
I2
. 1 2 I I
2
. . . . . . . . . ..
MAGNETIC FIELD
. 3 B .. =magnetic field due to circularwire
0 1 0 2 I I (2 )
4 r 4 r
. . . .
. .
. .
0 2 0
2
I (2 )
I 0
4 r 4 r(2 )
. . . . .
. . .
. . . . .
. B . B1 . B2 . B3 . 0
.. .. .. ..
AMPERE S CIRCUITAL LAW
It states that the line integral of B.. around any closed path or circuit is equ
al to 0 times the total current
crossing the area bounded bythe closed path provided the electric field inside t
he loop remains constant. Thus,
. . 0 net
C
. B. d . i
.. .l
Its simplified formis Bl = 0 inet
This equation canbe used onlyunder following conditions :
(a) at every point of the closed path B|| dI
.. .
(b)magnetic field has the samemagnitudeB at all places on the closed path.
Applications of Ampere s Circulatal Law
(i) Magnetic field due to a longmetal rod of radiusR carrying a current i :
(a) If r < R, 0
2
i
B r
2 R
. . . .. . .. , i.e., B .r
(b) If r = R (i.e., at the surface)
0 B i
2 R
.
.
(ii) Magnetic field of a solenoidwounded in the formof a helix is
B = 0Ni
NOTE : Ampere s law is valid only for steady currents. Further more, it is useful
only for calculating the magnetic fields of current configurations with high deg
rees
of symmetry, just as gauss s law is useful only for calculating the electric field
s
of highly symmetric charge distributions.
Example 10. Two long conductors are arranged as shown above to form
overlapping cylinders, each of raidus r , whose centers are separated
by a distance d . Current of densityJ flows into the plane of the page
along the shaded part of one conductor and an equal current flows out
d
Conductor
y
x
Vacuum
A
of the plane of the page along the shaded portion of the other, as shown.
What are themagnitude and direction of themagnetic field at pointA?
(A) (0/2.).dJ, in the +y-direction (B) (0/2.)d2/r, in the +y-direction
(C) (0/2.)4d2J/r, in the y-direction (D) (0/2.)Jr2/d, inthe y-direction
Sol. B . B1 . B2
.. .. ..
0 0 d
d
B j i j i
2 2 2 2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .
.. . .
MAGNETIC FIELD
B 0 jk d i 0 jk d i
2 2 2 2
. . . . . . . . . .. .. .. ..
..
0 0 B jd j jd j
4 4
. .
..
0 0 B jd j d j
2 2
.
. .
.
..
along y-axis Hence, option (A) is correct.
MAGNETIC FIELD OF A MOVING POINT CHARGE
The magnetic field vector B.. at point P at position vector r .
, fromthe charge qmovingwith a velocityv .
is
found to be
0 . .
3
B q v r
4 r
. .
.
.
.. . .
Note downthe following points regarding this equation.
(a)Magnitude ofBis,
0
2
B qvsin
4 r
.
.
.
r
v
q
p
It is zero at . = 0 and 180 andmaximumat . = 90
(b) Direction ofB.. is along v r .
. .
if q is
positive and opposite to v . r
. .
if q is negative.
(c) Suppose a charge q1 is moving with velocity and 1 v .
another charge q2 is moving with velocity 2 v .
at
position vector r .
relative to q1, then force on q2will be,
. . 2 2 F . q v . B
. . ..
. . 0 1 . .
2 3 1
q
F v . v r
4 r
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
0 1 2 . . . .
3 2 1
F . q q v v r
4 r
. . . . . . . .
. . . .
This corresponds to Coulomb s electricalforce between the charges q1 and q2movingw
ith velocities 1 v .
and
2 v .
respectivelyrelative to an observer at rest.
Example 11. For a charge q movingwith velocityv .
, find the relation between electric andmagnetic fields.
Sol. 3
0
E q
4 r
.
..
..
...(i)
0
3
B qv r
4 r
.
.
.
.. . .
...(ii)
and
0 0
c 1
.
.
or 2
0 0
c 1
.
.
MAGNETIC FIELD
FromEqs. (i) and (ii), we get
B . 0.0 v . E
.. . ..
. 2
B v E
c
.
.
.. . ..
FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN MAGNETIC FIELD
When a current carrying conductor is placed in amagnetic field, the conductor
experiences a force in a directionperpendicular to both the direction ofmagnetic
field and the direction of current flowing in the conductor. This force is also
called
B
F i
Lorentz force. i
The direction of this force can be found out either by Fleming s left hand rule or
by
right handpalmrule.
Themagnetic force is
F = ilB sin .
In vector form, F . i. . B.
. . ..
l
Where B= intesityofmagnetic field
i= current in the conductor
l = lengthof the conductor
and . = angle between the length of conductor and directionofmagnetic field.
Case :
(i) If ..= 90 or sin ..= 1 then F = ilB(maximum)
Therefore, forcewillbemaximumwhen the conductor carrying current is perpendicula
r tomagnetic field.
(ii) If ..= 0 or sin ..= 0,
Then F = ilB 0 = 0
Thus, the forcewill be zero,when the current carrying conductor is parallel to t
he field.
Example 12. Astraight current carrying conductor is placed in such away that the
current in the conductor flows in the direction out of the plane of the paper.Th
e
conductor is placed between two poles of two magnets, as shown. The S N
Q
R S
P
conductor willexperience a force inthe direction towards.
(A) P (B) Q (C) R (D) S
Sol. The direction ofmagnetic field on the conductor is along SR.
But F . i . B
. . ..
l
F . i k . ( B i)
.
l
F . .i B j . i B(. j)
.
l l
Hence, the direction ofmagnetic force on thewire is towards Q. Hence option (B)
is correct
Example 13. In the figure shown a semicircularwire loop is placed in uniformmagn
etic fieldB = 1.0T.The plane
of the loop is perpendicular to themagnetic field. Current i= 2Aflows inthe loop
in the direction shown. Find
themagnitude of themagnetic force in both the cases (a) and (b). The radius of t
he loop is 1.0m.
i = 2A i = 2A

(a) (b)
1m
MAGNETIC FIELD
Sol. Refer figure (a) : It forms a closed loop and the current completes the loo
p. Therefore, net force on the loop
in uniformfield should be zero.
Refer figure (b) : In this case although it forms a closed loop, but current doe
s not complete the loop.Hence,
net force is not zero.
FACD . FAD
. .
. Floop . FACD . FAD . 2 FAD
. . . .
C

B
A D
. | Floop | . 2| FAD |
. .
| Floop | . 2i B sin .
.
l (l = 2r = 2.0 m)
= (2) (2) (2) (1) sin 90 = 8 N
Example 14. An arc of a circular loop of radius R is kept in the horizontal plane
and a constantmagnetic field B is applied in the verticaldirection as shown
in the figure. If the arc carries current I then find the force in the arc.
B
90
I

Sol. Aswe know,magnetic force on a closed loop placed in uniformmagnetic field i
s zero.
. B1 . B2 . 0
.. ..
. 1 2 B . .B . .I B(. j)
.. ..
l
1 B . I B j
..
l /2
R R
(1)
(2)
1 B . I B( 2R) j
..
. B1 . 2 IBR
..
Example 15. Aconducting wire bent in the formof a parabola y2 = 2x carries a cur
rent
i = 2Aas shown in figure. thiswire is placed in a uniformmagnetic field B . .4 k
..
Tesla. Themagnetic force on thewire is (in newton)
y(m) A
B
2 x(m)
(A) .16 i (B) 32 i (C) .32 i (D) 16 i
Sol. The netmagnetic force on closed loop is zero.
. Force on parabola + force on straight wireAB = 0
. Force on the parabola = force on straight wireAB
. ..I j. B.
..
A
B . .2..4 j. ..4k ..
F . .32 i Hence option (C) is correct.
Example 16. Aconductor of length l
and mass m is placed along the east-west line on
a table. Suddenly a
certain amount of charge is passed through it and it is found to jump to a heigh
t h . The earth smagnetic
induction isB. The charge passed throughthe conductor is : (B is horizontal)
(A)
1
Bmgh (B)
2gh
Blh
(C)
gh
Blh (D)
m 2gh
Bl
Sol. Themagnetic force is
F = I lB
or
F dq B
dt
. l
MAGNETIC FIELD
or
dq Fdt
B
.
l
or 0 q Fdt mv
B B
. . .
l l
But 02 = v0
2 2gh
. 0 v . 2gh
.
m 2gh
q
B
. .
l
Hence option (D) is correct
Example 17. AU-shapedwire ofmassmand length l is immersedwith
its two ends inmercury(see figure).Thewire is ina homogeneous field
ofmagnetic inductionB. If a charge, that is, a current pulse q . .idt ,
is sent through thewire, thewirewill jump up.

l m
B
i
Calculate, fromthe height h that thewire reaches, the size of the Hg
charge or current pulse, assuming that the time of the current pulse is
verysmall incomparisionwiththe time offlight.Make use ofthe fact that impulse of
force equals . Fdt ,which
equalsmv. Evaluate q for B = 0.1Wb/m2, m= 10 gm, l = 20 cm&h = 3 meters. [g = 10 m/
s2]
Sol. I l B = F
. Fdt = mv
or I l Bdt = mv
But 1 mv2 mgh
2
.
. v . 2gh
.
Idt mv m 2gh
B B
. .
l l
.
3
2
q m 2gh 10 10 2 10 3 15 coulmb.
B 20 10 0.1
.
.
.
. . . . .
l . .
Example 18.Ametal ring of radius r = 0.5mwith its plane normal to a uniformmagne

tic fieldB ofinduction 0.2T
carries a current I = 100A. The tension in newtons developed in the ring is :
(A) 100 (B) 50 (C) 25 (D) 10
Sol. We consider a small portion .l of the loop.
For equilibrium,
F 2T sin 2T T
2 2
. .
. . . .
or I.lB = T. .........
Tcos /2 /2 /2 Tcos /2
T
T
F
+ B
or Ir.B=T.
. T = IrB = 100 0.5 0.2 = 10 N
Hence option (D) is correct
MAGNETIC FIELD
FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE IN MAGNETIC FIELD : LORENTZ FORCE
If a charged particlemoves in amagnetic field, then a force acting on
it is given by
F = qvB sin .
In vector form, F . q.v . B.
. . ..

F
Cases : v
(i) If v= 0, then F = 0 i.e., no force is exerted on a stationary charge, in a m
agnetic field.
(ii) If ..= 0, then F = 0 i.e., when the charge ismoving parallel to the field t
hen no forcewillbe exerted bythe field.
(iii) If ..= 90, then
sin ..= sin 90 = 1
F = qvB 1 = qvB
i.e., when the charged particle is moving parpendicular to the field, the force
exerted by the field will be
maximum.
Rules of Find the Direction of Force
(i) Right hand palm rule : Ifwe stretch the right hand palmsuch that the fingers
and the thumb are mutually
perpendicular to each other and the fingers point the direction ofmagnetic field
and the thumb points the
direction ofmotionof positive charge, the direction of forcewillbe along the out
ward normalon the palm.
Field B Force F
Current or
motion of
positive charge
(ii) Fleming s left hand rule : Ifwe spread the forefinger, central finger and thu
mb of our left hand insuch away
that these three are perpendicular to each other then, if first forefinger is in
the direction ofmagnetic field,
second centralfinger is in the direction of current, then thumbwill represent th
e direction of force.
Current or motion
of positive charge
Force F
Field B
v
NOTE : To learn this rule, remember the sequence of Father, Mother, child.
Thumb . Father . Force
Forefinger . Mother . Magnetic field
Central finger . Child . Current or direction of positive charge
Example 19.Whena protonhas a velocity v . .2 i . 3 j..106 m/ s
.
it experiences a force F . ..1.28 .10.13 k .N.
.
When its velocityis along the z-axis, it experiences a force along the x-axis.Wh
at is themagnetic field ?
Sol. Substituting proper values in,
F . q.v . B.
. . ..
We have, . 13 . . 19 . . . . . 6
0
. 1.28.10. k . 1.6 .10. . 2 i . 3 j . .B
j . .10 . .
MAGNETIC FIELD
. 1.28 = 1.6 2 B0
or 0
B 1.28 0.4
3.2
. .
Therefore, themagnetic field is, B . ..0.4 j.T
..
MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLE IN MAGNETIC FIELD
The pathofchargedparticle inuniformmagnetic field dependsonangle betweenv .
andB.. .Therefore, following
cases are possible :
Case-I .When . is 0 or 180 : The magnetic force is F = Bqv sin 0 or sin 180 = 0.
Hence, path of the charged particle is a straight line (undeviated) when it ente
rs parallel or antiparallel to
magnetic field.
Case-II.When . = 90 : Themagnetic force is F = Bqv sin 90 = Bqv.Thismagnetic force
is perpendicular to the
velocity at every instant. Hence, path is circle. The necessarycentripetal force
is provided by the magnetic
force hence, if r be the radius of the circle, then
+ + q
v v
q
or
B B
Fm= 0
mv2
qBv
r
. .
r mv
qB
.
This expression of r can bewritten in following different ways :
mv p 2Km 2qVm r
qB qB qB qB
. . . .
Here, P =momentumof particle
K= KE of particle
p2
or p 2Km
2m
. .
Further, time period of the circular pathwill be
2 mv
2 r qB 2 m T
v v qB
. .
.. . . . . .
. . .
or
T 2 m
qB
.
.
or the angular speed (.) of the particle is
2 qB
T m
.
. . .
.
qB
m
. .
Frequencyof rotation is,1
f or f qB
T 2 m
. .
.
MAGNETIC FIELD
IMPORTANT FEATURES
If angle . is other than 0, 180 or 90, then velocity of charged particle can be res
olved in two components
one along B.. and another perpendicular to B.. . Let the two
components be | | v and v. . Then
v| | . v cos.
and v vsin . . . q, m +
B
v
v sin
v cos
The component perpendicular to field ( v. ) gives a circular path and the compon
ent parallelto field ( | | v ) gives
a straight line path. The resultant path is a helix as shown in figure.
The radius ofthis helicalpath is,
r mv mvsin
qB qB
. .
. .
Time period and frequency do not depend on velocity and so theyare given by
T 2 m and f qB
qB 2 m
.
. .
.
There is onemore termassociatedwitha helicalpath, that is pitch (p) of the helic
alpath. Pitch is defined as the
distance travelled alongmagnetic field in one complete cycle, i.e.,
p = v| |T
or p .vcos . 2 m
qB
.
. . .
.
p 2 mvcos
qB
. .
.
Example 20. What is the smallest value of B that can be set up at the equator to
permit a proton of speed
107m/s to circulate around the earth ?
[R = 6.4 106 m, mp = 1.67 10 27 kg].
Sol. Fromthe relation
R mv
qB
.
We have
B mv
qR
.
. .. .
. .. .
27 7
8
19 6
1.67 10 10
B 1.6 10 T
1.6 10 6.4 10
.
.
.
.
. . .
. .
Example 21. Ablock ofmassm&charge q is released on a long smooth inclined
planemagnetic field Bis constant, uniform, horizontal and parallelto surface as
shown. Find the time fromstart when block loses contact with the surface.
B m
q
(A)
mcos
qB
.
(B)
m cosec .
qB (C)
m cot .
qB (D) none
MAGNETIC FIELD
Sol. For losing the contects
N = 0
. qvB=mgcos.
.
v mg cos
qB
.
.
But v = u + at
or v = 0 + gt sin .
.
gt sin mg cos
qB
.
. .
.
t mcot
qB
.
. Hence option (C) is correct.
Example 22.An electronhaving kinetic energyTismoving in a circular orbit ofradiu
sRperpendicular to a uniform
magnetic inductionB.. . If kinetic energyis doubled andmagnetic induction triple
d, the radiuswillbecome
(A)
3R
2 (B)
3R
2 (C)
2R
9 (D)
4R
3
Sol.
R mv P
qB qB
. .
But kinetic energy
P2
T
2m
. . P . 2mT
.
2mT
R
qB
.
.
2m(2T)
R
q(3B)
.
R 2 R 2 R
3 9
. . Hence, option (C) is correct.
Example 23. Acharged particle (charge q, massm) has velocity v0 at origin in +x
direction. In space there is a
uniformmagnetic fieldB in z direction. Find the y coordinate of particlewhenis cros

ses y axis.
Sol. The parth ofcharged particle is circularwhose radius is
0 mv
r
qB
.
O
C
+ B
. 0 2mv
y 2r
qB
. .
Example 24. Amass spectrometer is a devicewhich select particle of equal
mass.An ironwith electric charge q > 0 starts at rest froma source S
and is accelerated through a potentialdifferenceV. It passes through a
hole into a region of constant magnetic field B.. perpendicular to the
B
V
S
plane of the paper as shown in the figure. The particle is deflected by
themagnetic field and emerges throughthe bottomhole at a distance
d fromthe top hole. Themass of the particle is
(A)
qBd
V (B)
qB2d2
4V
(C)
qB2d2
8V
(D)
qBd
2V
MAGNETIC FIELD
Sol. The speed of charged particle just before entering themagnetic field isV0.
20
qV 1 mv
2
.
0
v 2qV
m
.
The radius of circular path inmagnetic field is
0 mv
r
qB
.
or 0 d mv
2 qB
.
or
2 2 2 2
0
2 2 2 2
d m v m 2qV
4 q B q B m
. .
or
2
2
d 2mV
4 qB
.
.
qB2d2
m
8V
. Hence, option (C) is correct
Example 25. Acyclotron is operatingwith a flux density of 3Wb/m2. The ionwhich e
nters the field is a proton
havingmass 1.67 10 27 kg. If themaximumradius of the orbit of the particle is 0.5m
, find :
(a) themaximumvelocityof the proton,
(b) the kinetic energy of the particle, and
(c) the period for a half cycle.
Sol. (a)As in case ofmotion of a charged paricle in amagnetic field,
r mv i.e., v qBr
qB m
. .
So, max
max
v qBr
m
.
So,
19
8
max 27
1.6 10 3 0.5
v 1.43 10 m/ s
1.67 10
.
.
. . .
. . .
.
(b) . .K 1 mv2 1 1.67 10 27 1.43 108 2
2 2
. . . . . . .
i.e.
11
11
19
1.71 10
K 1.71 10 J 107 MeV
1.6 10
.
.
.
.
. . . .
.
(c) In case of circularmotion, as
8
8
T 2 r 2 0.5 2.19 10 s
v 1.43 10
. . . .
. . . .
.
So, time for helf cycle, T 1 (T) 1.09 10 8 s
2
. . . .
MAGNETIC FIELD
Example 26. The region between x = 0 and x = Lis filledwith uniformsteadymagneti
c field 0
B k .Aparticle of
mass m , positive charge q and velocity 0
v i travels along x-axis and enters the region of themagnetic field.
Neglect the gravitythroughout the question
(a) Find the value of L iftheparticle emerges fromthe regionofmagnetic fieldwithits
finalvelocityat anangle 30
to its initialvelocity.
(b) Find the finalvelocity of the particle and the time spent by it in themagnet
ic field, if themagnetic field now
expands upto 2.1 L.
Sol. (A) . = 30,
sin L
R
. .
Here 0
0
R mv
qB
.
. 0
0
sin 30 L mv
qB
.
+ + + +
+ + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
P
v0
X
Y
q
A
C
x=0 x=L
v0
L
R
B = B0 k
or 0
0
1 qB L
2 mv
.
. 0
0
L mv
2qB
.
(b) In part (i)
sin 30 L
R
.
or
1 L
2 R
. or L = R/2

B
R
v0
v0
L =2.1R > R
Nowwhen L = 2.1 L or 2
2.1R
2
. L > R
Therefore, deviation of the particle is . = 180 is as shown.
. f 0 B
v . .v i . v
. .
and AB
0
t T m
2 qB
.
. .
Example 27. Awire loop carrying a current I is placed in the x y plane
as shown in fig.
(a) If a particlewith charge +Qandmass m is placed at the centre
P and given a velocityv . alongNP (see figure), find its instantaneous
acceleration.
V
P
+Q
120
M
I
N
a y
O x
(b) If an external unfiormmagnetic induction field B . B i
..
is applied
find the force and the torque acting on the loop due to this field.
Sol. Themagnetic field at the centre P due to current inwireNMis
0 . .
1
B I sin 60 sin 60
4 r
. .
.
MAGNETIC FIELD
0
1
B I 3 3
4 a / 2 2 2
. .
. . . . . . .
v
P
Q
120
M
N
a
y
60
30
30
Q
x
V sin60
V
0 V cos60
1
B 2I 3
4 a
.
.
directed awayfromthe reader perpendicular to the
plane of paper.
sin 30 r
a
.
.
r a
2
.
cos30 MS
a
.
30
S r P
a
M
N
a
.
MS 3 a
2
.
. MN . 3 a
Themagnetic field at the centre P due to current in arcMNis
0 0 0
2
2 I 2 I 2 / 3 2 I B
2 a 2 4 a 2 4 3a
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .
directed towards the reader perpendicular to the plane of paper
The netmagnetic field

0 0
1 2
B B B 2 3I 2 I
4 a 4 3a
.
. . . .
. .
0 0 2I 2I B 3 (.68)
4 a 3 4 a
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(directed away fromthe reader perpendicular to the plane of paper)
The force acting on the charged particleQwhen it has a velocity v and is instant
aneously at the centre is
F = QvB sin . = QvB sin 90 = QvB
The acceleration produced
0 F QvB Qv 2I A (0.68)
M m m 4 a
. . . . . . . .. . ..
0 A 0.11 IQv
ma
.
y
x
P
B
v
M
R
Q
Q
N
120
The direction of acceleration is given by the vecotr product v . B
. ..
or byapplying Fleming s left hand rule
MAGNETIC FIELD
..RPN = 90 and .MPN = 120
. .MPR = 120
90 = 30
Since, .MPQ = 60 . .RPQ = 30
i.e.,wthe acceleration vectormakes an angle of 30 with the negative x-axis.
The torque acting on the loop in themagnetic field is giving.
. . M . B
. ... ..
where M= IA where
A= (area of PMQNP) (area of trangle PMN)
A 1 . a2 . 1 MN PS
3 2
. . . . .
2
A a 1 3a a a2 3
3 2 2 3 4
. .. .
. . . . . . . .
. .
A a2 3 k
3 4
.. .
. . . .
. .
..
. Ia2 3 k iB
3 4
.. .
. . . . . .
. .
.
BIa2 3 j 0.614 BIa2J
3 4
. . .
. . . . . .
. .
.
The force acting on the loop is zero.
Example 28. An electron gunGemits electrons of energy 2 keVtravelling in the
positiveX-direction. The electrons are requeired to hit the spot Swhere
GS = 0.1m, and the lineGS make an angle of 60 with the x-axis as shown
in figure.Auniformmagnetic field B.. parallel toGS exists in the region outside
60
B
S
G X
the electron gun. Find theminimumvalue ofBneeded tomake the electrons
hit S.
Sol. Kinetic energyof electron,
K 1 mv2 2keV
2
. .
. speed of electron,
v 2K
m
. 60
B
S
G v
16
31
v 2 2 1.6 10 m/ s
9.1 10
.
.
. . .
.
.
v = 2.65 107 m/s
Since the velocity (v)
.
of the electronmakes an angle of . = 60 with themagnetic field B.. , the pathwill
be a
helix. So, the particlewillhit S if
GS = nP Here n = 1, 2, 3, .............
p pitch of helix 2 m v cos
qB
.
. . .
MAGNETIC FIELD
But for B to beminimum, n = 1
Hence,
GS p 2 m vcos
qB
.
. . .
. min
B B 2 mv cos
q(GS)
. .
. .
31 7
min 19
(2 )(9.1 10 )(2.65 10 ) 1
B 2 tesla
(1.6 10 )(0.1)
.
.
. . . . . .. ..
.
.
or Bmin = 4.73 10 3 tesla
Example 29. An electronmovingwith a velocity 1 V . 2 i
..
m/s at a point in a magnetic field experiences a force
1 F . .2 jN
.
. If the electron ismoving with a velocity 2 V . 2 j
..
m/s at the same point, it experiences a force
2 F . .2 i N
.
. The force the electronwould experience if it weremovingwith a velocity 3 V . 2
k
..
m/s at the
same point is
(A) zero (B) 2k.N (C) .2k.N (D) informationis insufficient
Sol. F1 . qv1 . B
. . ..
1 .2 j . .e(v ) . B
. ..
.2 j . .e(2 i ) . B
..
j . 2e( i . B)
..
j . eB( i) . (.k )
. eB = 1
2 F . .e(2 j) . (.Bk )
.
2 i . 2eBi
eB = 1
F3 . .e(v3 . B)
. . ..
3 F . .e(2 k ) . (.Bk ) . 0
. .
Hence option (A) is correct

Charged particle in uniform &
... ..
E B
When a charged particlemoveswith velocityv .
in an electric field E.. andmagnetic field B.. , then.Net force
experienced byit is given byfollowing equation.
F . qE . q(v . B)
. .. . ..
Combined forceF .
is known as lorentz force
(i) E || B||v
.. .. .
E B v
In above situation particle passes underviated but its velocitywillchange due to
electric field andmagnetic
force on it is zero.
MAGNETIC FIELD
(ii) E || B
.. ..
and uniform, particle is releasedwith velocity v0 at an angle ..
v0
+q E, B
v0
x E, B
v0 cos
+q
v0 sin
y
z
0 mv sin 2 m r ; T
qB qB
. .
. . x
. . 2 . . . .. .
0
r v cos t 1 qE t i Rsin t j R R cos t k
2 m
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
.
R
c
y v0 sin
z
Cycloid motion
Suppose that B.. points inthe x-direction, and E.. inthe z-direction.
E
x B
z
a b c y
0
F . q.E . v . B. . q.Ez . Bzy . Byz . . ma . m.yy . zz .
. .. . .. .
. . .. ..
qB
m
. .
..
y z, z E y
B
. . . . .. . . .. . .. .. ...
Their generalsolution is
1 2 3
2 1 4
y(t) C cos t C sin t (E / B)t C
z(t) C cos t C sin t C
. . . . . . ..
. . . . . .
y(t) E ( t sin t),
B
. . . .
.
z(t) E (1 cos t)
B
. . .
.
R E
B
.
.
(y
R.t)2 + (z
R)2 = R2
v R E
B
. . .
The particlemoves as through it were a spot on the rimof awheel, rolling down th
e y axis at speed, v.The
curve generated in thisway is called a cycloid. Notice that the overallmotion is
not in the direction ofE.. , but
perpendicular to it.
MAGNETIC FIELD
Example 30. Aparticle of specific charge (charge/mass) . startsmoving fromthe or
igin under the action of an
electric field 0
E . E i
..
andmagnetic field 0
B . B k
..
. Its velocity at (x0, y0, 0) is (4 i . 3 j) . The value of x0 is :
(A) 0
0
13 E
2 B
.
(B) 0
0
16 B
E
.
(C)
0
25
2.E (D)
0
5
2B
.
Sol. Theworkdone bymagnetic force isWB = 0, because,magnetic force is always per
pendicular to instantaneous
displacement.
E 0 0 0 0 0
W . qE .S . qE i . (x i . y j) . qE x
.. .
The speed of particle at (x0, y0) is
v . 42 . (.3)2 . 5m/ s
According to work energytheorm,
W T 1 mv2 1 mu2
2 2
. . . .
or 2
E B
W W 1 m5 0
2
. . .
or 0 0
qE x 25m
2
.
. 0
0 0
x 25m 25
2qE 2E
. .
.
q
m
. . . . . .
. .
.
Hence, option (C) is correct.
Example 31. Aparticle of specific charge (q/m) is projected fromthe origin of co
ordinates with initial velocity
[u i . v j] .Uniformelectricmagnetic fields exist inthe regionalong the+ydirection
, ofmagnitude EandB. The
particlewilldefinitelyreturn to theorigin once if
(A) [vB/2.E] is an integer (B) (u2 + v2.1/2 [B/.E] is an integer
(C) [vB/.E] in an integer (D) [uB/.E] is an integer
Sol. y
a qE
m
.
mu2
quB
r
.
r mu
qB
.
also,
T 2 m
qB
.
.
y vt qE t2
2m
. . .
For origin, x = 0, and y = 0
0 vt qE t2
2m
. . .
MAGNETIC FIELD
.
t 2mV
qE
.
For returning at the origin,
nT 2mV
qE
.
2n m 2mV
qB qE
.
.
n 2mVqB
qE(2 m)
.
.
.
n VB
E
.
. Hence, option (C) is correct
FORCE BETWEEN PARALLEL CURRENT CARRYING WIRES
Consider two longwires 1 and 2 kept parallel to each other at a distance
r and carrying currents i1 and i2 respectively in the same direction.
The force per unit length of thewire 2 due towire 1 is :
0 1 2 F i i
2 r
.
l .
F
i1
l
i2
1 2
The same force acts onwire 1 due to wire 2. r
NOTE : The wires attract each other if currents in the wires are flowing in the
same
direction and they repel each other if the currents are in opposite directions.
Example 32. Aconductor of length 2 mcarrying current of 2Ais held parallel to an
infinitely long conductor
carrying current of 10Aat a distance of 100mm. Find the force on small conductor
.
Sol. We knowthat force per unit length of short conductor due to long conductor
is given by
0 1 2 f 2i i
4 r
.
.
. Total force on length l of the short conductor is
0 1 2 F f 2i i
4 r
. .
.
l l
7
10 2 2 10 2 5
F 8 10 N
0.1
.
. . . . .
. . .
Force is attractive if the direction of current is same in both the parallel con
ductors and is repulsive if the
direction of current is opposite intwo parallel conductors.
Example 33. Astraight segment OC (of lengthL) of a circuit carrying a
current i is placed along theX-axis as shown infigure.Two infinitely
long straight wiresAand B, each extending fromz =
. to + ., are
fixed at y = a and y = + a respectively. as shown in the figure. If the
A
B
Y
X
O i C
Z
wiresAandB each carry a current i into the plane of the paper,
obtain the expression for the force acting on the segment OC.What
will be force ofOC if the current in the wire Bis reversed ?
MAGNETIC FIELD
Sol. (a) Let us assume a segment of length dx at a point P, a distance x fromthe
centre shown in figure.
A
B
y
x
O i
y
C
I
a
a
I
dx
x
L
Bnet
BB BA
is the positive Z-direction and
is the negative Z-direction and
Magnetic field at P due to current in wiresAand B will be in the directions perp
endicular to AP and BP
respectivelyas shown.
0
A B
| B | | B | | B| i
2 AP
. . .
.
.. .. ..
Therefore, net magnetic field at Pwillbe along negative y= axis as shown
and 0
net
i x B 2 | B| cos 2
2 AP AP
. . . . . . . .. ... .. ..
..
0 0
net 2 2 2
i.x i x B .
(AP) (a x )
. . . . .. . .. . .
Therefore, force on the element will be (F = ilB)
0
2 2
i x dF i dx
a x
. . . . . . . . .
(in negative z-direction)
. Total force onthewirewill be
x L 2 L
0
2 2
x 0 0
F dF i xdx
x a
.
.
. .
. . . .
2 2 2
0
2
i L a F ln
2 a
. . .
. . . . . . (innegative z-axis)
Hence
2 2 2
0
2
i L a
F ln k
2 a
. . .
. . . . . . .
.
A
B
Y
X
i
Bnet C
BA
BB
P
(b) If current inwire Bis reversed, thenmagnetic fields due to
AandBwillbe in the directions shown in figure. i.e., net
magnetic field net B .. willbe along positive x-axis and since
current is also along positive x-axis, force onwireOCwill be zero.
Note : A B .. is not necessarily parallel to BP.
CURRENT LOOP IN UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD
. . M . B
. ... ..
| . |. MBsin .
.
; whereM= NIA
M
B
I
Work done in rotating loop in uniformfield from.1 to .2
W=MB (cos .1 cos .2)
MAGNETIC FIELD
Example 34. Themagneticmoment of a circular orbit of radius r carrying a charge q and
rotatingwith velocity
v is given by
(A)
qvr
2. (B)
qvr
2 (C) qv.r (D) qv.r2
Sol. The convectioncurrent is
I q qv
2 2 r
.
. .
. .
. Themagneticmoment is
M I r2 qv r2
2 r
. . . .
.
.
M qvr
2
. Hence option (B) is correct
Example 35. Qcharge is uniformly distributed over the same surface of a right ci
rcular cone
of semi-vertical angle . and height h . The cone is uniformlyrotated about its axis
at
angular velocity.. Calculated associatedmagnetic dipolemoment.
Sol. I = Themoment of gnertia
3 MR2
10
.
. Angularmomentum L I 3 mR2
10
. . . . .
Butmagneticmoment
P QL
2m
.
. P Q 3 mR2
2m10
. .
. P 3Q R2
20
. .
But
tan R
h
. .
. R = h tan.
.
3QR2 3Qh2 tan2
P
20 20
. . .
. .
Example 36. Figure shown a square current carrying loopABCDof side 10 cmand
current i= 10A. Themagneticmoment M... of the loop is

(A) (0.05). i . 3 k .A.m2 (B) (0.05). j. k .A.m2
y
x
z
30
D
C
B
A i = 10
(C) (0.05). 3 i . k .A.m2 (D) . i . k .A.m2
Sol. Themagnitude ofmagneticmoment is
M = Il2 = 10 (10 10 2)2Am2
= 10 10 2 = 0.1 Am2
MAGNETIC FIELD
The normal on the loop is in x
z plane. It makes 60 angle with x - axis.
. M . Mcos60 i .Msin 60 j
...
.
M M i 3 M j
2 2
. .
...
. . . M 0.1 i 3 j
2
. .
...
M . (0.05).i . 3 j.Am2
...
Example 37. Arectangular coil PQhas 2n turns, an area 2a and carries a current 2
I,
(refer figure). The plane of the coil is at 60 to a horizontaluniformmagnetic fie
ld
of flux densityB. The torque onthe coil due tomagnetic force is 60
B
coil
2n, 2a, 2I
(A) BnaI sin 60 (B) 8 BnaI cos 60
(C) 4 BnaI sin 60 (D) none
Sol. . . M. B
. ... ..
Here M= 2n(2I) (2a)
M= 8 nIa
. . =MB sin(90 60)
. = MB cos 60
..= 8 nIa cos 60 Hence option (B) is correct
Example 38. (a)Arigid circular loop of radius r &mass m lies in the xy plane on a flat ta
ble and has a current
I flowing in it.At this particular place, the earth smagnetic field is x y B . B i . B
j.
.. .. ..
Howlargemust I be
before one edge of the loopwill lift fromtable ?
(b) Repeat if, x y B . B i . B k .
.. .. ..
Sol. (a)Torque due to magnetic force should be greater than torque due to weight
.
. I.r2B . mgr
or 2 2 2
x y I.r B . B . mgr
.
(b) Since, Bz is parallel to dipolemoment
. 2
x I.r B . mgr
.
x
I mg
rB
.
.
Example 39. Aconducting ring ofmass 2 kg and radius 0.5mis placed on a smooth
horizontal plane.The ring carries a current i= 4A.Ahorizontalmagnetic field
B = 10T is switched on at time t = 0 as shown in figure. The initial angular B

acceleration of the ringwillbe
(A) 40. rad/s2 (B) 20. rad/s2 (C) 5. rad/s2 (D) 15. rad/s2
Sol. Aswe know, if a coilor a closed ofany shape is placed in uniform electric f
ield,magnetic force on the coil or
the loop is zero.
MAGNETIC FIELD
So, the centre ofmass of the coil remains in rest. the torque on the coil is
. . = IAB = 4.r2B
or
2
mr 2
4 r B
2
. . .
. 8B 8 10 40 rad / s2
m 2
. . .
. . . . . Hence option (A) is correct
Example 40. In the figure shown a coilof single turn iswound on a sphere of radi
us R
andmass m . The plane of the coil is parallel to the plane and lies in the equatori
al
plane of the sphere. Current in the coil is I . The value of B if the sphere is in
B
equilibriumis
(A)
mg cos
IR
.
. (B)
mg
.IR (C)
mg tan
IR
.
. (D)
mg sin
IR
.
.
Sol. For equilibrium,
mg sin . = f
Also, net torque should be zero.
Themagneticmoment of the loop is perpendicualr to the plane.
. The torque due tomagnetic force is .B = PB sin(180 .)
180
P
B
. .B = PB sin. = I.R2B sin.
This torque balances the torque due to friction about centre ofmass.
. FR = I.R2Bsin.
or mg sin . = .IRB sin .
.
B mg
IR
.
. Hence option (B) is correct
Example 41. Asquare current carrying loopmade of thinwire and having a massm= 10
g
can rotatewithout frictionwith respect to the vertical axisOO1, passing throught
he centre of
the loop at right angles to two opposite sides of the loop. The loop is placed i
n a homogeneousmagnetic
fieldwith an induction B = 10 1 T directed at right angles to the plane

O+ B
I
O1
of the drawing.Acurrent I =2Ais flowing in the loop. Find the period of smallosc
illations
that the loop performs about its position of stable equilibrium.
Sol. . = PB sin.
or . = IAB.
or I0. = IAB.
or
0
IAB
I
.
. . .
. . . . .
. 2
0
IAB
I
.
.. . . .
or
0
IAB
I
. .
MAGNETIC FIELD
or
0
2 IAB
T I
.
.
. T 2 I0
IAB
. .
Here
2 2 2 2
0 0
0 0 0
I m m m m
2 2 12 12
. . . . . . . . .. .. .. ..
l l l l
2 2
0 0
0
m m
I
2 6
. . l l
But 3
0
m m 2.5 10 kg
4
. . . .
l2 =A= area of loop, I = 2 amp
After putting the value,
T = 0.57 sec.
Example 42.Auniformconstantmagnetic fieldB.. is directed at an angle of 45 to the
X-axis inX Yplane. PQRS
is a rigid squarewire frame carrying a steady current I0, with its centre at the
originO.At time t =0, the frame
is at rest in the position shown in the figurewith its sides parallel toXandYaxe
s. Each side of the frame is of
massMand length L.
(a) What is the torque . .
about Oacting on the frame due to the
magnetic field ?
(b) Find the angle bywhich the frame rotates under the action of
this torque in a short intervalof time .t, and the axis about
which this rotation occurs (.t is so short that any variation in
Y
0
X
P Q
S R
I
the torque during this intervalmay be neglected).Given : the
moment of inertia of the frame about an axis throughits centre
perpendicular to its plane is 4ML2
3 .
Sol. Magneticmoment of the loop,
2
0
M . (iA)k . (I L )k
...
Magnetic Field,
B (Bcos 45 ) i (Bsin 45 ) j B ( i j)
2
. . . .
..
(a)Torque acting on the loop,
2
0
M B (I L k ) B ( i j)
2
. . . . . . . . .. ..
. ... ..
.
2
0 I L B( j i)
2
. . .
.
or 2
0 | . |. I L B
.
(b)Axis of rotationcoincideswith the torque and since torque is in j. i directiono
r parallel toQS.Therefore,
the loopwill rotate about an axis passing throughQand S as shown along-side :
Angular acceleration,
| |
I
.
. .
.
MAGNETIC FIELD
Where I =moment of inertia of loop about QS.
IQS + IPR = IZZ
(Fromtheoremof perpendicular axis)
Y
X
P Q
S R
But IQS = IPR
. 2
QS ZZ
2I I 4ML
3
. . . 2
QS
I 2ML
3
.
.
2
0 0
2
| | I L B 3 I b
I 2 ML 2 M
3
.
. . . .
.
. Angle bywhich the frame rotates in time .t is
1 . ( t)2
2
. . . . or 0 2 3 I B . ( t)
4 M
. . .
MOVING COIL OR SUSPENDED COIL OR D ARSONVAL TYPE GALVANOMETER
Principle : When a current-carrying coil is placed in magnetic field, it experie
nces a torque.
Construction : It consists ofa narrowrectangular coilPQRS consisting of a large
number of turns of fine insulated
copperwirewound over a framemade of light, non-magneticmetal.Asoft ironcylinder
known as the core is
placed symmetricallywithin the coil and detached fromit. The coil is suspended b
etween the two cylindrical
pole-pieces (Nand S of a strong permanent horse-shoemagnet) by a thin flat phosp
hor bronze strip, the upper
end ofwhichis connected to amovable torsion head T.The lower end of the coil is
connected to a hair-spring
s of phosphor bronze having onlya fewturns.
N Core S
P S
Q R
s
T
T1 T2
m
Moving coil galvanometer
In order to eliminate air-disturbance, thewhole arrangement is enclosed in a bra
ss case having a glasswindow
on the front. Levelling screws are provided at the base.The torsion head T is co
nnected to a binding terminal
T1. So, the phosphor-bronze strip acts as one current lead to the coil. The lower
end of the spring s is
connected to a binding terminalT2.Aplanemirror or a concavemirror of larger radi
us of curvature is rigidly
attached to the phosphor bronze strip. This helps to measure the deflection of t
he coil by lamp and scale
arrangement.
Radialmagnetic field : The magnetic field in the small air gap between the
cylinderical pole-pieces is radial. Themagnetic lines of forcewithin the
air gap are along the radii. On account of this, the plane of the coil remains
N S
always parallel to the direction ofthemagnetic field i.e., the angle between Rad
ial magnetic field
the plane of the coil and themagnetic field is zero in all the orientations of t
he coil.
MAGNETIC FIELD
Theory :
Let I = current flowing through the coil; B=magnetic field induction
l = lengthof the coil; b = breadth of the coil
N= number of turns in the coil; A(= l b) = area of the coil
Since the field is radial, therefore, the plane ofthe coilremains parallel to th
emagnetic field inall the orientations
of the coil. So, the sides SP and QR remain parallel to the direction of the mag
netic field. So, they do not
experience any force.The sides PQandRS remain perpendicualr to the direction of
themagnetic field. These
sides experience forces perpendicular to the plane of the coil.
b
F
F
P
S
Q R
l
Current-carrying loop in magnetic field
Force on PQ, F = NBIl
Applying Fleming s left hand rule,we find that this force is normal to the plane o
f the coiland directed outwards,
i.e., towards the reader.
Force on RS, F = NBIl
Applying Fleming s left hand rule,we find that this force is normal to the plane o
f the coiland directed inwards,
i.e., awayfromthe reader.
The forces onthe sides PQandRS are : (i) equal inmagnitude; (ii) opposite in dir
ection; and (iii) act at different
points. So, the two forces constitute a couple. This couple tends to deflect the
coil and is known as deflecting
couple.
Moment of deflecting couple =NBIl b =NBIA
[The field is radial. The forces onthe sides PQandRS always remain perpendicular
to the plane ofthe coil. So,
the perpendicular distance between the forces is always equal to b as in fig.]
b
F
P S
F
When the coildeflects, the suspension fibre gets twisted. On account ofelasticit
y, a restoring couple is set up
in the fibre.This couple is proportional to the twist. If . be the angular twist
, then
Moment of restoring couple = k.
where k is the restoring couple per unit angular twist. It is also known as torsio
nal constant.
For equilibriumof the coil,
NBIA= k. or
I k
NBA
. . . . .. .. or I . K.
where
K k
NBA
. . . .. .. is the galvanometer constant.
Now, I .. or . . I
So, the deflection of the coilis proportional to the current flowing through the
coil. This explains as towhywe
can use a linear scale in a galvanometer.The scale is calibrated to give direct
values of current.
MAGNETIC FIELD
CURRENT SENSITIVITY OF A GALVANOMETER
Agalvanometer is said to be sensitive if it gives a large deflection for a small
current.
The current sensitivity of a meter is the deflection of the meter per unit curre
nt, i.e., I
.
. It is given by
NBA
I k
.
. [. NBIA= k.]
The sensitiveness can be increased by increasing N,Aand B and decreasing the val
ue of k . But N andA
cannot be increasedmuch because thiswill increase the length and consequentlythe
resistance of the coil. In
that case, the galvanometer will not respond toweak electric currents.
B can be increased by using a strongmagnet. k can be decreased by using phosphor-b
ronze for suspension.
k can be further reduced by using quartz suspension fibre.
VOLTAGE SENSITIVITY OF A GALVANOMETER
It is defined as the deflection of the meter per unit voltage, i.e., V
.
.
Now, V RI
. .
. or
NBA
V kR
.
.
Advantages :
(i) The galvanometer can bemade extremely sensitive.
(ii) Since themagnetic field B is very high, therefore, the externalmagnetic fie
lds cannot appreciably after the
deflection of the coil. So, the galvanometer can be used in any position.
(iii) Since the deflection of the coil is proportional to current, therefore, li
near scale canbe used.
(iv) Since the coil is wound over metallic frame, therefore, damping is produced
by eddy currents. So, the
galvanometer coilcomes to rest quickly.This typeofgalvamometer is called aperiod
ic or dead beat galvanometer.
The galvanometer can bemade ballistic bywinding the coil on a non-conducting fra
me of ivory or ebonite.
(v) The lamp and scale arrangement used to measure the deflection of the coilmak
es the galvanometer very
sensitive.
POINTER TYPE OR WESTON OR PIVOTED MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER
The suspended typemoving coil galvanometers are very sensitive. Theycanmeasure c
urrents of the order of
10 9 ampere. But these require very careful handling. So, for general use in the l
aboratory and for those
experimentswhose sensitivityis not required, pointer type galvanometers are used
.
T1 T2
N S
30 20 10 0 10 20 30
MAGNETIC FIELD
Inthis typeof galvanometer, the coilis pivoted between two ball-bearings.Alight
aluminiumpointer is attached
to themoving coil. The controlling couple is providedwith the help of a spring.
NOTE : Numerical Examples based on Moving Coil Galvanometer
Formulae used : 1. . = NBIA 2. k. = NBIA
3. Current sensitivity,
a = NBA
I k
4. Voltage sensitivity,
a = NBA
V kR
Units used : B in tesla, A in m2, R in ohm, k in N m rad 1.
EARTH S MAGNETISM
Afreelysuspendedmagnet always points inthe north-south direction evenin the abse
nce ofanyothermagnet.
This suggests that the earth itself behaves as amagnet which causes a freely sus
pendedmagnet (ormagnetic
needle) to point always in a particular direction : northand south.The shape ofe
arth smagnetic field resembles
that of a barmagnet of length one-fifth of earth s diameter buried at its centre.
S
N
Magnetic
axis
Magnetic
N-pole
Geographic
S-pole
Magnetic
equator
Equator
Magnetic
S-pole
Geographic N-pole
Geographic axis
The south pole of earth smagnet is towards earth s north pole (eographical north), w
hile the north pole of
earth smagnet is towards earth s south pole (geographical south). Thus, there is a m
agnetic S-pole near the
geographicalnorth, and amagneticN-pole near the geographical south.The positions
of the earth smagnetic
poles are not well defined on the globe, they are spread over an area.
Magnetic equator : The great circlewhose place is perpendicular to the earth smagn
etic axis is called earth s
magnetic equator.
Geographical equator : The great circlewhose plane is perpendicular to geographi
cal axis is called geographical
equator.
Magnetic meridian : The line joining the earth smagnetic poles is called themagnet
ic axis and a vertical plane
passing throughit is called themagneticmeridian.
Geographicalmeridian : The line joining the geographical north and south poles i
s called the geographic axis and
a vertical plane passing through it is called the geographicalmeridian.
Magnetic Elements
To have a complet knowledge of earth smagnetismat a place, the following three ele
mentsmust be known :
(i)Angle of declination
(ii)Angle ofdip or inclination
(iii)Horizontal component of earth s field.
(i) Angle of declination : The angle between the magnetic meridian and geographi
calmeridian at a place is
called the angle of declination (or simplythe declination) at that place.
MAGNETIC FIELD
Magnetic
meridian
B H
C D
C
B Geographical
meridian
Geographic
north
Magnetic
north
In fig.ABCDis themagneticmeridian andABCDis the geographicalmeridian. The angleBAB
= . is the
angle of declination.
(ii) Angle of dip or inclination : The anglewhich the axis of needlemakeswith th
e horizontal, is called angle of
dip (.). In otherwords, the angle ofdip at a place is the anglewhich the resulta
ntmagnetic field ofearth at that
placemakeswith the horizontal.
N S
C
i V
D
A
B H
In fig.ACshows the direction of resultantmagnetic field of earth and the angleBA
C(=..) between it and the
horizontalABis the angle of dip.
(iii) Horizontal component of earth s field : The direction of earth s field at them
agnetic poles is normal to the
earth s surface (i.e., in vertical direction) and at magnetic equator it is parall
el to the earth s surface, (i.e., in
horizontaldirection).Thus, the resultant earth s field can be resolved in two comp
onents as shown in fig.
(a) the horizontal component HalongABand
(b) the vertical componentV, alongAD.
Fromfig.
Horizontalcomponent H = Be cos . ...(i)
and vertical component V = Be sin . ...(ii)
. e
e
V B sin tan
H B cos
.
. . .
.
or V =Htan .
AgainEqs. (i) and (ii) give
2 2 2 . 2 2 .
e H . V . B cos . . sin .
or 2 2
e B . H . V
MAGNETIC FIELD
THINKING PROBLEMS
1. Of the three vectors in the equation F . qv.B,
. . ..
which pairs are always at right angles?Whichmayhave any
angle between them?
2. If an electron is not deflected in passing through a certainspace, canwe be s
ure that there is no magnetic field
in that region?
3. Abreamof protons is deflected side ways. Could this deflection be caused (a)
by an electric field? (b) by a
magnetic field ? (c) If either is possible, howcan you tellwhich one is present?
4. Arectangular current loop is in an arbitary orientation in an externalmagneti
c field. Is anywork required to
rotate the loop about an axis perpendicular to its plane?
5. Will a tangent galvanometer work in the polar region ?
6. At that deflections is a tangent galvanometermost sensitive?
7. Whyis themagnetic needle short in a tangent galvanometer ?
8. Why is the field in amoving coilgalvanometer radialin nature?
9. What is the greatest disadvantagewith a suspended-typemoving coilgalvanometer
?
10. An ammeter is aWeston galvanometer whose resistance ismade negligible byshun
ting the coil. Is this true or
false?
11. Avoltmeter is aWeston galvanometer ofveryhigh resistance. Is this true of Fa
lse?
12. Which gives amore accurate value of a potential difference, a potentiometer
or a voltmeter?
13. Why is an ammeter connected in series?
14. What is a faraday?
15. There is no charge in the energyof a charged particlemoving in amagnetic fie
ld althrough amagnetic force is
acting on it. Is this true or false?Give reasons in support of your answer.
16. Acurrent-carrying circular conductor is placed in a uniformmagnetic fieldwit
h its plane perpendicular to the
field.Does it experience anyforce? Ifit does,what is this force if its radius is
a and the current passing through
it equals?
17. Howdo you knowthat the current inside a conductor is constituted by electron
s and not by protons?
18. Acopper pipe is filledwithan electrolyte.When a voltage is applied, the curr
ent in the electrolyte is constituted
bythemovement of positive and negative ions in opposite directions.Willsuch a pi
pe experience a forcewhen
placed in amagnetic field perpendicular to the current?
19. Two parallel wires currying current in the same direction attract each other
while two beams of electrons
travelling in the same direction repel each other.Explainwhy?
20. Can a charged particle entering a uniformmagnetic field normally fromoutside
complete a circle?
21. Acylindrical electrolytic bath containing a solution of copper sulphate betw
een two electrodes ismounted
above the northpole of a strong electromagnet.One electrode is at the axis ( ) and
the other electrode is at the
edge of the bath (+).What happens to the electrolyte in these circumstances?
22. Averystrong current ismade to flowfor a short time through a solenoid.Willth
ere be anychange in its length
and diameter?Explain.
23. Cosmic rays are charged particles that strike the atmosphere fromsome extern
al source. It is found thatmore
low-energycosmic rays eachthe earth at the northand southmagnetic poles thanat t
hemagnetic equator.Why
is this so ?
MAGNETIC FIELD
1. The pairsF .
, B.. and F .
, v .
are always at right angle. B.. and v .
may have any angle between them.
2. No, we cannot be sure that there is no magnetic field because the force will
be zero when the direction of
motion is along the direction ofthe field.
3. (a)Yes, it could be due to an electric field directed perpendicular to the mo
tion. (b)Ys, it could be due to a
magnetic field. (c) Stop the proton and keep it stationary. Ifit sill experience
s a force in the same direction, it is
due to an electric field. If the force vanishes of stopping themotion, there is
amagnetic field.
4. No, no work is done in rotating the coil becausework doneW=mB (1 cos.). Here t
here is no charge in .
and so nowork is done.
5. No, because the earth smagnetic field is vertical there.
6. Atengent galvanometer ismost sensitivewhen the deflections are near about 0.
7. The field due to the circular coil is uniformover a very small region about t
he centre of the coil. So the needle
must be short so that it maybe assumed tomove in uniformmegnetic fields.
8. The field ismade radial in order to have a linear relation between the curren
t and the deflection.
9. The greatest disadvntage is that this type of galvanometer is not portable.
10. It is true. 11. It is true.
12. Apotentiometer gives amore accurate value of a potential difference than a v
oltmeter as it draws no current
fromthe cell.
13. Since the current following through the circuit has to pass through the amme
ter, it must be connected in series
because it is a characteristic property ofseries connection that the same curren
t passes through allparts of the
circuit.
14. Afaradayis the amount of charge required to liberate 1 gramequivalent of any
sustance.
15. True.Acharged particle experiences a force at right angles to the velocity a
nd so it moves in a circle with a
constant speed. So there is no charge in the energyfo the particle though amagne
tic force acts on it.
16. It does not experiencemayforce because the forces on the elements are direct
ed radially away and sumup to
zero.
17. BytheHall effect.When a current-carrying flet conductor is placed inamagneti
c field perpendicular to the flat
face, a transversevoltage is developed. Fromthe directionofthis voltage calledHa
llvoltage, it canbe determined
whether the current is due to negative or positive charge carriers.
18. The current constituted bynegtive ions in the positive directionis the same
as the current formed bythe positive
ions and so both form current in the same direction; they do not cancel out each
other. So the pipe will
experience a force.
19. Acurrent inonwire produces onlyamagnetic field and on electric field (becaus
e a current-carrying conductor
is electricallyneutral) over the other current-carrying conductor and so onlyama
gnetic forcewhich is attractive

is nature arises between them. But an electron beamis a source of both, an elect
ric and amagnetic field. So
there arise bothmagnetic force (attractive) and electric force (repulsive) betwe
en them. The repulsive force
being in excess of the attractive force, theyrepel each other.
20. No, the boundaryline of themagneitc field has to be the diameter of the circ
le,whatever be the velocity of the
charged particle.Hence, it will complete a semi-circle.
21. It moves counterclockwise (viewed fromabove)
22. The current in the adjacent turns flow in the same direction and so they att
ract each other. Thus there is
contraction along the length ofthe solenoid.As the same currents in the diametri
callyopposite elements flowin
opposite directions, they repel each other. On account of this repulsive force t
he diameter of the solenoid
increases.
23. Because at the poles, themagnetic field is parallel to the direction ofmotio
n of the cosmic rayparticles, both
being vertical. Hence the cosmic ray particles do not experience anyforce. The f
orce experienced is given by
F = qvb sin(v .
,B.. ).At the equator these particles experiencemaximumdeflecting force and henc
e low-energy
particles cannot reach the earth.
MAGNETIC FIELD
ASSERTION&REASON
1. Statement-1 : Magnetic field interacts with a moving charge and not with a st
ationary charge.
Statement-2 : A moving charge produces a magnetic field.
2. Statement-1 : If an electron is not deflected while passing through a certain
region of space, then only
possibility is that there is no magnetic field in this region.
Statement-2 : Force is directly proportional to magnetic field applied.
3. Statement-1 : Free electrons always keep on moving in a conductor even then n
o magnetic force act on
them in magnetic field unless a current is passed through it.
Statement-2 : The average velocity of free electron is zero.
4. Statement-1 : Electron cannot be accelerated by the cyclotron.
Statement-2 : Cyclotron is suitable only for accelerating heavy particles.
5. Statement-1 : The coil is wound over the metallic frame in moving coil galvan
ometer.
Statement-2 : The metallic frame help in making steady deflection without any os
cillation.
6. Statement-1 : In electric circuits, wires carrying currents in opposite direc
tions are often twisted together.
Statement-2 : If the wire are not twisted together, the combination of the wires
forms a current loop. The
magnetic field generated by the loop might affect adjacent circuits or component
s.
7. Statement-1 : If an electron and proton enter in an electric field with equal
energy, then path of electron
is more curved than that of proton.
Statement-2 : Electron has a tendency to form large curve due to small mass.
8. Statement-1 : If a proton and an . -particle enter a uniform magnetic field p
erpendicularly, with the same
speed, the time period of revolution of . -particle is double that of proton.
Statement-2 : In a magnetic field, the time period of revolution of a charged pa
rticle is directly proportional
to the mass of the particle and is inversely proportional to charge of particle.
9. Statement-1 : If an electron while coming vertically from outer space enter t
he earth s magnetic field, it
is deflected towards west.
Statement-2 : Electron has negative charge.
10. Statement-1 : An electron and proton enters a magnetic field with equal velo
cities, then, the force
experienced by proton will be more than electron.
Statement-2 : The mass of proton is 1837 times more than the mass of electron.
11. Statement-1 : The magnetic field produced by a current carrying solenoid is
independent of its length
and cross sectional area.
Statement-2 : The magnetic field inside the solenoid is uniform.
12. Statement-1 : The sensitivity of a moving coil galvanometer is increased by

placing a suitable magnetic
material as a core inside the coil.
Statement-2 : Soft iron has a high magnetic permeability and cannot be easily ma
gnetized or
demagnetized. [JEE 2008]
MAGNETIC FIELD
Level # 1
1. An electron is accelerated to a high speed down the axis of a cathode ray tub
e by the application of a
potential difference of V volts between the cathode and the anode. The particle
then passes through a
uniform transverse magnetic field in which it experiences a force F. If the pote
ntial difference between the
anode and the cathode is increased to 2 V, the electron will now experience a fo
rce
(A) F 2 (B) F 2 (C) 2 F (D) 2 F
2. In a hydrogen atom, an electron of mass m and charge e is in an orbit of radi
us r making n revolutions per
second. If the mass of the hydrogen nucleus is M, the magnetic moment associated
with the orbital motion
of the electron is
(A)
M
.ner2 m
(B)
m
.ner2M
(C) (M m)
ner2 m
.
.
(D) .ner2
3. An electron of charge e moves in a circular orbit of radius r around a nucleu
s. The magnetic field due to
orbital motion of the electron at the site of the nucleus if B. The angular velo
city . of the electron is
(A) 4 r
2 0 eB
.
.
. . (B) r
0 eB
.
.
. . (C) e
4 rB
0 .
.
. . (D) e
2 rB
0 .
.
. .
4. Three long, straight and parallel wires C, D and G carrying currents are
arranged as shown in Figure. The force experienced by a 25 cm length
D C G
30 A 10 A 20 A
3 cm 10 cm
of wire C is
(A) 0.4 N (B) 0.04 N
(C) 4 x 10 3 N (D) 4 x 10 4 N
5. A charged particle of specific charge s passes through a region of space show
n.
(A) Velocity of the particle in REGION 1 is

B
.
. . .
(B) Work done to move the charged particle in REGION 1 is ZERO.
(C) The radius of the trajectory of the charged particle in
REGION 2 is
s..0
.
.
(D) The particle emerges from REGION 2 with a velocity ' . .
v
.1
. 2
B
S E
B0
xxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxx
x x x x
x x x x
REGION 1 REGION 2
where ' . .
= ... .
6. A wire of resistance R in the form of a semicircle lies on the top of a smoot
h
table. A uniform magnetic field B is confined to the region as shown. The ends
of the semicircle are attached to springs C and D whose other ends are fixed.
E
C D
B
B = 0
below this line
. X
If r is the radius of the semicircle and k is the force constant for each spring
,
then the extension x in each spring is
(A) kR
x . 2EBr (B) kr
x . 2EBR (C) kR
x . EBr (D)
2kR
x . EBr
7. An infinite collection of current carrying conductors each carrying a current
. outwards perpendicular to
paper are placed at x = x0, x = 3x0, x = 5x0, ........ ad infinitum on the x axi
s. Another infinite collection of
current carrying conductors each carrying a current . inwards perpendicular to p
aper are placed at x = 2x0,
x = 4x0, x = 6x0, ....... ad infinitum Here x0 is a positive constant. The magne
tic field at the origin due to the
above collection of current carrying conductors is
(A) ZERO (B) 4 x log 2 0 e
0
.
. .
(C) . (D)
0
0 e
2 x
log 2
.
. .
MAGNETIC FIELD
8. A conductor ABCDEF, with each side of length L, is bent as shown.
It is carrying a current . in a uniform magnetic induction (field) B,
parallel to the positive y-direction. The force experienced by the wire is
B A
C
D
E
L
L
Z B
Y
X
O
F
(A) BIL in the positive y-direction.
(B) BIL in the negative z-direction.
(C) 3 BIL
(D) zero
9. The square loop ABCD, carrying a current . , is placed in a uniform magnetic
field B, as shown. The loop can rotate about the axis XX . The plate of the
loop makes an angle . ( . < 90) with the direction of B. Through what
A
B
B
X
X
Y
Z
C
D
.
angle will the loop rotate by itself before the torque on it becomes zero ? .
(A) . (B) 90 (C) 90 + . (D) 180
.
10. An electron is fired from the point A with a velocity V0 = 2 x 108 m/s.
The magnitude and direction of magnetic field that will cause the
A B
15 cm
x
V0
y
electron to follow a semicircular path from A to B is
(A) 1.5 x 10 4 T out of the page.
(B) 1.5 x 10 3 T into the page
(C) 1.5 x 10 2 T into the page
(D) 1.5 x 10 2 T out of the page
11. Two long straight parallel wires 2 m apart, are perpendicular to the plane o
f the
paper. Wire A carries a current of 10 A directed into the plane of the paper. Wi
re
B carries a current such that the magnetic field at P at a distance of 0.8 m fro
m
this wire is zero.The magnitude and direction of the current in wire is zero. Th
e
A
B
S
1.2 m
1.6 m
2 m
P
magnitude and direction of the current in wire B is
(A) 2.8 A into the page
(B) 2.8 A out of the page
(C) 2.8 x 10 6 A into the page.
(D) 2.08 A out of the page.
12. Two particles each of mass m and charge q, are attached to the two ends of a
light rigid rod of length 2 . .
The rod is rotated at a constant angular speed about a perpendicular axis passin
g through its centre. The
ratio of the magnitudes of the magnetic moment of the system and its angular mom
entum about the centre
of the rod is
(A) 2m
q
(B) m
q
(C) m
2q
(D) m
q
.
13. If a charged particle is describing a circle of radius r in a magnetic field
with a time period T then,
(A) T 2 . r 3 (B) T 2 . r (C) T . r 2 (D) T . r 0
14. A non-conducting rod AB of length . has a linear charge density . .
The rod is rotated about an axis passing through point A with constant
angular velocity . as shown in the figure. The magnetic moment of
A +++ B
.
the rod is
(A)
2
2
...
(B)
2
3
...
(C)
3 3
2
.. .
(D)
3
6
...
MAGNETIC FIELD
15. A charged particle of mass m and charge q is released from rest from (x0, 0)
along an electric field 0
E j . The
angular momentum of the particle about origin
(A) is zero (B) is constant (C) increases with time (D) decreases with time
16. Two particles Y and Z emitted by a radioactive source at P made tracks
in a could chamber as illustrated in the figure. A magnetic field acted
downward into the paper. Careful measurements showed that both tracks
P
Y
were circular, the radius of Y track being half that of the Z track. Z
Which one of the following statements is certainly true?
(A) Both Y and Z particles carried a positive charge.
(B) The mass of Z particle was one half that of the Y particle.
(C) The mass of the Z particle was twice that of the Y particle.
(D) The charge of the Z particle was twice that of the Y particle.
17. The resistances of three parts of a circular
loop are as shown in the figure. The magnetic
field at the centre O is
(A) 0
6
I
a
.
(B) 0
3
I
a
.
(C) 0 2
3
I
a
.
(D) Zero A
B
R C
R
a 2R
O
I
120
120
18. A particle with a specific charge s is fired with a speed v towards a wall a
t a distance
d, perpendicular to the wall. What minimum magnetic field must exist in this reg
ion for the
particle not to hit the wall?
(A) v/sd (B) 2v/sd (C) v/2sd (D) v/4sd
19. Current . flows through a long conducting wire bent at right
angle as shown in figure. The magnetic field at a point P on
the right bisector of the angle XOY at distance r from O is
(A) 0
r
.
.
.
(B) 0 2
r
.
.
.
X
Y
O I
P
x
45
r
(C) 0 . . 2 2 1
4 r
.
.
.
. (D) 0 . 2 1.
2 r
.
.
.
.
20. Two circular coils X and Y having equal number of turns
and carry equal currents in the same sense and subtend
same solid angle at point O. If the smaller coil X is midway d X
Y
d O
be between O and Y, then if we represent the magnetic
induction due to bigger coil Y at O as By and that due to
smaller coil X at O as Bx, then
(A) 1 y
x
B
B
. (B) y 2
x
B
B
. (C)
1
2
y
x
B
B
. (D)
1
4
y
x
B
B
.
21. Two mutually perpendicular conductors carrying 1 . and 2 . lie in the x-y pl
ane. Find locus of points at which
magnetic induction is zero?
(A)
22
2
y
.
.
.
1
2
x
.
.
.
1
2
y
.
.
.
2
2
x
.
.
.
x
(B)
y
(C)
x
(D)
2 1
y
.
MAGNETIC FIELD
22. A coil in the shape of an equilateral triangle of side 0.02 m
is suspended from a vertex such that it is hanging in a
vertical plane between the pole pieces of a permanent
magnet producing a horizontal magnetic field of 5 x 10 2 T.
Find the couple acting on the coil when a current of 0.1 N S
ampere is passed through it and the magnetic field is
parallel to its plane.
(A) 5 2N .m (B) 5 2N .10.4N .m
(C) 5 3 .10.7N . m (D) 10.7N . m
23. A particle of charge q and mass m starts moving from the origin under the ac
tion of an electric field 0 E . E i
.
and magnetic field 0
B . B k
.
. It s velocity at (x, 3, 0) is .4i . 3 j. . The value of x is:
(A) 0 0 36E B
qm (B)
0
25
2
m
q E (C)
0
10m
q E (D) 0 0 25E B
m
24. Two charged particles A and B enter a uniform magnetic field with velocities
normal to the field. Their paths
are shown in the Figure. The possible reasons are:
(A) The momentum of A is greater than that of B (B) the charge of A is greater t
han that of B.
(C) The specific charge of A is greater than that of B (D) the speed of A is les
s than that of B.
25. Two charged particle M and N enter a space of uniform magnetic field, with v
elocities, perpendicular to the
magnetic field. the paths are as shown in the figure. The possible reason are:
(A) the charge of M is greater than that of N. (B) the momentum of M is greater
than that of N.
(C) specific charge of M is greater than that of N. (D) the speed of M is less t
han that of N.
26. A current-carrying ring is placed in a magnetic field. The direction of the
field is perpendicular to the plane of
the ring, then:
(A) there is no net force on the ring. (B) the ring may tend to expand.
(C) the ring may tend to contact (D) none of these.
27. A charge q is moving with a velocity 1 v. .1i m s at a point in a magnetic fi
eld and experiences a force
. . 1
F . q .1 j .1 k
.
N. If the charge is moving with a velocity 2 v. .1 j ma/s at the same point, it e
xperiences
MAGNETIC FIELD
a force 2
F . q .1i .1k . N . .
.
. The magnetic induction B .
at that point is:
(A) .i . j . k .Wb m2 (B) .i . j . k .Wb m2 (C) ..i . j . k .Wb m2 (D) .i .
28. A parallel beam of electrons is shot into a uniform electric field, initiall
y parallel to and against the field with
a small initial speed. Then:
(A) the beam will pass through the field accelerating down the field without cha
nging its width.
(B) the beam tends to spread out at the beginning and to narrow down later.
(C) the beam tends to narrow down at the beginning and to spread out later.
(D) the total energy of the beam is conserved.
29. The ratio of the energy required to set up in a cube of side 10 cm a uniform
magnetic field of 4 wb/m2 and a
uniform electric field of 106 V/m is:
(A) 1.4 x 107 (B) 1.4 x 105 (C) 1.4 x 106 (D) 1.4 x 103
30. A charged particle is fired at an angle . in a uniform magnetic field direct
ed along the x-axis. During its
motion along a helical path, the particle will:
(A) never parallel to the x-axis.
(B) move parallel to the x-axis once during every rotation for all values of . .
(C) move parallel to the x-axis at least once during every rotation if . 45.
(D) never move perpendicular to the x-direction.
31. A charged particle q enters a region of uniform B .
(out of the page) and
is deflected a distance d after travelling a horizontal distance a. The
magnitude of the momentum of the particle is:
(A)
2
2
qB a d
d
. .
. . .
. .
(B) 2
qBa
(C) Zero (D) not possible to be determined as it keeps changing.
32. Two insulated rings, one of slightly smaller diameter then the other, are su
spended
along their common diameter as shown in the figure, initially the planes of the
rings
are mutually perpendicular. When a steady current is set up in each of them:
(A) The two rings rotate towards a common plane.
(B) The inner ring will oscillate about its initial position.
(C) The inner ring stays stationary while the outer one moves into the plane of
the inner ring.
(D) The outer ring stays stationary while the inner one moves into the plane of
the outer ring.
33. A particle with charge +Q and mass m enters a magnetic field of magnitude B,
existing only on the right of the boundary YZ. The direction of the motion of th
e
particle is perpendicular to the direction of B. Let T 2 m
j . k .Wb
QB
. . . The time spent
by the particle in the field will be:
(A) T. (B) 2T. (C)
2
2
T . .
.
. . .
. .
. . (D)
2
2
T . .
.
. . .
. .
. .
34. The current I flows through a square loop of a wire of side a. The magnetic
induction at the centre of the loop
is:
(A) 0 2
a
.
.
.
(B) 0 2 2
a
.
.
.
(C) 0 2
a
. .
(D) 0 2
a
. . .
MAGNETIC FIELD
35. Suppose a uniform electric field and a uniform magnetic field exist along mu
tually perpendicular directions in
a gravity free space. If a charged particle is released from rest, at a point in
the space:
(A) particle can not remain in static equilibrium.
(B) first particle will move along a curved path but after some time its velocit
y will become constant.
(C) particle will come to rest at regular interval of time.
(D) acceleration of the particle will never become equal to zero.
36. A circular loop of radius R carries a charge q uniformly distributed on it.
It is rotated at a frequency f about
one of the diameters. A uniform magnetic field B exists along its diameter . The
maximum and minimum
torques acting on the loop due to the magnetic field are, respectively:
(A) . qfR2B, 0 (B) 0, 0 (C) 2. qfR2B , . qfR2B (D) None of these
37. A semi-circular wire of radius R is connected to a wire bent in the form of
a sine curve
to form a closed loop as shown n the figure. If the loop carries a current . and
is placed
in a uniform magnetic field B, then the total force acting on the sine curve is:
B (A) 2B.R (downward) (B) 2B.R (upward) (C) B.R (upward) (D) Zero
38. A charged particle of unit mass and unit charge moves with velocity of v . .
8i . 6 j.m s .
in a magnetic field
of B . 2 k T
.
. Choose the correct alternative(s):
(A) The path of the particle be x2 + y2
4x 21 = 0. (B) The path of the particle
may be x2 + y2 = 25.
(C) The path of the particle may be y2 + z2 = 25. (D) The time period of the par
ticle will be 3.14 s.
39. A proton, a deuteron and an .-particle having the same kinetic energy are mo
ving in circular trajectories in a
constant magnetic field. If rp, rd, and r. denote respectively the radii of the
trajectories of these particles,
then. (JEE 1997)
(A) p d r r r . . . (B) d p r r r . . . (C) d p r r r . . . (D) p d r r r. . .
40. A charged particle is released from rest in a region of steady and uniform e
lectric and magnetic fields which
are parallel to each other. The particle will move in a (JEE 1999)
(A) straight line (B) circle (C) helix (D) cycloid
41. Two long parallel wires are at a distance 2d apart. They carry steady equal
currents flowing out of the plane of
the paper, as shown. The variation of the magnetic field B along the line XX is g
iven by (JEE 2000)
(A)
d d
X X
B
(B)
d d
X X
B
(C)
d d
X X
B
(D)
d d
X X
B
42. An infinitely long conductor PQR is bent to form a right angle as shown in f
igure. A current . flows through
PQR. The magnetic field due tot his current at the point M is H1. Now, another i
nfinitely long straight conductor
QS is connected at Q so that current is . 2 in QR as well as in QS, the current
in PQ remaining unchanged.
The magnetic field at M is now H2. The ratio 1 2 H H is given by (JEE 2000)
(A) (B) 1 (C) 2 3 (D) 2
MAGNETIC FIELD
43. An ionized gas contains both positive and negative ions. If it is subjected
simultaneously to an electric field
along the +x direction and a magnetic field along the +z direction, then (JEE 20
00)
(A) positive ions deflect towards +y direction and negative ions towards y direct
ion
(B) all ions deflect towards +y direction.
(C) all ions deflect towards y direction
(D) positive ions deflect towards y direction and negative ions towards +y direct
ion.
44. A non-planar loop of conducting wire carrying a current . is placed
as shown in the figure. Each of the straight sections of the loop is
of length 2a. The magnetic field due to this loop at the point
x
y
z
I
2a
P(a, 0, a) points in the direction (JEE 2001)
(A) 1 .
.
2
. j . k (B) 1 .
.
3
. j . k . i
(C) . . 1
3
i . j . k (D) 1 . .
2
i . k
45. Two particles A and B of masses mA and mB respectively and having the same
charge are moving in a plane. A uniform magnetic field exists perpendicular to A
this plane. The speeds of the particles are V B A and VB respectively and the
trajectories are as shown in the figure. Then (JEE 2001)
(A) mA vA < mB vB (B) mA vA > mB vB
(C) mA < mB and vA < vB (D) mA = mB and vA = vB
46. A coil having N turns is wound tightly in the form of a spiral with inner an
d outer radii a and b respectively.
When a current . passes through the coil, the magnetic field at the center is (J
EE 2001)
(A) 0 N
b
. .
(B) 0 2 N
b
. .
(C) . .
0 ln
2
N b
b a a
. .
. (D) . .
0 ln
2
N b
b a a
. .
.
47. A particle of mass m and charge q moves with a constant velocity v along the
positive x direction. It enters a
region containing a uniform magnetic field B directed along the negative z direc
tion, extending from x = a to
x = b. The minimum value of v required so that the particle can just enter the r
egion x > b is (JEE 2002)
(A)
qbB
m (B)
q .b a. B
m
.
(C)
qaB
m (D)
. .
2
q b a B
m
.
48. A long straight wire along the z-axis carries a current . in the negative z
direction. The magnetic vector field
B .
at a point having coordinates (x, y) in the z = 0 plane is (JEE 2002)
(A)
. .
. .
0
2 2
2
y
x
.
.
.
.
.
.
0
2
2
x
x
.
.
.
.
.
.
0
2
i x j
y
.
(B)
.
.
2
i y j
y
.
(C)
.
.
2
2
x j y i
x y
.
.
.
.
.
.
0
2
.
(D)
.
.
2
2
x i y j
x y
.
.
. .
.
49. For a positive charged particle moving in a x-y plane initially along
the x-axis, there is a sudden change in its path due tot he presence
of electric and/or magnetic fields beyond P. The curved path is shown
x
y
in the x-y plane and is found to be non-circular. Which one of the P
following combinations is possible? (JEE 2003)
(A) E . 0; B . b i . c k
. .
(B) E . a i ; B . c k . a i
. .
(C) E . 0; B . c j . b k
. .
(D) E . a i ; B . c k . b j
. .
MAGNETIC FIELD
50. A conducting loop carrying a current . is placed in a uniform
magnetic field pointing into the plane of the paper as shown. x
Y
I
B
The loop will have a tendency to (JEE 2003)
(A) contract (B) expand
(C) move towards +ve x-axis (D) move towards ve x-axis.
51. A current carrying loop is placed in a uniform magnetic field in four differ
ent orientations, I, II, III & IV, arrange
them in the decreasing order of Potential Energy (JEE 2003)
B
n
I
B
n II
B
n
III
B
n
IV
(A) I > III > II > IV (B) I > II > III > IV (C) I > IV > II > III (D) III > IV >
I > II
52. An electron traveling with a speed u along the positive x-axis enters
into a region of magnetic field where . . 0
B . .B k x . 0 . It comes out
B
x
y
e u
of the region with speed v then (JEE 2004)
(A) v = u at y > 0 (B) v = u at y < 0
(C) v > u at y > 0 (D) v > u at y < 0
53. A magnetic needle is kept in a nonuniform magnetic field. It experiences (JE
E 1982)
(A) a force and a torque (B) a force but not a torque
(C) a torque but not a force (D) neither a force nor a torque
54. A proton moving with a constant velocity passes through a region of space wi
thout any change in its velocity.
If E and B represent the electric and magnetic fields respectively. This region
of space may have:(JEE 1985)
(A) E = 0, B = 0 (B) E = 0, B . 0 (C) E . 0, B = 0 (D) E . 0, B . 0
55. A rectangular loop carrying a current i is situated near a long straight wir
e
such that the wire is parallel to one of the sides of the loop and is in the
plane of the loop. If steady current . is established in the wire as shown
i
I
in the figure, the loop will : (JEE 1985)
(A) rotate about an axis parallel to the wire (B) move away from the wire
(C) move towards the wire (D) remain stationary
56. Two particle X and Y having equal charges, after being accelerated through t
he same potential difference,
enter a region of uniform magnetic field and describe circular paths of radii R1
and R2 respectively. The ratio of
the mass of X to that of Y is (JEE 1988)
(A) . .1 2
1 2 R R (B) 2 1 R R (C) . .2
1 2 R R (D) 1 2 R R
57. A particle of charge +q and mass m moving under the influence of a uniform
electric field E i and uniform magnetic field B k follows a trajectory from
P to Q as shown in Figure. The velocities at P and Q are v i and .2 j
2v
P
a
Q x
2a
B
V E
which of the following statement(s) is/are correct? (JEE 1991)
(A)
3 2
4
E mv
qa
. .
. . .
. .
(B) Rate of work done by the electric field at P is
3 3
4
mv
a
. .
. .
. .
(C) Rate of work done by the electric field at P is zero
(D) Rate of work done by the electric field at Q is zero
MAGNETIC FIELD
58. A current 1 flows along the length of an infinitely long, straight, thin-wal
led pipe. Then: (JEE 1993)
(A) The magnetic field at all points inside the pipe is the same, but not zero
(B) The magnetic field at any point inside the pipe is zero.
(C) The magnetic field is zero only on the axis of the pipe
(D) The magnetic field is different at different points inside the pipe.
59. H+ , He+ and O++ all having the same kinetic energy pass through a region in
which there is a uniform magnetic
field perpendicular to their velocity. The masses of H+, He+ and O2+ are 1 amu,
4 and 16 amu respectively.
The: (JEE 1994)
(A) H+ will be deflected most. (B) O2+ will be deflected most
(C) He+ and O2+ will be deflected equally (D) All will be deflected equally.
60. Two very long, straight, parallel wires carry steady currents . and
. respec
tively. The distance between the
wires is d. At a certain instant of time, a point charge q is at a point equidis
tant from the two wires, in the
plane of the wires, Its instantaneous velocity v is perpendicular to this plane.
The magnitude of the force due
to the magnetic field acting on the charge at this instant is (JEE 1998)
(A) 0
2
qv
d
.
.
.
(B) 0 qv
d
.
.
.
(C) 0 2 qv
d
.
.
.
(D) 0
61. An infinite current carrying wire passes through point O and in perpendicula
r
to the plane containing a current carrying loop ABCD as shown in the figure.
Choose the correct option (s) (JEE 2006)
(A) Net force on the loop is zero
C
B
O O
A
D
(B) Net torque on the loop is zero.
(C) As seen from O, the loop rotates clockwise.
(D) As seen from O, the loop rotates anticlockwise.
62. A magnetic field 0
B . B j
..
exists in the region a < x < 2a and 0
B . .B j
..
, in
the region 2a < x < 3a, where B0 is a positive constant. A positive point charge
moving with a velocity 0
v . v j
.
, where v0 is a positive constant, enters the
0 a 2a 3a x
B0
B0
magnetic field at x = 0. The trajectory of the charge in this region can be like
,
(JEE 2007)
(A)
z
a 2a 3a x (B)
z
x
a 2a 3a
(C)
z
a 2a 3a x (D)
z
x
a 2a 3a
63. A particle of mass m and charge q, moving with velocity v enters
Region II normal to the boundary as shown in the figure. Region II
has a uniform magnetic field B perpendicular to the plane of the
paper. The length of the Region II is l. Choose the correct choice(s)

Region I Region II Region III
0
v
(A) The particle enters Region III only if its velocity l
v q B
m
. l
(JEE 2008)
(B) The particle enters Region III only if its velocity
v q B
m
. l
(C) Path length of the particle in Region II is maximum when velocity
v q B
m
. l
(D) Time spent in Region Ii is same for any velocity V as long as the particle r
eturns to Region I
MAGNETIC FIELD
FILL IN THE BLANKS
1. A neutron a proton, and an electron and alpha particle enter a region
of constant magnetic field with equal velocities. The magnetic field is
along the inward normal to the plane of the paper. The tracks of the
X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X B C
particles are labelled in Figure. The electron follows track ________ D
and the alpha particle follows track ________. (JEE 1984)
2. A wire of length L meters carrying a current i amperes is bent in the form of
a circle. The magnitude of its
magnetic moment is ________ in MKS units. (JEE 1987)
3. In a hydrogen atom, the electron moves in an orbit of radius 0.5 making 1016 r
evolutions per second. The
magnetic moment associated with the orbital motion of the electron is ________ .
(JEE 1988)
4. The wire loop PQRSP formed by joining two semicircular wires of
radii R1 and R2 carries a current 1 as shown. The magnitude of
I
I
R2
S R C Q P
R1 the magnetic induction at the centre C is ________ . (JEE 1988)
5. A wire ABCDEF (with each side of length L) bent as shown in figure
and carrying a current . is placed in a uniform magnetic induction B
B A
C
D
E
F
Z
X
Y
I
parallel to the positively-direction. The force experienced by the wire
is ________ in the ________ direction. (JEE 1990)
6. A metallic block carrying current . is subjected to a uniform magnetic induct
ion as B .
as shown in Figure.
The moving charges experience a force F
. given by _____ which results in the lowering of the potential of the
face _____ Assume the sped of the carriers to be v. (JEE 1996)
7. A uniform magnetic field with a slit system as shown in figure is
to be used as momentum filter for high-energy charged particles.
With a field B Tesla, it is found that the filter transmits . -particles
Source Detector
B
each of energy 5.3 MeV. The magnetic field is increased to 2.3 B
Tesla and deuterons are passed into the filter. the energy of each
deuteron transmitted by the filter is _____ MeV. (JEE 1997)
MAGNETIC FIELD
TRUE / FALSE
8. No net force acts on a rectangular coil carrying a steady current when suspen
ded freely in a uniform magnetic
field. (JEE 1981)
9. There is no change in the energy of a charged particle moving in magnetic fie
ld although a magnetic force is
acting on it. (JEE 1983)
10. A charged particle enters a region of uniform magnetic field at an angle of
85 to the magnetic line of force.
The path of the particle is a circle. (JEE 1983)
11. An electron and proton are moving with the same kinetic energy along the sam
e direction. When they pass
through a uniform magnetic field perpendicular to the direction of their motion,
they describe circular paths of
the same radius. (JEE 1985)
TABLEMATCHING
(A) Electric field (P) Stationary charge
(B) Magnetic field (Q) Moving charge
(C) Electric force (R) Changes the kinetic energy
(D) Magnetic force (S) Does not change kinetic energy
13. Regarding the trajectory of a charged particle, match the following:
Column I Column II
(A) In electric field (P) Straight line path
(B) In magnetic field (Q) Circular path
(C) In crossed field (R) Helical path
(D) In mutually perpendicular electric and (S) Parabolic path
magnetic field, charge being at rest (T) Parabolic path
14. A current flows along length of a long thin cylindrical shell:
Column I Column II
(A) Magnetic field at all points lying inside the shell (P) Inversely proportion
al with distance
from axis of shell
(B) Magnetic field at any point outside the shell (Q) Zero
(C) Magnetic field is maximum (R) Just outside the shell
(D) Magnetic field on the axis of the shell
(A) Unit of magnetic field (P) Am2
(B) Unit of magnetic permeability (0) (Q) N Am
(C) Unit of magnetic flux (.) (R) N A2
(D) Unit of magnetic dipole moment (S) Nm A
16. Two long parallel wires carrying equal currents in opposite directions are p
laced at x = . a parallel to Y-axis
with z = 0. Then:
Column I Column II
(A) Magnetic field B1 at origin O (P) 0
3
i
a
.
.
(B) Magnetic field B2 at P (2a, 0, 0) (Q) 0
4
i
a
.
.
.
(C) Magnetic field at M (a, 0, 0) (R) 0i
a
.
.
.
(D) Magnetic field at N ( a, 0, 0) (S) Zero
MAGNETIC FIELD
17. Two wires each carrying a steady current I are shown in four configurations
in Column-I. Some of the resulting
effects are deseribed in Column-II. Match the statements is Column-I with the st
atements in Column-II.
Column I Column II [JEE 2007]
(A) Point P is situated P (P) The magnetic fields (B) at P due to the currents
midway between the wires. in the wires are in the same direction.
(B) Point P is situated at the (Q) The magnetic fields (B) at P due to the curre
nts in
mid-point of the joining the the wires are in opposite directions.
centers of the circular
P
wires, which have same radii.
(C) Point P is situated at the (R) There is no magnetic field at P
mid-point of the line joining
the centres of the circular
P
wires, which have same radii.
(D) Point P is situated at the (S) The wires repel each other.
common center of the wires. P
18. Six point charges, each of the same magnitude q, are arranged in different m
anners as shon in Column-II. In
each case, a point M and a line PQ passing through M are shown. Let E be the ele
ctric field and V be the
electric potential at M (potential at infinity is zero) due to the given charge
distribution when it is at rest. Now,
the whole system is set into rotation with a constant angular velocity about the
line PQ. Let B be the
magnetic field at M and be the magnetic moment of the system in this condition.
Assume each rotating
charge to be equivalent to a steady current. [JEE 2009]
Column I Column II
(A) E = 0 (P) Charges are at the corners of a regular hexagon.
M is at the centre of the hexagon. PQ is
+
+
M +
P
Q
perpendicular to the plane of the hexagon.
(B) V . 0 (Q)
+
+
+ Charges are on a line perpendicular to PQ at
Q
P
M equal intervals. M is the mid-point between the
two innermost charges.
(C) B = 0 (R) Charges are placed on two coplanar insulating
rings at equal intervals. M is the common centre
+
Q
P
M
+
+
of the rings. PQ is rependicular to the plane of
the rings.
(D) . 0 (S) Charges are placed at the corners of a rectangle
of sides a and 2a and at the mid points of the
P M Q
+
+
longer sides. M is at the centre of the rectangle.
PQ is parallel to the longer sides.
(T) Charges are placed on two coplanar, insulating
rings at equal intervals. M is the mid-point betP
Q
M
+
+ +
ween the centres of the rings. PQ is perpendicular
to the line joining the centres and coplanar
to the rings.
MAGNETIC FIELD
PASSAGE TYPE
PASSAGE = 1.
A cyclotron is a device used by physicists to study the properties of subatomic
particles. Small charged
particles are deposited at high speed into a circular pipe. electric and magneti
c field then accelerate the
particle to an even higher speed. Finally, when the particle reaches the desired
speed, a magnetic field keeps
it moving in a circle at constant speed.
In figure 1, amagnetic field pointing into the page keeps a charged particle trave
lling in a counterclockwise
circle at constant speed inside the cyclotron. The magnetic force on the particl
e points towards the center of
the circle, and has strength
Fmag = qvB
where q is the particle s charge, v is its speed, and B is the magnetic field stre
ngth. As a result of this force,
the particle moves in circles in the cyclotron at frequency
2
f qB
. m
.
North
West
South
East
particle
where m denotes the particle s mass. The frequency (in hertz) is the number of rev
olutions completed by the
particle per second.
In the following questions, neglect gravity.
1. In figure 1, what is the direction (if any) of the particle s acceleration?
(A) North (B) East (C) West (D) It has no acceleration
2. If the magnetic field in figure were turned off, in which direction would the
particle travel (until crashing)?
(A) North (B) East (C) West (D) Now here; it would stop moving
3. An alpha particle has charge 2e and mass 4 amu. A proton has charge e and mas
s 1 amu. Let falpha and f proton
denote the frequencies with which those particles circle a cyclotron. If both pa
rticles experience he same
magnetic field in the same cyclotron, what is
alpha
proton
f
f ?
(A) 2 (B) 1 (C) 1 2 (D) 1 4
4. In order for a cyclotron to work properly, the magnetic field must make the p
article move in a circle. Which of
the following particles would not work in a cyclotron?
(A) lithium atom (Li) (B) positive lithium ion (Li+)
(C) negative lithium ion (Li+) (D) all of the above particle would work .
5. Which of the following cannot create a magnetic field?
(A) Electrical current flowing through a well-insulated straight metal wire.
(B) A beam of electrons moving across a cathode ray tube.
(C) Electric current flowing around a superconducting ring.
(D) Static electricity (i.e., extra electrons) built up on a stationary door kno
b.
PASSAGE = 2.
Magnetically levitated (MAGLEV) trains are considered to be important future tra
velling machines. The
idea of MAGLEV transportation has been in existence since the early 1900s. The b
enefits of eliminating
friction between the wheel and the rail to obtain higher speeds and lower mainte
nance costs has great
appeal. The basic idea of a MAGLEV train is to levitate it with magnetic fields
so that there is no physical
contact between the train and the rails. For comparison, bullet trains in Japan ha
ve a maximum speed of
about 250-300 km/h while a MAGLEV train under development has reached a speed of
411 km/hr. The
MAGLEV train uses powerful on board superconducting electromagnets with zero ele
ctrical resistance to
support the train above the rails.
(B) small size

(D) zero electrical resistance.
They have low maintenance cost but high running cost
they have low maintenance cost but high energy efficiency
they have low maintenance and running cost as well as low installation cost.
(C) China (D) None of these
(C) on the walls (D) on the station
(B) small size
(D) zero electrical resistance.
They have low maintenance cost but high running cost
they have low maintenance cost but high energy efficiency
they have low maintenance and running cost as well as low installation cost.
(C) China (D) None of these
(C) on the walls (D) on the station
another charged particle 2q of mass 2 m in a uniform magnetic
field B as shown in figure. If the particles are projected towards
each other with equal speeds v.
1. Find the maximum value of projection speed vm so that the two
particles do not collide.
2. Find the time after which collision occurs between the particles
if projection speed equals 2vm .
3. Assuming the collision to be perfectly inelastic find the radius
of particle in subsequent motion.
MAGNETIC FIELD
The walls along the track contain a continuous series of vertical coils of ordin
ary wire. As the train
passes each coil, the superconducting magnet on the train induces a current in t
hese coils and makes them
electromagnets. The electromagnets on the train and outside produce forces that
levitate the train and keep
it centered above the rails. In addition, electric current flowing through coils
outside the train propels the train
forward, as shown in Figure.
1. What is the major advantage of using super conductors in the electromagnets
(A) very low resistance for electric current
(C) low hysteresis loss
2. Choose the correct statement
(A) MAGLEV trains have high maintenance cost
(B)
(C)
(D)
3.
(A) Japan
4.
(A)
MAGLE trains are operating in which country
(B) USA
Super conducting electromagnets are installed in
(B) on the railroads
Coils installed on the wall will carry currents
only if train is moving very fast (B) all times whether train is standing or run
ning
only if train is moving irrespective of whether fast or slow. (D) None of these.
PASSAGE = 3.
A charged particle +q of mass m is placed at a distance d from
xinside the train
5.
(A)
(C)
xxx
q,m -2q,2m
VV
xxxx
xxxx
d
xxxx
(Neglect the electric force between the charges)
MAGNETIC FIELD
Level # 2
1. A particle of charge q and mass m is projected from the origin with velocity
v .
= 0 . i
in a nonuniform
magnetic field k
B . .B0x
.
. Here .0 and B0 are positive constants of proper dimensions. Find the maximum
positive x coordinate of the particle during its motion.
2. A flat dielectric disc of radius R carries an excess charge on its surface. T
he surface charge density is . .
The disc rotates about an axis perpendicular to its plane passing through the ce
ntre with angular velocity ..
Find the torque on the disc if it is placed in a uniform magnetic field B direct
ed perpendicular to the rotation
axis.
3. A wire loop ABCDE carrying a current . is placed in the x-y plane
as shown in figure. A particle of mass m and charge q is projected
from origin with velocity . .j
i
2
V
V . 0 . m/s. Find the
(a) instantaneous acceleration.
(B) If an external magnetic field i
B . B0 is applied, find the
x
y
O
A
B
C
D
E
90
force and torque acting on the loop due to this field. r/2
4. A long wire of radius a is placed along z-axis and carries current i as indic
ated
in the figure. y-axis is taken perpendicular to the plane of paper directed into
the
paper. An electron escapes from the surface of the wire with velocity .0 directe
d
along x-axis. Determine the maximum distance from the wire along x-axis up to
X
Z
e
O
V0
i
which electron can move.
5. A long horizontal wire AB, which is free to move in a vertical plane and carr
ies
a steady current of 20 A, is in equilibrium at a height of 0.01 m over another
parallel long wire CD which is fixed in a horizontal plane and carries a steady
A B
current of 30 A, as shown in figure. Show that when AB is slightly depressed, C
D
it executes simple harmonic motion. Find the period of oscillations.
6. A current . flows along a thin wire shaped as a regular polygon with n sides
which can be inscribed into a
circle of radius R. Find the magnetic induction at the centre of the polygon.Ana
lyse the obtained expression
at n.. .
7. Find the magnetic induction at the centre of rectangular wire frame whose dia
gonal is equal to d = 16 cm
and the angle between the diagonals is equal to . = 30; the current flowing in th
e frame equals . = 5.0 A.
8. A thin conducting strip of width h = 2.0 cm is tightly wound in the shape of
a very long coil with crosssection
radius R = 2.5 cm to make a single-layer straight solenoid. a direct current . =
5.0 A flows through
the strip. Find the magnetic induction inside and outside the solenoid as a func
tion of the distance r from its
axis.
9. Find the magnetic moment of a thin round loop with current if the radius of t
he loop is equal to R = 100 mm
and the magnetic induction at its centre is equal to B = 6.0 .T.
10. Calculate the magnetic moment of a thin wire with a current . = 0.8 A,
wound tightly on half a tore (Figure). The diameter of the cross-section
of the tore is equal to d = 5.0 cm, the number of turns is N = 500.
MAGNETIC FIELD
11. A non-conducting thin disc of radius R charged uniformly over one side with
surface density . rotates about
its axis with an angular velocity . . Find :
(a) the magnetic induction at the centre of the disc ; (B) the magnetic moment o
f the disc.
12. A small coil C with N = 200 turns is mounted on one end of a
balance beam and introduced between the poles of an electromagnet
as shown in Figure. The cross-section area of the coil
is S = 1.0 cm2, the length of the arm OA of the balance beam is
. = 30 cm. When there is no current in the coil the balance is in
equilibrium. On passing a current . = 22 mA through the coil the
equilibrium is restored by putting the additional counterweight of
mass .m = 60 mg on the balance pan. Find the magnetic induction at the spot wher
e the coil is located.
13. A square frame carrying a current . = 0.90 A is located in the same plane as
a long straight wire carrying a
current .0 = 5.0 A. The frame side has a length a = 8.0 cm. The axis of the fram
e passing through the
midpoints of opposite sides is parallel to the wire and is separated from it by
the distance which is . = 1.5
times greater than the side of the frame. Find :
(a) Ampere force acting on the frame ;
(B) the mechanical work to be performed in order to turn the frame through 180 ab
out its axis, with the
currents maintained constant.
14. In an electromagnetic pump designed for transferring molten metals a pipe
section with metal is located in a uniform magnetic field of induction
B (Figure). A current . is made to flow across this pipe section in the
direction perpendicular both to the vector B and to the axis of the pipe.
a
B
I
Find the gauge pressure produced by the pump if B = 0.10 T, . = 100 A,
and a = 2.0 cm.
15. A proton accelerated by a potential difference V = 500 kV flies through
a uniform transverse magnetic field with induction B = 0.51 T. The field
occupies a region of space d = 10 cm in thickness (Figure). Find the
d
.
+ B
angle . through which the proton deviates from the initial direction of
its motion.
16. A slightly divergent beam of non-relativistic charged particles accelerated
by a potential difference V propagates
from a point A along the axis of a straigth solenoid. The beam is brought into f
ocus at a distance . from the
point A at two successive values of magnetic induction B1 and B2. Find the speci
fic charge q/m of teh
particles.
17. A non-relativistic proton beam passes without deviation through the region o
f space where there are uniform
transverse mutually perpendicular electric and magnetic fields with E = 120 kV/m
and B = 50 mT. Then the
beam strikes a grounded target. Find the force with which the beam acts onthe ta
rget if the beam current is
equal to . = 0.80 mA.
18. A beam of non-relativistic charged particles moves without deviation through
the region of space A (Figure), where there are transverse mutually perpendicula
r
electric and magnetic fields with strength E and induction B. When
the magnetic field is switched off, the trace of the beam on the screen S
A
S
..
shifts by .x . Knowing the distances a and b, find the specific charge q/m a b
of the particles.
MAGNETIC FIELD
Level # 3
1. An electron in the ground state of hydrogen atom is revolving in anticlock-wi
se
direction in a circular orbit of radius R. (JEE 1996)
(i) Obtain an expression for the orbital magnetic dipole moment of the electron.
n
30
B
(ii) The atom is placed in a uniform magnetic induction B .
such that the
plane-normal of the electron-orbit makes an angle of 30 with the
magnetic induction. find the torque experienced by the orbiting electron.
2. A current of 10 A flows around a closed path in a circuit which is in the hor
izontal
plane as shown in the figure. The circuit consists of eight alternating arcs of
radii
r1 = 0.08 m and r1 = 0.12 m. Each arc subtends the same angle at the center.
(A) Find the magnetic field produced by this circuit at the center. (JEE 2001) A
D
C
r1
r2
(B) An infinitely long straight wire carrying a current of 10 A is passing the
center of the above circuit vertically with the direction of the current being
into the plane of the circuit. What is three force acting on the wire at the
center due to the current in the circuit? What is the force acting on the arc AC
and the straight segment
CD due to the current at the center?
3. A wheel of radius R having charge Q, uniformly distributed on the rim of the
wheel is
free to rotate about a light horizontal rod. The rod is suspended by light inext
ensible
strings and a magnetic field B is applied as shown in the figure. The initial te
nsions in
the strings are T0. If the breaking tension of the strings are 3T0/2, find the m
aximum
.0
B
T0 T0
d
angular velocity 0 . with which the wheel can be rotated. (JEE 2003)
4. A pair of stationary infinitely long bent wires are placed in the x-y plane a
s
shown in Figure. The wires carry currents of . = 10 A each as shown. The
segments LR and MS are along the x- axis. the segments RP and SQ are
parallel to the y-axis such that OS = OR = 0.02 m. Find the magnitude and
.
. .
.
L R O
P
S
M
x
y
Q
direction of the magnetic induction at the origin O. (JEE 1989)
5. A solenoid of length 0.4 m and having 500 turns of wire carries a current of
3 A. A thin coil having 10 turns of
wire and of radius 0.01 m carries a current of 0.4 A. Calculate the torque requi
red to hold the coil in the
middle of the solenoid with its axis perpendicular to the axis of the solenoid.
(JEE 1990)
6. Three infinitely long thin wires, each carrying current in the same direction
are in the x-y plane of a gravity
free space. The central wire is along the y-axis while the other two are along x
= . d. (JEE 1997)
(a) Find the locus of points for which the magnetic field B is zero.
(B) If the central wire is displaced along the z-direction by a small amount and
released, show that it will
execute simple harmonic motion. If the linear density of the wire is . , find th
e frequency of oscillations.
7. A proton and an alpha particle, after being accelerated through same potentia
l difference, enter a uniform
magnetic field the direction of which is perpendicular to their velocities. Find
the ratio of radii of the circular
paths of the two particles. (JEE 2004)
8. In a moving coil galvanometer, torque on the coil can be expressed as b = ki,
whre i is current through the
wire and k is constant. The rectangular coil of the galvanometer having numbers of
turns N, area A and
moment of inertia I is placed in magnetic field B. Find
(a) k in terms of given parameters N, I, A and B.
(b) the torsional constant of the spring, if a current i0 produces a deflection
of ./2 in the coil in reaching
equilibrium position.
(c) the maximum angle through which coil is deflected, id charge Q is passed thr
ough the coil almost
instantaneously. (Ignore the damping in mechanical oscillations) (JEE 2005)
MAGNETIC FIELD
Answer Key
ASSERTION&REASON
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Ans. A E A B A A D A B
Q. 10 11 12
Ans. E B C
Level # 1
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. C D C D ABCD C D B C C
Q. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. B A D D C A D A D C
Q. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. C C B BCD ACD ABC A BD C AD
Q. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. A A C B ACD B B ABD A A
Q. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
Ans. B C B D B C B A B B
Q. 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. A B A ABD C C ABD B AC D
Q. 61 62 63
Ans. AC A ACD
FILL IN THE BLANKS / TRUE-FALSE / MATCH TABLE
1. D, B 2.
2
4
iL
. 3. 1.25 x 10 23 Am2 4.
0
1 2
1 1
4
I
R R
. . .
. . .
. .
5. .lB ; +z direction 6. evB; ABCD 7. 14.0185 eV 8. True 9. True 10. False 11. F
alse
12. [(A PQ), (B Q), (C PQR), (D QS)] 13. [(A PT), (B PQR), (C P), (D S)]
14. [(A Q), (B P), (C R), (D Q)] 15. [(A Q), (B R), (C S), (D P)]
16. [(A R), (B P), (C Q), (D Q)] 17. [(A QR), (B P), (C QR), (D QS)]
18. [(A PRS), (B RS), (C PQT), (D RS)]
PASSAGE TYPES
Passage = 1.
1. C 2. A 3. C 4. A 5. D
Passage = 2.
1. D 2. C 3. D 4. A 5. C
Passage = 3.
1. 2m
V Bqd m . 2. Bq 6
t m
.
. 3. R . 3d.
MAGNETIC FIELD
Level # 2
1. B q
2mv
0
0 2.
4
...BR4
3. (a) 0 . . . .
0 0
q
a 4 2 B V j i
8 2 rm
. .
. . . .
. (B) Zero, 0
2
B
2
1
4
r ..
.
..
.. .
.
4. ei
(2 mv )
ae
0
0
m .
.
. .
5. 0.2 Sec. 6. 0 n I tan
2R n
.
. 7. B 4 0 / d sin 0.10mT. . . . . . .
8.
. .
. . ..
.. .
. . . .
. . . . . . .
/ 4 2 / r, r R.
B /h (1 (h / 2 R) 0.3mT,r R,
0
2
0 9. 2
0
3
pm . 2.R B/. . 30mA.m
10. 2 2
pm . 1/ 2N.d . 0.5 A.m 11. (a) B 1/ 2 0 R . . .. (b) p 1/ 4 R4.
m . ... 12. B . .mg. /N.S . 0.4 T.
13. (a) F 2 / .4 2 1. 0.40 N
0 0 . . .. . . . . . (b) A ( 0a 0 / ) ln [2 1) /(2 1)] 0.10 J. . . .. . . . . .
. .
14. .p . .B/ a . 0.5 kPa. 15. 30 .
2mV
arcsin dB q . . . .
.
.
. .
.
.
. . 16. 2
2 1
2
2
(B B )
q/m 8 V
.
.
.
.
17. F = mE . /qB = 20.N. 18.
2E x
q/m a(a 2b)B
2
.
.
.
Level # 3
1. (i)
M eh
4 m
.
. (ii)
ehB
8 m . directed perpendicular to the both M ... and B.. .
2. (a) 6.54 x 10 5 Tesla (b) 0, Force on arc AC = 0, Force on segment CD = 8.1 10 6
N (inwards)
3. 0
man 2
W DT
BQr
. 4. 1 x 10 4 T or Wb m 2. 5. . = 5.9 x 10 6 Nm.
6. (a) , z 0.
3
x . . d . (b)
1 2
0
d 2 . ..
.
. ..
.
..
.
.
.
7.
p p
p
r m q 1 .
r m q 2
.
. .
. .
8. (a) k = NAB, (b) 0 C . 2i NAB

. ; (c)
0
Q NAB
21i
.
.
X X X X
ATOMIC PHYSICS
DHANALAKSHMI NAGAR
TIRUPATI.
PH NO. 9440025125
ATOMIC PHYSICS
MASS OF A PHOTON
Rest mass of photon is zero.
Effectivemass : Ifwe assume thatmis the effectivemass of photons inmoving condit
ions, then according
to Einstein s theory.
Energy of photon,E =mc2
m= 2
E
c
but E = h. = pc, p =photon momentum
. m = 2
E
c = 2
h
c
.
=
p
c
C1: Drawthe graph of (a)momentumversus effectivemass of photon (b) Energyversus
effectivemass,
(c)wavelengthversusmomentum, (d) Effectivemass versuswavelength for a photon.
Sol:
.
p
O m
.
E
O m
(a) p = mc . straight line tan. = c (b) E = mc2 . straight line tan. = c2
.
p .
m
(c)de-brogliewavelength of photon . =
h
p (d) Effectivemass of photon
..p = h . Rectangular hyperbola m = 2
E
c = 2
h
c
.
= 2
hc
.c
m. =
h
c
. Rectangular hyperbola
Power of a light source
Suppose P = Power of the light source, . = frequency of emitted photons,
Energyof single photon= h.
Let, n = numbers of photons emitted per sec by the source, then
Thus, Energy emitted per sec. by the source =W= h.
Intensity of light source at a point
The amount ofenergyincident ona point per unit area at that point ina unit time
is called the intensityoflight
at that point.
ATOMIC PHYSICS
Thus, intensityat a point is energyincident per unit area unit time.
Suppose, I = Intensityof light at a point
. = Frequency of photon
n0 = no. of photon incident / sec /Area
. I = n0h.
SI unit ofintensityis J/secondm2.
Intensity of light at a distance r :
Let, W= Power of a point source
r
Amount of energy received byspherical surface per second P
= Amount of energy emitted by light source per second =W
Hence, Intensityat distance
r =
W
Area = 2
W
4.r
Thus, I = 2
W
4.r
Example 1: The intensityof sunlight on the surface of earth is 1400W/m2.Assuming
themeanwavelength of
sunlight to be 6000 , calculate the number of photons emitted fromthe sun per sec
ond assuming the
average radius of earth s orbit around sun is 1.49 1011m.
Sol: Average radius, r = 1.49 1011m. intensity of sunlight received by earth = I
= 1400W/m2,
. =meanwavelength = 6000.
Energy emitted per second by the sum= Power of the sun =W
but, Power,W= nh.,where n is number of photons emitted bysun per sec. .....(i)
Again, intensityat a distance r froma point source of powerW.
I = 2
W
4.r
Sun r Earth
Power = P
I = 2
nh
4 r
.
. [Fromequation (i)]
n =
I 4 r2
h
. .
. =
I 4 r2
hc
. . .
[. h. =
hc
. ]
. n =
4 r2 I
hc
. .
=
2 22 7
34 8
4 (1.49) 10 6 10 1400
6.63 10 3 10
.
.
.. . . . .
. . .
n = 1.18 1045 photons per sec.
Photon Flux (i.e. photon/sec)
Suppose,W= Power of a source.
IfAis the area of themetal surface onwhichradiations are incident, thenthe power
received bythe plate is
W. = IA = 2
W
4 r
. .
.. . .. A
If . is the frequency of radiation, then the energy is photon is given by h..
ATOMIC PHYSICS
If n. is the number of photons incident on the plate per second, then, we have
W. = n. h.
2
W
4 r
. .
.. . .. A=N. h.
r
P
Area(A)
. n. = Plate 2
W A
4 r
h
. . . . . .
. . . . .
. .
n is called photon flux.
Photon flow density (n0) :
The number of photons incident on unit area of the plate in one second is called
the photonflowdensity.
i.e., Photon flowdensity, n0, =
n '
A = 2
W
4.r h.
Photon-concentration :
The number ofphotons per unit volume of the space.
If n is the number of photons incident per unit area per second, then
Photon - concentration =
n
c , where c is the speed of light.
Example 2: The power of light emitted bythe sun is 3.9 1026W.Assuming themeanwave
lengthof sunlight to
be 6000 , calculate the photon flux arriving at 1m2 area on earth perpendicular t
o light radiations. The
average radius of earth s orbit around sun is 1.49 1011m.
Sol: Power of light emitted by the sun,W= 3.9 1026W
r = earth sunmean distance = 1.49 1011m
. = meanwavelength of sun light = 6000 = 6 10 7m
P Sun r Earth Intensityoflight an earth, I = 2
W
4.r
Power received by areaAon earth,W. = I A
. W. = 2
W
4.r A
but,W. = n. h., where n. is the number of photon incident per sec or photon-flux
.
. n. =
W'
h. =
2
W A
4 r
h
. . .
. . .
. . . . .
. .
. n. = 2
W A
4 r hc
.
. [..h. = hc/.]
n =
26 7
2 22 34 8
(3.9 10 ) (6 10 ) 1
4 (1.49) 10 6.63 10 3 10
.
.
. . . .
. . . . . . photon /sec
= 4.22 1021 photon/sec
ATOMIC PHYSICS
PRESSURE EXERTED BY PHOTONS OR RADIATIONS PRESSURE
(a) Each photon carries energyandmomentum.Hencewhen photons of light is incident
on a surface, the light
is either absorbed or reflected or both is done by the surface.
(b) change in momentumof light takes place, which causes impulse or force on the
surface resulting in a
pressure called radiation pressure.
Let light of intensityI is incident on a surface. Each photon carries energy h.
andmomentum=
h
c
.
.
Energyincident onunit area in unit time = I(by the definition of intensity).
Number of photons incident on unit area in unit time.
i.e.
N
A.t =
I
h. , .....(i)
Momentumdelivered to unit area inunit time,
i.e.,
P
A t
.
. =
N
A t
. .
. . . . . (change inmomentumof each photon) .....(ii)
Using equation (i)&(ii),we get
P
A t
.
. =
I
h
. .
. . . . . (change inmomentumof each photon)
but,
P
A t
.
. =
Force exerted
A , [. force exerted =
P
t
.
. ]
= Radiation pressure
. Pr= Radiation pressure =
I
h. (change inmomentumof each photon) .....(iii)
Radiation pressure for perfectly absorbing surface :
In this case, change ofmomentumsuffered by each photon=
h
c
.
.
Using the equation(iii),we get
hv
c Perfectly
absorbing
surface
Radiation pressure =
I
h.
h
c
.
=
I
c
. Radiation pressure =
I
c for a perfectlyabsorbing surface.
Radiation pressure for a perfectly reflecting surface :
In this case, change inmomentumof each photon =
h
c
.
h
c
. . . . . .
. . =
2h
c
.
hv
c Perfectly
reflecting
surface
hv
Hence, using the equation (iii), we get c
Radiation pressure =
I
h
. .
. . . . .
2h
c
. . .
. .
. . =
2I
c
2I
c for a perfectlyreflecting surface.
ATOMIC PHYSICS
Radiation pressure for a surface of reflection coefficient (.) :
hv
c surface
hv
. c
In this case,Momentumof incident photon=
h
c
.
Momentumof reflected photon= .
h
c
.
, . = reflection coefficient
. Change inmomentum=
h
c
.
h
c
. . . . .. .
. . = (1 + .)
h
c
.
Thus, using equation(iii),we get,
. Radiation pressure = (1 + .)
I
c for photons falling normallyon a surface.
NOTE : (i) For a perfectly absorbing surface . = 0
I
c
(ii) For a perfectly reflecting surface . = 1
. Radiation pressure = (1 + 1)
I
c =
2I
c
C2: Alaser emits a light pulse of duration .= 0.13ms and energyE = 10J. Find the
mean pressure exerted by
such a light pulsewhen it is focussed into a spot of diameter d = 10 .mon a surf
ace perpendicular to the
beamand possessing a reflection -coefficient . = 0.50.
Sol: Laser energy, E = 10J
Plate area = 4 Laser d d = 10 .m
.
d2
Pulse duration, . = 0.13 .s
Pressure exerted bylight pulse i.e.,
Radiation pressure = (1 + .)
I
c , by the definition of radiation pressure byphotons of light .....(i)
Here, . = reflection
coefficient = 0.50
I = Intensityoflight
c = speed of light = 3 108m/s
Bythe definitionof intensityof light, I =

Laser energy
(pulse duration).(Area of plate)
i.e. I =
2
E
d
4
. . . . . .
. .
.....(ii)
. From(i)&(ii) Radiation pressure = (1 + .) 2
4E
c. .d
= (1 + 0.50) 8 3 12
4 10
3 10 (0.13 10. ) 100 10.
.
. . . . .
= 4.9 107 Nm 2 = 490 atm
ATOMIC PHYSICS
Example 3: 1 .Acurrent flows in an x-ray tube operated at 10,000 V. The target a
rea is 10 4 m2. Find the
pressure on the target, assuming that the electrons strike the target normallyan
d the photons leave the target
normally.Consider the idealsituationwhere eachincident electron gives rise to a
photon ofthe same energy.
Sol: Energy of each electron = energy of each photon= E = 104 eV
Momentumdelivered by each electron = p1 = 2mE
(photon)
p e 1
p2
Plate
Momentumtaken away byeach photon = p2 =
E
c
Change ofmomentumdue to each electron-photon pair = p1
( p2) = p1 + p2
Current incident on target = i= 10 6A
. Number of electrons incident per second = i/e = no. of photons emitted per sec
ond.
Totalmomentumchange per second = force =
i
e
. .
. .
. . (p1 + p2)
. Pr, Pressure = force / area =
i
Ae
. .
. .
. . (p1 + p2)
=
i
Ae
. .
. .
. .
2mE E
c
. . . . .
. .
. Pr =
6
4 19
10
10 1.6 10
.
. . . .
4 19
31 4 19 1/ 2
8
(2 9.1 10 10 1.6 10 ) 10 1.6 10
3 10
.
. . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
= 3.7 10 6 Nm 2
FORCE EXERTED BY PHOTONS ON A SURFACE

We know that,when photons of light is incident on a surface, the change inmoment
umof photons takes
place resulting in a force exertion by the photons on the surface.
Let light ofpowerWis incident on a surface.
Each photoncarries energy h. and,momentum=
h
c
.
.....(i)
Energyincident in unit time =W(bythe definition of power) Power =W Surface
But, power is given by
W =
N
.t (h.), whereN= total no. of photons incident in time .t.
N
.t =
W
h. .....(ii)
Momentumdelivered inunit time.
P
t
.
. =
N
t
. .
. . . . . (change inmomentumof each photon)
=
P
h. (change inmomentumof each photon)
but,
P
t
.
. = rate ofchange ofmomentum
ATOMIC PHYSICS
Hence,
P
t
.
. = F = Force exerted by the photons.
Thus, force =
P
h
. .
. . . . . (change inmomentumof each photon) ...(iii)
Force exerted by photons on a perfectly absorbing surface :
In this case, change ofmomentumsuffered by each photon=
h
c
.
using equation(iii),we get
hv
c Perfectly
absorbing
surface force =
W
h
. .
.. ...
h
c
. . .
. .
. . =
W
c
thus, F =
W
c for a perfectly absorbing surface.
Force exerted by photons on a perfectly reflecting surface:
In this case, change ofmomentumsuffered by
each photon =
h
c
.
h
c
. . . . . .
. . =
2h
c
. hv
c surface
hv
. c using equation ( iii),we get
Force =
W
h
. .
.. ...
2h
c
. . .
. .
. . =
2W
c
thus, F =
2P
c , for a perfectlyreflecting surface.
Force exerted by photons on a surface of reflection coefficient .:
In this casemomentumof incident photon=
h
c
.
, hv
c surface
hv
Momentumof reflected photon= . c .
h
c
.
. Change inmomentum =
h
c
.
h
c
. . . . .. .
. . = (1 + .)
h
c
.
Thus, using equation(iii),we get
Force = h
. . .
. . . . . (1 + .)
h
c
.
= (1 + .)
W
c
i.e. F = (1 + .)
W
c for photons falling normally on a surface.
ATOMIC PHYSICS
C3: If a point source of light of powerWis placed at the centre of curvature of
a hemispherical surface,whose inner surface is completelyreflecting, then
the force onthe hemisphere due to the light falling onit is given byF =
W
2c .
W
(Source)
C4: If a perfectly reflecting solid sphere of radius r is kept in the path of a
parallel beamof light of large aperture and having an intensityI, then the
force exerted by the beamon the sphere is given F =
pr2I
c
.
I
r
Note that force is equal to the product of (I/c) and the projected area of
the sphere.
C5: If photon of light of powerWfalls at an angle . to a perfectly reflecting
surface, then net force exerted on the plate is given by Fnet =
2W
c cos..
.
.
C6: Alaser emits a light pluse of durationT = 0.10ms and energyE = 10 J. Find th
emean pressure exerted by
such a pulsewhen it is focused on a spot of diameter d =10 mon a surface perpendi
cular to the beamand
with a reflection coefficient . = 0.5.
Sol. p,momentumof a photon = hv/c = E/c
Momentumof reflected photon = .(E/c)
( .E/c) = (1 + .)E/c
. change ofmomentum= (E/c)
Force exerted = [(1 + .) E/c]/T
Pressure = 4 [(1 + .) E/c]/T.d2
= 2 8 4 10
4(1 )E 4(1 0.5) 10
cTd 3 10 10. 10.
. . . .
.
. . . . . .
= 6.37 106 Nm 2
C7: Aplane light wave of intensityI = 0.50Wcm 2 falls on a planemirror of reflecti
on coefficient . = 0.8.The
angle of incidence . = 45. Find the normal presure exerted by light on that surfa
ce.
Sol. If S is the area of the mirror onwhich light falls, the transverse section
of the incident beamis S cos ..
Momentumof the incident photons =(I/c)(S cos .).Normal component ofmomentum
flux = (IS cos ./c) cos ..= IS cos 2./c.
Momentumof reflected photons = .(IS cos2./c) in the opposite direction.
. rate of change ofmomentum= force = (1 + .) IS cos2./c
. normal pressure = force/area = (1 + .) I cos2./c
. required pressure
= (1 + 0.5) (0.5 104 cos2 45)/3 108
= 1.25 10 5 Nm 2
Example 4:An isotropic point source of radiationpower Pis placed on the axis of
an idealmirror.The distance
between the source and themirror is n times the radius of themirro. Find the for
ce that light exerts on the

mirror.
ATOMIC PHYSICS
Sol. Energyfluxthrough the annular space between two cones ofhalf-angles .
and . + d.
= (P/4.) (2. sin . d.)
. momentumof flux = P sin . d./2c
d
S nR
B
B
R
A
. rate of change ofmomentumalong the normal.
2(P sin . d./2c) cos . = P sin . cos . d./c
. force onmirror = 0
p sin cos d
c
. . . . .
where . = half-angle of the cone subtened by themirror = tan 1(1/n)
. F = P sin2 . / 2c = P/2(n2 + 1)c
Example 5: Figure shows a small, plane strip ofmassmsuspended froma fixed suppor
t through a string.A
continuous beamofmonochromatic light is incident horizontally on the strip and i
s completely absorbed.
The energyfalling on the strip per unit time isW. find the deflection of the str
ing fromthe vertical, ifthe strip
stays inequilibrium.
Sol: Force exerted by the photons of light
= (number of incident photons per sec) (change inmomentumof each photon)
Let, Number of incident photons per sec =N
Light
change inmomentumof each photon=
h
c
.
hence force exerted by the photons of light,
F = N
h
c
.
=
(Nh )
c
.
but, W = Nhv, by the definition of power
. F =
W
c
If the stringmakes an angle .withthe verticalwhen the strip is at equilibrium, t
henfor the equilibriumofthe
strip,
Tsin. = F, in horizontaldirection,
. T
F m
mg
T = tension
in the string
and Tcos. =mg, in verticaldirection. .
Dividing the above equations,we get
tan. =
F
mg =
W/c
mg =
W
cmg ,
. tan. =
W
cmg .... = tan 1
W
cmg
. .
.. ..
Example 6. Aplane light wave of intensity I = 0.80Wcm 2 illuminates a sphere of ra
diusR = 5.0 cm. Find the
force that the light exerts on the sphere.
Sol. p,momentumof the incident pulse = E/c.
i
p . (E / c) (sin . i . cos. j)
.
with respect to a frame of reference with the outward normal as the y-axis
and a line perpendicular to it and lying in the plane of themirror as the x-axis
.
ATOMIC PHYSICS
pf = .E/c and f
p . (.E/ c) (sin. i . cos. j)
.
f i
. p . p . p . (..1)E / c sin . i . (..1) cos.E / c j
. . .
. | . p | . E / c (. .1)2 sin2 . . (..1)2 cos2 .
.
. E / c 1. .2 . 2.cos 2.
| . p | . .10 / 3 .108 . 1. 0.82 . 2 . 0.8cos60
.
= 5.2 10 8 Nm 2
Impulse applied by photon on a surface
Let hn be the energy of photons of a light incident normallyon a surface,
Momentumof anincident photon=
h
c
.
.
Change inmomentumof the photon takes place due to impact ofthe photonswith the s
urface. This change
inmomentumofthe photons causes impulse.
Using impulse momentumtheorem,we get
Impulse = Total change inmomentumof photons
= (Total number of photons) (change inmomentumof each photon)
. Impulse =N. (change inmomentumof each photon) ......(i)
Impulse on a totally absorbing surface:
h
c
.
. using equation(i),we get
Impulse =
N'h
c
.
=
E
c , where E is the total energyof the light
. Impulse =
E
c for a perfectlyabsorbing surface.
Impulse on a totally reflecting surface:
Impulse = N. (change inmomentumofeach photon)
= N.
h h
c c
. . . . .. . . .. ..
. . ..
=
2(N'h )
c
.
=
2E
c [. E = total energy=N.h.]
. Impulse =
2E
c for a perfectlyreflecting surface.
Impulse on a surface of reflection-coefficient .:
h
c
.
h
c
. . . . .. .
. . = (1 + .)
h
c
.
.
Using equation(i),we get
ATOMIC PHYSICS
Impulse = N.(1 + .)
h
c
.
= (1 + .)
N'h
c
. . .
. .
. . = (1 + .)
E
c , [E =total energy]
. Impulse =(1 + .)
E
c for photons falling normally on the surface.
Example 7: A small perfectly reflecting mirror of mass m = 10 mg is
suspended byaweightless thread oflength . = 10 cmas shown in the
figure. Find the angle throughwhichthe threadwillbe deflectedwhen
a short laserwith energyE =13J is shot in horizontaldirection at right
angles to themirror. (g = 10m/s2).
m
m
Laser
.
Sol: Impulse applies bylaser on themirror, Impulse=
2E
c , asmirror is perfectly
reflecting. Initialmomentumof themirror = 0
v = 0
v
.
.
cos.) = H
.(1
Let, finalmomentumof themirror =mv
change inmomentumof themirror due to impact =0
( mv) =mv,where
v is the speed ofmirror just after impact.
But, Impulsemomentumtheoremgives,
Impulse =change inmomentum
2E
c = mv or v =
2E
mc .....(i)
Totalmechanical energyof themirror willbe conserved after impact.
Thus, Loss in kinetic energy=Gainin potential energy
1
2 mv2 = mgh ..... v2 = 2gH
2
2 2
4E
m c
= 2gH, [as v =
2E
mc fromequation (i)]
2
2 2
2E
m c
= gH .
2
2 2
2E
m c
= g.(1
cos.), [. H = . (1
cos.)]
1 cos. =
2
2 2
2E
m c g.
2sin2
2
. . .
. .
. . =
2
2 2
2E
m c g. [. 1
cos. = 2sin2
2
. . .
. .
. . ]
sin 2
.
=
E2
mc g. Here E = 13J, m= 10 10 6 kg, . = 0.1 m
. sin 2
.
= 5 8
13
10. .3.10 10.0.1 = 0.0043 or . = 0.5
PHOTONS UNDER GRAVITY
ATOMIC PHYSICS
Photons can be considered as a particle ofmassm.
If m = mass of photon
v = frequencyof photon
E = energy ofphoton, then
mc2 = E = hv . m = 2
E
c = 2
h
c
.
Thus, a photonof frequency v acts gravitationally like a particle ofmass 2
h
c
.
.
C8: If a photon frequency v falls on the surface of earth froma height h, thenwh
at will be its frequency on the
surface of earth.
Sol: Change in frequencyof the photontakes place. v, E = hv + mgH
v,. E = hv
Ground
H
Let v. be the frequency of photon on the surface of earth.
Mass of photon = 2
h
c
.
Mass of the photon depends onits frequency, but wewill consider themass to be co
nstant as difference in
v and v is very small.
Energyconservation gives
Initial energy= final energy
. hv + mgH = hv.
. hv + 2
h
c
.
gH = hv.
. v. = v 2
1 gH
c
. . . . .
. .
Example 8:Aplanet ofmassMand radius R emits a photon of frequency v.What will be
the frequency of
photonwhen it covers an infinite distance.
Sol: Let v..be the frequencyphoton at a infinite distance.
v.
R at .
M
G=Gravitational constant v
Mass of the photon, m= 2
h
c
.
Energy of photon on the surface = hv G
Mm
R = hv
2
GM h
R c
. ..
.. ..
Energyof photonat infinity= hv.
Energymust be conserved,
. hv 2
GM h
R c
. ..
.. .. = hv . v. = v 2
1 GM
Rc
. . . .. ..
NOTE:
..
. = 2
GM
Rc is called frequency shift.
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
ATOMIC PHYSICS
Ejectionofelectrons fromametalplatewhenilluminated bylight or anyother radiation
ofsuitablewavelength
(or frequency) is called photoelectric effect.
This phenomenonwas first discovered byHeinrichHertz in 1887.One year later,Hallw
achsmade the
important observation thatwhen a negatively-charged zinc plate is irradiatedwith
ultra-violet light, it loses
its negative charge.Afterwards, itwas discoveredthat alkalimetals like lithium,
sodium, potassium, rubidium
and caesiumeject electronswhen visible light falls on them.Ten years later, J.J.
Thomson and P.Lenard
showed that the action of light was to cause the emission of free electrons from
metal surface.Although
these electrons are no different fromallother electrons, it is customaryto refer
to themas photoelectrons.
Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect
Quartz
C
A
+
E
V
Photoelectric phenomenoncanbe studiedwith the help ofa simple
apparatus showninfigure. It consists oftwo photosensitive surfaces
E andC enclosed in an evacuated quartz bulb. In the absence of
light, there is no flowof current in the circuit and the ammeterA
reads zero. When plate E is exposed to some source of
monochromatic light, current starts flowing.However, no current
is found to flowwhen light falls on plate C.
The explanation of the above behaviour lies in the fact that whenE is irradiated
with light, the incident
photons eject electrons by collisionwith its atoms. These photoelectrons are imm
ediatelyattracted bythe
collector plateC thereby starting current flowas indicated bythe ammeter.
WhenC is irradiated, even then photoelectrons are produced but theyare not allow
ed to leave plate C
(i) firstly, because of the pulling effect of positive potentialofCand
(ii) secondly, due to repulsion fromthe negative plate E.
Hence, no current is found to flowin the circuit.
Einstein s Photoelectric Equation:
Following Planck s idea that light consists of photons, Einstein proposed an expla
nation of photoelectric
effect as early as 1905.According to this explanationwhena single photon is inci
dent on ametalsurface, it
is completely absorbed an imparts its energyhf to a single electron. The photon
energy is utilised for two
purposes:
(i) Partlyfor getting the electronfree fromthe atomand awayfromthemetal surface.
This energyis known
as the photoelectricwork function of themetal and is represented byW0.
(ii) the balance of the photon energyis used up in giving the electron a kinetic
energyof 1/2mv2.
. hf =W0 + 1/2mv2 .....(i)
It is knownasEinstein s photoelectric equation.
In case, the photon energy is just sufficient to liberate the electrononly then
no energywould be available
for imparting kinetic energy to the electron.Hence, the above equationwould redu
ce to
hf0 = W0 .....(ii)
where f0 is calledthe thresholdfrequency. It is definedas theminimumfrequencywhi
chcancause photoelectric
emission. For frequencies lower than f0, therewould be no emission of electronsw
hereas for frequencies
greater than f0, electronswould be ejectedwith a certain definite velocity(and h
ence kinetic energy).
Substituting this value ofW0 in equation (i) above, the Einstein s photoelectric e
quation becomes
hf = hf0 +
1
2 mv2
or hf = hf0 + K.E.
Long Wavelength Limit (.0)
ATOMIC PHYSICS
It is thewavelength corresponding to the threshold frequency f0. Its physical si
gnificance is that radiations
havingwavelength longer than .0would not be able to eject electrons froma givenm
aterialwhereas those
having . < .0will. Inotherwords, it represents the upper limit ofwavelengthfor p
hotoelectric phenomenon.
By analogy, it is also referred to as thresholdwavelength.
Now, c = f0 .0 ...0 =
0
c
f
Also, W0 = hf0 .
0
1
f
=
0
h
W
. .0 =
0
ch
W
(i) WhenW0 is in joules
.0 =
8 34
0
3 10 6.625 10
W
. . . .
=
26
0
19.875 10
W
. .
metre
(ii)WhenW0 is electron volts (eV)
.0 =
8 34
19
0
3 10 6.625 10
1.602 10 W
.
.
. . .
.
=
7
0
12.4 10
W
. .
metre =
0
12, 400
W
Kinetic energy of Photoelectrons
Einstein s photoelectric equationcan be used to find the velocityand hence the kin
etic energyof an ejected
photo-electron.
hf = W0 +
1
2 mv2
= hf0 + K.E.
. K.E. = hf
hf0 = h(f
f0)
Now, f =
c
. and f0 =
0
c
.
. K.E. = ch
0
. 1 1 .
. . . . . . .
= 3 108 6.625 10 34
0
. 1 1 .
. . . . . . .
= 19.875 10 26
0
. 1 1 .
. . . . . . .
joules . and .0 inmetres
= 19.875 10 26
0
. 1 1 .
. . . . . . .
joules . and .0 in
ATOMIC PHYSICS
=
16
19
19.875 10
1.602 10
.
.
.
. 0
. 1 1 .
. . . . . . .
eV . and .0 in
. K.E. = 12,400
0
. 1 1 .
. . . . . . .
eV . and .0 in
Incidentally, itmaybe noted that this also represents themaximumvalue ofthe kine
tic energya photoelectron
can have.
f0) = h..f joules
. Emass = h(f
= 12,400
0
. 1 1 .
. . . . . . .
eV . and .0 in
Photoelectric Work Function
As explained above it is defined as the energywhich is just sufficient to libera
te electrons froma bodywith
zero velocity. Its value is given by
W0 = hf0 =
0
ch
. =
8 34
0
3.10 .6.625.10.
.
=
26
0
19.875.10.
. joules .0 inmetres
=
16
0
19.875.10.
. joules .0 in
=
16
19
0
19.875 10
1.602 10
.
.
.
. . eV .0 in
. W0 =
0
12, 400
. eV .0 in
Laws of Photoelectric Emission
R
B
V
Quartz
C
A
The apparatus shown in figurewas used byMillikan to studythe photoelectric effec
t and the various laws
governing it. S is a source of radiations of variable but known frequency f and
intensity I. E is the emitting
electrodemade of the photosensitivematerialand C is the collecting electrode. Bo
th these electrodes are
enclosed in an evacuated glass envelopewith a quartzwindowthat permits the passa
ge of ultraviolet and
ATOMIC PHYSICS
visible light.As shown, anypotentialdifference can be established between the tw
o electrodes.Areversing
switch RS enables the polarities of the two electrodes to be reversed. If the tu
be is in the dark, then no
photoelectrons are emitted and themicroammeterAread zero. However, if ultraviole
t or visible light is
allowed to fall on the emitting electrode, electrons are liberated and circuit c
urrent is set up.
Fromthe experimentaldata collected byRichardson and Compton in 1912, photoelectr
ic emissionwas
found to be governed bythe following laws:
(i) Photoelectric current (i.e., number of electrons emitted per second) is dire
ctly proportional to the
intensityofthe incident light (or radiation).
Light Intensity I
Photoelectric
current
Frequency
constant
This can be verified by increasing the intensity of light and
measuring the corresponding photoelectric current while holding
the frequency of the incident light frequency of the incident light
and the accelerating potential V of the collecting electrode C
constant. The graph is similar to one shown in figure. Increase in
intensity means more photons and hence greater ejection of
electrons.
(ii) For each photosensitive surface, there is aminimumfrequency of
radiation (called threshold frequency) at whichemission begins.
f0
Frequency
Photoelectric
current
Intensity
constant
Light oflower frequency(or longerwavelength), however strong,
willnot be able to produce any electron emission. This fact can be
verified by keeping the light intensity constant while varying the
frequency.The graph so obtained is shownin figure.The current is
found to increase (though non-linearly) with the frequency of the
incident light.
Moreover, it is seen that there is a limiting or critical frequency below
which no photoelectons are emitted. It is called threshold frequency
and its value depends on the nature of thematerial irradiated because for eachma
terial there is a certain
minimumenergynessecaryto liberate anelectron. This energy is known as photoelect
ricwork function or
threshold energyW0.As seen fromf0 =W0/h.
Thewavelengthcorrespondingto be thresholdfrequencyf0 is called thresholdwaveleng
thor longwavelength
limit.No photo-electrons are emitted for wavelength greater than .0, nomatter ho
wlong the light falls on
the surface or howgreater is its intensity.The photoelectric or quantumyield (wh
ich is definedas the photoelectric
current in amperes per watt of incident light) depends on the frequency (and not
intensity) of the
incident light.
(iii) Themaximumvelocityofelectron emission (and hence kinetic energy) varies
linearlywith the frequencyo the incident light but is independent of its intensi
ty.
As seen fromEinstein s photoelectric equation of
2
max
1 mv
2 = h(f f0) or Emax . f
f0
Frequency
Emax
.
Intensity
constant
Hence, increase in the frequency ofthe incident light increase the velocitywithw
hich photoelectrons are
ejected.The same fact is illustrated byfigure. Incidentally, itmay be noted that
the slope of the curve gives
the value ofPlanck s constant h.
If the intensityof the incident light is increased (keeping frequencyconstant),m
ore photonswillbe incident
ATOMIC PHYSICS
on themetal surface, each photon having the same energy.Hence,more photo electro
nswill be ejected.
Since an electron can absorb only one photon, each photoelectronwillhave the sam
e energyandwill be
ejectedwiththe same velocity.Obviously, increase inintensityonlyincreases the nu
mber of photo-electrons
ejected but not their kinetic energy.
(iv) The velocities of emitted electrons have values betweenzero and a definitem
aximum. The proportion
of the electrons having a particular velocityis independent of the intensityof r
adiation.
(v) Electrons are emitted almost instantaneously evenwhen the intensityof incide
nt radiations is very low.
The time lag between the incidence of radiation and emission of first electrons
is less than 10 8 second.
(vi) For a givenmetalsurface, stopping potentialV0 isdirectlyproportional to fre
quencybut is independent
of the intensityof the incident light.
v
i
v0 O
a b I
H
Suppose in figure, the frequencyand intensityofincident light are
held constant but the potential difference V between the two
electrodes E and C is increased. Up to some stage as this p.d. is
increased photoelectric current is also increased.However, soon
some value ofVis reachedwhen the current reaches a limiting or
saturation value when al the photoelectrons emitted by E are
immediately collected byC. Further increase inVhardlyproduces
anyappreciable increase in current as shown by the flat portion of
curve I in figure.
IfVis reversedwith the help of the reversing switchRS i.e. E ismade positive and
Cnegative, the current
i does not immediatelydrop to zero proving that electrons are emitted fromE with
some definite velocity.
This velocity is such that it gives enough kinetic energy to the electrons so as
to surmount the retarding
electric field between the two electrodes.Hence, some electrons do succeed in re
achingCdespite the fact
that the electric field opposes theirmotion.
When reversedVismade large enough, a valueV0 (called stopping or inhibiting pote
ntial) is reachedwhen
current is reduced to zero.
Stopping potentialis that value ofthe retarding potentialdifference betweenthe t
wo electrodeswhich is just
sufficient to half themost energetic photoelectrons emitted.
As seen fromcurve II of figure, doubling the intensity of the incident light mer
ely doubles the current but
does not affect the value ofV0.
Now, if vmax is themaximumvelocityofemission of a photoelectron andV0 the stoppi
ng potential, then
2
max
1 mv
2 = eV0 or vmax = 0 2.eV
m
or vmax = 11
2.1.76.10 .V0
= 5.93 105
0 V m/s
Obviously Emax = eV0 joules
= V0 electron-volt
If however, the experiment is repeated by varying the frequency of the light, it
is found that the stopping
potential varies linearlywith frequency as shown in figure. Below threshold freq
uency, no electrons are
emitted, hence stoppingpotential is zero for that reason. But as frequencyis inc
reased above f0, the stopping
potentialvaries linearlywith the frequencyofincident light.
ATOMIC PHYSICS
Einstein s photoelectric equationmay be expressed interms of stopping potentialas
given below:
hf = W0 + 2
max
1 mv
2
f0
Frequency
Stopping potential, V0
Now, W0 = hf0 and 2
max
1 mv
2 = eV0
. hf = hf0 + eV0 or V0 = 0 h(f f )
e
.
Now, f =
c
. and f0 =
0
c
.
V0 =
ch
e 0
. 1 1 .
. . . . . . .
= 12.4 10 7
0
. 1 1 .
. . . . . . .
volt . and .0 inmetres
. V0 = 12,400
0
. 1 1 .
. . . . . . .
volt . and .0 in
C9: Photoelectrons with a maximumspeed of 7 105m/sec are emitted froma metal sur
facewhen light of
frequency 8 1014Hz falls on it. Calyculate the threshold frequency of the surfac
e.
Sol: Emax = h(f
f0)
. 2
max
1 mv
2 = h(f f0)
or
1
2 9.1 10 31 (7 105)2 = 6.625 10 34 (8 1014
f0)
. f0 = 4.635 1014 Hz
C10:Atungsten cathodewhose thresholdwavelength 2300is irradiated by ultraviolet l
ight ofwavelength
1800. Calculate (i) the maximumenergy of the photoelectrons emitted and (ii) thew
ork function for
tungsten, bothin electron-volts.
Sol: (i) W0 =
0
12, 400
. =
12, 400
2300 = 5.4 eV
(ii) Emax = 12,400
0
. 1 1 .
. . . . . . .
eV
= 12,400
1 1
1800 2300
. . . . .
. .= 1.5 eV
C11: If light of . = 6000falls on ametalsurface and emits photoelectronswith a ve
locityof 4 105m/s,what
is photoelectric thresholdwavelength ?
ATOMIC PHYSICS
Sol: K.E. of photoelectrons =
1
2 9.1 10 31
5 2
19
(4 10 )
1.6 10.
.
. = 0.445 eV
Energy content of photon of . = 6000=
12, 000
6000 = 2.07 eV
. W0 = 2.07 0.445 = 1.625 eV
..0 =
12, 000
1.625 = 7631
C12: Calculate the threshold frequency for gold having photoelectricwork functio
nequal to 4.8 eV. If light of
wavelength 2220falls on gold,what will bemaximumkinetic energyof the photoelectro
ns coming out?
Sol: Energy of the light photon =
12, 000
2220 = 5.58 eV. Out of this, 4.8 eV would be used for dislodging the
electron and the balancewould represent its kinetic energy.
Emax = 5.58 4.8 = 0.78 eV
Alternatively, .0 =
12, 400
4.8 = 2583 . Hence, wemay use
. Emax = 12,400
0
. 1 1 .
. . . . . . .
eV.
C13:When violet light of . = 4000 Au strikes the cathode of a photocell a retard
ing potential of 0.4 V is
required to stop emission of electrons.Calculate (i) light frequency(ii) photon
energy(iii)work function (iv)
threshold frequencyand (v) net energyafter the electron leaves the surface.
Sol: (i) f =
c
. =
8
10
3 10
4000 10.
.
.
= 7.5 1014 Hz
(ii) E = hf = 6.625 10 34 7.5 1014
= 4.95 10 19 J = 3.1 eV
(iii) W0= hf K.E. = hf
V0 = 3.1
0.4 = 2.7 eV
(iv) f0 = 0 W
h =
19
34
2.7 1.6 10
6.625 10
.
.
. .
.
= 6.5 1014 Hz
(v) Net energy hf
W0 = 3.1 2.7 = 0.4 eV = 6.4 10 20 J
Example 9:Aphoton ofwavelength 3310falling on a photo cathode ejects an electron
of energy 3 10 19
J and one of wavelength 5000 ejects an electron of energy 0.972 10 19 J. Calculate
the value of
Planck s constant and the thresholdwavelength for the photo cathode.
Sol: hf = W0 + K.E. or
hc
. = W0 + K.E.
ATOMIC PHYSICS
In the first case,
8
10
h 3 10
3310 10.
. .
. = W0 + 3 10 19
In the second case,
8
10
h 3 10
5000 10.
. .
. = W0 + 0.972 10 19
Subtracting one fromthe other,
h = 6.62 10 34 J-s
Substituting this value of h,W0 = 3 10 19J
. .0 =
0
ch
W =
8 34
19
3 10 6.62 10
3 10
.
.
. . .
.
= 6620 10 10 m.
vmax = 7.12 105 m/s
Example 10:Acertainmetalhas a thresholdwavelength of 6525. Find the stopping pote
ntialwhen themetal
is irradiatedwith
(a) monochromatic light having awavelengthof 4000.
(b) light having twice the frequencyand three times the intensity of that in (a)
above.
(c) If a material having double the work function were used, what would be the a
nswer to (a) and (b)
above?
Sol: (a) V0 = 12,400
1 1
4000 6525
. . . . .
. . = 1.2 volt
(b) Stopping potential is independent ofthe intensity of the incident light but
varies directlyas frequencyf
provided it ismore than f0.
Since frequencyis twice, thewavelength of the light is half i.e. 2000
V0 = 12,400
1 1
2000 6525
. . . . .
. . = 4.3 V
(c) Ifwork function is double, then .0 is reduced to half i.e. .0 =
6525
2 =3262.5. Since the incident light
has . = 4000 , it would not be able to produce photoemission.

In the second case, . = 2000 .
. V0 = 12,400
1 1
2000 3262.5
. . . . .
. . = 2.4 volt
C14:Acertainmetallic surface is illuminated bymonochromatic light of variablewav
elength.No photoelectrons
are emitted above awavelength of 5000.With an unknownwavelength, a stopping poten
tial of 3.1Vis
necessary to stop photoelectric current. Find the unknownwavelength.
Sol: Here, .0 = 5000 , V0 = 3.1 V, . = ?
Now, V0 = 12,400
0
. 1 1 .
. . . . . . .
. 3.1 = 12,400
1 1
5000
. . . . . . . .
. . = 2,222
ATOMIC PHYSICS
C15: Light ofwavelength 2000falls on analuminiumsurface. In aluminium, 4.2 eVare
required to remove an
electron. Determine (i) KE of the fastest emitted photo-electron (ii) KE of the
slowest emitted photoelectron
(iii) stopping potentialand (iv) cut-offwavelength for aluminium.
Sol: Photon energyofthe incident light is
=
12400
2000 = 6.2 eV
(i) Emax = (6.2
4.2) eV
= 2 eV = 2 1.6 10 19 = 3.2 10 19 J
(ii) Emin = 0
(iii) Ve = Emax = 2 V
(iv) .0 =
0
12400
W =
12400
4.2 = 2952.4
C16: The stopping potential is 4.6Vfor light offrequency 2 1015Hz.When light of
frequency 4 1015Hz is
used, the stopping potential is 12.9V. Calculate the value ofPlanck s constant.
Sol: eV0 = h(f f0)
Substituting the two given values,we get
4.6e = h (2 1015
f0)
12.9e = h(4 1015 f0)
Subtracting one fromthe other,we have
8.3e = 2h 1015
8.3 1.6 10 19 = 2h 1015
. h =
19
15
8.3 1.6 10
2 10
. . .
. = 6.44 10 34 Js
Example 11. 10 3Wof 5000light is directed on a photoelectric cell. If the current i
n the cell is 0.16 A, the
percentage of incident photonswhich produce photoelectrons, is
(A) 0.4% (B) .04% (C) 20% (D) 10%
Sol. The percentage of incident photonswhichproduce photoelectrons is
=
n / t 100
N/ t
.
.
. ...(1)
.
I ne
t
.
.
16
19
n I 0.16 10
t e 1.6 10
.
.
.
. .
. .
. n 1012
t
.
. ...(2)
and
W N hc
t
.
. .
.
N W 1016
t hc 4
.
. .
. ...(3)
Persentage =
12
16
10
4 100
10
. . [fromeq. (1), (2) and (3)]
Persentage . 0.04% Hence (B) is correct.
ATOMIC PHYSICS
Example 12. In a photo-emissive cell, with excitingwavelength ., themaximumkinet
ic energyofelectron isK.
If the excitingwavelengthis changed to
3
4
.
the the kinetic energyof the fastest emitted electronwillbe :
(A) 3K/4 (B) 4K/3 (C) less than 4K/3 (D) greater than 4K/3
Sol.
hc . . .K
. ...(1)
hc K
3 / 4
. . .
. ...(2)
Substracte eqn. (1) fromeq. (2)
4hc hc K K
3
. . .
. .
4hc 3hc K K
3
.
. .
.
hc K K
3
. .
.
K K K
3
. .
K K K
3
. .
4K
K
3
Example 13. Let K1 be themaximumkinetic energy of photoelectrons emitted by a li
ght ofwavelength .1and
K2 corresponding to .2. If ..1= 2.2, then :
(A) 2K1 = K2 (B) K1 = 2K2 (C) K1 < 2 K
2 (D) K1 > 2K2
Sol. K.E. =
P2
2m
P . 2mK
P . K
h . K
.
1
K
. .
1 2
2 1
K
K
.
.
.
ATOMIC PHYSICS
. .1 = 2.2
. 2 2
2 1
2 K
K
.
.
.
2
1
K
4
K
.
2
1
K K
4
.
. 2
1
K K
2
. Hence (C) is correct.
Example 14. Radiation of two photon energies twice and five times thework functi
on ofmetal are incident
sucessively on themetal surface. The ratio of themaximumvelocity of photoelectro
ns emitted is the two
caseswill be
(A) 1 : 2 (B) 2 : 1 (C) 1 : 4 (D) 4 : 1
Sol. E1 = 2 .
E2 = 5 .
E1 = . + K1
2 . = . + K1
K1 = .
and E2 = . + K2
5 . = . + K2
K2 = 4 .
. 1
2
K 1
K 4
.
2
max 1
2
max 2
1 mv 1 2
1 mv 4
2
.
2
max1
2
max 2
v 1
v 4
.
max 1
max 2
v 1
v 2
Example 15.When photons of energy 4.25 eVstrike the surface ofametalA, the eject
ed photoelectrons have
maximumkinetic energyTa eVand de-Brogliewavelength.a. themaximumkinetic energyof
photoelectrons
liberated from another metal B by photones of energy 4.7 eV is Tb = (Ta
1.5) eV.
If the De-Broglie
wavelength of these photoelectrons is .b= 2.a, then find
(a) Thework function of a (b) Thework function of b is (c) Ta and Tb
ATOMIC PHYSICS
Sol. 2
A Amax
h 1 mv
2
. . . .
and a
A
h
P
. .
. A
a
P . h
.
.
2
2 A
A max
1 P
mv
2 2m
. wheremismass of electron.
.
2A
A
P
h
2m
. . . .
or 4.25 =
2
A 2a
h
2m
. .
. ...(1)
For B,
4.7 = .B + Tb
2
B 2b
h
4.7
2m
. . .
. ...(2)
But .b = 2.a
1.5
and Tb = Ta
After solving
(a) 2.25 eV (b) 4.2 eV (c) 2 eV and 0.5 eV
C17: An isolatedmetal body is illuminatedwithmonochromatic light and is observed
to become charged to a
steadypositive potential1.0Vwithrespect to the surrounding.Thework function ofth
emetal is 3.0 eV. the
frequency of the incident light is __________.
Sol. h . = . + eV
or h . = 3 + 1 = 4 eV
.
19
34
4 eV 4 1.6 10
h 6.63 10
.
.
. .
. . .
.
. = 0.96 1015 Hz
Example 16. 663mWof light froma 540 nmsource is incident on the surface of ameta
l. If only 1 of each 5
109 incident photons is absorbed and causes an electronto be ejected fromthe sur
face, the totalphotocurrent
in the circuit is _______.
Sol.
N
.t = no. of photon incident per second.
. 663 10 3 N hc
t
. . .
. .
ATOMIC PHYSICS
.
N 663 10 3 663 10 3
t hc 1242 nmeV
540
. . . .
. .
.
.
. 9
n / t 1
N/ t 5 10
.
.
. .
.
3
9 9
n 1 N 1 663 10 540
t 5 10 t 5 10 1242 nmeV
. . .
. . . .
. . . .
. I ne 5.76 1011 A
t
. . .
.
Example 17. Light ofwavelength 330 nmfallingon a piece ofmetal ejects electronsw
ithsufficient energywhich
requires voltageV0 to prevent a electron fromreading collector. In the same setu
p, light ofwavelength 220
nm, ejects electronswhichrequire twich the voltageV0 stop theminreaching a colle
ctor. Find the numerical
value of voltageV0. (take plank s constant, h = 6.6 10 34 Js and 1 eV= 1.6 10 19 J)
Sol. 0
1
hc . . . eV
.
and 0
2
hc . . . 2eV
.
Here .1 = 330 nm
and .2 = 220 nm
After solving,
0
V 15 volt
8
.
Example 18. Asmall 10Wsource of ultraviolet light ofwavelength 99 nmis held at a
distance 0.1 mfroma
metal surface. The radius of an atomof themetal is approximately0.05 nm. Find
(i) the average number of photons striking an atomper second.
(ii) thenumber ofphotoelectrons emitted per unit area per secondifthe efficiency
ofliberationofphotoelectrons is
1%.
Sol. (i) I = intensity = 2
10
4.(0.1)
. .w= power incident on atom
= . .2 9 2
2
I r 10 0.05 10
4 10
.
. . . . .
. .
.
w n hc
t
. .
. .
.
n w 5
t hc / 16
.
. .
. .
ATOMIC PHYSICS
(ii) no. of photons incident per unit area per second
I
hc /
.
.
. no. of ejected electrons per unit area per second
I 1 1020
hc / 100 80
. . .
. .
Example 19. The surface ofcesiumis illuminatedwithmonochromatic light of
variouswavelengths and the stopping potentials for the wavelengths are
measured. The results of this experiment is plotted as shownin the figure.
estimate the value ofwork functionof the cesiumand Planck s constant.
1
2
0
1
2
0.49
0.5 1.0 1.5 v 1015Hz
supporting potential (volt)
Sol. h . = . + eVs
or s
V h
e e
. .
. .
Fromgraph
15
h 2
e 0.49 10
.
.
. 19
15
h 2 1.6 10
0.49 10
. . . .
.
h = 6.53 10 34 Js
But 2
e
.
. . .
. . = 2 eV
Example 20. In a photoelectric effect set-up a point source of light of power 3.
2 10 3Wemitsmonoenergetic
photons of energy 5.0 eV. The source is located at a distance of 0.8 mfrom the c
entre of a stationary
metallic sphere of work function 3.0 eV and of radius 8.0 10 3 m. The efficiency o
f photoelectron
emission is one for every 106 incident photons.Assume that the sphere is isolate
d and initially neutral and
that photoelectrons are instantlyswept awayafter emission.
(a) Calculate the number of photoelectrons emitted per second.
(b) Find the ratio of thewavelengthof incident light to the de-Brogliewavelength
of the fastest photoelectrons

emitted.
(c) It is observed that the photoelectronemission stops at a certain time t afte
r the light source is switched on
why?
(d) Evaluate the time t.
Sol. (a) Energyof emitted photons
E1 = 5.0 eV = 5.0 1.6 10 19 J
E1 = 8.0 10 19 J
Power of the point source is 3.2 10 3 watt or 3.2 10 3 J/s
Therefore, energyemitted per second,
E2 = 3.2 10 3 J.
s 0.8 m r = 8.010 3m
Hence number of photons emitted per second
ATOMIC PHYSICS
2
1
1
E
n
E
. or
3
1 19
3.2 10
n
8.0 10
.
.
.
.
.
n1 = 4.0 1015 photons/sec.
Number of photons incident on unit area at a distance of 8.0mfromthe source S wi
ll be
n2 = 1
2
n
4.(0.8) =
4.0 1015
4 (0.64)
.
m2.
. . 5.0 1014 photon/sec
The area ofmetallic sphere overwhich photonswill fallis :
A = .r2 = .(8 10 3)2 m2 . 2.01 10 4 m2
Therefore, number of photons incident on the sphere per second are
n3 = n2 A= (5.0 1014 2.01 10 4) . 1011 per second
But since one photoelectron is emitted for every 106 photons hence number of pho
toelectrons emitted per
second,
n = 3
6
n
10 =
11
6
10
10
= 105 per second
or n = 105 per second
(b)Maximumkinetic energyof photoelectrons
Kmax = Energy of incident photones work function
Kmax = (5.0
3.0) eV = 2.0 eV = 2.0 1.6 10 19 J
Kmax = 3.2 10 19 J
The de-Brogliewavelength of these photoelectronswillbe
1
max
h h
p 2 K m
. . .
(Here h = Planck s constant andm=mass of electron)
.
34
1 19 31
6.63 10
2 3.2 10 9.1 10
.
. .
.
. .
. . . .
.1 = 8.6810 10 m = 8.68
Wavelength of incident light .2 (in) =
1
12375
E (in eV)
or .2 =
12375
5 = 2476
Therefore, the desired ratio is
2
1
2475 285.1
8.68
.
. .
.
(c)As soonas electrons are emitted fromthemetal sphere, it gets positively charg
ed and acquires positive
potential. The positive potential graduallyincreases asmore andmore photoelectro
ns are emitted fromits
surface. Emissionof photoelectrons is stoppedwhen its potential is equal to the
stopping potential required
for fastestmoving electrons.
(b)As discussed in part (c), emission of photoelectrons is stoppedwhen potential
on themetal sphere is
equal to the stoppeing potentialof fastestmoving electrons.
Since Kmax = 2.0 eV
ATOMIC PHYSICS
Therefore, stopping potentialV0 =2 volt.Let q be the charge required for the pot
entialon the sphere to be
equal to stopping potentialor 2 volt. Then
. 9 .
3
0
2 1 . q 9.0 10 9
4 r 8.0 10. . . .
.. .
. q = 1.78 10 12 C
Photoelectrons emitted per second = 105 [part a]
or charge emitted per second = (1.6 10 19) 105 C
= (1.6 10 14) C
Therefore, time required to acquire to charge qwill be
2
14
q 1.728 10
t sec sec
1.6 10. 1.6
.
. .
.
or t . 111 second
Example 21.Monochromatic radiation ofwavelength .1= 3000falls on a photocellopera
ting in saturation
mode.The corresponding spectral sensitivityof photocellis J = 4.8mA/W.When anoth
ermonochromatic
radiation ofwavelength .2 =1650and power P = 5mWis incident. It is found thatmaxi
mumvelocityof
photoelectrons increases to n = 2 times.Assuming efficiency of photo-electron ge
neration per incident
photon to be same for both the cases, calculate
(i) thresholdwavelength for the cell and
(ii) saturation current in second case.
[Given, h = 6.6 10 34 Js, c = 3 108 ms 1 and e = 1.6 10 19 coul.]
Sol. Maximumkinetic energy of photoelectrons is given byEk =
hc
. W0,where . iswavelength of incident
radiation andW0 iswork function of the surface onwhich radiation is incident.
. Maximumkinetic energyof photoelectrons emitted byradiation ofwavelength .1 is
given by
1
2 mv1
2 =
1
hc
.
W0
or 2
1 0
1
mv 2 hc W
. .
. . . . . . . ...(1)
wheremismass of an electron and v1 ismaximumvelocityof photoelectrons.
Similarly, for radiation ofwavelength .1, 22
0
2
1 mv hc W
2
. .
.
...(2)
But v2 = 2v1, therefore fromequation (2),
2
1 0
2
2mv . hc .W
. ...(3)
Fromequations (1) and (3),
0 0
1 2
4 hc W hc W
. .
. . . . . . . . .
or W0 = 3 eV
ATOMIC PHYSICS
But work-functionW0 =
0
hc
. where .0 is thresholdwavelength.
. .0 =
0
hc
W = 4125 Ans. (i)
In saturationmode, spectalsensitivitywithwavelength .1 =3000is J = 4.8mA/Wor 4.8m
C/J. Itmeans
when 1 joule radiation ofwavelength .1= 3000is incident, a charge of 4.8mCflows i
n saturationmode
or
4.8 mC
e electrons are ejected.
Energy of each photon ofwavelength .1 is E1 =
1
hc
.
. Number of photons in 1 joule radiation ofwavelength .1
1
1
1
E hc
.
. .
No. of electrons ejected by these photons =
J
e =
3
19
4.8 10
1.6 10
.
.
.
. = 3 1016
. Efficiencyof photo-electrongeneration per incident photon,
16
1
3 10
0.0198
( / hc)
.
. . .
. .
Energy of eachphoton ofwavelength .2,
E2 =
2
hc
.
. Rate of incidence of photons ofwavelength .2 in a radiation of power P
2
2
P P
E hc
.
. . per second
Since, efficiency . of photo-electron generation is same for both the case, ther
efore, rate of ejection of
electrons in later case
2 . P
hc
.
. . per second
. Rate of flow of charge in saturationmode = 2 P
hc
. .
e Cs 1= 13.2 Cs 1
But rate of flowof charge is current. Hence, saturation current is second case =
13.2 A. Ans. (ii)
Example 22. A monochromatic point source S radiating wavelength
. = 6000with power P = 2watt, an apertureAof radius R = 1 cm
and a large screen are placed as shownin fig.Aphotoemissive detector
D of surface area S = 0.5 cm2 is placed at centre of the screen.
Efficiency of detector for photoelectric emissionper incident photon
is . = 0.9.
D
A
L
S
60cm
6 m
(i) calculate photonflux at centre of screen and photo current in the detector.
(ii) If a convex lens L of focal length f = 30 cmis inserted in the aperture as
shown, calculate new value of
photon flux and photo current assuming a uniformaverage transmission of 80%fromt
he lens.
(iii) Ifwork function of photo-emissive surface isW0 = 1 eV, calculate value ofs
topping potential intwo cases
(without andwiththe lens in aperture). Given, h = 6.625 10 34 J-S, c = 3 108 ms 1.
ATOMIC PHYSICS
Sol. Photon flux is rate of incidence ofphotons per unit are ofdetector. Therefo
re, to calculate photon flux, first
rate of emission of electrons fromthe source should be calculated.
Energy of each photon is
E . hc
.
Rate of emission of energy fromthe source is P = 2 watt = 2 Js 1
. Rate of emission of photons fromthe source is
n P P
E hc
.
. .
or n = 6.04 1018 photons per second
(i) Distance of detector fromsource is r1 = 6m
. Photon flux at detector,
16
1 2
1
n 1.33 10
4 r
. . . .
.
photons/m2s
Rate of incidence of photons on detector = .1 . S
Rate of emission of electrons fromdetector = ..1S per second
Since, current is charge flowing per second, therefore photo current
= (..1S)e = 9.6 10 8 amp
(ii) When a concave lens is inserted in the aperture, it refracts incident rays.
Therefore, photon flux and hence
photo-current changes.
Distance of lens fromsource is r2 = 0.60m
. Photon flux at lens is .= 2
2
n
4.r = 1.33 1018 photons/m2s
Considering a very small areaAof the lens,
Rate of incidence of photons on this area of lens =A.
Nowconsidering refractionthrough the lens,
u = 60 cm, f = + 30 cm v = ?
Using lens formule,
1 1 1
v u f
. . , v = + 60 cm
Since, average transmissionfromlens is 80%, therefore, rate of transmissionofpho
tons fromareaAof lens
= 0.8 A.
But these photons are transmitted in a solid angle subtended by the areaAat P as
shown in fig.
This solid angle, 2 2
A A
v (0.6)
. . .
. Rate ofphotons transmitted per unit solid angle is
T (0.8 A )
.
.
. = (0.8 .) (0.6)2 = 0.288 .
D
S P
v 4.80m
ATOMIC PHYSICS
Solid angle subtended by unit area of detector at P, .= 2
1
(4.80)
. Photon flux at D, .2 = T. = 1.67 1016 photons/m2s
Rate of incidence of photons on detector = .2S
Rate of emission of electrons fromdetector = ..2S
. Photo current = (..2S)e = 1.20 10 7 amp
(iii) Since, stopping potentialV0 is given bye.V0 = 0
. hc .W . .. . .. and . andW0 bothremainunchanged, therefore,
stopping potential is same for boththe cases.
. 0 0
V 1 hc W 1.07 volt
e
. . . . . .. . ..
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT AND WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT
According towave theory, when light falls on ametal surface, energy is continuou
slydistributed over the
surface, energyis continuouslydistributed over the surface.All the free electron
s at the surface receive light
energy.An electronmaybe ejected onlywhen it acquired energymore than thework fun
ction. Ifwe use a
low-intensity source, itmaytake hours before an electron acquires thismuch energ
y fromthe light. In this
period, there will be many collisions and any extra energy accumulated so far wi
ll be shared with the
remainingmetal. Thiswill result in no photoelectron. This is contrary to experim
ental observations. No
matter howsmall is the intensity, photoelectrons are ejected and that too withou
t any appreciable time
delay. In the photon theory, lowintensitymeans less number ofphotons and hence l
ess number of electrons
get a change to absorb energy.But anyfortunate electrononwhich a photonfalls, ge
ts the fullenergyof the
photon andmaycome out immediately.
In figure,we illustrate an analogyto thewave the particle behaviour of light. In
part (a), water is sprayed
froma distance on an area containing several plants. Each plant receiveswater at
nearly the same rate. It
takes time for a particular plant to receive a certain amount ofwater. In part (
b) of the figure,water is filled
in identical, loosely-tiedwater bags and a particle physicist throws the bags ra
ndomly at the plants.When a
bag collideswith a plant, it sprays all itswater on that plant ina very short ti
me. In the sameway,whole of
the energyassociatedwith a photon is absorbed by a free electronwhen the photon
hits it.
(a) (b)
Themaximumkinetic energyof a photoelectrondoes not depend on the intensityof the
incident light. This
fact is also not understood bythewave theory.According to this theory,more inten
sitymeansmore energy
and themaximumkinetic energymust increasewiththe increase inintensitywhichis not
true.The dependence
ofmaximumkinetic energyonwavelength is also against thewave theory.There should
not be anythreshold
wavelength according to thewave theory. According to this theory, byusing suffic
ientlyintense light of any
wavelength, an electronmaybe given the required amount of energyto come out. Exp
eriments, however,
showthe existence of thresholdwavelength.
ATOMIC PHYSICS
DUAL NATURE OF LIGHT
(a) Wave nature:
Wave nature of light can be explained on the basis of reflection, refraction, in
terference, diffraction and
polarization.
(b) Particle Nature:
Energy is transported byenergy particles, photons. It could be explained byphoto
electric effect, Zeeman
effect, Comptoneffect etc.
MATTER WAVE THEORY OR DE-BROGLIE S THEORY
(a) This theorywas given on the basis of duelnature of light.
(b) According to de-Broglie theoryeach and everymoving particle has somewave nat
ure associatedwithitself
which is calledmatter waves.
(c) Thus,moving particles like e , proton, neutron, .-particle etc, also behave li
kewaves.
(d) Thesewaves arewaves of probability.
(e) The wavelength associatedwith a moving particles is given by . = h/p, where
p is themomentumof the
particle.
(f) Thiswavelength is known as the de-Brogliewavelength of the particle.
DE BROGLIE WAVELENGTHS
For Photon For moving particle
Rest mass Zero m
Effectivemass m = 2
E
c = 2
h
c
.
m= 0
2 2
m
1. v / c
Energy(kinetic) E = hv =
hc
. E =
1
2 mv2, E =
p2
2m
Momentum p =
E
c =
h
c
.
=
h
. p = mv = 2mE
Wavelength . =
h
p =
hc
E
. =
h
p
=
h
2mE
Wavelength for charged particle . =
h
2mE
accelerated byVvolts K.E. = qV
Speed c = 3 108 m/s v = 2E /m = 2qV/m
De-Broglie s explanation for stable Bohr s orbits :
(a) De-Broglie suggested that non-radiation ofenergybythe electrons circling
in aBohr s orbit can be explained on the basis on the basis ofthe formation
of stationarywaves bythe electrons in circularmotion inBohr s orbits.
.
r .
O
Fourth Bohr-orbit
(b) Comparing this to the vibrations ofawire loop suchstationarywaveswould
be formed ifeachwave joins smoothlywith the next.
ATOMIC PHYSICS
(c) In otherwords the number ofwavelengthsmust be an integer.
(d) Condition for stable orbits :
An election cancircle around an atomic nucleuswithout radiation energyif the cir
cumference ofits orbit is
an integralmultiple ofthe electronswavelength.
i.e. 2.r = n... condition for stable orbits.
2.r = n
h
p . pr =
nh
2.
. mvr =
nh
2. [. p = mv]
mvr =
nh
2.
Asmvr is the angularmomentumof the circling electron. Bohr s postulate is justifie
d.
C18: Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength associated with themotion of earth (mas
s = 6 1024kg) orbiting
around the sun at a speed of 3 106ms 1.
Sol: . =
h
mv =
34
24 6 1
6.63 10 (Js)
(6 10 ) (3 10 )(kg ms )
.
.
.
. . . .
. . = 3.68 10 65 m
NOTE: The wavelengths associated with the motion of macroscopic objects like ear
th, train etc, are
negligible compared to their sizes. This is why the wave-like character of these
objects is not
observable in our daily life.
C19: Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength of an .-particle ofmass 6.576 10 27 kg an
d charge 3.2 10 19
coulomb, accelerated though 2000V.
Sol: E = kinetic energy of a-particle = qV
. E = 3.2 10 19 2000 J = 6.4 10 16 J
deBrogliewavelength,
. =
h
2mE
, [. 2mE =momentumof photon]
=
34
27 16
6.63 10 (J s)
2 6.576 10 6.4 10 (J kg)
.
. .
. .
. . . . .
= 2.28 10 13 m
NOTE: The wavelength associated with .-particles is of the order of size of the
.-particle.
That is why the wave like character of a-particle is observable.
C20:Aparticle ofmassmand charge q is accelerated through a potentialdifferenceV.
Find (a) its kinetic energy
(b)momentum, and (c) de-Brogliewavelength associatedwith itsmotion.
Sol:When the particle is accelerated througha potentialdifferenceV, gain in kine
tic energyis given byK= qV.
(a) Thus, kinetic energy,K= qV.
(b) Momentumof the particle (p) is given byK=
p2
2m
p = 2mK = 2mqv
. Momentum= 2mqv
ATOMIC PHYSICS
(c) De- Brogliewavelengthis given by,
. =
h
p =
h
2mqV
Thus, wavelength=
h
2mqV
Example 23. Assume that the de-Broglie was associatedwith an electron can forma
standing wave between
the atoms arranged in a one dimensional arraywith nodes at each of the atomic si
tes. It is found that one
such standingwave is formed if the distance d between the atoms of the array is
2 .Asimilar standing
wave is again formed if d is increased to 2.5 but not for any intermediate value
of d. Find the energy of
the electron in eV and the least value of d for which the standing wave of the t
ype described above can
form.
Sol. Fromthe figure it is clear that
p . (./2) = 2
(p + 1) . ./2 = 2.5
2.0) = 0.5
. ./2 = (2.5
or ..= 1 = 10 10 m
(i) deBrogliewavelengthis given by
2
2.5
N N
p-loops
(p + 1) loops
/2
h h
p 2 km
. . .
K= kinetic energy of electron
2 34 2
17
2 31 10 2
K h (6.63 10 ) 2.415 10 J
2m 2(9.1 10 )(10 )
.
.
. .
.
. . . .
. .
17
19
K 2.415 10 eV
1.6 10
.
.
. . .
. . . . . .
. K = 150.8 eV
(ii)N N The least value of d will bewhen only one loop is formed
. dmin = ./2 or dmin = 0.5

C21: Find the de-brogliewavelength associatedwith an electron accelerated throug
h a potential difference of
30 kV.
Sol: Kinetic energyof the electron
K = qV = e(30 kV) = 30 keV = 30 103 1.6 10 19 J = 4.8 10 15 J
Now,momentumof the electron = 2mK = 2.9.1.10.34 . 4.8.10.15 kg.J = 2.96 10 24 kg.m
/s
. De-brogliewavelength, . =
h
Momentum
=
34
24
6.63 10 J s
2.96 10 Kgm/ s
.
.
. .
.
= 2.24 10 10 m = 2.24 A
ATOMIC PHYSICS
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
ATOMIC MODEL
By now, it iswell-known thatmatter, electricity and radiation etc. are all atomi
c incharacter.Although, no
one has so far seen individualatoms, there is no doubt that they reallyexist. In
1895, it was discovered by
J.Perrin in Paris that the cathode rays consist of negatively-charged practices
called electrons. In 1897,
J.J. Thomson measured the e/mratio for an electronwhereas its chargewasmeasured
byMillikan in
1906 byhis famous oil-drop experiment.Mass of the electronwas found by dividing
charge e bythe ratio
e/m.Discoveryofpositive rays during the latter part of 19th centuryindicated tha
t a normalatomconsisted
of both negative and positive charges. But howthese charges are distributed in a
n atomwas not known at
that time. Consinuous efforts have beenmade since then to studythe physical stru
cture of anatomsuch as
its extra-nuclear electronic structure chieflywiththe help of spectralproperties
of atoms.To account for the
spectroscopic dataobtained experimentallyover the years, several theories regard
ing atomic structure have
been proposed fromtime to timewhich are called the atomicmodels.Various atomicmo
dels proposed by
scientists over the last fewdecades are:
(i)Thomson sPlumpuddingmodel, (ii) Rutherford sNuclearmodel, (iii) Bohr smodel(iv) Som
merfeld s
Relativisticmodel (v)Vectormodel and finally(vi)Wave-mechanicalmodel.
These differentmodels have been suggested one after the other inaneffort to get
a satisfactoryinterpretation
of the experimentaldatawhich, it is hoped, willultimately lead to a perfect and
complete understanding of
the physical structure of an atom.
Thomson s Plum PuddingModel
According to thismodel, the atomis regarded as a heavy sphere of positive
charge seasonedwith enough electron plums to make it electricallyneutral.
Thomson visualized the positive charge ofanatombeing spread out uniformly
throughout a sphere of about 10 10 metre radius with electrons as smaller
particles distributed in circular shells as shown infigure.Whereas the net force
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+
+
+ + + + + +
+ +
++
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+ +
exerted bythe positively-charged sphere on each electron is towards the centre o

f the sphere, the different
electrons experiencemutual repulsion and get arranged in the formof circular she
lls.
This atomicmodelwas given up after some time because it could not provide any sa
tisfactorymechanism
for explaining the large deflection suffered by.-particles inRutherford s experime
nt.
Rutherford s Experiment on .-particle Scattering
As showninfigure high-speed a-particle (i.e. heliumnucleieachwitha charge of+2e)
fromsome radioactive
material like radiumor radon, confined to a narrowbeamby a hole in a lead block,
weremade to strike a
verythin goldfoilG.Whilemost ofthe .-particleswent straight throughthe foilas if
therewerenothing there
(and produced scintillations on a fluorescent screen), some of them collided with th
e atoms ofthe foil and
were scattered around at various angles -a fewbeing turned back towards the sour
ce itself.
150
45
60
.
.
.
.
.
.
Radium
Lead block
+
Beam of
.-particles
ATOMIC PHYSICS
Althoughsome smallangle scattering could be expected fromThomson smodel, large-ang
le scatteringwas
absolutelynot expectedat all. Further detailedexperiments inRutherford s laborator
ybyGeiger andMarsden
showed conslusivelythat large-angle scattering canbe expected onlyifone assumes
that amassive positive
point charge exists at the centre of each gold atomas shown in figure.
According to thismodelproposed byRutherford in 1911, the positivemassive part of
anatomis assumed
to be concentrated in a very smallvolume at its centre. This central core, nowca
lled nucleus, is surrounded
by a cloud of electronswhichmakes the entire atomelectrically neutral.
.
. .
P
+Ze
Nucleus
Asymptote
of trajectory
Trajectory
of .-particle
The large-angle scattering of positively-charged .-particles
could be easily explained on this atomic model as shown in
figure. This scattering is due to themutual repulsion (as per
Coulomb s law) between the .-particles and the concentrated
positive charge on the nucleus. The .-particle approaches
the positively-charged nucleus alongAO. If there were no
repulsion fromthe nucleus, it would have passed at a distance
of p fromit.However, due to
coulombic force ofrepulsion, the .-particle follows a hyperbolawith nucleus as i
ts focus.The linesAOand
A.Oare the asymptotes of the hyperbola and present approximatelythe initial and
finaldirections of the .particlewhen it has passed out of the effective range of the nuclear electric fi
eld.
As seen, the .-particle is deflected through an angle .. The perpendicular dista
nce fromthe nucleus to the
lineAOis called the impact parameter and is denoted by p.The Rutherford s scatteri
ng formula is
tan 2
.
= 1 2 Q Q
2pE
where Q1 = Charge of the incoming .-particle
Q2 = Charge ofthe scattering nucleus
E = Kinetic energy of the incident .-particle
p = Impact parameter
Distance of Closest Approach
Suppose that an .-particle approaches a positively-charged nucleus for a head on
collisionwith a kinetic
energy ofK.As shown in figure at pointA, the repulsive force ofthe nucleus is so
strong as to stop the .particlemomentarily.At this point, all the kinetic energyof the .-particle is co
nverted into potential energy.
Let Dbe the distance of closest approach of the .-particle. The potential at poi
ntAdue to nuclear charge
Ze is
=
0
Ze
4.. D
+
D
A
.
Potential energy of the .-particlewhen at pointAis
=
0
Ze.2e
4.. D =
2
0
2Ze
4.. D
. K =
2
0
2Ze
4.. D or D =
2
0
2Ze
4.. K
Since .-particles are generally obtained fromnatural radioactive substances, the
ir kinetic energyK is
known. Hence, value ofDcan be found easily fromthe above equation.
ATOMIC PHYSICS
C22: InGeiger-Marsden experiment on .-particle scattering fromgold foil, the kin
etic energy of .-particles
usedwas 7.68MeV. Calculate the distance of closest approach of .-particle if ato
mic number of gold in
79.
Sol: D =
2
0
2Ze
4.. K
Here, Z = 79, e = 1.6 10 19 C; .0 = 8.854 10 12 F/m
K = 7.68 MeV = 7.68 1.6 10 13 J
D =
19 2
12 13
2 79 (1.6 10 )
4 8.854 10. 7.68 1.6 10.
. . .
.. . . . .
= 2.96 10 14 m
Major Deficiencies in Rutherford s Nuclear Model
It was found later on that Rutherford smodel had two serious drawbacks concerning
(i) distribution of electrons outside the nucleus and
(ii) the stabilityof the atomas awhole.
It canbe shown that electrostatic forces between the positive nucleus and the st
atic negative extra-nuclear
electrons are not enough to produce equilibriumin such a nuclear atom. For examp
le, consider the case of
an atom* having two electrons and a nucleuswith a charge of+2e. Suppose the elec
trons are symmetrically
placed at a distance of r fromthe nucleus and are stationary.The force of attrac
tion between the nucleus and
each of the electrons is F = e. 2
2e
4. .r =
2
2
2e
4..r while the force of repulsion between the two electrons is
2
2
e
4...4r =
2
2
e
16..r . Since the force of attractionis eight times the force of repulsion, the
electronswill
fall into the nucleus therebydestroying the stable structure of the atom.
+ +
+ +
2e
+ +
+ +
2e
v
v
r
m
e
+
Photon
(a) (b) (c)
2e
(hv)
To overcome this difficulty, Rutherford suggested that stability can be achieved
(as in a solar system) by
assuming that electrons, instead ofbeing static, revolve round the nucleuswithsu
cha speedthat the centrifugal
force balances the attractive force exerted bythe nucleus onthe electrons.As see
n fromfigure (b), condition
for stabilityis achievedwhen
mv2
r
= 2
0
2e.e
4.. r or mv2r =
2
0
2e
4. .
In general, ifZ is the atomic number, then nuclear charge isZe, so that the abov
e relation becomes
mv2
r
= 2
0
Ze.e
4.. r or mv2r =
2
0
Ze
4. .
ATOMIC PHYSICS
Incidentally, itmaybe noted that according to the above relation, it is possible
to have an infinite number of
orbits inwhich electrons can rotate.
But this assumptionofrevolving electrons ledto serious difficultyfromthe point o
fviewo the electromagnetic
theoryaccording towhich an accelerated chargemust continuouslyemit electromagnet
ic radiation or energy.
Since an electronrevolving in a circular orbit has centripetal acceleration (= v
2/r), itmust radiate energy as
per the laws of classical electrodynamics.
Due to this continuous loss of energy, the electronswillgraduallyapproachthe nuc
leus bya spiral path and
finally fall into it as shown infigure (c). Hence, it is seen that the orbitalmo
tion of the electron destroys the
verypurpose forwhich itwas postulatedi.e. the stabilityofthe atom.Obviously, eit
herRutherford s nuclear
atomicmodelwithrevolving electrons isdefective or the classicalelectromagnetic t
heoryfails inthis particular
case. This dilemmawas solved in 1913 byNeils Bohrwho proposed an improved versio
n ofRutherford s
atomicmodel.
Bohr s Atomic model
Thismodel (first proposed for hydrogen atombut later applied to other atoms as w
ell) retains the two
essential features ofRutherford s planetarymodel i.e.
(i) the atomhas amassive positively-charged nucleus and
(ii) the electrons revolve round their nucleus in circular orbits the centrifuga
l force being balanced, as before, by
the electrostatic pull between the nucleus and electrons.
However, he extended thismodel further byutilizing Planck sQuantumTheory. Hemade t
he following
three assumptions:
(iii) an electron cannot revolve round the nucleus in any arbitrary orbit but in
just certain definite and discrete
orbits.Onlythose orbits are possible (or permitted) forwhichthe orbital angularm
omentum(i.e.moment of
momentum) ofthe electron is equal to anintegralmultiple of
h
2. i.e. orbitalangularmomentum=
nh
2. where
n is an integer and h is Planck s constant. Such orbits are also known as stationa
ry orbits.
(iv) while revolving in these permitted stationary (or stable) orbits, the elect
ron does not radiate out any
electromagnetic energy. Inother words, the permissible orbits are non-radiating
paths of the electron.
(v) theatom radiatesout energy only when an electron jumps from oneorbit to anot
her. If E2 and E1 are the
energies corresponding to two orbits before and after the jump, the frequencyof
the emitted photon is given
bythe relation
E2 E1 = hv or .E = hv
where v is the frequency of the emitted radiations.
C 23: If I is the moment of inertia of an electron and . its angular velocity, t
hen as per assumption (iii) given
above
.I =
nh
2. or (mr2).=
nh
2.
or
(mr2 )v
r
=
n.h
2. or mvr =
n.h
2.
Alternatively, sincethemomentumoftherevolvingelectronismv, itsmoment
about the nucleus is =mvr
Hence mvr =
n.h
2. .....(i)
e
m
v
+ze
r
ATOMIC PHYSICS
where, n= 1, 2, 3 for the first second and third orbits respectively. It is call
ed the principalquantumnumber
and because it can takewhole number values only, it fixes the sizes ofthe allowe
d orbits (also calledBohr s
circular orbits).
r1 r2 r3
n = 1
n = 2
n = 3
+Ze
E1
E2
E3
Permitted orbits
(a)
K
LM
+Ze
E1
Electron Jump
(b)
E2 .E
E3
Let the different permitted orbit have energies ofE1, E2, E3 etc. as shown in fi
gure (a). The electron can be
raised from n = 1 orbit to any other higher orbit if it is given proper amount o
f energy.When it drops back
to n =1 orbit after a short intervalof time, it gives out the energydifference .
E in the formof a radiation as
shown in figure (b). The relationbetween the energy released and frequency of th
e emitted radiation is
E2 E1 = hv or .E = hv
Expressions for velocity, radius, energy of electron and orbital frequency in Bo
hr s orbit
Here it should be kept inmind that Bohr smodelis valid onlyfor hydrogen atomand hy
drogen-like ions. In
otherwords,we can saythat is applicable to hydrogen atomand ions having just one
electron. Examples of
such ions are He+, Li++, Be+++ etc.
According to Bohr s
+ z
e
r e, m
First postulate, v
2
2
0
Ze
4.. r =
mv2
r
where
0
1
4. . = 9 109 Nm2 C 2 v = velocityof electron
and .0 = 8.854 10 12 C2/Nm2 m = mass of an electron
= Absolute permittivity Z = atomic number
of vacuumor free space r = radius ofthe orbit

e = magnitude of charge on an electron
n = principalquantumnumber i.e. orbit number
. r =
2
2
0
Ze
4.. mv .....(i)
Fromfourth postulate ofBohr, we have
mvr =
nh
2. .....(ii)
where, n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ........ i.e., n is a positive integer.
Fromequations (i) and (ii),we get
mv
2
2
0
Ze
4.. mv =
nh
2.
. v =
2
0
ze
2.. nh
Now, let us substitute the value of v in equation (ii),
ATOMIC PHYSICS
m
2
0
ze r
2 nh
.
. =
nh
2.
2 2
0
2
r n h
mZe
.
.
.
Note that for fixed n, v . Z, r .
1
Z
For fixed z, v .
1
n , r . n2
IfV1 is the speed of the electron in the 1st orbit
Then, Vn = V1
Z
n , where V1 =
c
137 , where c is speed of light.
If a0 = first Bohr radius = 0.53, then
rn = a0
n2
Z
K.E. of the electron =
1
2 mv2 =
2 4
2 2 2
0
mZ e
8. h n = K =
kZe2
2r
,
Potential energy of the atom=
2
0
Ze
4.. r = U =
kZe2
r
[k = 1/4...0]
U =
2 4
2 2 2
0
mZ e
4. h n
. Total energy of the atom, E = K + U
E =
2 4
2 2 2
0
mZ e
8. h n
In general, En = 13.6
2
2
Z
n
in eV.
Orbital frequency for the electron,
v =
V
2.r =
2 2
2 2
0 0
Ze mZe
2 2 hn h n
. .
.. . .. . v =
2 4
2 3 3
0
mZ e
4. n h
Time period of revolution (T) is given by
T = T1
3
2
n
Z
where T1 = time period of revolution in the 1st orbit = 1.52 10 16 s = 0
1
2 a
v
.
NOTE : It is assumed that the acceleration of the nucleus is negligible on accou
nt of its large mass.
Some important results for H-atoms when n = 1
1. Bohr radius, a0 = 0.53
rn = a0n2/Z
2. v1 = 2.18 106 ms 1 . c/137
3. E1 = 13.6 eV = 1 U
2
ATOMIC PHYSICS
4. K1= 13.6 eV =
1 U
2
5. U1= 27.2 eV
6. v1 = 6.6 1015 Hz
7. 1 rydberg = 13.6 eV
8. B1 = 12.5 tesla, where B1 is themagnetic field at the centre ofBohr atomdue t
o the current generated by
themotion ofelectron in 1st orbit.
Ground state and excited states
The state ofan atomwith the lowest energyis called its ground state or normal st
ate. For ground state, n=
1.
The stateswith higher energies are called excited states. For the first excited
state, n= 2; for the 2nd excited
state, n = 3 and so on.
Formth excited state, n =m+ 1
Ionization energy and ionization potential
Theminimumenergyneeded to ionize an atomis called ionization energy.
The potentialdifference throughwhich anelectron should be accelerated to acquire
the value of ionization
energyis called ionization potential.
The value of ionization energyofH-atomin ground state is 13.6 eVthat of ionizati
on potential is 13.6 eV.
Binding energy
Binding energyof a systemis the energyneeded to separate its constituents to lar
ge distances or itmay be
defined as the energy releasedwhenits constituents are brought frominfinityto fo
rmthe system.
The value ofbinding energyofH-atomis 13.6 eV, identical to its ionization energy
.
Excitation energy and excitation potential
The energyneeded to take the atomfromits ground state to an excited state is cal
led the excitation energy
of that excited state.
The potentialdifference throughwhich an electron should be accelerated to acquir
e the value of excitation
energyis called excitation potential.
E1 = E1 = Binding energy of theH-atom.
NOTE : (A) I.E. = E.
(B) Movement of electron in circular orbits in aBohr atomcauses electric current
inthe orbit. This
current will lead to self-generatedmagnetic field in the atomand alsomagnetic cu
rrent (m)
(a)Magnetic field(B)
IfBis themagnetic field generated at the centre of atom, then
H-atom
+e
a0
e
i
B = 0
0
i
2a
.
, where i is the current due to motion of the electron
and a0 is the 1st Bohr-radius.
Hence, i = ev
hence B = 0
0
e
2a
. .
ATOMIC PHYSICS
Putting the values of v and a0, we get B = 12.5 Tesla
(b) Magneticmovement vector ( .. )
.. = iA .
. . = iA = .ev 20
a
(c) Relation between .. & L .
(angularmomentumvector)
= iA = .ev 20
a , [i = ev, A= . 20
a ]
L = mV1a0 = m2.v 20
a [V1 = 2.va0]
.
L
.
=
20
2
0
e a
m2 a
. .
.. =
e
2m
.
L
.
=
e
2m
Vectorially,
.. =
e
2m
.
L .
Example 24: The quantumnumber ofBohr orbit inH-atomwhose radius is 0.01mmis
(a) 223 (b) 435 (c) 891 (d) none of these
Sol: (b)We know that
rn = a0n2
n2 = n
0
r
a
n =
3
10
0.01 10
0.529 10
.
.
.
.
. n = 435
Example 25:The quantumnumber n in theBohr smodel ofH-atomspecifies:
(a) radius of the electron (b) energyof the electron
(c) angularmomentumof the electron (d) allof these

Sol: (d) rn =
2
0
2
h
me
.. .
. . . . .
n2
En =
4
2 2 2
0
me
8. h n
, Ln= n
h
2
. .
. . . . .
Example 26: The radius Bohr s orbit in ground state for H-atomis
(Take .0 = 8.86 10 12 C2/Nm2, h = 6.6 10 34 J-s)
(a) 0.528 (b) 0.0528 (c) 5.28 10 10 m (d) 5.28 10 10 cm
Sol: (a) . a0 =
2
0
2
h
me
.
. (in this case, Z = 1, n = 1)
a0 =
34 2 12
31 19 2
(6.6 10 ) (8.86 10 )
3.14 (9.1 10 ) (1.6 10 )
. .
. .
. . .
. . . . = 0.528
ATOMIC PHYSICS
Example 27: The speed of the electron inthe first Bohr orbit ofH-atomis (Take c
= speed of light in vacuum)
(a) c (b)
c
13.6 (c)
c
137 (d) 137 c
Sol: (c) For H-atom,we knowthat
v =
2
0
e
2. h [since n this case, Z = 1 and n = 1]
=
2
0
e c
2. hc
But
2
0
e
2. hc =
1
137 = fine structure constant
. v =
c
137
Example 28: In a H-atom, binding energy of the electron in the ground state is E
1. Then the frequency of
revolution of the electron in the nth orbit is
(a) 1
3
2E
n h (b)
3
1 2E n
h
(c) 1
3
2mE
n h
(d) none of these
Sol: (b) The frequencyof revolution of the electron in the nth orbit is given by
v =
2 4
2 3 3
0
mZ e
4. h n = 1
3
2E
hn where E1 =
2 4
2 2
0
mZ e
8. h
C24: Calculate the energy of aHe+ ion in its first excited state.
Sol: . En =
2
2
(13.6eV)Z
n
Here, Z = 2, n = 2
. En =
2
2
13.6 2
n
. .
eV = 13.6 eV
C25. An electron in a hydrogen like atomis in an excited state. It has a total e
nergy of 3.4 eV. Calculate :
(i) the kinetic energy
(ii) the de-Brogliewavelength of the electron
Sol. (i)Kinetic energyof electron in the orbits of hydrogen and hydrogen like at
oms
= | Total energy |
. Kinetic energy = 3.4 eV
(ii) The deBrogliewavelength is given by
h h
P 2 Km
. . . (K= kinetic energyof electron)
34
19 31
(6.6 10 J s)
2(3.4 1.6 10 J)(9.1 10 kg)
.
.
. .
. .
. . .
. = 6.63 10 10m or . = 6.63
ATOMIC PHYSICS
Example 30. The electron in a hydrogen atommakes transition fromMshell to L. The
ratio ofmagnitudes of
initial to final centripetal acceleration ofthe electron is
(A) 9 : 4 (B) 81 : 16 (C) 4 : 9 (D) 16 : 81
Sol. . rn n2
and vn
1
n
2n
n
n
v
a
r
.
n 2 2
a 1
n n
.
.
n 4
a 1
n
.
n 4
a K
n
.
M 3
a a K
81
. . {. M = 3}
L 2
a a K
16
. . {. L = 2}
M
L
a 16
a 81
Example 31. The angularmomentumopf an electron in the hydrogenatomis
3h
2. .Here h is Planck s constant.
The kinetic energyof this electronis :
(A) 4.53 eV (B) 1.51 eV (C) 3.4 eV (D) 6.8 eV
Sol.
L nh 3h
2 2
. .
. .
. n = 3
In the electronic third orbit, the energy of electron
2
2
Z
E 13.6
n
.
E 13.6 1
9
. .
E 13.6 1.51 eV
9
. . Hence (B) is correct.
Example 32. A particle of mass m moves along a circular orbit in a centrosymmetr
ical potential field
U(r) =
kr2
2
.Using theBohr s quantization condition, find the permissible orbital radii and en
ergy levels of
that particle.
ATOMIC PHYSICS
Sol. F =
dU
dr = kr
Negative signimplies that force is acting towards centre. The necessary centripe
tal force to the particle is
being provided bythis force F. Hence
mv2
r
= kr ...(1)
and mvr = n h
where h h
2
. . . .. . .. ...(2)
solving equations (1) and (2) we get
r = rn =
n h
m. where . =
k
m
and total energy E = U + K=
kr2
2
+
1
2 mv2
Substituting the values,we get
E = n h . = En
Example 33. In a hypothetical systema particle ofmass mand charge 3q is moving ar
ound a very heavy
particle having charge q.AssumingBohr smodel to be true to this system, the orbita
l velocity ofmassm
when it is nearest to heavyparticle is
(A)
2
0
3q
2. h (B)
2
0
3q
4. h (C)
0
3q
2. h (D)
0
3q
4. h
Sol.
2
e
mv
F
r
.
2
2
0
q 3q mv
4 r r
.
.
..
. .
2
0
3 q
mvr v
4
.
..
.
mvr h
2
.
.
. . .
2
0
3 q h
v
4 2
.
.. .
2
0
v 3 q
2 h
.
ATOMIC PHYSICS
SPECTRUM
Dispersed light arranging itself ina patternofdifferent wavelength is referred t
o as a spectrum. Light coming
froma sourcemay be dispersed bya prismor by any other dispersingmedium.
Whenwhite light falls on a prismand the transmitted light is collected on awhite
wallorwhite paper then a
spectrumis obtainedwhich consists ofdifferent colours fromred to violet.
Kinds of spectra :
(A) Emission spectra:When a light beamemitted by certain source is dispersed to
get the spectrum, it is
called an emission spectrum.
An emission spectrumcan be three types :
(a) Continuous spectrum: That emission spectrumwhich is obtained by continuously
varyingwavelength, is
called continuous emissionspectrum. In this case,when light is dispersed, a brig
ht spectrumcontinuously
distributed ona dark background is obtained. Light emitted froman electric bulb,
a candle or a red hot iron
piece comes under this category.
(b) Line spectrum: The atoms and molecules can have certain
fixed energies.An atomormolecule, in an excited state, can
emit light to lower its energy. Light emitted in such a process
has certain fixedwavelengths.When such a light is dispersed,
certain sharp bright lines on a dark background is obtained.
Such a spectrumis called line emission spectrum.
Atomic energy levels
Energy
Line spectrum .
For example, when electric discharge is passed through sodiumvapour, they vapour
emits light of the
wavelength 589.0 nmand 589.6 nm.Whenthis light is dispersed bya high resolution
grating , one obtains
two bright yellowlines on a dark background.
(c) Band spectrum: Thewavelengths emitted bythemolecular energylevelswhich are g
enerallygrouped into
severalbunches, are also grouped; eachgroup beingwell separated fromthe other.Th
e spectrumlooks like
separate bands of varying colours. Such a spectrumis called band emission spectr
um.
Molecular energy levels
Energy
Band spectrum .
(B) Absorption spectrum:Whenwhite light is passed throughan absorbingmaterial, t
hematerialmayabsorb
certainwavelengths selectively.When the transmitted light is dispersed, dark lin
es or bands at the positions
of themissing (absorbed) wavelengths are obtained. Such type of spectrumis calle
d absorption spectrum.
White light
Absorbing material
Absorption
spectrum
ATOMIC PHYSICS
An absorption spectrum may be of two types :
(a) LineAbsorption spectrum : Light may be absorbed by atoms to take themfromlow
er energy states to
higher energystates. In the similarwaywhenwhite light is passed through a gas, t
he gas is found to absorb
light of certainwavelength. The absorption spectrumconsists of dark lines on bri
ght background. Such a
spectrumis calleda line absorption spectrum.When light coming fromthe sun is dis
persed, it shows certain
sharply defined dark lines. This shows that certainwavelengths are absent. There
missing lines are called
Fraunhofer lines.
(b) Band Absorption spectra : If absorbing media is polyatomic such as H2, CO2 o
r KMnO4 solution,
instead of dark lines we get few characteristic dark bands (against coloured bac
kground) called band
absorption spectra.
Hydrogen Spectra :
If hydrogen gas enclosed in a sealed tube is heated to high temperature, it emit
s radiation. This radiation
consists of components of different wavelengths which deviate by different amoun
ts. The radiationwith
different amounts ofdeviation formsH-spectrum.
Explanation of hydrogen spectra by Bohr
(a) The electron in aH-atomif not disturbed remains in the ground state (i.e. n
= 1 state).When the electron
receives energyfromoutside, it is elevated to anyone of the higher permitted sta
tes (excited state).
(b) The electronremainsonlyfor a short intervaloftime (generallyin theorder of10 8
s) in the excited state and
comes back to the ground state finally.
(c) The electroncan reach the ground state fromanyone of the excited states inma
nyways.As a result,many
electron transitions take place.
(d) According toBohr, all electron transitions terminating at a particular state
give rise to a particular spectral
series.
Series limit
Energy
Lyman series Balmer
series
Paschen
series
Brackett
series
n =1
n = 2
n = 3
n = 4
n = 5
n = . E = 0
(e) Lyman: nf = 1:
1
. = 1 E
ch 2 2
1 1
1 n
. . . . .
. . n = 2, 3, 4,..........
Balmer: nf = 2:
1
. =
1 E
ch 2 2
1 1
2 n
. . . . .
. . n = 3, 4, 5, ..........
Paschen: nf = 3:
1
. = 1 E
ch 2 2
1 1
3 n
. . . . .
. . n = 4, 5, 6, ..........
Brackett: nf = 4:
1
. = 1 E
ch 2 2
1 1
4 n
. . . . .
. . n = 5, 6, 7, .........
Pfund: nf = 5:
1
. = 1 E
ch 2 2
1 1
5 n
. . . . .
. . n = 6, 7 , 8,......
ATOMIC PHYSICS
(f) If an electronmakes a jump fromthe nith to nf
th orbit (ni> nf), the extra energyEi
Ef is emitted as a photon
of electromagnetic radiation. The correspondingwavelength is given by
1
. = i f E E
hc
.
where c = speed of light in vacuum.
According to Bohr,we canwrite
1
. =
2 4
2 3
0
mZ e
8. ch 2 2
f i
1 1
n n
. .
. . .
. .
1
. = RZ2
2 2
f i
1 1
n n
. .
. . .
. .
where R =
4
2 3
0
me
8. ch is called theRydberg constant.
(g) The value of R is 1.0973 107m 1
NOTE:
En =
2
2
RhcZ
n
.
, 1 rydberg = 13.6 eV, Rhc = 13.6 eV
(h)
1
. is calledwave number ( .. ) of the line and
2.
. is called angular wave number of the line.
(i) Photon energy= Ep = hv
(j) Momentumof a photon = p =
Photon Energy
speed of light
. p = p E
c
Important points regarding H-spectra
(a) The sharplydefined, discretewavelengths exist in the emitted radiation in th

eH-spectrum.
(b) Ahydrogen sample emits radiationwithwavelengths less than those inthe visibl
e range (i.e. uv light) and
alsowithwavelengthsmore than those in the visible range (i.e. infrared).
(c) the linesmay be grouped in separate series.
(d) In each series, the separation between the consecutive wavelengths decreases
as wemove fromhigher
wavelength to lowerwavelength.
(e) Aparticularminimumwavelength in each series approach a limiting value knowna
s series limit.
(f) The series corresponding to uv region, visible region and infrared region ar
e known asLyman, Balmer and
Paschen series respectively.
(g) In the Balmer series of hydrogen, theH. line (3 . 2) is red, theH. line (4 .
2) is blue, theH. ( 5 . 2) and
H.(6 . 2) lines are violet, and the other lines are in the near ultraviolet (uv)
.
(h) Theoretically possible no. of emission spectral lines =
n(n 1)
2
.
.
1)
(i) Theoretically possible no. of absorption spectral lines = (n
ATOMIC PHYSICS
(j) Approximate range ofwavelength for different colours of visible light
Colour Wavelength Range
Violet + Indigo 3800 to 4500
Blue 4500 to 5000
Green 5000 to 5500
Yellow 5500 to 6000
Orange 6000 to 6500
Red 6500 to 7200
Infrared rays: 720 nmto 50 mm
Ultraviolet light: 10 to 3800
Limitations of Bohr s Model
(a) It is valid onlyfor one electron atomand hydrogen-like ions e.g. : H, He+, L
i+2, Na+10 etc.
(b) Orbitswere taken as circular but according to SOMMER field these are ellipti
cal.
(c) Intensity of spectral lines could not be explained.
(d) Nucleuswas taken as stationary but it also rotates onits own axis.
(e) It could not be explained theminute structure in spectrumline.
(f) This does not explain the ZEEMANeffect (splitting up of spectral lines inmag
netic field)&Stark effect
(splitting up in electric field).
(g) This does not explain the doublets in the spectrumof some of the atoms like
sodium(5890to 5896).
C26. Total number of emission lines fromsome excited state n1 to another energy
state n2(< n1) is given by
1 2 1 2 (n n )(n n 1)
2
. . .
. For example total number of lines fromn1 = n to n2 = 1 are
n(n 1)
2
.
.
C27. As the principalquantumnumber n is increased in hydrogenand hydrogen like a
toms, some quantities
are decreased and some are increased. The table given belowshowswhich quantities
are increased and
which are decreased.
Table
Increased Decreased
Radius Speed
Potentialenergy Kinetic energy
Totalenergy Angular speed
Time period
Angularmomentum
C28. Whenever the force obeys inverse square law 2
F 1
r
. . . .. .. , and potential energy is inversely proportional
to r, kinetic energy(K), potential energy(U) and total energy (E) have the follo
wing relationships.
K =
| U |
2 and E = K =
U
2 .
If force is not proportional to 2
1
r or potential energyis not proportional to
1
r , the above relations do not
ATOMIC PHYSICS
hold good. In JEE problems, this situation arises at two places, in an atom(betw
eennucleus and electron)
and in solar system(between sun and planet).
C29. Total energy of a closed systemis always negative and the modulus of this i
s the binding energy of the
system. For instance, suppose a systemhas a total energyof 100 J. Itmeans that th
is systemwill separate
if 100 J of energyis supplied to this.Hence, binding energy of this systemis 100
J. Thus, totalenergyof an
open systemis either zero or greater than zero.
C30. Kinetic energyofa particle can t be negative,while the potentialenergycan be
zero, positive or negative.
It basically depends on the reference point where we have taken it zero. It is c
ustomary to take zero
potential energywhenthe electron is at infinite distance fromthe nucleus. In som
e problemsupposewe take
zero potential energyin first orbit (U1 = 0), then themodulus of actual potentia
l energyin first orbit (when
reference point was at infinity) is added inUand E inall energy states, whileKre
mains unchanged.
Example 33:The value of series limit inLyman series is:
(a) 121.6 nm (b) 91.2 nm (c) 656.3 nm (d) 365.0 nm
Sol:
min
1
. = R
.1. 1 . .. ...
min
1
. = R[1
0]
.min = 7
1
1.097.10 = 91.2 nm
C31: Find the longest wavelength present in theBalmer series of hydrogen:
Sol: In the Balmer series, nf = 2. The longest wavelength in this series corresp
onds to the smallest energy
difference between energy levels. Hence the initial statemust be ni = 3.
.
1
. = R 2 2
f i
1 1
n n
. .
. . .
. .
= R 2 2
1 1
2 3
. . . . .
. . = R
1 1
4 9
. . . . .
. .
1
. =
5R
36
. = 7
36
5.1.097.10 = 6.56 10 7 m
. = 656 nm(near the red end of the visible spectrum)
C32:Ahydrogen atomemits uv radiation of102.5 nm. Calculate the quantumnumbers of
the states involved in
the transition.
Sol: The uv radiation 102.5 nmlies inthe lyman region of spectrum. Thus nf=1
.
1
. = R 2
i
1 1
n
. .
. . .
. .
. 2
i
1
n = 1
1
.R
. 2
i
1
n = 1 9 7
1
102.5.10. .1.097.10 = 1
1
1.124
ATOMIC PHYSICS
2
i
1
n = 0.1
2
i n = 10
ni . 3
Hence transition is from3 . 1.
C33:What is the unit of reciprocalofRydberg constant in S.I. units ?
Sol:We know that
1
. = R 2 2
f i
1 1
n n
. .
. . .
. .
the terminthe bracket is unitless.
Now, we canwrite
1
. = R .
1
R = .
Hence, the unit of
1
R willbemetre i.e.m.
C34: Howmanydifferent wavelengthsmay be observed in the spectrumfroma hydrogen s
ample if the atoms
are excited to stateswith principal quantumnumber n ?
Sol: The totalnumber of possible transitions is
1) + (n
2) + (n
3) + ............. + 2 + 1 =
(n
n(n 1)
2
.
C35: Consider the following two statements:
(A) Line spectra contain information about atoms only
(B) Band spectra contain information aboutmolecules
(a) BothAand B are wrong (b)Ais correct but B iswrong
(c) B is correct butAis wrong (d) BothAand B are correct
Sol: (c) Line spectra contain information about atoms andmolecules both.
C36. Ultraviolet light ofwavelength 800and 700when allowed to fallon hydrogen atom
s in their ground
state is found to liberate electronswith kinetic energy 1.8 eVand 4.0 eVrespecti
vely. Find the value of the
Planck constant.
Sol. hv = E0 + T where E0 = ground level energy and T = kinetic energy of electr
on
0
hc . E . T
.
. 10
hc
800 .10. = E0 + 1.8 1.6 10 19
and 10
hc
700 .10. = E0 + 4.0 1.6 10 19
Subtracting 8
hc 1 1
10. 7 8
. . . .. .. = 2.2 1.6 10 19
or h =
27
8
2.2 1.6 10 56
3 10
. . . .
. = 6.57 10 34 Js
ATOMIC PHYSICS
C37: The excitation energy of a hydrogenlike ion in its first excited state is 4
0.8 eV. Find the energy needed to
remove the electronfromthe ion.
Sol: The excitationenergy in the first excited state is
E = 13.6Z2
2 2
1 1
1 2
. . . . .
. .
40.8 = (13.6 eV) Z2
3
4
. Z = 2
Now, ionization energy=
2
2
13.6Z
1
= 4 (13.6 eV)
Eion = 54.4 eV
C38: The first ionization potentialof some hydrogen likeBohr atomis xV.Then the
value of the first excitation
potential for this atomwillbe:
(a) xV (b)
x
2 V (c)
3
4 xV (d) 20 xV
Sol: The value of first excitation potentialis given by
x. = x
1 1
4
. . . . .
. . V
x. =
3x
4 V
Example 34:Adoublyionised lithiumatomis hydrogen likewith atomic number 3. Find
thewavelength of the
radiation required to excite the electron inLi++ fromthe first to the thirdBohr
orbit. (Take ionization energy
ofH-atomequal 13.6 eV).
Sol: For E1, Z = 3, n = 1
. E1 =
2
2
13.6Z
n
=
13.6 9
1
.
= 122.4 eV
E n = 3 3
E n = 2 2
E n = 1 1
.E
For E3, Z = 3, n = 3
. E3 =
2
2
13.6 3
3
.
= 13.6eV
We have .E + E1 = E3
. .E = E3
E1 = 108.8 eV
. . =
hc
.E =
12400
108.8 = 114
Example 35: InBohr smodelof hydrogen atomwhenthe electron ismoving in one of the s
tationaryorbits then:
(a) velocityof the electron is fixed and no emission of energy takes place
(b) velocitychanges continuouslybut no emission of energytakes place
(c) energyis emitted but the velocitydoes not change
(d) energyis emitted and the velocity also changes. e
e
e
e
v1
v2
v3 v4
.
Sol: (b) According to the second postulate ofBohr.
1 | v | . = 2 | v | . = 3 | v | . = 4 | v | . = v
ATOMIC PHYSICS
Example 36. An electron in an unexcited hydrogenatomacquired an energyof 12.1 eV
. Towhat energy level
did it jump?How many spectral linesmay be emitted in the course of transition to
lower energy levels?
Calculate the shortest wavelength.
Sol. E =
E0
2
2
Z
n
where E0 = 2.18 10 18 J = 1 rydberg
.E (energygap between unexcited state (n = 1) and an excited state (n= m))
2
0 2 2
E Z 1 1
1 m
. . . . .. ..
. 12.1 1.6 10 19
= 2.18 10 18 12(1
1/m2)
n = 3
n = 2
or 1 n = 1 2
1
m = 0.888 or m= 3
Three lines are emitted. The shortestwavelength corresponds to the greatest ener
gygap.
.
min
hc
. = E3 E1 = E0 2 2
1 1
1 3
. . . .. ..
or .min =
34 8
18
6.6 10 3 10 9
2.18 10 8
.
.
. . . .
. . = 1.02 10 7 m = 1020
Example 37. Ahydrogen like atom(atomic number Z) is in a higher excited state of
quantumnumber n.The
excited atomcanmake a transition to the first excited state bysuccessivelyemitti
ng two photons of energy
10.2 and 17.0 eVrespectively.Alternatively, the atomfromthe same excited state c
anmake a transition to
the second excited state bysuccessivelyemitting two photons ofenergies 4.25 eVan
d 5.95 eVrespectively.
Determine the values of n and Z. (lonization energyofHatom= 13.6 eV)
Sol. Fromthe given conditions
En E2 = (10.2 + 17) eV = 27.2 eV ...(1)
and En
E3 = (4.25 + 5.95) eV = 10.2 eV ...(1)
Equation (1) and (2) gives
E3 E2 = 17.0 eV
or Z2 (13.6)(1/4
1/9) = 17.0
. Z2 (13.6) (5/36) = 17.0 . Z2 = 9 . Z = 3

Fromequation (1)
Z2 (13.6) (1.4
1/n2) = 27.2
or (3)2(13.6) (1/4
1/n2) = 27.2
or 1/4 1/n2 = 0.222 or 1/n2 = 0.0278
or n2 = 36 . n = 6
ATOMIC EXCITATION WITH THE HELP OF COLLISION
(a) An atomcanbe excited to an energyabove its ground state bya collisionwith an
other particle inwhich part
of their joint kinetic energy is absorbed by the atom.
(b) An excited atomreturns to its ground state in an average of 10 8 s by emitting
one ormore photons.
ATOMIC PHYSICS
(c) Energytransfer is amaximumwhenthe colliding particles have the samemass.
(d) The energy used in this process will be of discrete nature. (.E = E2
E1 = hv
=
hc
. ).
NOTE: If the joint kinetic energy of colliding particles is less than 20.4 eV (c
onsidering particles as Hatoms
or one neutron and one H-(atom) then the nature of collision will be necessarily
elastic.
Example 38: Aneutronmovingwith speed vmakes a head-on collisionwith a hydrogen a
tomin ground state
kept at rest. Find the minimumkinetic energy of the neutron for which inelastic
(completely or partially)
collisionmay take place. The mass of neutron= mass of hydrogen = 1.67 10 27 kg.
Sol: Let us suppose that neutron andH-atommove at speeds v1 and v2 after the col
lision. Suppose an energy
.E is used in thisway.
On the basis of conservation of linearmomentumand energy,we canwrite
mv = mv1 +mv2 .....(i)
1
2 mv2 = 2
1
1 mv
2 + 22
1 mv
2 + .E .....(ii)
Fromequation (i) we have
v2 = 2
1 v + 22
v + 2v1 v2 .....(iii)
Now, fromequation (ii)
v2 = 2
1 v + 22
v +
2 E
m
.
.....(iv)
. Fromequation(iii) and (iv)
2v1v2 =
2 E
m
.
Hence, (v1 v2)2 = (v1 + v2)2
4v1v2
= v2
4 E
m
.
Since v1
v2 is always real, v2
4 E
m
.
. 0
mv2 . 4.E
.
1
2 mv2 . 2.E
Theminimumkinetic energyof the neutron needed for aninelastic collision correspo

nds to transition from
n = 1 to n = 2
. Kmin = 2
min
1 mv
2 = 2 10.2 eV
. Kmin = 20.4 eV
Example 39. Consider anexcited hydrogen atominstate nmovingwith a velocityv (v<<
c). It emits a photon
inthedirectionofitsmotionand changes its state to a lowr statem.Applymomentumand
energyconservation
principle to calculate the frequencyv of the emitted radiation. Compare thiswith
the frequencyv0 emitted if
the atomwere at rest.
Sol. Let En and Em be the energies of electron in nth andmth states. Then
ATOMIC PHYSICS
En
Em = hv0 ...(1)
In the second casewhen the atomismovingwith a velocity v. Let v be the velocityof
atomafter emitting
the photon.Applyingconservationof linearmomentum,
v v
m m
v
mv = mv +
hv
c (m=mass of hydrogen atom)
or v =
v hv
mc
. . . .. .. ...(2)
Applying conservationof energy
En +
1
2 mv2 = Em +
1
2 mv2 + hv
or hv = (En
Em) +
1
2 m(v2 v2)
hv = hv0 +
1
2 m
2
v2 v h
mc
. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ..
hv = hv0 +
1
2 m
2 2
2 2
2 2
v v h 2h v
m c mc
. . . .
. . . . .
. .
hv = hv0 +
2 2
2
h v h
c 2mc
. .
.
Here the termis
2 2
2
h
2mc
.
is very small. So, can be neglected
. hv = hv0 +
h v h v
c c
. .
.
or v
1 v
c
. . . .. .. v0 or v = v0
1 1 v
c
. . . . .. .. ; v . v0
1 v
c
. . . .. .. as v < < c
Example 40: Thewavelength ofD1 andD2 lines of sodiumare 5890and 5896respectively,
if theirmean
wavelength is 6000then find the difference of excited energy states.
Sol: E =
hc
.
....E = 2
hc
.
..
.E =
34 8 10
20
6.62 10 3 10 6 10
6000 6000 10
. .
.
. . . . .
. .
. .E = 3.31 10 22 J
. .E =
22
19
3.31 10
1.6 10
.
.
.
. , ........2 10 3 eV
C39:Alithiumatomhas three electrons.Assume the following simple picture of the a
tom.Two electronsmove
ATOMIC PHYSICS
close to the nucleusmaking up a spherical cloud aroundit and the thirdmoves outs
ide this cloud in a circular
orbit. Bohr smodel can be used for themotion of this third electron but n = 1 stat
es are not available to it.
Calculate the ionization energyof lithiumin ground state using the above picture
.
Sol: In this picture, the third electronmoves in the field of a total charge +3e
2e = +e. Thus, the energy are the
same as that of hydrogen atoms. The lowest energy is
E2 = 1 E
4 =
13.6eV
4
.
= 3.4 eV
Thus , the ionization energy of the atomin this picture is 3.4 eV.
Example 41: Find the wavelengths in a hydrogen spectrumbetween the range 500 nmt
o 700 nm.
Sol: The energy of a photon ofwavelength 500 nmis
hc
. =
1242eV nm
500nm
.
= 2.44 eV
The energy of a photon ofwavelength 700 nmis
hc
. =
1242eV nm
700nm
.
= 1.77 eV
The energydifference between the states involved in the transition should, there
fore, be between 1.77 eV
and 2.44 eV.
Figure shows some of the energies of hydrogen states. It is clear that onlythose
transitionswhich and at n
= 2mayemit photons of energybetween 1.77 eVand 2.44 eV. Out of these only n = 3
to n = 2 falls in the
proper range. The energyof the photon emitted in the transition n = 3 to n= 2 is
E
.
. = (3.4
1.5)eV= 1.9
eV.Thewavelength is
. =
hc
.E
=
1242eV nm
1.9eV
.
= 654 nm.
Example 42: Calculate the (a) velocity, (b) energy, and (c) frequency of the ele
ctron in first Bohr orbit of
hydrogen atom.
Sol. (a)We have, vn =
2
0
Ze
2. nh ; but here Z = 1 and n = 1
. v1 =
2
0
e
2. nh
=
19 2 9
34
(1.6 10 ) 1 36 10
2 1 6.62 10
.
.
. . . ..
. . .
= 2.18 106 m/sec
(b) We have, En =
4 2
2 2 2
0
me Z
8. n h
Again here, z = 1 and n = 1
ATOMIC PHYSICS
. E1 =
31 19 4 2 9 2
2 34 2
9.1 10 (1.6 10 ) 1 (4 9 10 )
8 1 (6.62 10 )
. .
.
. . . . . .. .
. . .
= 21.758 10 19 joule
=
19
19
21.758 10
1.6 10
.
.
.
.
= 13.6 eV
(c) We have,
v =
2 4
2 3 3
0
Z me
4. n h ; here also n = 1 and Z = 1
=
4
2 3
0
me
4. h = 6.57 1015 Hz.
C40: Find out the radius ofthe hydrogen atomin ground state.
Sol. We have, rn =
2 2
0
2
h n
mZe
.
. ; here Z = 1 and n = 1
r1 =
34 2
9 19 2 31
(6.62 10 ) 1
4 9 10 1 (1.6 10 ) (9.1 10 )
.
. .
. .
.. . . .. . . . .
r1 = 0.53
Example 43: If thewavelength of the firstmember of the Balmer series of hydrogen
spectrumis 6562, then
calculate thewavelength of firstmember ofLymen series in the same spectrum.
Sol. We have, for the first member of the Balmer series
v1 = R 2 2
1 1
2 3
. . . . .
. . =
5
36 R
and for the first member ofLyman series,
v2 = R 2 2
1 1
1 2
. . . . .
. .
=
3R
4
. 1
2
.
.
= 1
2
.
.
=
5R
36
4
3R =
5
27
. .2 = 1 5
27
.
=
5 6552
27
.
= 1215.18
Example 44.Thehydrogenatominits groundstate is excitedbymeans ofmonochromatic ra
diationsofwavelength
975.Howmanydifferent lines are possible in the resulting spectrum?Calculate the l
ongest wavgelength
among them.Youmayassume the ionizationenergy for hydrogen atomto be 13.6 eV, the
Planck constant
= 6.63 10 34 Js.
Sol. En= E0Z2/n2. The energyrequired to take the electronfromn = 1 to infinityis
the ionization energyof the
hydrogen atom.
. 13.6 = E0(1/12
1/.) or E0 = 13.6 eV
ATOMIC PHYSICS
Therefore, for hydrogen En = 13.6/n2 eV
The energyof the photon incident on hydrogen is
34 8
18
10
hc 6.63 10 3 10
E h 2.04 10 J
975 10
.
. . . .
. . . . . .
. .
Let the electron jump fromn= 1 to n=mafter absorbing the incident photon.
Then .E = Em E1 = 13.6(1/12
1/m2)eV
= 13.6(1 1/m2) 1.6 10 19 J
. 13.6(1 1/m2) 1.6 10 19 = 2.04 10 18
. (1 1/m2) = 0.9375 or m= 4
The resulting transitions are shown in the figure. So there are six possible lin
es. The longest wavelength
corresponds to theminimumenergygap.Hence longest wavelengthcorresponds to transi
tionfromm= 4 to
m= 3
. 0 2 2
h E 1 1
3 4
. . . . . .. ..
. 0
hc E 1 1
9 16
. . . . . .. ..
E0
m = 4
m = 3
m = 2
m = 1
.
0
hc 144
7E
.
. .
.
34 8
19
6.63 10 3 10 144
7 13.6 1.6 10
.
.
. . . .
. .
. . .
. = 1.88 10 6 m = 18800 .
Example 45: The energy of an excited hydrogen atomis 3.4 eV. Calculate the angula
r momentumof the
electron according to Bohr s theory.
Ans: 2.11 10 2 joule sec.
Since the energy of an electron in nth level in hydrogen atomis
En =
2
RCh
n or, 3.4 = 2
13.6
n
. RCh = 13.6 eV
. n = 2
FromBohr s theory, L= n
h
2.
. L = 2
0.6 10 34
2 3.14
. .
. = 2.11 10 3 joule sec.
REDUCED MASS
.In our earlier discussionwe have assumed that the nucleus (a protonin case of h
ydrogenatom) remains at
rest.With this assumption the values of the Rydberg constant R and the ionizatio
n energy of hydrogen
predicted byBohr s analysis arewithin 0.1%ofthemeasured values.
Rather the proton and electron both revolve in circular orbits about their commo
n centre ofmass.We can
ATOMIC PHYSICS
take themotion of the nucleus into account simplybyreplacing themass ofelectronm
bythe reducedmass
of the electron and nucleus.
Here . =
Mm
M.m .....(i)
where M= mass of nucleus. The reduced mass can also be written as,
. =
m
1 m
M
.
Now, whenM> > m,
m
M
. 0 or . . m
For ordinary hydrogen we let M = 1836.2 m. Substituting in
equation (i),we get = 0.99946mwhen this value is used instead
of the electronmassmin the Bohr equations, the predicted values
arewellwithin 0.1%of themeasured values. +
cm
m m
v
v
Separation r
Applying the Bohr model to positronium.
The electron and the positron revolve about
their common centre of mass, which is located
midway between them because they have equal mass
The concept of reduced mass has other applications.Apositron
has the same rest mass as an electron but a charge +e.
Apositroniumatomconsists of an electron and a positron, each
withmassm, in orbit around their common centre ofmass. This
structure lasts only about 10 6 s before two particles annihilate
(combine) one another and disappear, but this is enough time to
studythe positroniumspectrum. The reducedmass ism/2, so the
energy levels and photon frequencies have exactlyhalf the values
for the simpleBohrmodelwithinfinite protonmass.
CM
M m
r2 r1
Now, let us provewhymis replaced bythe reducedmass .when
motion of nucleus (proton) is also to be considered.
In figure both the nucleus (mass =M, charge = e) and electron
(mass =m, charge =e ) revolve about their centre ofmass (CM)
with same angular velocity (.) but different linear speeds. Let r1
and r2 be the distance ofCMfromproton and electron.
Let r be the distance between the proton and the electron. Then,
Mr1 = mr2 .....(ii)
r1 + r2 = r .....(iii)
. r1 =
mr
M.m and r2 =
Mr
M.m .....(iv)
Centripetal force to the electron is provided by the electrostatic force. So,
mr2.2 =
2
2
0
1 e
4.. r
or m
Mr
M r
. .
. . . . .
.2 =
2
2
0
1 . e
4.. r
or
Mm
M m
. .
. . . . . r3.2 =
2
0
e
4..
ATOMIC PHYSICS
or .r3.2 =
2
0
e
4.. .....(v)
where
Mm
M.m = .
Moment of inertia of atomabout CM,
I = 2 2
1 2 Mr .mr =
Mm
M M
. .
. . . . . r2 = .r2 .....(vi)
According toBohr s theory,
nh
2. = I... r2..=
nh
2. .....(vii)
Solving equations (v) and (vii) for r,we get
r =
2 2
0
2
n h
e
.
. . .....(viii)
Electrical potential energyof the system,
U =
2
0
e
4 r
.
..
and kinetic energy,K =
1
2 I.2 =
1
2 r2.2
Fromequation (v),.2 =
2
3
0
e
4.. .r , K =
2
0
e
8.. r
.Total energyof the system, E = K + U =
2
0
e
8.. r
Substituting value of r fromequation(viii),we have

E =
4
2 2 2
0
e
8 n h
.
.
.....(ix)
The expression for Enwithout considering themotion of proton is En =
4
2 2 2
0
me
8. n h , i.e.,mis replaced by
while considering themotionof proton.
NOTE :(i) Variation of rn, vn and Enwithmass of election is as under,
rn .
1
m , vn = independent ofmand En .m
Sometimes the electron is replaced bysome another particlewhich has a charge e bu
t mass different
fromthemass of electron. Here, two cases are possible.
Case 1: Let saymass of the replaced particle is x times themass of the electron
and nucleus is still very
heavycompared to the replaced particle, i.e., themotion of the nucleus is not to
be considered. Inthis case
ATOMIC PHYSICS
rnwill become
1
x times, vn will remain unchanged and En becomes x times.
Case 2: In this case motion of nucleus is also to be considered, i.e., mass of t
he replaced particle is
comparable to themass of the nucleus. In this case themass of the electron is re
placed bythe reducedmass
of the nucleus and the replaced particle. Let say the reducedmass is ytime thema
ss of the electron.
Then, rn will become
1
y times, vn remains unchanged and En becomes y-times.
(ii)Reduced massm= 1 2
1 2
m m
m . m ofm1 and m2 is less than both the masses.
C41:Apositroniumatomis a systemthat consist of a positron and an electron that o
rbit each other. Compare
thewavelengths of the spectral lines of positroniumwith those of ordinaryhydroge
n.
Sol: In this case reducedmasswillbe given by
m. =
mM
m.M =
m2
2m
=
m
2
wherem=mass of the electron.
Hence, the energy levels of a positroniumatomare
E.n =
m'
m
. .
. .
. .
1
2
E
n = 1
2
E
2n
It means that the Rydberg constant for positroniumis half as large as it is for
H-atom. As a result the
wavelength inthe positroniumspectrallines are all twice thoseof the correspondin
g lines in theH-spectrum.
Example 46: Bohr s theoryassumes that nucleus is of infinitemass and so electron r
otates round the stationary
nucleus. Assuming the nucleus to be of finite mass MH, the value of correct Rydb
erg constant will be
(consider hydrogen atom)
(a)
4
H
2 3
H 0
mM e
M m 8 ch
. .
. . . . . .
(b)
4
H
2 2 3
H 0
M m e
mM 8 c h
. . .
. . . . .
(c)
4
H
2 3
H 0
mM e
M m 8 ch
. .
. . . . . .
(d)
4
2 3
0
e
8. ch
Sol: (c) In this case both electronand nucleuswill rotate about a common centre
ofmass, sayO. Suppose that
the radiiof the electron and nucleus orbits are re and rn respectivelythenbydefi
nition of centre ofmass; the
electron, the centre ofmassOand the nucleus are always in a straight line.
. MHrn =mre whenmis themass of electron
. n
e n
r
r . r =
H
m
m.M
Let r = re + rn then rn =
H
mr
m.M and re = H
H
M r
m.M
FromBohr s quantizationrule,we have
ATOMIC PHYSICS
2 2
m.re .MH.rn =
nh
2. [.is the angular velocity about the centre ofmass]
Putting thevaluesof rn and re,we get
H
H
mM
m M
. .
. . . . .
.r2 =
nh
2.
The above equation can be comparedwithm.r2 =
nh
2.
. TheRydberg constantwill be given by
R = H
H
mM
m M
. .
. . . . .
4
2 3
0
e
8. ch
Obviously the reducedmass of the electron is H
H
mM
m M
. .
. . . . .
.
Example 47.Apositromiumatomis a bound systemofan electron (e ) and its antiparticl
e positron (e+) revolving
about their centre ofmass. Find thewavelength of the radiationwhen the systemdeexcites fromits first
excited state to the ground state.
Sol. This problemcan be solved byBohr s theoryof the hydrogen atombyreplacing them
ass of the electron by
its reducedmass.
. .
e e e
e e
m m m
m m 2
.
. .
.
.
2 4 e
n 2 2 2
0
Z e m
E 2
8 h n
. . . .. ..
.
.
4 2
e
n 2 2 2
0
e m Z E
8 h 2n
. . . .
. .. . . . . . . . .
. En =
2.18 10 18(12/2n2) (. e4me/8.0
2h2 = 2.18 10 18)
When n = 1, E1 = 2.18 10 18/2
When n = 2, E1 = 2.18 10 18/8
. .E = E1 E2 = 2.18 10 18(1/2
1/8)
= 2.18 10 18 3/8
. .E = hc/. = 2.18 10 18 0.375
.
. .
. .
34 8
18
6.63 10 3 10
2.18 10 0.375
.
.
. . .
. .
. . , . = 1.2165 10 7 m = 2433
Example 48:Themass ofmuon (. ) is 207 times that of the electron and charge = 1.6
10 19 C.Amuon can
be captured by a nucleus to formamuonic atom. Calculate the value of ionization
energyof themuonic
atom.
ATOMIC PHYSICS
Sol: The ionization energyof themuonic atomis obtained by replacingme inH-atomfo
rmula bythe reduced
massmof the proton-muon system. This reducedmass is
m = p
p
m m
m m
.
. .
= e e
e e
1836m 207m
1836m 207m
.
.
. 186me
Thus the ground state energy is (n = 1, Z= 1).
2 2 4
1 2
2 mk e
E
h
.
. .
2 2 4
e
1 2
e
m 2 m k e E
m h
. . .
. . . . . .
186 13.6 eV
E1 =
The ionizationenergy
= E1 = 186 13.6 eV = 2.53 KeV
PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS
X-rayswere accidentallydiscovered byWilhelmRontgenin 1895 during the course of s
ome experiments
with a discharge tube.At present, it is well known that these rays are produced
whenever fast moving
electrons strike a high atomicweight solid like tungsten kept in vacuum.
(a) X-ray Tube:
The essentialelements of amodernCoolidgeX-rayvacuumtubewhich iswidely used for c
ommercial and
medical purposes are shown in figure. Electrons are produced thermionically from
a tungsten filamentary
cathode F which is heated to incandescence either by a storage battery or by a l
ow-voltage alternating
current froma stepdown transformer T2. These electrons are focussed on the targe
t T with the help of a
cylindrical shield Swhichsurrounds Fand ismaintained at a negative potential. Th
e electrons are accelerated
to veryhigh speeds (upto 10%of velocity of light) by the d.c. potentialdifferenc
e (of about 50 kV- 100
kV) applied between F and the anode (also called anticathode). This high d.c. po
tential is obtained froma
step-up transformer T1whose output is converted into direct current by full-wave
rectifier and a suitable

filter.
+
50 kV
Electrons
T
A
Cooling
Tube Fins
X-rays
R
F
S
B
The targetTusuallyemployed inX-raytubes is amassive block oftungstenor inmanycas
es, amolybdenum
ATOMIC PHYSICS ATOMIC PHYSICS

plug embedded in the face of a solid copper anode. The face of the copper anode
is sloped at about 45 to
the electron beam. Being very good conductor of heat, copper helps to conduct he
at efficiently to the
externalcooling finsorthewater-coolingsystem.Undertheterrificbombardmentofthetar
getbysomany
electrons,mostmetalswillmelt. Thatiswhymetalsliketungsten,platinumandmolybdenume
tc.areused
whichhave highmelting points and also have a highatomicweight (whichis essential
for abundant production
of X-rays).
When the electrons strike the tungsten target, they give up their kinetic energy
and thereby produce X-rays.
T
A
Cooling
Water
Tube
X-rays
R
F
ST1
T2
Rectifier
(b) Control of Intensity and Quality
The intensity of X-rays depends on the number of electrons striking the target.
This number is determined
by the temperature of the electron-emitting filament which itself is proportiona
lto the heater current. Hence
by controlling the filament current with the help of a rheostat R, thermionic em
ission and hence intensity of
X-rays can be controlled.
The quality of X-rays is measured in terms of their penetrating power which is d
ependent on the potential
difference between filamentary cathode and the anode. Greater this accelerating
voltage, higher the speed
of the striking electrons and consequently, more penetrating the X-rays produced
. It is customaryto refer to
highly penetrating X-rays (i.e. those possessing high frequency) as hard X-rays
and to those less penetrating
(i.e. of low frequency) as soft X-rays. Obviously, the quality or penetrating po
wer of X-rayscan be controlled
by varying the potential difference between the cathode and anode.
It will be noticed from above explanation that in coolidge X-ray tube, it is pos
sible to achieve separate
control ofthe intensity and quality of X-rays independent of each other.
It has beenfound that apart fromthe intensity and quality ofX-rays, their abunda
nce depends on the atomic
weight ofthe target material. Target materials of higher atomic weights yield a
greater abundance of X-rays
than those oflower atomic weights.
ORIGIN OF X-RAYS
X-rays are produced when high-speed electrons strike some material object. Howev
er, majority of the
electronsthatstrikeasolidtarget,donothingspectacular atall.Most ofthemundergogla
ncingcollisions
with the matter particles, lose their energy a little bit at a time and thus mer
ely increase the average kinetic
energyofthe particles of the target material. It is found that nearly99.8 percen
t of the energyof the electron
beam goes into heating the target.
But a smallnumber ofthe bombardingelectrons produce X-rays bylosing their kineti
c energyinthe following
two ways:
(i) Someofthehigh-velocityelectronspenetratetheinterioroftheatomsofthetargetmate
rialandareattracted
ATOMIC PHYSICS
bythe positive charge of their nuclei.As an electronpasses close to the positive
nucleus, it is deflected from
its pathas shownin figure. The electronexperiences deacceleration duringits defl
ectionin the strong field of
the nucleus. The energy lost during this de-acceleration is given off in the for
mofX-rays of continuously
varyingwavelength(and hence frequency). TheseX-rays produce continuous spectrumw
hen analysed by
Bragg spectrometer.This spectrumhas a sharplydefined short-wavelength limit .min
(or high-frequencylimit
fmax)which corresponds to themaximumenergyofthe incident electron.
X-Ray
X-Ray
+ +
+ + X-Ray
1 v.
2
mv.2
Continuous
spectrum
1
2
mv2
v
If, as shownin figure, the striking electronhas its velocityreduced fromvto v. d
uring its passage through the
atomofthe targetmaterial, then its loss of energyis = (
1
2 mv2
1
2 mv.2). Thismust equal the energyof the
X-rayphotons emitted.
.
1
2 m(v2 v.2) = hv
The highest ormaximumfrequency of the emitted X-rays corresponds to the case whe
n the electron is
completely stopped i.e. when v. = 0. In that case
1
2 mv2 = hvmax .....(i)
If the electron is accelerated through a potential ofVvolts, then
1
2 mv2 = eV .....(ii)
From(i) and (ii), we get
hvmax= eV; vmax = eV/h
Now, hvmax= hc/.min [. c = v ...]
. hc/.min = eV or .min = hc/eV
Substituting the values of e = 1.602 10 19C
h = 6.62 10 34 J-s and c = 3 108 m/s, we get
.min =
34 8
19
6.62 10 3 10
1.602 10 V
.
.
. . .
. =
1.24 10 6
V
. .
m
or .min =
12400
V [1 = 10 10 m]
SuchX-rays are veryaptly called braking radiations because they are due to braking
or slowing down of
high-velocity electrons is the positive field of a nucleus. These radiations con
stitute, as said earlier, the
continuous spectrumof theX-rays because they consist of a series of uninterrupte
dwavelengths having a
sharplydefined short-wavelength limit .min. TheseX-rays are independent ofthe na
ture of the targetmaterial
but are determined by the potentialdifference between the cathode and anode of t
heX-ray tube.
(ii) Some ofthe high-velocityelectronswhile penetrating the interior ofthe atoms
of the targetmaterial, knock
ATOMIC PHYSICS
off the tightlybound electrons in the innermost shells (likeK, L-shells etc) of
the atoms.When electrons
fromouter orbits jump to fillup the vacancyso produce, the energydifference is g
iven out in the formofXrays
of definite wavelength (and frequency). These wavelengths constitute the line sp
ectrumwhich is
characteristic of thematerial of the target.
K
L
M
e
e
e
(a)
K
L
M
(b)
X-Ray
K -line .
Figure (a) shows the case when the high-velocity incident electron knocks off on
e electron fromtheKshell.
As shown in figure (b), this vacancyinK-shellis filled by a nearby electron in t
he L-shell. During the
jump anX-rayradiation is emittedwhose frequencyis given by
E. = hv
Ek
where Ek is the energyrequired to dislodge an electron formtheK-shell and El is
that required for L-shell.
Since this energy difference is comparativelyvery large, theX-rays emitted have
verylarge energycontent
and hence are highly penetrating.
If, however, this vacancy inK-shell is filled up by an electron jumping fromM-sh
ell, theX-rays emitted
would be stillmore energetic andwould consequentlypossess stillhigher frequencyb
ecause .E =(Ek Em)
ismore than .E = (Ek
EL). SuchX-rays arising frommillions of atoms produce the K
-lines as shown in
figure. Usually, two linesK. andK. of this series are detected although there ar
emanymore.
Similarly, when the incident electron carries somewhat lesser amount of energy,
it dislodges an electron
fromthe L-orbit and an electron either fromM-orbit or other outer orbits takes i
ts place so that X-rays of
frequency lower than that of theK-series are produced. This gives the L-series o
f theX-ray spectrumas
shown byK., L. and L. lines in figure (a).
KLMN
O
K.
K.
L. L.
L.
M
(a)
E = 0
2
20
200
2000
20,000
K. K.
L. L.
L. M. M.
K
L
M
N
O .
SHELL
Energy in eV
(b)
M
Spectral lines ofM-series are produced ina similarway as shownin the energy-leve
ldiagramof figure (b).
As stated earlier, theseK, LandMseries constitute the line spectra of theX-raysw
hich are characteristic
of thematerialused as target in theX-ray tube.
Hence, theX-rays produced byanX-ray tube consist of two parts:
(i) one part consists ofa series of uninterruptedwavelengths having a short cutoffwavelength .min.This
ATOMIC PHYSICS
constitute the continuous spectrumand
(ii) the other part consists of a number of distinct and discrets wavelengths wh
ich constitute the line or
discontinues spectrumof theX-rays.
X-ray Spectrum
As explained inX-ray spectrumconsists of
(i) continues spectrumand (ii) line spectrum. These two are shownin figure.
(a) Continuous Spectrum
(i)It is produced due to the de-acceleration of high-velocityelectronswhen theya
re deflectedwhile passing
near the positively, charged nucleus of an atomof the targetmaterial.
K.
K.
L.
L.
L.
Intensity
Continuous
Spectrum
.min . f
Continuous
Spectrum
K. K. L. L. L.
(a)
(ii) It has a sharply-defined short wavelength limit given by
.min =
12.400
V 10 10 m or
12, 400
V
(iii)The cut-offwavelength.min is independent ofthenature ofthe targetmaterialbu
t is inverselyproportional
to the potentialdifference between the cathode and anode of anX-ray tube. The va
lue of .min decreases as
this potentialdifference is increased.
(iv) The intensity of the continuous spectrum(given by the area
enclosed bythe curve of figure (b) is found verynearlyproportional
to the square of the applied voltage for a given target and to the
atomic number of the target materialwhen a constant potential
difference is applied.
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
5 kV
10 kV
15 kV
20 kV
K 25 kV .
K.
L.
L. L.
Wave length(A.U.)
X-ray Intensity
Tungsten
Target
(b)
(v) There is a shift of themaximumintensity position towards the
short wavelength side as voltage is increased.
(b) Line Spectrum
(i) It is producedwhen electrons are dislodged fromthe innermost

orbits ofthe atoms ofthe targetmaterialfollowed byelectronjumps
fromouter orbits.
(ii) It consists of discrete spectral lineswhichconstituteK-series, L-series
andM-series etc.K-series consists of those lines for which electron jumps end at
K-level.
(iii) K-series beingmost energetic constitute the hardX-rayswhereasL- andM-serie
s formthe soft Xrays.
(iv) Line spectrumis characteristic of the targetmaterial used. In
ATOMIC PHYSICS
fact, X-rays constituting the line spectrum are known as
characteristicX-rays. The number of lines present in the spectrum
depends both on the nature of target material and the excitation
voltage.
K. K.
90
79
50
42
28
Cr 24
Cu
Mo
Sn
Au
Cf
.
Mass No. (Z)
(c)
(v) There is a regular shift towards shorter wavelength in theKspectrumas
the atomic number ofthe target is increased figure (c).
The exact relationship, as found byMoseley, is
2
1
.
. = 1
2
.
. =
2
1
2
2
(Z 1)
(Z 1)
.
.
where v1 is the frequency of theK. line for a target material having an atomic n
umber ofZ1 and v2 and Z2
are similar quantities for some different targetmaterial.
C42:AnX-raytubeworks on 60,000V.What will be the wavelength ofX-rayemitted in it
.
Sol: .min =
12, 400
V
Here, V = 60,000 V
. .min=
12, 400
60,000
= 0.2
C43: If the potential difference applied across anX-ray tube is 12.4 kV and the
current through it is 2 mA,
calculate:
(i) the number of electrons striking the target per second
(ii) the speedwithwhich theystrike it
(iii) the shortest wavelength emitted
Take e = 1.6 10 19 C and m = 9.1 10 31 kg
Sol: (i) If n is the number of electrons striking the anode per second, then I =
ne
. n =
I
e =
3
19
2 10
1.6 10
.
.
.
. = 1.25 1016 s 1
(ii). v 2eV 5.93 105 V
m
. . .
v = 5.93 105 v = 5.93 105 12, 400
= 6.6 107 m/s
(iii) .min =
12, 400
V =
12400
12400 = 1
C44: Calculate theminimumapplied potentialrequired to produceX-rays of 1wavelengt
h.
Sol: .min =
12400
V
. V =
min
12400
. =
12400
1 = 12.4 kV
C45:An X-ray tube passes 5 mAat a potential difference of 100 kV. Calculate the
maximumspeed of the
ATOMIC PHYSICS
electrons striking the target and the rate of productionofheat at the target if
only0.1 percent of the incident
energy is converted into X-radiations. Take e/m= 1.76 1011 C/kg and J = 4.18 jou
les/cal.
Sol: . v 2eV 5.93 105 V
m
. . .
v = 5.93 105 100,000 = 1.88 108 m/s
+
100 kv
5 mA
Incident power = 100,000 5 10 3 = 500W
Power converted into heat = 99.9%of 500 = 499.5W
Heat produced / second =
499.5
4.18 = 119 cal/s.
C46:AnX-raytube operated at 30 kVemits a continuousX-rayspectrumwith a short wav
elength limit
.min = 0.414 . Calculate Planck s constant h if e = 1.602 10 19 C and c = 3 108m/s.
Sol: .min =
ch
eV
. h = min eV
c
.
=
19 3 19
8
1.602 10 30 10 0.414 10
3 10
. . . . . . .
.
= 6.63 10 34 J-s
MOSELEY S LAW
In 1913-14,Moseleycarried out a systematic study of the characteristicX-ray spec
tra ofvarious elements
used as targets in anX-raytube.By usingBragg s spectrometer for the purpose, the r
emarkably similar to
each other in the sense that each consists of K-L and M-series. However, there i
s one very important
difference. The frequency of lines (in every series) produced froman element of
higher atomic number is
greater thanthat produced byanelement of lower atomic number. It is due to the f
act that binding energyof
electrons increases aswe go fromone element to another ofhigher atomic number. B
ecause there is greater
positive charge onthe nucleus ofanelement of higher atomic number, larger amount
ofenergyis required to
liberte an electron fromtheK, L andMshells of that element.
Consider theK. line of the characteristicX-rayspectrumof any element. It is foun
d that higher the atomic
number ofthe targetmaterial, higher is the frequencyof theK. line produced byit.
The exactmathematical
relationship betweenfrequency and atomic number is given by
v . (Z b)2
or . . (Z
b)
or . = a(Z b)
where Z is the atomic number of the element and a and b are constants for a part
icular series but varyfrom
one series to another i.e. their values for K-series are different fromthose for
L-series etc. The constant b
is known as nuclear screening constant. For lines ofK-series, b = 1. Its values
for lines ofL-series ismore.
The above relation is known asMoseleylawfor the characteristic or lineX-ray spec
trum. Itmaybe stated
as follows:
The frequency of a spectral line in the characteristic X-ray spectrumvaries dire
ctly as the square of the
atomic number ofthe element emitting it.
Figure showsMoseleydiagramfor K. andK. lineswhich is
ATOMIC PHYSICS
obtained by plotting . versus atomic number of different
elements of the periodic table.As expected, the graph is linear.
5 10 15 20 25 108
Al-13
10
Ca-20
Zn-30
Ze-40
Sn-50 K.
K.
Atomic number
Frequency
An exact formofMoseley s lawis
1
. = R(Z .)2
2 2
1 2
1 1
n n
. .
. . .
. .
whereR is Rydberg s constant, Z the atomic number, . a correction
factor and n1 and n2 the principal quantum numbers of the energy levels between
which the transition
occurs.
Importance of Moseley law
The great significance ofMoseley law lies in the fact that it proves for the fir
st time that it is the atomic
number and not the atomicweight of an elementwhichdetermines its characteristic
properties (bothphysical
and chemical). It provides the proper guideline that elementsmust be arranged in
theperiodic table according
to their atomic numbers and not their atomicweights.
Accordingly,Moseleylawhas been used to place elements in their proper sequence i
n the periodic table in
certain questionable cases. For example, ifwe go by the atomic weight, potassium
(19K39) should come
before argon (18A40) and similarly, nickel (28Ni58.7) should precede cobalt (27C
o58.9). ButMoselylawdictates
that as per their atomic numbers, their order should be just opposite of the abo
ve. This fact is further
supported bythe chemical properties of these elements.
Moseleylawhas led to thediscoveryof newelements like hafnium(72), promethium(61)
, technetium(43)
andrhenium(75) etc. bytheindicationofgaps inMoselydiagram.This lawhas beenalso h
elpfulindetermining
the atomic number of rare earths therebyfixing their position in the periodic ta
ble.
It can be shown thatMoseleylawis in accordancewithBohr s theory of spectral emissi
onfromatoms.As
shown inwhenan electron jumps froman orbit n2 to the orbit n1, the frequencyof t
he radiationgiven out is,
v =
4
2 3
0
me
8. h .Z2
2 2
1 2
1 1
n n
. .
. . .
. .
Thismaybe put as
v =
4
2 3 2 2
0 1 2
me 1 1
8 h n n
.. .. ..
.. .. . .. .. . .. ..
Z2
or v . Z2
or . . Z
Bohr did not take into account the screening effect of electrons whereasMoseley
did. That is why the
expression becomes
b)
. . (Z
Formulae for K- and L-series of X-ray Spectrum
The frequencies of the various lines in the K- and L-series of the X-ray line sp
ectrumare given by the
following empiricalformulae.
K-series: The general formula is
1
. = R(Z
1)2
2
1 1
n
. . . . .
. . where n = 2, 3 etc
Here, the nuclear screening constant is unity.
ATOMIC PHYSICS
(i) For K. line, n = 2.
.
1
. = R(Z
1)2
1 1
4
. . . .. .. =
3R
4 (Z 1)2
(ii)For K. line, n = 3
.
1
. = R(Z
1)2
1 1
9
. . . .. .. =
8R
9 (Z 1)2
L-Series: The general formula is
1
. = R(Z
7.4)2
2
1 1
4 n
. . . . .
. . where n = 3, 4 etc.
Here, screening constant is 7.4.
(i) For H. line, n = 3
.
1
. = R(Z 7.4)2 1 1
4 9
. . . . .
. . =
5R
36 (Z 7.4)2
(ii)For H. line, n = 4
1
. = R(Z 7.4)2 1 1
4 16
. . . . .
. . =
3R
16 (Z 7.4)2
C47: Find the nuclear screening constant for the L-series ofX-rays if it is know
n that X-rayswith awavelength
of . = 1.43are emittedwhen an electron in a tungsten atom(Z = 74) is transferred
fromtheM-level to
L-level. Take Rydberg constant = 10.97 106m 1.
Sol:When electron jumps fromM to L-level, the first member of the L-series i.e.
L. line is given out. Its
wavelength as given byMoseley s lawis
1
. = R(Z
b)2
2 2
1 1
2 3
. . . . .
. . =
5R
36 (Z
b)2
Substituting the givenvalues,we have
1010
1.43
= 10.97 106
5
36 (74 b)2
. (74
b)2 = 4589.8; (74
b) = 67.75 ; b = 6.25.
Example 49: The K. and L. absorption edges of copper occur at wavelengths 1.380
and 11.288
respectively. Calculate the atomic number of copper.
Sol: It shouldbe remembered that absorptionages are found inthe absorptionspectr
umofX-rays.The absorption
edge ofeachseries (ofline spectrum) represents the limit ofthat series. Inotherw
ords, the short-wavelength
limit of each series is called its absorption edge and iswritten as ... It maybe
obtained by putting n= . in
the formulae.Moreover, forK-series, the value of screening constant forK.member
is 3.3 (instead of1 for
othermembers). Corresponding value for L-series is 11(instead of 7.4).
K-Series:
1
. . = R(Z 3.3)2
2
.1. 1 . . . . . . = R(Z
3.3)2
.
1010
1.38
= (Z 3.3)2
L-Series:
1
. . = R(Z
11)2
2
1 1
4
. . . . . . . . =
R
4 (Z 11)2
ATOMIC PHYSICS
.
1010
11.288
=
R
4 (Z
11)2
Dividing one bythe other, we get
2
2
(Z 3.3)
(Z 11)
.
. =
11.288
4.1.38 = 2.045
or
(Z 3.3)
(Z 11)
.
. = 1.43
or Z = 29
Example 50:An impure tungsten target emits a strongK. line of . = 0.21and aweakK.
line of . = 1.537
. Can you identify the impuritytaking the nuclear screening constant as unity. Gi
ven for tungsten,Z= 74,
for Ni = 28.
Sol: Thewavelength for K. line is given bythe relation
1
1)2 1 1
. = R(Z
4
. . . . .
. . =
3
4 R(Z 1)2
For tungsten
10
1
0.21.10. =
3
4 R(74 1)2
=
15,987R
4
For impurity
10
1
1.537.10. =
3
4 R(Z
1)2
Dividing one bythe other, we get
1.537
0.21 = 2
5329
(Z.1) ; Z = 28
Obviously, impurity is nickelwhose atomicmass number is 28.
Absorption of X-rays
When a narrowandmonochromatic beamofX-rays passes throughmatter, part of it is a
bsorbed and the

remaining part is transmitted.Absorption of x-rays can be studiedwith the help o
f the apparatus shown in
figure. TheX-rays produced by anX-raytube are first made into awell defined narr
owbeamby passing
themthrough two fine slits S1 and S2 in the two lead plates. The beamis thenmono
chromatised byBragg
reflectionfroma crystal(not showninthe figure) and allowedto enter the ionizatio
nchamberwhichmeasures
the ionization current.The strength of the ionization current is ameasure of the
intensityof theX-ray.
Next, a sheet of the absorbing material is interposed in the path of the X-ray b
eambefore it enters the
ionization chamber. It is found that the ionization current and hence the intens
ity ofX-rays is reduced by
their passage through the absorber sheet. The ratio
0
I
I of the two ionization currents can be used to
measure the absorptioncoefficient of thematerial.
ATOMIC PHYSICS
L1 L2
S1 S2
Absorber
Ionization
Chamber
Let I0 be the initial intensityof a homogeneousX-raybeamincident normallyon an a
bsorber sheet and I the
intensity after the beamhas travelled a thickness x of the absorber.
If dI is the further decrease in intensityover a thickness dx of the absorber
figure, then
dI
dx gives the rate of decrease of intensity with thickness.
Assuming that this rate is proportionalto the intensityI,we have
I0
I (I
dI)
x dx
dI
dx
. I
or
dI
dx = .I
where . is a constant of proportionality and is called the linear absorption coe
fficient of the absorber (it is
also known asmacroscopic absorption coefficient or linear attenuation coefficien
t).
Now,
dI
I = ..dx .....(i)
Integrating both sides of the above equation, we get
. dI / I = . . dx
. logeI = .x + K .....(ii)
The value ofthe integration constant Kcan be found fromthe known initial conditi
onswhichare that when
z = 0, I = I0. Substituting these values in equation (ii) above, we have
I0
x
I
O
logeI0 = K
Hence, equation (ii) becomes
logeI = .x + logeI0
or e
0
log I
I = .x
or
0
I
I = e .x
or I = I0e .x .....(iii)
It is seen that intensity of the X-ray beamdecreases exponentiallywith the thick
ness of the absorbing
material as shown in figure.
BRAGG S LAW
. .
A
P S
Q
E
F
M
B
G
H
N
R
Figure gives a 3-dimensional view of how a beam of
monochromaticX-rays undergoesBragg s reflection from
different planes in a NaCl crystal. Figure gives a
ATOMIC PHYSICS
2-dimensional viewof the same diagram. It shows a beam
ofmonochromaticX-rays incident at a glancing angle . on a
set of parallelplanes ofNaCl crystal. The beamis partically
reflected at the successive layers rich in atoms Ray no.1 is
reflected fromatomAinplane1whereas rayno. 2 is reflected
from atom B lying plane 2 immediately below atom A.
Whether two reflected rays will be in phase or antiphase
with each other will depend on their path difference.
This pathdifference can be found bydrawing perpendicularsAMandANon rayNo. 2. Sin
ce the two rays
travel the same distance frompointsAandNonwards, it is obvious that ray no. 2 tr
avels an extra distance
= MB + BN
Hence, the path difference between the two reflected beams is
= MB + BN M. . N
. A .
1
2
3
1
2
d
d
Plane 1
Plane 2
Plane 3
B = d sin. + d sin. = 2d sin.
where d is the interplanar spacing i.e. vertical distance between two adjacent p
lanes belonging to the same
set.
The two reflected beamswillbe in phasewith eachother if this pathdifference equa
ls an integralmultiple of
la dnwill be antiphase if it equals an oddmultiple of ./2.
Hence, the conditionfor producingmaxima becomes
2d sin. = n.
where n= 1, 2, 3 etc., for the first order, second order and third ordermaxima r
espectively.This equation
is known as Bragg s Law.
PROPERTIES OF X-RAYS
Main properties ofX-raysmay be summarised as under:
(i) Likevisible light,X-rays consist ofelectromagneticwavesofveryshortwavelength
(or ofveryhighfrequency)
and showreflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and polarisation etc.
(ii) They are not deflected by electric andmagnetic field.
(iii) They posses high penetrating power and can pass throughmanysolidswhich are
opaque to visible light.
The transparency depends on the density of the material. Higher the density of t
he substance, the less
transparent it is to theX-rays. For example, sheet of lead 1 cmthick can absorbX
-rayswhereas aluminium
sheet ofsame thickness cannot.
The penetrating power ofX-rays depends upon (a) the voltage applied across the c
athode and anode of
theX-raytube and (b) the atomic number of thematerialof the cathode.Greater the
accelerating potential
of the X-ray tube and higher the atomic number of its target material, the more
penetrating the X-rays
produced.
(iv) They ionize a gas and also eject electrons frommetals onwhich they fall.
(v) Theycause fluorescence inmanysubstances like barium, cadmium, tungstate and
zinc sulphide etc.
(vi) Theysuffer compton scattering.
(vii) They have a destructive effect on living tissue. Exposure of humanbodyofXrays causes the reddening of
skin and surface sores.
Practical Applications of X-rays
On account of their diverse and distinctive properties,X-rays have beenput toman
yuses in different fields
of our dailylife i.e. in industry,medicine and research.
(a) Industrial applications: Some of these applications are as under:
ATOMIC PHYSICS ATOMIC PHYSICS

(i)
to detect and photograph defects within a body i.e. in its internal structure su
ch as metals, machine parts
intended for withstanding highpressures, cracks in wood, porcelainand other insu
lators, defectsindiamonds
and other precious stones, in moulds, forgings and castings etc.
(ii)
toanalysesthestructureofalloysandotherrcompositebodiesbydeterminingthecrystalfor
minaningot
with the help of diffraction of X-rays. In this way, alloys like cobalt-nickel,
steel, bronze, duraluminium,
artificial pearls and old paintings have been analysed.
(iii) to study the structure of rubber, cellulose and plastics. The diffraction
of X-rays bythese substances leads
to valuable information about their molecular grouping.
(b) Applications for pure scientific research:
(i) for investigating the structure of the atom.
(ii) for studying the structure of the crytalline solids and alloys (X-ray cryst
allography).
(iii) for identification ofchemical elements including determination oftheir ato
mic numbers.
(iv) for analysing the structure of coraplex organic molecules by examining thei
r X-ray diffraction patterns.
(c) Medical Applications: These can be broadly divided into two classes; one for
diagnosis purposes
(radiography) and the other for curative purposes (X-ray therapy).
(i) Radiography:
X-rays are being widely used for detecting fractures, tumours, the presence of f
oreign matter like bullets
etc. in the human body as well as diseased organs of the boy. It is due to diffe
rential absorption of X-rays
between bones, tissues and metals. Radiographs or X-ray photos are used for this
purpose. Since bones
are more dense and hence more opaque to X-rays then flesh, a contrasting radiogr
aph ofhuman body can
be obtained for leisurely study by interposing it between the X-ray tube and pho
to film. Where the organs
do not provide contrast as, for example, the intestines or other fleshy parts of
the human body, a artificial
means are adopted to create sufficient contrast between them. In such cases, bef
ore taking radiograph,
barium or bismuth meal is given to the patient. This meal consists of milk to wh
ich some amount of barium
sulphate or bismuth carbonate has been added.Afew hours after the meal has been
taken, these powders
settle in the gastrointestinal tract and if a radiograph is taken at that item,
the intestines stand out in sharp
contrast to the surrounding tissues due to the fact that absorptioncoefficient o
fbarium is greater on account
ofitshigh atomic number. In this way, pepticulcers and ruptures etc. in the inte
rnal organs ofthe human body
can be accuratelylocated. Similarly, radiographs are routinely used for the diag
nosis of tuberculosis, stones
in kidneys and gall-bladders etc.
(ii) X-ray or Rontgen Therapy
Many types of skin diseases, malignant sores, cancers and tumours have been cure
d bycontrolled exposure
to X-rays of suitable quality. This curative power of X-rays is due to the fortu
nate fact that diseased tissue

is more susceptible to destructionthan the surrounding healthytissue. Unnecessar
ylong exposure of human
body to X-rays produces many injurious effects including the loss of white cells
in the blood, sterility and
harmfulgenetic changes.
X-rays have been used for the identification of different types of cells and tis
sues and for bringing about
genetic mutations.
MODERN PHYSICS
THINKING PROBLEMS
X-rays
1. What leads you do believe that X-rays are electromagneticwaves ?
2. The occurrence ofa lower bound ofwavelengths ofX-rays produced inanX-raytube
lends support to the
quantumconcept ofradiation. Explain how.
3. IfYoung s experiment is repeatedwith electron beams interference is observed. D
oes thismean that an
electron gets divided into twowhile passing through the slits ?
4. Water irradiatedwithX-rays is unsafe for drinking. Is this true or false ?
5. An electronmoves through a gas-filled region in the presence of a transversem
agnetic field. Describe its
motion.
6. Fluerescence is produced by ultraviolet rays but never by infrared rays. Expl
ainwhy.
7. Aneutron, a proton, an electron and an alpha particle enter a region of const
ant
magnetic fieldwith equal velocities. Themagnetic field is along the inward norma
l
to the place of the paper.The tracks of the particles are labelled in the figure
.
Which tracks do the electron and alpha particle follow?
8. Achargedandanunchargedparticlehavethe samemomentum.Willtheyhave the samedeBro
gliewavelength?
9. The electricalconductivityofa gas increaseswhenX-rays or .-rays pass throughi
t.Explainthis phenomenon.
10. Why are tungstenor platinumwidely used as the target theX-raytubes ?
11. Auniformelectric field acts normally on amoving charge. Can the charge be de
flected through 90 ?
12. Auniformelectric field acts normally on amoving charge. Iswork done by the f
ield on the charge (a) as it
enters the field, (b) later ?
13. Does the speed of a charged particle changewhen (a) a magnetic field, (b) an
electric field, acts on it for
some time ?
14. Parallel electric and magnetic fields act on on a charged particle moving pe
rpendicular to these fields.
Describe its subsequentmotion.
15. Howdo you conclude that cathode rays are fast moving negativelycharged parti
cles ?
16. Magneticmirror is a termfor the region of amagnetic field inwhich there is an
intense concentration oflines ofinductionas shown inthe figure. Suppose a charge
d
particle approaches amagneticmirror.What will happen to it ?
17. Howis amonoenergetic, slightlydiverging beamof charged particles focussed by
amagnetic field ?
18. X-rays are producedwhen a fast electron hits a proper target.What happens to
the electron ?
19. Why does the target in anX-ray tube become hot ?
20. X-rays can be produced in cathode ray tubes and also in Coolidge tubes.Why a
re the latter preferred in
actual use ?
21. Why is thewave nature ofmatter not apparent in our daily lives ?
22. Aneutralpion decays into two gamma photons.
.0 ....
Why cannot a single photon be born?What conservation lawis in contradictionwith
it ?
23. Quarks inside protons and neutrons are thought to carryfractional charges
2 e, 1 e
3 3
. ..
... . .. ..
..Whyare theynot
evidenced inMillikan s oildrop experiment ?
MODERN PHYSICS
Atomic Structure, Radioactivity, Nuclear Fassion and Fusion
1. Distinguish between excitation and ionization bycollision.
2. According to the theory of electron transitions, the spectral lines froma glo
wing gas should be sharp i.e.,
of one particularwavelength each. In practice, theyare found to be somewhat diffu
se , i.e., spread over a
small range ofwavelengths. Suggest a reason for this.
3. Can it be concluded from.-decay that electrons exist inside the nucleus ?
4. Why are .-rays emitted only in nuclear processes and not in orbital electron
transitions ?
5. What are the principles that are obeyed in filling the orbits of an atom?
6. Howis the radioactivityof an element affectedwhen it forms chemical compounds
?
7. How can Becquerel ray, i.e., the combination of .-, .- and .-rays, be separat
ed ?
8. When a nucleus undergoes .-dcay, is the product atomelectrically neutral ? In
.-decay?
9. Do .-decay and .-decay cause a change of element, called transmutation ?
10. Experimental results inradioactivityshowsmallvariations fromthe results pred
icted bytheory. Explain this.
11. Does the relationE =mc2 suggest that mass can be converted to energy onlywhe
n it is inmotion ?
12. What is a thermalneutron ?
13. Does a nucleus have to be bombardedwith fast or showneutrons in order for it
to undergo fission ?
14. Why has it not been possible so far to control the fusion process and obtain
usable energy fromit ?
15. An atomhas a continuous distribution ofmass in..... (Thomsonmodel, Rutherfor
dmodel) but has a highly
non-uniformdistributionin ..... (Thomsonmodel,Rutherfordmodel).
16. Which level of the doubly-ionized lithium(Li++)ion has the same energy as th
e ground state energyof the
hydrogen atom?
17. If the a-decayofU238 is allowed fromthe point of viewof energy (the decaypro
ducts have a totalmass less
than themass ofU238) what preventsU238 fromdecaying all at once ?Why is its half
-life so large ?
18. Can a spectral line belong to both the Lyman andBalmer series ?
19. Although theLymanseries involves transitions to the ground level, andtheBalm
er series to the second orbit,
the latter was discovered earlier.Why ?
20. Bohr s principle of quantization of angularmomentumis not a postulate but an e
ssentialcondition. Explain
how.
21. Whyare .-particle tracks as observed in a cloud chambermuch shorter than .-p
article tracks though they
emerge froma radioactive samplewith almost the same speed ?
22. Cathode rays and .-particles are streams of electrons. Inwhat respect do the
ythen differ fromeach other?
23. When a radioactive substance emits an .-particle its position in the periodi
c table is lowered bytwo places.
Is this true or false ?
24. When Rutherford bombarded a thin foil of gold by .-particles, he found that
1 in 2500 are deflected
through verylarge angles.What inference did he drawfromthis result ?
25. Auraniumnucleus (atomic number 92, mass number 238) emits an .-particle and
the resultant nucleus
emits a .-particle.What are the atomic andmass numbers of the final nucleus ?
26. Among .-particles, .-particles, protons and neutronswhich have the greatest
penetrating power through
matter andwhy ?
27. The isotope of hydrogen 3
1 H (tritium) is radioactive.What would be its decay process and the product?
28. What ismeant by the disposal of radioactivewaste in a nuclear reactor ?
29. .- and .-particles suffer equal and opposite deflections in an external elec
tric field. Is this true or false?
30. It requires infinite time for all the atoms in a radioactive sample to decay
,whatever be the half-life of the
material. Is this true or false ?
31. What ismean by enrichment of uranium ?
32. Which yields greater energy per atom fission or fussion ? .... per unitmass ?
33. Explain the statement Themoderator ina nuclear reactor thermalizes the neutro
ns.
MODERN PHYSICS
34. When is a chain reaction said to be critical ?
35. If a nucleus emits only a .-ray photon, does itsmass number change?Does itsm
ass change ?
36. Aclassical atombased on ..... (Thomsonmodel, Rutherfordmodel) is doomed to c
ollapse.Why ?
37. What is Bohr s correspondence principle ?
38. Bohr s quantization principle, i.e., angularmomentum= nh/2. is a basic lawin n
ature.Why dowe never
speak of quantizationof the angularmomentumof a planet, around the sun ?
39. Aphoton is emitted by a dense star. Scientists say there is a change in the
frequency of the photon as it
moves awayfromthe star and call the difference infrequcney gravitational shift.
Can you explain this?
X-rays
1. X-rays cannot be deflected by electric andmagnetic fields. They are reflected
, refracted, diffracted like
ordinarylight waves.All these facts lead us to believe that X-rays are electroma
gneticwaves.
2. The quantumtheory predicts a lower bound (hv =Ve) ofwavelengths ofX-rays prod
uced in anX-rays
tube. This is found to be in good agreement withexperimentalobservations. So thi
s supports the quantum
theoryof light.
3. No. Infact electrons have associatedwaves.At the accelerating voltage of the
experiment thewave behaviour
of electrons becomes quite prominent and interference fringes are observed.
4. False, X-rays damage living cells and hence kill the bacteria present inwater
. Hence, the water actually
becomes safer for drinking.
5. The electronloses energydue to collisionswith the gas atoms. It therefore des
cribes a circlewith decreasing
radius, i.e., it spirals inwards.
6. The phenomenon offluorescence consists of absorptionof higher energyphotons a
nd re-radiation of lower
energy visible light. This is possiblewith ultraviolet rays as these have greate
r photon energy than visible
light. Infrared rays have lower photon energy, so fluorescence cannot occur.
7. D, B. Alpha particles are heavy and positively charged, and so they are defle
cted the least to the left
according to Fleming s left-hand rule. The electrons are deflected to the right.
8. Yes. The de Brogliewavelength does not depend on charge, onlyonmomentum.
9. X-rays or .-rays cause ionization bycollision inthe gas atoms. The free elect
ron and ionpairs produced can
nowmove and conduct electricity. Thus, the gas becomesmore conducting.
10. Theyhave large atomic numbers and highmelting points.
11. No.The electric fieldwillnot affect the initialvelocity. Itwillonlyproduce a
n additional acceleratedmotion
perpendicular to the initial velociyt.A90 deflection requires that the initial ve
locity be reduced to zero.
12. (a) No work is done, since the displacement due to the motion is perpendicul
ar to the field. (b)Work iis
done, as the displacement howhas a component parallel to the force.
13. (a) The speed does not change since the force is perpendicular to the displa
cement at everypoint. The field
does no work on the particle. The energy and speed of the particle remain unchan
ged.
(b)When an electric field acts for some time, the particlewill acquire a displac
ement parallel to the force.
Work is done by the field on the particle. The energyand speed of the particlewi
ll change.
14. Due to themagnetic field, the particlewillmove in a circlewith the field as
axis.Due to the electric field, a
forcewill act along this axis, producing an acceleratedmotion perpendicular to t
he plane of the circle. The
result willbe a helicalpath ofgradually increasing pitch.
15. Their negativelycharged character is shownbythe directionofdeflection inan e
lectric field. Their streaming
character is shown by deflection in amagnetic field because a magnetic field can
produce deflection only
when charged particles are inmotion.
MODERN PHYSICS
16. The charged particlewillmove along a helixwinding around the lines of
induction. Let us resolve the velocityalong the field and perpendicular to
it. The resolved part along the field vII is called orbital velocity. Since the
magneticmoment due to the orbitalmotion is opposite to themagnetic field
is tends to push the charged particle out of the field, i.e., the charged partic
le is strongly decelerated and so
its drift velocitydecreases, becoming zero inthe case of a sufficientlyhigh fiel
d gradient. Fromthis place it
begings tomove in the opposite direction.
17. The charged particles followa helicalpath of periodT = 2.m/Bqwhichis indepen
dent of the velocityof the
particles and pitch p = (2.m/Bq) v cos.. = (2.mv)/Bq when . small. Thus after a
path of length p all the
particles come down to the same point whatever be the angle of inclination of th
eir initialmotionwith the
field.
18. It is absorbed bythe target,which is also the anode of theX-raytube. Subsequ
ently, the electronreturns to
the cathode via the external voltage circuit.
19. Less than 1%of the incident electronenergy is actuallyconverted toX-rays. Th
e balance is lost in inelastic
collisions be between the electrons and the target atoms. This energy appears as
heat in the target.
20. In aCoolide tube, the hardness and intensity of theX-rays can be controlled
independently. The hardness
is controlled by the applied voltage. The intensity is controlled by the filamen
t temperature, i.e., by the
filament current. Such independent control is not possible in the cathode ray tu
be.
21. Thewavelengthof amatterwave is given by. =h/p.Themomentumofordinarymaterialb
odies at ordinary
speeds is verylarge and so the associatedwavelength is extremelysmallbecause of
the verysmallvalue of
h = 6.6 10 34 Js. This iswhy thewave nature ofmatter is not apparent in our daily
lives.
22. Asingle photoncannot be bornbecause the principle ofconservation ofmomentumw
ould then be violated.
The meson is at rest and so if a single photon is created, that photon must also
be at rest to conserve
momentum. But it is not possible for a photon to be at rest. This iswhy two phot
ons are bornwhichmove
in opposite directions after creation, in conformitywith the principle of conser
vation ofmomentum.
23. Because they are held together by a strong force, they are not exhibited sep
arately.
Atomic Structure, Radioactivity, Nuclear Fission and Fusion
1. When amoving electron collideswith an atom, one orbital electron in the atoma
bsorbs part or allof the
kinetic energyof the incident electron.As a result, the orbital electronmaymove
to an outer orbit, of higher
energy (excitation), or become completelyfree fromthe attractive field ofthe nuc
leus (ionization).
2. The gas atoms emitting light due to electron transitions are inmotion. They b
ehave like fixed frequency
sources inmotion.Due toDoppler effect, the observed frequency(and hencewavelengt
h) becomes different
fromthe emitted frequency.This difference depends onthe velocityofthe atom, caus
ing the small spread of

the spectral line.
3. No. The .-particle, although an electron, is actuallycreated at the instant o
f .-decay and ejected at once.
It cannot exist inside the nucleus as its de Broglie wavelength ismuch larger th
an the dimensions of the
nucleus.
4. The energyof a .-rayphotonis of the order ofMeV. Energies of thismagnitude oc
cur innuclear processes
but not inorbital electron transitions.
5. The universalprinciple of stability ofa system, that is, a systemlies instable
equilibriumwhen its energy is
at the lowest possibelvalue and Pauli s exclusion principle, i.e., no two electrons c
anhave all their quantum
numbers identical .
6. In no way. Chemical bonds involve onlyorbital electrons, whereas radioactivit
y is a nuclear process.
7. Bypassing themthrough transverse electric ormagnetic fields.
8. No. In .-decay, the atomic number decreases by2, hence the atomis left with t
wo extra orbital electrons.
It therefore has a double negative charge. In .-decay, the atomis left with a ne
t single positive charge.
MODERN PHYSICS
9. Yes. In .-decay, the element moves back two places on the periodic table. In
.-decay, the element moves
forward one place on the periodic table.
10. The lawof radioactive decay is statistical in nature. Hence, individial expe
rimental resultswillshowslight
variations.The averages over a large number of experimental results conformexact
lywith the theory.
11. No. Here c2 appears only as a constant and does not suggest motion.
12. This is a neutronwithenergyof the order of(3/2) kT,whereTis the absolute tem
perature of the surroundings
and k is Boltzmann s constant. This follows fromcomparisonwith the law of equipart
ition of energy as
applied to gasmolecules. Thermalisation of a neutron brings down its energy froma
high value of about
(3/2) kT.
13. For fission, theneutronmust be absorbed bythe fissionable nucleus.This is po
ssible onlywith slowneutrons.
14. Fusion occurs onlyat temperatures of the order of 106K. Thismakes it extreme
ly difficult to control fusion
processes.
15. Thomsonmodel,Rutherfordmodel.
16. E . Z2 / n2 .When E is constant, Z2 . n2 . Z.n
. 3/1 = n/1 . n = 3
17. The emission of a-particles is caused by quantummechanical tunnelling throug
h the repulsive Coulomb
barrier. They bounce to and fro in the potentialwell bounded by the barrier befo
re tunnelling through it.
Hence the probability of escape is not the same for all the a-particles because
all are not born inside the
nucleus at the same time.
18. Spectral lines fromhydrogen arise fromthe relation hv = E0(1/n2
1/m2) withm>
n. For the Lyman series
n = 1, m= 2, ...., . .
. (hv)max = E0 and (hv)min = (3/4) E0
or
3
4 E0/h < v < E0/h
For the Balmer series, n = 2, m= 3, ....., . .
. (hv)max = E0/4 and (hv)min = 5E0 /36
or 5E0/36h < v < E0/4h. Clearly, the same value of v cannot satisfy both the ser
ies. Hence, a spectral line
cannot belong to both series.
19. Because theBalmer series lies inthe visible region and the Lyman series in t
he ultraviolet region.
20. Bohr s principle of quantizationof angularmomentumis seen to be an essential c
onditionwhile considering
de Broglie smatterwave principle, that is, innature allmoving bodies have an assoc
iatedwave.We have p
= h/.. In the stationary orbits thewaves associatedwiththe particlemust forma st
ationarywave. If r is the
radius ofthe stationaryorbit, its circumference (equalto 2.r)must be inmultiples
ofwavelength..Therefore,
2.r = n. or 2.r = n . h/p or pr = nh/2..Moment ofmomentumis angular momentum. He
nce pr is the
angularmomentum(L) of the electron. Thus finallywe find that I.= nh/2..
21. .-particles have greater ionizing power than .-particles and so they lose th
eir energymuch earlier than
.-particles because of collisions. This iswhy their track lengths are shorter th
an those of .-particles.
22. Theydiffer in respect of their origin. .-particles originate in the nucleusw
hen a neutron is converted into a
proton, whereas electrons in cathode rays are orbital electrons.
23. Yes. Since .-particles are heliumatoms, their emissionlowers the atomic numb
er by2 andmass number by
4. Elements are arranged in the periodic table according to their atomic number.
So emittion of .-particles
lowers the position of the element by two places in the periodic table.
24. An atomconsists of a smallcentralizedmass containing positivelycharged parti
cles.Otherwise the atomas
awhole in empty.
25. 92 and 234.
92U238
2He4
2 1e0 . 92U234
MODERN PHYSICS
26. Neutrons, because theyare electricallyneutral and so they do not interactwit
hmatter electrically.
27. The only possible decay process is .-decay. The decayproduct would be 2He3.
28. In nuclear fission, two nuclideswith Z of the order of 40 to 50 are created.
These are highly radioactive,
with half-lives or thousands of years. These are called radioactivewaste . They hav
e to be disposed of in
sealed containerswhich can contain their radioactive emissions.
29. False. .-particles are deflectedmore due to their larger specific charge.
30. True.This follows fromthe exponentialnature ofthe decay. In
N = N0e .t, for N = 0, t = .
31. Naturaluraniumcontains less than1%ofU235mixedwithU238. The latter is not fis
sionable,while the former
is fissionable. The proportion ofU235must be increased artificiallyfor the urani
umto be used in fission. This
is called enrichment of uranium.
32. Fission yields greater energyper atom. Fusion yields greater energyper unit
mass.
33. The neutrons emitted in fissionmust be slowed down inorder to cause further
fission in other nuclei.This is
called thermalization, and is performed bythemoderator.
34. When exactly one neutron, of the several produced by the fission of one nucl
eus, is permitted to cause
further fission. This happens in a controlled chain reaction, e.g., ina nuclear
reactor.
35. Themass number does not change. Themass is reduced.
36. Thomson smodel.
37. For large quantumnumbers, quantummechanical results reduce to classical resu
lts.
38. Because large n corresponds to a verylarge value at which classical and quan
tumresults are identical by
Bohr s correspondence principle.
39. As the photonmoves out against strong gravitational attraction its energydec
reases and so its frequencyis
expected to decrease.This is gravitational shift.
MODERN PHYSICS
ASSERTION-REASON
(A) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True; Statement-2 is a correct explanati
on for Statement-1
(B) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True; Statement-2 is NOT a correct expla
nation for Statement-1
(C) Statment-1 is True, Statement-2 is False
(D) Statement-1 is False, Statement-2 is True
1. Statement-1 : Electron capture occursmore often than positron emission in hea
vy elements.
Statement-2 : Heavy elements exhibit radioactivity.
2. Statement-1 : In a hydrogen atomenergy of emitted photon corresponding to tra
nsition fromn = 2 to
n = 1 ismuch greater as compared to transition fromn = . to n = 2.
Statement-2 :Wavelengthof photon is directlyproportional to the energyof emitted
photon
3. Statement-1 : Ionisation energyof atomic hydrogen is greater than atomic deut
erium.
Statement-2 : Ionisation energy is directly proportional to reducedmass
4. Statement-1 : For pair production, energy of . ray is greater than 1.02MeV.
Statement-2 : In pair production, energy is converted into mass.
5. Statement-1 : The ratio of rate of production (R) of neutrons to the rate of
leakage of neutron froma
spherical body of 92U235 is directlyproportional to radius (r)
Statement-2 : Rate of production of neutron is directly proportional to volume b
ut rate of leakage of
neutrons is directlyproportional to area.
6. Statement-1 : The nuclear energycan be obtained bythe nuclear fissionof heavi
er nuclei aswell as nuclear
fusion oflighter nuclei.
Statement-2 : The binding energy per nucleonwith increase in atomic number first
increases and then
decreases.
7. Statement-1 : Asmallmetal ball is suspended in a uniformelectric fieldwith an
insulated thread. If high
energyX-ray beamfalls on the ball, the ballwill be deflected in the direction of
electric field.
Statement-2 :Wavelength of L. X-raymust be greater then the wavelength ofK. X-ra
y for the same
material.
8. Statement-1 : The difference in the frequencies ofseries limit ofLymanseries
andBalmer series is equal to
the frequency of the first line of the Lyman series.
Statement-2 :Difference inenergyof two atomic levels is proportionalto the energ
yofemitted or absorbed
photon.
9. Statement-1 :Work function of aluminiumis 4.2 eV. If two photons of eachof en
ergy 2.5 eVstrike on an
electron ofaluminium, the electron is not emitted.
Statement-2 : In photoelectric effect, electron is emitted onlyif energyofeach o
f incident photonis greater
than thework function.
10. Statement-1 : Ifthe acceleratingpotentialinanX-raytube is increased, thewave
lengthsofthe characteristic
X-rays do not change.
Statement-2 :When an electron beamstrikes the target in anX-ray tube, part of th
e kinetic energy is
converted intoX-rayenergy. [JEE, 07]
MODERN PHYSICS
Match the Column
(A) Work function of copper is 4 eV. If two (P) 13.6 Z2/n2eV
photons each of energy 2.5 eV strike an
electron of copper emission of electrons
(B) Cathode rays get deflected by (Q) 13.6 Z2 2 2
1 2
1 1
n n
. .
. . .
. .
eV
(C) Ionisation energy of H like atom is (R) both electric and magnetic field
(S) 1H1
(D) Greater wavelength in transition from n = 2 (T) 1H3
to n = 1 is for (U) Not possible
(V) Possible
(A) Radius of orbit depend on principal quantum (P) Increase
number as
(B) Due to orbital motion of electron, (Q) decrease
Magnetic field arises at the centre of Nucleus
is proportional to principal quantum no. as (R) is proportional to 1/n2
(C) If electron is going from lower energy level to
higher energy level then velocity of electron will (S) is proportional to n2
(D) If electron is going from lower energy level to
higher energy level, then total energy of (T) is proportional to 1/n5
electron will
(A) Rate of disintegration, i.e. dN/dt is (P) Greater than Half life
proportional to
(B) Mean life of radioactive substance is (Q) Less than Half life
(C) Intensity I of . ray of initial intensity I0 after (R) Number of atoms of pa
rent radioactive
transversing the thickness of x of the absorber is substance still undecayed at
time t
(related as)
(D) The radioactive decay rate is not affected by (S) I = I0/x
(T) I = I0e .x
(U) Temperature, pressure, volume
(A) Binding energy per nucleon for middle order (P) Optical Model
or elements is
(B) Nuclear force depends on (Q) Shell model
(C) For nuclear fission
Z2
A
is (R) 8.8 MeV
(D) Magic numbers are 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126 (S) 2.5 eV
explained by
(T) Charges of Nucleons
(U) Spin of Nucleons
(V) Greater than 15
(W) Less than 15
(A) Radius of orbit is related with atomic number (Z) (P) is proportional to Z
(B) Current associated due to orbital motion (Q) is inversely proportion to Z

electron with atomic number (Z)
(C) Magnetic field at the centre due to orbital (R) is proportional to Z2
motion of electron related with Z.
(D) Velocity of an electron related with atomic (S) is proportional to Z3
number (Z)
MODERN PHYSICS
6. Match the followingColumns [JEE, 06]
Column I Column II
(A) Nuclear fusion (P) Converts somematter into energy
(B) Nuclear fission (Q) Generallyoccurs for nucleiwith lowatomic number
(C) .-decay (R) Generallyoccurs for nucleiwith higher atomic number
(D) Exothermic nuclear reaction (S) Essentially proceeds byweek nuclear forces
7. In the following, column I lists some physical quantities&the column II gives
approx, energy values
associated with some of them. Choose the appropriate value of energy fromcolumn
II for each of the
physical quantities in column I andwrite the corresponding letterA, B, Cetc. aga
inst the number (i), (ii),
(iii), etc. of the physical quantityin the answer book. In your answer, the sequ
ence of column I should be
maintained.
Column I Column II [JEE, 97]
(A) Energyofthermalneutrons (P) 0.025 eV
(B) EnergyofX-rays (Q) 0.5 eV
(C) Binding energyper nucleon (R) 3 eV
(D) Photoelectric threshold ofmetal (S) 20 eV
(T) 10 keV
(U) 8MeV
8. Some laws/processes are given inColumnI.Match thesewiththe physicalphenomena
giveninColumn II.
Column I Column II
(A) Transition between two atomic energylevels (P) CharacteristicX-rays [JEE, 07
]
(B) electron emissionfromamaterial (Q) Photoelectric effect
(C) Mosley s law (R) Hydrogen spectrum
(D) Change of photonenergyinto kinetic (S) .-decay
energyof electrons.
9. Column- II gives certainsystemsundergoing aprocess.Column-I suggests changes
insomeofthe parameters
related to the system.Match the statements inColumn I to the appropriate process
(es) fromColumn-II.
Column I Column II [JEE, 09]
(A) The energy ofthe systemis increased (P) System: Acapacitor, initiallyuncharg
ed
(B) Mechanical energyis provided to the system, Process : It is connected to a b
attery
which is converted into energy of random (Q) System: Agas inan adiabatic contain
er fitted
motion ofits parts with an adiabatic piston
(C) Internal energyof the systemis converted into Process :The gas is compressed
by pushing
itsmechanical energy. the piston
(D) Mass of the systemis decreased (R) System: Agas in a girid container
Process :The gas gets cooled due to colder
atmosphere surrounding it
(S) System: Aheavynucleus, initiallyat rest
Process :The nucleus fissions into two fragments
of nearly equalmasses and some
neutrons are emitted.
(T) System:Aresistivewire loop
Process :The loop is placed in a time varrying
magnetic fieldperpendicular to its plane
MODERN PHYSICS
Level
1
1. An energy of 24.6 eV is required to remove one of the electrons from the neut
ral helium atom. The energy
(in eV) required to remove both the electron from a neutral helium atom is
(a) 38.2 (b) 49.2 (c) 51.8 (d) 79.0
2. The K X . ray . emission line of tungsten occurs at . = 0.021 nm. The energy
difference between K and
L levels in this atom is about
(a) 0.51 MeV (b) 1.2 MeV (c) 59 keV (c) 136 eV
3. The electron in a hydrogen atom makes a transition n1 .n2 where n1 and n2 are
the principal quantum
numbers of the two states. Assume the Bohr model to be valid. The time period of
the electron in the
initial state is 8 times that in the final state. The possible values of n1 and
n2 are
(a) n1 = 4, n2 = 1 (b) n1 = 8, n2 = 2 (c) n1 = 8, n2 = 1 (d) n1 = 6, n2 = 3
4. X-rays are produced in an X-ray tube operating at a given accelerating voltag
e. The wavelength of the
continuous X-rays has values from
(a) 0 to . (b) min . to . where min . > 0
(c) 0 to max . where max . < . (d) min . to max . where 0 < min . < max . < .
5. A particle of mass M at rest decays into two particles of masses m1 and m2, h
aving non zero velocities.
The ratio of the de Broglie wavelengths of the particles, 1 2 . . , is
(a)
2
1
m
m
(b)
1
2
m
m
(c) 1.0 (d)
1
2
m
m
6. The electron in a hydrogen atom makes a transition from an excited state to t
he ground state. Which of
the following statements is true ?
(a) Its kinetic energy increases and its potential and total energies decrease.
(b) Its kinetic energy decreases, potential energy increases and its total energ
y remains the same.
(c) Its kinetic and total energies decrease and its potential energy increases.
(d) Its kinetic, potential and total energies decrease.
7. Imagine an atom made up of a proton and a hypothetical particle of double the
mass of the electron but
having the same charge as the electron. Apply the Bohr atom model and consider a
ll possible transitions
of this hypothetical particle to the first excited level. The longest wavelength
photon that will be emitted
has wavelength . (given in terms of the Rydberg constant R for the hydrogen atom
) equal to
(a) 9/5R (b) 36/5R (c) 18/5R (d) 4/R
8. Electrons with energy 80 keV are incident on the tungsten target of an X-ray
tube. K shell electrons of

tungsten have
72.5 keV energy. X-rays emitted by the tube contain
(a) a continuous X-ray spectrum (Bresmsstrahlung) with a minimum wavelength of a
bout 0.155A.
(b) a continuous X-ray spectrum (Bremsstrahlung) with all wave-lengths
(c) the characteristic X-ray spectrum of tungsten
(d) a continuous X-ray spectrum (Bremsstrahlung) with a minimum wavelength of ab
out 0.155A.
and the
characteristics X-rays spectrum of tungsten.
9. For a photoelectric cell, the graph in Figure. showing the variation of the c
ut-off voltage V0 with frequency
(v) of incident light is
O v
V0
(a)
O v
V0
(b)
O v
V0
(c)
O v
V0
(d)
MODERN PHYSICS
10. Monochromatic light of frequency v1 irradiates a photocell and the stopping
potential is found to be V1.
What is the new stopping potential of the cell if it is irradiated by monochroma
tic light of frequency v2?
(a) 1 .v2 v1.
e
V . h . (b) . . 1 v2 v1
e
V . h . (c) . . 1 v1 v2
e
V . h . (d) . . 1 v1 v2
e
V . h .
11. When a certain photosensitive surface is illuminated with monochromatic ligh
t of frequency v, the stopping
potential for photoelectric current is V0/2. When the same surface is illuminate
d by monochromatic
high of frequency v/2, the stopping potential is V0. The threshold frequency for
photoelectric emission is
(a) 3
2v
(b)
2
3v
(c) 5
3v
(d) 3
5v
12. The energy of a photon of frequency v is E = hv and the momentum of a photon
of wavelength . is p = h
/ . . From this statement one may conclude that the wave velocity of light is eq
ual to
(a) 3 x 108 ms 1 (b) .
.
(c) .p (d)
2
p. ..
.
. ..
. .
13. When a centimeter thick surface is illuminated with light of wavelength . ,
the stopping potential is V.
When the same surface is illuminated by light of wavelength 2 . , the stopping p
otential is V/3. The
threshold wavelength for the surface is
(a) 3
4 .
(b) 4 . (c) 6 . (d) 3
8 .
14. A star of mass M0, radius R0 contracts to radius R. Energy radiated by the s
tar assuming uniform density
in each case while temperature remains unchanged is
(a) .0 c. (b) . .
.
.
. .
.
.
. ..
.
. ..
.
. . .
2
0
0 R
c 1 R (c) . ..
.
. ..
.
. . .
0
0 R
c 1 R (d) . .
.
.
. .
.
.
. ..
.
. ..
.
. . .
3
0
0 R
c 1 R
15. A sensor is exposed for time t to a lamp of power P placed at a distance . .
The sensor has an opening
that is 4d in diameter. Assuming all energy of the lamp is given off as light, t
he number of photons
entering the sensor if the wavelength of light is . is (l >> d)
(a) 2
2
hc
N P d t
.
.
. (b) 2
2
hc
N 4P d t
.
.
. (c) 2
2
4hc
N P d t
.
.
. (d) 2
2
16hc
N P d t
.
.
.
16. If elements of quantum number greater than n were not allowed, the number of
possible elements in
nature would have been
(a) n .n 1.
2
1 . (b)
. . 2
2
n n 1
. . .
. . .
.
(c) n.n 1. .2n 1.
6
1 . . (d) n.n 1. .2n 1.
3
1 . .
17. An electron is lying initially in the n = 4 excited state. the electron de-e
xcites itself to go to n = 1 state
directly emitting a photon of frequency v41 . If the same electron first de-exci
tes to n = 3 state by emitting
a photon of frequency v43 and then goes from n = 3 to n = 1 state by emitting a
photon of frequency v31 ,
then
(a) 41 43 31 . . . . . (b) 41 43 31 . . . . . (c) .41 . .43 . 2.31 (d) Data Insu
fficient
18. A photon of energy 10.2 eV corresponds to light of wavelength 0 . . Due to a
n electron transition from n =
2 to n = 1 in a hydrogen atom, light of wavelength . is emitted. If we take into
account the recoil of the
atom when the photon is emitted,
(a) . = 0 . (b) 0 . . . (c) 0 . . . (d) the data is not sufficient to reach a co
nclusion.
MODERN PHYSICS
19. When an electron moving at a high speed strikes a metal surface, which of th
e following are possible?
(a) The entire energy of the electron may be converted into an X-ray photon.
(b) Any fraction of the energy of the electron may be converted into an X-ray ph
oton.
(c) The entire energy of the electron may get converted to heat.
(d) The electron may undergo elastic collision with the metal surface.
20. A star converts all of its 2He4 nuclei completely into oxygen nuclei. The en
ergy released per oxygen
nuclei is (given mass of nucleus = 4.0026 amu, mass of oxygen nucleus = 15.994 a
mu)
(a) 7.26 MeV (b) 7 MeV (c) 15.252 MeV (d) 23.9 MeV
21. The graph showing the energy spectrum of . particles is :
(a)
E
n(E)
Y
X
(b)
E
n(E)
Y
X
(c)
E
n(E)
Y
X
(d)
E
n(E)
22. Binding energy per nucleon of 1H2 and 2He4 are 1.1 eV and 7.0 MeV respective
ly. Energy released in
the process 1H2 + 1H2 = 2He4 is :
(a) 20.8 MeV (b) 16.6 MeV (c) 25.2 MeV (d) 23.6 MeV
23. Two electrons are moving with the same speed V. One electron enters a region
of uniform electric field
while the other enters a region of uniform magnetic field . After sometime if th
e de Broglie wavelength of
the two are .1 and .2 then :
(a) .1 = .2 (b) .1 > .2 (c) .1 > .2 (d) .1 > .2 or .1 < .2
24. In a characteristic X-ray spectra of some atom superimposed on a continuous
X-ray spectra :
P Q
.min .
Relation
intensity
(a) P represents K. line (b) Q represents K. line
(c) Q and P represents K. and K. lines respectively
(d) Position of K. and K. depend on the particular atom
25. Difference between nth and (n + 1)th Bohr s radius of H atom is equal to its (n
)th Bohr s radius. The
value of n is
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
26. A hydrogen atom is in an excited state of principal quantum number n. It emi
ts a photon of wavelength
. while returning to the ground state. The value of n is :
(a) .R(.R .1) (b)

( R 1)
R
. .
. (c)
R
R 1
.
. . (d) (R 1) . .
27. The binding energies of nuclei X and Y are E1 and E2 respectively. Two atoms
of X fuse to give one atom
of Y and an energy Q is released. Then :
(a) Q = 2E1
E2 (b) Q = E2
E1 (c) Q < 2E1 E2 (d) Q > E2
2E1
28. Two radioactive materials x1 and x2 have decay constant 10 . and . respectiv
ely. Initially they have the
same number of nuclei. The ratio of the number of nuclei x1 to that of x2 will b
e 1/e after time :
(a) 1/10. (b) 1/11. (c) 11/10. (d) 1/9.
MODERN PHYSICS
29. At t = 0 activity of radioactive substance is 1600 Bq and t = 8 sec activity
remains 100 Bq. The activity
at t = 2 sec is :
(a) 200 Bq (b) 400 Bq (c) 600 Bq (d) 800 Bq
30. There is a stream of neutrons with a kinetic energy of 0.0327 eV. If the hal
f life of neutrons is 700 s. The
fraction of neutrons will decay before they travel a distance 10 m. mn = 1.675 1
0 27 kg :
(a) 3.96 10 5 (b) 3.96 10 6 (c) 2.96 10 4 (d) None
31. The count rate for 10 gram radioactive material was measured
time (hrs) at different times and this had been shown in figure
scale given. The half life of material and the total count in the
first half value period respectively are :
(a) 4 hrs. and 9000 approximately
(b) 3 hrs and 14100 approximately
(c) 3 hrs and 235 approximately
75
50
25
3 6 9
100
12.5
(d) 10 hrs and 157 approximately time in hr.
32. Assuming that about 200 MeV energy is released per fission of 92U235 nuclei.
What would be mass of
92U235 consumed per day in the fission of reactor of power 1 MW approximately ?
(a) 10 kg (b) 100 kg (c) 1 gram (d) 10 2 gm
33. The energy, the magnitude of linear momentum and orbital radius of an electr
on in a hydrogen atom
corresponding to the quantum number n are E, P and r, according to the Bohr s theo
ry of hydrogen
atom:
(a) EPr is proportional to 1/n (b) P/E is proportional to n0
(c) Er is not constant for all orbits (d) Pr is proportional to n.
34. An electron is excited from a lower energy state to a higher energy state in
a hydrogen atom. Which of
the following quantities decrease in the excitation.
(a) Potential enrgy (b) Angular speed (c) Kinetic energy (d) Angular momentum
35. The correct statement is l are :
(a) density of nucleus is independent of mass number (A)
(b) Radius of nucleus increases with mass number (A)
(c) Mass of nucleus is directly proportional to mass number (A).
(d) Density of nucleus is directly proportional to mass number.
36. A hydrogen like atom of atomic number Z is an excited state of quantum numbe
r 2n. It can emit a
maximum energy photon of 204. eV. It makes a transition to quantum state n, a ph
oton of energy 40.8
eV is emitted, then
(a) Z = 2 (b) Z = 4 (c) n = 1 (d) n = 2
37. An electron with kinetic energy varying from 5 eV to 50 eV is incident on a
hydrogen atom in its ground
state. The collision :
(a) may be elastic (b) may be partially elastic
(c) must be completely inelastic (d) from zero to 13.6 eV be elastic and more th
an 27.2 eV be
inelastic.
38. The wavelength of first Balmer line for 1H1 , 1H2 and 2He4 and .1, .2 and .3
respectively. The correct

statements are
(a) .2 ...1 (b) .3 ...2 (c) .1 ...2 (d) .1 ...2 > .3
39. Regarding X ray spectrum which of the following statement
(a) The characteristic X ray spectrum is emitted due to excitation of inner elec
trons of atom
(b) Wavelength of characteristic spectrum depend on the potential difference acr
oss the tube.
(c) Wavelength of continuous spectrum is dependent on the potential difference a
cross tube
(d) None of these
MODERN PHYSICS
40. If the wavelength of light in an experiment on photo electric effect is doub
led :
(a) The photoelectric emission will not take place.
(b) The photoemission may or may not take place. (c) The stopping potential will
increase
(d) The stopping potential will decrease under the condition that energy of phot
on of doubled.Wavelength
is more than work function of metal.
41. the binding energy per nucleon is :
(a) Maximum for middle order element (b) Minimum for lighter elements
(c) Binding energy per nucleon suddenly increases for some mass number called ma
gic numbers.
(d) Binding energy per nucleon is minimum for middle order elements
42. When Z is doubled in an atom, which of the following statement are consisten
t with Bohr s theory :
(a) Energy of a state is double. (b) Radius of an orbit is double.
(c) Velocity of electrons in an orbit is doubled (d) Radius of orbit is halved.
43. Photons of wavelength 6620 are incident normally on a perfectly reflecting s
creen. Calculate the
number of photons per second falling on the screen as total power of photons suc
h that the exerted
force is 1N :
(a) 5 1026 (b) 5 1025 (c) 1.5 108 (d) None of these
44. The energy of . particles emitted by 210Po is 5.3 MeV. What mass 210Po is ne
eded to power a
thermoelectric cell of 13 watt output, What would be power output after 1 year :
(The half life of 210Po is
138 days)
(a) 8.85 10 2 gram (b) 0.159 watt (c) 0.179 watt (d) 8.85 10 4 gram
45. The atomic masses of 7N15, 8O15 and 8O16 are respectively 15.0001 a.m.u., 15
.0030 a.m.u. and 15.9949
a.m.u. Then :
(a) Binding energy per nucleon in 8O16 is 7.97 MeV
(b) Energy is needed to remove one proton 8O16 is 12.13 MeV
(c) Energy needed to remove one proton from 8O16 is 15.61 MeV.
(d) All the above
46. A sample contains 10 2 kg each of two substances A and B with half lives 4 sec
and 8 sec respectively.
Their weights are in the ratio of 1 : 2. The amounts of a and B after an interva
l of 16 sec.
(a) 6.25 10 4 kg (b) 12.5 10 4 kg (c) 2.5 10 3 kg (d) 1.25 10 5 kg
47. The wavelength and frequency of photons in transition 1,2 and 3 for H like a
tom are .1, .2, .3 and .1, .2,
.3. then :
1
2
3
C
B
A
.1
.2 .3
(a) .3 = .1 + .2 (b) .3 = .1 + .2 (c) 1 2
3
1 2
. .
. .
. . . (d) 1 2
3
1 2
. .
. .
. . .
48. Which of the following pair constitute very similar radiations ?
(a) Hard U.V. ray and soft X ray. (b) Soft U.V. ray and hard X ray
(c) Very hard X ray and low frequency Y ray (d) Soft X ray and Y ray
49. The correct option are :
(a) In uranium ore, the ratio of U235 to U238 is 1 : 40 (b) Critical mass of ura
nium is 10 kg
(c) 92U235 : 92U238 = 1 : 4 (d) All the above
MODERN PHYSICS
50. A star initially has 1040 deutrons. It produces energy via, the processes 1H
2 + 1H2 ... 1H3 + p &
1H2 + 1H3 ... 2He4 + n. If the average power radiated bythe star is 1016W, the d
euteron supplyof the
star is exhausted in a time of the order of : [JEE, 93]
(A) 106 sec (B) 108 sec (C) 1012 sec (D) 1016 sec
51(i). Fast neutrons can easily be slowed down by :
(A) the use of lead shielding (B) passing themthroughwater
(C) elastic collisionswith heavynuclei (D) applying a strong electric field
(ii). Consider . particles, . particles & .-rays, each having an energy of 0.5 MeV.
Increasing order of
penetrating powers, the radiations are : [JEE, 94]
(A) ., ., . (B) ., ., . (C) ., ., . (D) ., ., .
52. Which ofthe following statement(s) is (are) correct ? [JEE, 94]
(A) The rest mass of a stable nucleus is less than the sumof the rest masses of
its separated nucleons.
(B) The rest mass of a stable nucleus is greater than the sumof the rest masses
of its separated nucleons.
(C) Innuclear fusion, energy is released byfusion two nuclei ofmediummass (appro
ximately100 amu).
(D) In nuclear fission, energyis released by fragmentation of a very heavy nucle
us.
53. The binding energy per nucleon of 16O is 7.97 MeV & that of 17O is 7.75 MeV.
The energy in MeV
required to remove a neutron from17Ois : [JEE, 95]
(A) 3.52 (B) 3.64 (C) 4.23 (D) 7.86
54. Themaximumkinetic energyofphotoelectrons emitted froma surfacewhenphotons of
energy6 eVfallon
it is 4 eV. the stopping potential inVolts is : [JEE, 97]
(A) 2 (B) 4 (C) 6 (D) 10
55. Select the correct alternative(s). [JEE, 98]
(i) Let mp be themass of a proton,mn themass of a neutron,M1 themass of a 20
10 Ne nucleus&M2 themass
of a 40
20Ca nucleus. Then :
(A) M2 = 2M1 (B) M2 > 2M1 (C) M2 < 2M1 (D) M1 < 10(mn + mp)
(ii) The half-life of 131I is 8 days. Given a sample of 131I at time t = 0, we c
an assert that :
(A) no nucleuswill decay before t = 4 days (B) no nucleuswill decay before t = 8
days
(C) all nucleiwill decay before t = 16 days (D) a given nucleusmaydecayat anytim
e after t = 0
56(a). Binding energyper nucleon vs.mass number curve for
nuclei is shownin the figure.W,X,Yand Zare four nuclei
indicated on the curve. The process that would release
energyis [JEE, 99]
30 60 90 120
Z
Y
X
W
8.5
8.0
7.5
5.0
Mass Number of Nuclei
in MeV
Binding Energy/nucleon
(A)Y. 2Z (B)W. X + Z
(C) W. 2Y (D) X .Y+ Z
MODERN PHYSICS
(b) Order ofmagnitude of density ofUraniumnucleus is, [mp = 1.67 10 27 kg]
(A) 1020 kg/m3 (B) 1017 kg/m3 (C) 1014 kg/m3 (D) 1011 kg/m3
(c) 22Ne nucleus, after absorbing energy, decays into two .-particles and an unk
nown nucleus.The unknown
nucleus is
(A) nitrogen (B) carbon (C) boron (D) oxygen
(d) Which of the following is a correct statement ?
(A) Beta rays are same as cathode rays (B) Gamma rays are high energyneutrons.
(C)Alpha particles are singlyionized heliumatoms
(D) Protons and neutrons have exactlythe samemass (E)None
(e) The half-life period of a radioactive elementXis same as themean-life time o
fanother radioactive element
Y. Initiallyboth of themhave the same number ofatoms.Then
(A) X&Yhave the same decay rate initially (B) X &Ydecay at the same rate always.
(C)Ywilldecay at a faster rate thanX (D) X willdecay at a faster rate thanY
57. Aparticle ofmassMat rest decays into two particles ofmassesm1 andm2, having
non-zero velocities. The
radio of the de-Brogliewavelengths of the particles, .1/.2, is [JEE, 99]
(A)m1/m2 (B)m2/m1 (C) 1.0 (D) 2 1 m / m
58.(a) Imagine an atommade up of a proton and a hypotherical particle of double
themass of the electron but
having the same charge as the electron.Apply theBohr atommodel and consider allp
ossible transitions of
this hypotheticalparticle to the first excited level. The longest wavelength pho
ton that willbe emitted has
wavelength ..(given in terms ofthe Rydberg constant R for the hydrogen atom) equ
al to [JEE, 2000 Scr.]
(A) 9/(5R) (B) 36/(5R) (C) 18/(5R) (D) 4/R
(b). The electronin a hydrogen atommakes a transition froman excited state to th
e ground state.Whichof the
following statements is true ? [JEE, 2000 Scr.]
(A) Its kinetic energy increases and its potential and total energies decrease.
(B) Its kinetic energydecreases, potential energyincreases and its total energyr
emains the same.
(C) Its kinetic and total energies decrease and its potential energy increases.
(D) Its kinetic, potential and total energies decrease.
59. The potentialdifference applied to anX-ray tube is 5 kV and the current thro
ugh it is 3.2mA. Then the
number of electrons striking the target per second is [JEE, 02 Scr.]
(A) 2 1016 (B) 5 1016 (C) 1 1017 (D) 4 1015
60. A Hydrogen atom and Li++ ion are both in the second excited state. If lH and
lLi are their respective
electronic angularmomenta, and EH and ELi their respective energies, then [JEE,
02 Scr.]
(A) lH > lLi and |EH| > |ELi| (B) lH = lLi and |EH| < |ELi|
(C) lH = lLi and |EH| > |ELi| (D) lH < lLi and |EH| < |ELi|
61. Givena sample ofRadium-226 having half-life of 4 days. Find the probability,
a nucleus disintegrateswithin
2 half lives. [JEE, 06]
(A) 1 (B) 1/2 (C) 3/4 (D) 1/4
MODERN PHYSICS
62. The graph between 1/. and stopping potential (V) of three metals
havingwork functions .1, .2 and .3 is anexperiment of photoelectric
effect is plotted as shown in the figure. Which of the following
statement(s) is/are correct? [Here . is thewavelength of the incident
ray].
V
0.001 0.002 0.004 1/ nm 1
metal 1 metal 2 metal 3
(A) Ratio ofwork functions .1 : .2 : .3 = 1 : 2 : 4
(B) Ratio ofwork functions .1 : .2 : .3 = 4 : 2 : 1
(C) tan ..is directly proportional to hc/e, where h is Planck s constant and c is
the speed of light
(D) The violet colour light can eject photoelectrons frommetals 2 and 3. [JEE, 0
6]
63. In the options given below, let E denote the rest mass energy of a nucleus a
nd n a neutron. The correct
option is : [JEE, 07]
(A) .236 . .137 . .97 .
92 53 39 E U . E I . E Y . 2E(n) (B) .236 . .137 . .97 .
92 53 39 E U . E I . E Y . 2E(n)
(C) . 236 . .140 . .94 .
92 56 36 E U . E Ba . E Kr . 2E(n) (D) . 236 . .140 . .94 .
92 56 36 E U . E Ba . E Kr . 2E(n)
64. The largestwavelengthinthe ultraviolet regionofthe hydrogenspectrumis 122 nm
.The smallestwavelength
in the infrared region of the hydrogen spectrum(to the nearest integer) is [JEE,
07]
(A) 802 nm (B) 823 nm (C) 1882 nm (D) 1648 nm
65. Electronswith de-Brogliewavelength . fallon the target in anX-ray tube. The
cut-offwavelength of the
emittedX-rays is [JEE, 07]
(A)
2
0
2mc
h
.
. . (B) 0
2h
mc
. . (C)
2 2 2
0 2
2m c
h
.
. . (D) .0 = .
66. Which one of the following statements isWRONGin the context ofX-rays generat
ed fromaX-raytube?
(A)Wavelength of characteristicX-rays decreaseswhen the atomic number ofthe targ
et increases
(B) Cut-offwavelengthof the continuousX-rays depends on the atomic number of the
target. [JEE, 08]
(C) Intensityof the characteristicX-rays depends on the electricalpower given to
theX-rays tube.
(D) Cut-offwavelengthof the continuousX-rays depends on the energyof the electro
ns intheX-rays tube.
67. Assume that the nuclear binding energyper nucleon(B/A) versusmass

number (A) is as shown inthe figure.Use this plot to choose the correct
choice(s) given below: Figure
100 200 A
0
2
4
6
8
B/A
(A) Fusionof two nucleiwithmass numbers lying in the range of
1 <A< 50 will release energy.
(B) Fusionof two nucleiwithmass numbers lying inthe range of
51 <A< 100 will release energy.
(C) Fission of a nucleus lying inthemass range of100 <A< 200will release energyw
hen broken into two
equalfragments.
(D) Fission ofa nucleus lying inthemass range of 200 <A< 260will release energyw
henbroken into two
equalfragments. [JEE, 08]
68. The quantumnumber n of the state finally populated inHe+ ions is [JEE, 08]
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 5
MODERN PHYSICS
69. Thewavelength oflight emitted in the visible region byHe+ ions after collisi
onswithHatoms is [JEE, 08]
(A) 6.5 10 7 m (B) 5.6 10 7 m (C) 4.8 10 7 m (D) 4.0 10 7 m
70. The ratio of the kinetic energy of the n = 2 electron for theHatomto that of
He+ ion is [JEE, 08]
(A)
1
4 (B)
1
2 (C) 1 (D) 2
71. Aradioactive sampel S1 having an activity of 5Ci has twice the number of nucl
ei as another sample S2
which has an activity of 10 Ci. The half lives of S1 and S2 can be : [JEE, 08]
(A) 20 years and 5 years, respectively (B) 20 years and 10 years, respectively
(C) 10 years each (D) 5 years each
72. Photoelectric effect experiments are performed using three different metal p
lates p, q and r havingwork
functions .p = 2.0 eV, .q = 2.5 eVand .r = 3.0 eV, respectively.Alight beamconta
ining wavelengths of
550 nm, 450 nmand 350 nmwith equal intensities illuminates each of the plates. T
he correct I Vgraph for
the experiment is [JEE, 09]
(A)
I
p
q
r
V
(B)
I
p q
r
V
(C)
I
p
q
r
V
(D)
I
r q p
V
Passage
PASSAGE : 1
Figure 1 below depicts three hypothetical atoms. Energy levels are represented a
s horizontal segments. The
distance between the segments is representative of the energy difference between
the various levels . All
possible transitions between energy levels are indicated by arrows
Atom #1 Atom # 2
Atom # 3
Scientists can observe the spectral lines of atoms that are dominant in far-away
galaxies. Due to the speed at
which these galaxies are travelling, these lines are shifted, but their pattern
remains the same. This allows
researchers to use the spectral pattern to determine which atoms they are seeing
. Table 1 below shows

spectroscopic measurements made by researchers trying to determine the atomic ma
keup of a particular faraway
galaxy. Light energy is not measured directly, but rather is determined from mea
suring the frequency of
light. Which is proportional to the energy.
MODERN PHYSICS
Table 1
Frequencies Measured
868440
880570
879910
856390
1. For each of three hypothetical atoms (Atom 1, Atom 2 and Atom 3), Figure 1 de
picts the
(A) number of electrons and the amount of energy the atom contains
(B) distance an electron travels from one part of the atom to another
(C) energy released by the atom as an electron as it moves from one energy state
to another
(D) frequency with which the atom s electrons move from one energy state to anothe
r
2. In which of the three hypothetical atoms depicted in Figure 1 does the energy
of the light released by
the atom vary the least
(A) Atom 1 (B) Atom 2 (C) Atom 3 (D) It is impossible to
tell
3. Scientist observing an actual atom similar to hypothetical Atom 1 in the figu
re might observe
(A) three spectral lines close together and two other spectral lines close toget
her
(B) light blinking at six different frequencies
(C) a much brighter light emanating from one electron than from any other.
(D) four distinct spectral lines emanating from six different electrons.
4. Based on the spectroscopic measurements shown in Table 1, which of the atoms
in Figure 1 (Atom 1,
Atom2, or Atom 3) is most similar to the one the scientists were observing, and
why ?
(A) Atom 2, because it contains four different energy levels
(B) Atom 3, because it contains four different energy levels
(C) Atom 1, because the frequencies listed in Table 1 indicate a high level of a
tomic activity.
(D) Atom 3, because there is a comparatively small difference between exactly tw
o of the four frequencies
listed in Table 1
5. The laws of atomic physics prohibit electron movements between certain energy
states. In atomic
physics. these prohibitions are called forbidden transitions. Based on Figure 1, w
hich of the following
is most accurate ?
(A) Atom 2 has the same number of forbidden transitions than Atom 3
(B) Atom 2 has more forbidden transitions than atom 3
(C) Atom 3 has the same number of forbidden transitions as Atom 1
(D) Atom 1 has fewer forbidden transitions than Atom 2
PASSAGE : 2
In quantum mechanics, some quantities are discrete and cannot be continuous. One
of these quantities
is the energy. Energy can only take certain values E1, E2, E3, E4......., which
are called energy levels.
The energy cannot take any values between E1 and E2, or E2 and E3 or E3 and E4 e
tc. Certain transitions
from one energy level to another result in the emission of a photon of radiation
, whereas others can
only take place if a photon is absorbed. The energy levels in a newly discovered
gas are expressed as:
2
1
n 2
E E z
n
.
.
in which E1z2 is the ground state energy. Take z = 1 for simplicity, but do not a
ssume that the gas is
hydrogen. An experiment is designed to measure the energy as a functions of the
level. The results
obtained are as follows :
n En(eV)
2 144
3 64
4 36
6. The ionization energy of the gas must be
(A) 244 eV (B) 576 eV (C) 144 eV (D) +13.6 eV
7. The ground state energy is
(A) 144 eV (B) + 144 eV (C) 244 eV (D) none of the above
PASSAGE : 3
The power per unit area reaching the Earth s surface from
the sun, averaged over 24 hours, is 0.2 kW/m2. This solar
energy can be converted directly into electrical energy via
the photoelectric effect. For example, in the photoelectrical
cathode
(emitter)
incidentlight Anode
(collector)
photocell
A
Ammeter
cell shown in figure 1, a cathode emits electrons when
PASSAGE : 3
The power per unit area reaching the Earth s surface from
the sun, averaged over 24 hours, is 0.2 kW/m2. This solar
energy can be converted directly into electrical energy via
the photoelectric effect. For example, in the photoelectrical
cathode
(emitter)
incidentlight Anode
(collector)
photocell
A
Ammeter
cell shown in figure 1, a cathode emits electrons when
kinetic energy of Emax will not be able to reach the anode therefore the current
will stop altogether. The
value of this stopping voltage is dependent only on Emax .
11. The most efficient modern photovoltaic cells can covert the Sun s energy into
electrical energy with an
efficiency of 35%. Approximately what area would have to be covered by such cell
s in order to supply
a household with 20 kW-hourse of electrical energy per day
(A) 0.5 m2 (B) 12 m2 (C) 285 m2 (D) 6850 m2
12. Light intensity is defined as the energy flowing per unit area per unit time
for an area perpendicular to
the direction of energy flow. In an experiment, the frequency of light incident
on the cathode of a
MODERN PHYSICS
8. Which of the following shapes is most likely to represent the graph of En ver
sus 1/n2 ?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
9.
A transition from the n = 2 state to the n = 3 state results :
(A) in emission of a photon of energy 144 eV (B) in emission of a photon of ener
gy 80 eV
(C) in emission of an ultraviolet photon
10.
A transition from the n = 4 state to the n = 3 state results :
(A) in emission of a photon of energy 28 eV
(C) in emission of an infrared photon
(D) only accomplished if a photon is absorbed
(B) in emission of a photon of energy 13.6 eV
(D) only accomplished if a photon is absorbed.
electrons travel to the anode, and a small electric current flows. An electron w
ithin the cathode requires

a minimum energy to break free from the cathode surface. This minimum energy is
known as the work
function, W, and is a constant intrinsic to the material of which the cathode is
composed. An individual
photonincident on the cathode collides with an electron and is absorbed, transfe
rring all of its energy to
the electron. The energy of each incident photon is given by Ep = hf, where f is
the frequency of incident
light and h is Planck s constant. If Ep is less than W, then no electrons will be
ejected from the
cathode at all. The maximum kinetic energy Emax of an electron liberated from the
cathode is given by
illuminated by light of a high enough frequency. The ejected
:E =E
max p
A voltage source can be connected across the photoelectric cell to oppose the cu
rrent flow. At a
critical applied voltage, called the stopping voltage, even an electron ejected
from the cathode with a
photoelectric cell is held constant, but the intensity is varied. As the intensi
ty of the incident light is
increased, the stopping voltage.
it increases.
(A) increases, because more electrons are ejected from the cathode as the number
of photons striking
(B) remains the same, because the energy supplied to one electron depends only o
n the energy of an
individual photon.
(C) increases, because the electrons in the cathode absorb more energy per unit
time
(D) remains the same, because each incident photon shares its energy between sev
eral electrons in
the cathode.
13.
The behavior of light is sometimes explained in terms of particles and sometimes
in terms of waves.
Which of the following CANNOT be explained by a theory that refers to light in t
erms of waves alone
(A) Current flow in a photoelectric cell can be stopped by reducing the intensit
y of the incident light
while maintaining the same frequency.
(B) An electron requires energy to escape from the surface of a photosensitive c
athode.
(C) Current flow in a photoelectric cell can be stopped by reducing the frequenc
y of the incident light
while maintaining the same intensity.
(D) The angle through which light is refracted when it moves from one medium to
another is a function of
frequency, rather than intensity.
MODERN PHYSICS
14. Under which of the following conditions will the stopping voltage across a p
hotoelectric cell be greatest(A) The wavelength of the incident light is short, and the work function of the
cathode material is low.
(B) The wavelength of the incident light is short, and the work function of the
cathode material is high.
(C) The wavelength of incident light is long, and the work function of the catho
de is low.
(D) The wavelength of the incident light is long, and the work function of the c
athode material is high.
PASSAGE : 4
An x- ray tube consists of two metal electrodes, a heated filament cathode,
and an anode containing the metal target sealed under high vaccum in a glass
envelope. The heated filament in the cathode emits electrons which are
accelerated by a high DC voltage and collide with the positive anode target.
Two different types of x-ray spectra may be seen. The continuous or
bremsstrahlung spectrum that is always present is produced when the electron
Kp
Ka
I
.min .
penetrates through the outer electron cloud and is abruptly accelerated by the
large positive charge on the nucleus of a heavy atom. The production of x-rays
increases with increasing atomic number but is typically no more than 1%
efficient, the remaining energy appearing as heat in the target metal. The sharp
line spectra that can be
seen at higher voltages occur when the incident electrons eject an inner shell e
lectron, such as n = 1 shell
electron. The spectral line is produced when an electron, say from n = 2, fills
the vacancy in the n = 1 shell,
emitting an x-ray photon whose energy corresponds to the energy difference betwe
en the n = 2 and n = 1
shells. The intensity of x-rays is proportional to the number of photons created.
The photon energy E = hf
= hc/. where h is Planck s constant and c is the speed of light. Figure 1 is a ske
tch of intensity versus
wavelength for a molybdenum target with an accelerating voltage of 35,000 V.
15. Figure shows that the continuous x-ray spectrum has a minimum (cut-off) wave
length. No shorter
wavelengths are emitted from the tube. This minimum wavelength corresponds to :
(A) the smallest number of emitted photons (B) the highest energy photons emitte
d
(C) the type of cathode used (D) the type of anode material used.
16. The sharp K. peak in figure 1 corresponds to an electron transition from sta
te n = 2 to n = 1, where K.
corresponds to a transition from state n = 3 to n = 1. The K. line peak is highe
r than the K. because
(A) it is due to a higher atomic number target metal (B) K. is the more energeti
c transition
(C) the K. transition is more probable than the K. transition, so its intensity
is higher
(D) the K. transition occurs in the valence shells instead of the inner shells
17. The current to the heated filament in the cathode is increased while the acc
elerating voltage is kept
constant. This increased current increases the number of electrons striking the
target increasing the
overall intensity. What effect does this have on the minimum wavelength value ?
(A) The minimum value will move to shorter wavelength values.

(B) It will move to longer wavelength values
(C) There will no longer be a cutoff wavelength.
(D) The minimum wavelength will remain the same.
18. If the accelerating voltage, V0, increased while keeping the filament curren
t constant, the overall intensity
will also increase. What effect will this have on the wavelength position where
the two peaks are
observed?
(A) They will occur at the same wavelengths
(B) The peaks occur at shorter wavelengths due to the higher wavelengths due to
the higher energies
available.
(C) They may diappear because all energies may exceed those of the n = 3 to n =
1 transition
(D) The K. occur at longer wavelengths but the K. occur at shorter wavelengths.
19. Because the efficiency of x-ray production increases with increasing atomic
number, Z, it would seem
that lead (Z = 82) would be a better target material than tungsten (Z = 74). How
ever, tungsten (also
used in ordinary light bulb filaments) is the most common target meal, whereas l
ead is never used. this
is because(A) lead has too many electrons (B) lead becomes radioactive
(C) lead would melt, whereas tungsten has a very high melting point
(D) lead will not get hot enough to produce and x-rays.
MODERN PHYSICS
PASSAGE : 5
Student in a medical physics class are given the assignment of planning a nuclea
r medicine facility.
They not only design the rooms and choose the major equipment they also will hav
e to solve elementary
problems dealing with treatment, doses, radiation protection and safety, and the
general principles of physics
of typical isotopes that might be used in diagnostic nuclear medicine. They are
required to be familiar with
concepts of half life, half-thickness for shielding and the decay schemes of rep
resentative isotopes.
20. The most common isotope used in diagnostic work is Technicium. It is furnish
ed from a generator or
cow in which the negative beta decay of Molybdenum -99 produces the desirablemetas
table isotope
of Technicium according to the following decay scheme ?
42Mo99 . ZTcA + 1e0
What are the atomic number , Z and mass number A, of the Tc isotope ?
(A) 41, 99 (B) 42, 99 (C) 43, 98 (D) 43, 99
21. If the Mo99 has a physical half-life of 67 hours, about what fraction is lef
t after 5.5 days ?
(A) 0.10 (B) 0.25 (C) 0.40 (D) 0.45
22. This isotope of Technicium has a physical half life of 6 hours. When it is t
agged onto a polyphosphate
carrier used for a certain procedure, there is a biological half-life of 12 hour
s (for the biological excretion
of the carrier). What is the effective half life in this case ?
(A) 4.0 hours (B) 7.5 hours (C) 10 hours (D) 14 hours
23. The cow was milked at 8.00 A.M. At 2.00 PM the activity of the milked sample i
s measured by a
technician and found to be 200 millicuries. What was the activity of the Technic
ium at 8.00 A.M.
(A) 100 mCi (B) 150 mCi (C) 300 mCi (D) 400 mCi
24. Thallium -201 is used for myocardial prefusion studies of the heart. It deca
ys by electron capture when
the nucleus captures one of the atom s own orbital electrons (converting a proton
in the nucleus into an
uncharged neutron), with the emission of gamma rays used for the imaging. What a
re the atomic
number Z, the mass number, A, of the Mercury isotope produced in the decay of th
e Thallium -201 ?
81Tl201 + 1e0 . ZHgA + Is
(A) 80, 201 (B) 80, 202 (C) 81, 201 (D) 81, 203
25. The Thallium -201 half-life is 74 hours. If the sample has an activity of 80
millicuries initially, what will
be the activity after 9.25 days ?
(A) 2.5 mCi (B) 5 mCi (C) 10 mCi (D) 20 mCi
26. One advantage of the Thallium isotope is the low whole body absorbed dose per
millicurie , which for
Tl-201 is 70 millirads/millicurie. If the recommended amount to be injected for
a heart scan is 10
microcurie per kg of body mass, what would be the whole body dose in millirads f
or a 70 kg person ?
(A) 34 mrad (B) 49 mrad (C) 72 mrad (D) 134 mrad
27. Another feature that makes Technicium a desirable isotope for diagnostic nuc
lear medicine use is that
it is a pure gamma emitter. What is the meaning of the terminology pure gamma emitt
er ?
(A) The gamma radiation stays in the patient s tissue while the electrons are dete
cted.
(B) Particles emitted cannot escape tissue while the gama radiation escapes
(C) The isotope decay emits only penetrating gamma radiation that can escape fro
m tissue and be
detected.
(D) The isotope decay emits energetic electrons that act like gamma rays.
28. A patient is injected with Technicium and is estimated to have received a wh
ole body dose of 400
millirads. If the Quality Factor is 1 for gamma radiation and 3 for low energy neu
trons, what was the
doese received by the patient in rem units ?
(A) 4 mrems (B) 400 mrems (C) 1200 mrems (D) 4000 mrems
29. The half-thickness of lead for the absorption of the gamma radiation from a
particular isotope is 0.4 cm
of lead. How many half thicknesses are necessary to reduce the radiation penetra
tion to less than 1%
and how thick would the lead be ?
(A) 2 half - thickness, 1.2 cm (B) 4 half-thicknesses, 3.2 cm
(C) 7 half-thicknesses, 2.8 cm (D) 11 half-thicknesses , 4.4 cm
PASSAGE : 6
Medical researchers and technicians can track the characteristic radiation patte
rns emitted by certain
inherently unstable isotopes as they spontaneously decay into other elements. Th
e half life of a radioactive
isotope is the amount of time necessary for one-half of the initial amount of it
s nuclei to decay. the decay
curves of isotopes 39Y90 and 39Y91 are graphed below as functions of the ratio o
f N, the number nuclei remaining
after a given period to N0, the initial number of nuclei.
MODERN PHYSICS
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (days)
N/N0
39Y90
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
30 60 90 120 150 180
Time (days)
N/N0
39Y91
30. The half-life of 39Y90 is approximately :
(A) 2.7 days (B) 5.4 days (C) 27 days (D) 48 days
31. What will the approximate ratio of 39Y90 to 39Y91 be after 2.7 days if the i
nitial samples of the two
isotopes contain equal numbers of nuclei ?
(A) 1 : 1 (B) 1 : 2 (C) 2 : 1 (D) 10 : 1
32. When inhaled by humans, 39Y90 accumulates in the gastrointestinal tract, whe
reas 39Y91 accumulates in
the bones. If the total amount of each isotope inhaled goes to the specified are
a, which of the following
situations will exist three days after a patient inhales these substances, assum
ing none of the isotopes
leave the assuming none of the isotopes leave the specified areas due to physiol
ogical factors ?
(A) The amount of 39Y91 in the gastrointestinal tract will be approximately equa
l to the total amount
inhaled.
(B) The amount of 39Y90 in the bones will be approximately one-half of the total
amount inhaled
(C) The amount of 39Y90 in the gastrointestinal tract will be approximately onehalf of the total amount
inhaled
(D) None of the 39Y91 inhaled will be left in the bones.
33. Approximately how many 39Y91 nuclei will exist after three half -lives have
passed, if there are 1,000
nuclei to begin with ?
(A) 50 (B) 125 (C) 250 (D) 500
34. Which of the following conclusions is / are supported by the information giv
en in the passage ?
I. 39Y90 is less stable than 39Y91

II. Only one-quarter of the original amount of 39Y90 will remain after 116 days.
III. 39Y90 and 39Y91 are both radioactive
(A) I only (B) III only (C) I and II only (D) I and III only
PASSAGE : 7
Scientists are working hard to develop nuclear fusion reactor. Nucleiof heavy hy
drogen, 2
1 H , known as
deuteron and denoted by D, can be thought of as a candidate for fusion reactor.
The D D reaction is
2
1 H + 2
1 H . 3
2He + n+ energy. In the core of fusion reactor, a gas of heavyhydrogen is fullyi
onized into
deuteron nuclei and electrons. This collection of 2
1 H nuclei and electrons is known as plasma. The nuclei
move randomlyin the reactor core and occasionally come close enough for nuclear
fusion to take place.
Usually, the temperatures in the reactor core are too high and no materialwall c
an be used to confine the
plasma. Special techniques are used which confine the plasma for a time t0 befor
e the particles fly away
fromthe core. Ifn is the density(number/volume) ofdeuterons, the product nt0 is
calledLawsonnumber. In
one of the criteria, a reactor is termed successful ifLawson number is greater t
han 5 1014s/cm3.
It may be halpful to use the following : Boltzmann constant k = 8.6 10 5 eV/K;
2
0
e
4.. = 1.44 10 9
eVm. [JEE, 09]
MODERN PHYSICS MODERN PHYSICS

35.
In the core of nuclear fusion reactor, the gas becomes plasma because of
(A) strongnuclearforceactingbetweenthedeuterons
(B) Coulomb force acting between the deuterons
(C) Coulomb force acting between deuteron-electron pairs
(D) the high temperature maintained inside the reactor core.
36.
Assume that two deuteron nuclei in the core of fusion reactor at temperature T a
re moving towards each
other, each withkinetic energy1.5 kT, whenthe separationbetweenthemis large enou
ghto neglect Coulomb
potential energy.Also neglect any interaction from other particles in the core.
The minimum temperature T
required for them to reach a separation of 4 10 15 m is in the range.
(A) 1.0 109 K < T < 2.0 109 K (B) 2.0 109 K < T < 3.0 109 K
(C) 3.0 109 K < T < 4.0 109 K (D) 4.0 109 K < T < 5.0 109 K
37. Results of calculations for four different designs of a fusion reactor using
D D reaction are given below.
Which of these is most promising based on Lawson criterian ?
(A) deuteron density = 2.0 1012 cm 3, confinement time = 5.0 10 3 s
(B) deuteron density = 8.0 1014 cm 3, confinement time = 9.0 10 1 s
(C) deuteron density = 4.0 1023 cm 3, confinement time = 1.0 10 11 s
(D) deuteron density = 1.0 1024 cm 3, confinement time = 4.0 10 12 s
MODERN PHYSICS
Level
2
1. When a surface is irridated with light of . = 4950A.
, a photo current appears which vanishes if a retarding
potential greater then 0.6V is applied across the photo tube. When a different s
ource of light is used, it
is found that the critical retarding potential is changed to 1.1 V. what is the
work function of the surface
and the wavelength of the second source ? If the photo-electrons (after emission
from the source) are
subjected to a magnetic field of 10 tesla what changes will be observed in the a
bove two retarding
potentials?
2. A particle of charge equal to that of an electron and mass 208 times the mass
of the electron (called a
mu-meson) moves in a circular orbit around a nucleus of charge +3e. (Take the ma
ss of the nucleus to
be infinite.) Assuming the Bohr model of the atom to be applicable to this syste
m,
(i) derive an expression for the radius of the nth Bohr-orbit,
(ii) find the value of n for which the radius of the orbit is approximately the
same as that of the first
Bohr orbit for the hydrogen atom, and
(iii) find the wavelength of the radiation emitted when the . meson jumps from the
third orbit to the
first orbit. (Rydberg s constant = 1.097 x 107 m 1 )
3. Hydrogen atom in its ground state is excited by means of monochromatic radiat
ion of wavelength 975A.
.
How many different lines are possible in the resulting spectrum ? Calculate the
longest wavelength
amongst them. You may assume the ionization energy for hydrogen atom as 13.6 eV.
4. An X-ray tube works at a potential difference of 100,000 V. Only 0.1% of the
energy of cathode rays is
converted into X-ray radiation and heat is generated in the target at the rate o
f 120 calorie per second.
What current does the tube pass and what is the energy and velocity of an electr
on when it reaches the
target?
5. A laser emits a light pulse of duration . . 0.13 ms and energy E = 10 J. Find
the mean pressure exerted
by such a light pulse when it is focussed into a spot of diameter d = 10 .m on a
surface perpendicular
to the beam and possessing a reflection coefficient . = 0.5
6. A short light pulse of energy E = 7.5 J falls in the form of a narrow and alm
ost parallel beam on a mirror
plate whose reflection coefficient is . = 0.60. The angle of incidence is 30. In
terms of the corpuscular
theory find the momentum transferred to the plate.
7. The binding energy of an electron in the ground state of He atom is equal to
E0 = 24.6 eV. Find the energy
required to remove both electrons from the atom.
8. A stationary He+ ion emitted a photon corresponding to the first line of the
Lyman series. That photon
liberated a photoelectron from a stationary hydrogen atom in the ground state. F
ind the velocity of the
photoelectron.
9. Taking into account the motion of the nucleus of a hydrogen atom, find the ex
pressions for the electron s
binding energy in the ground state and for the Rydberg constant. How much (in pe
r cent) do the binding
energy and the Rydberg constant, obtained without taking into account the motion
of the nucleus, differ
from the more accurate corresponding values of these quantities?
10. Calculate the separation between the particles of a system in the ground sta
te, the corresponding
binding energy, and the wavelength of the first line of the Lyman series, if suc
h a system is
(a) a mesonic hydrogen atom whose nucleus is a proton ( in a mesonic atom an ele
ctron is replaced
by a meson whose charge is the same and mass is 207 that of an electron);
(b) a positronium consisting of an electron and a positron revolving around thei
r common centre of
masses.
MODERN PHYSICS
11. In accordance with classical electrodynamics an electron moving with an acce
leration a loses its energy
due to radiation as : 2
3
2
a
3c
2e
dt
d . .
.
Estimate the time during which an electron moving in a hydrogen
atom along a circular orbit of radius r = 50 pm would have fallen onto the nucle
us. Assume a to be
directed permanently towards the nucleus.
12. The Earth revolves round the Sun due to gravitational attraction. Suppose th
at the Sun and the Earth are
point particles with their existing masses and that Bohr s quantization rule for a
ngular momentum is
valid in the case of gravitation.
(a) Calculate the minimum radius the Earth can have for its orbit.
(b) What is the value of the principal quantum number n for the present radius?
Mass of the Earth =
6.0 x 1024 kg, mass of the Sun = 2.0 x 1030 kg, Earth-Sun distance = 1.5 x 1011
m.
13. A parallel electron beam is obtained from the application of
accelerating voltage V0 = 2 x 104 V. These electrons are sent
travelling in the direction normal to an infinitely long straight
copper wire of radius r0 = 10 8 m as shown in figure. The wire
carries uniform positive charge with charge density
. = 4.4 x 10 11 c/m, the distance of the electrons closest
b
L
Electron Beam Screen
approach to the wire if uncharged is represented by bmax = 10 4 m.
The electrons after passing the charged copper wire land on the
screen located at distance L = 0.3 cm ( L >.b) from the wire.
At the beginning of the experiment the electron beam is confined
within the normal distance to the wire of b ( collision parameter) (see Figure).
(a) Determine electric field E due to the charged copper wire and sketch a graph
of electric field E as
a function of distance measured from the axis of the wire to inside as well as o
utside the wire.
(b) Calculate the angle of deflection of electron beam which has the collision p
arameter b and the
electron does not collide with the wire. If f . is a small angle between the dir
ection of the original
velocity of the electron and the direction of final velocity of the electron arr
iving at the screen.
Calculate f . .
(c) Show that two plane waves representing deflected beams in the upper and lowe
r parts give
interference pattern on the screen. Calculate the number of bright bands in the
interfence pattern.
14. To stop the flow of photoelectrons produced by electromagnetic radiation inc
ident on a certain metal, a
negative potential of 300 volts is required. If the photoelectric threshold of t

he metal is 1500A.
, what is
the frequency of the incident radiation? Is this radiation visible?
15. A toy truck has dimensions as shown in Figure and its width normal to
the plane of this paper is d. Sun rays are incident on it as shown in
figure. If intensity of sun rays is . and all surfaces of truck are perfectly
black, calculate tension in thread used to keep truck stationary. Neglect
fraction.
.
Thread
b
a
h
16. Amonochromatic beam of light ( . = 4900 A) incident normally upon a surface p
roduces a pressure of 5
x 10 7 N/m2 on it. Assuming that 25% of the light incident is reflected and the re
st absorbed, find the
number of photons falling per second on a unit area of thin surface.
17. A beam of light consists of four wavelength 4000A.
, 4800A.
, 6000A.
and 7000A.
, each of intensity 1.5
x 10 3 wm 2. The beam falls normally on an area 10 4 m2 of a clean metallic surface of
work function 1.9
eV.Assuming no loss of light energy calculate the number of photo electrons libe
rated per second.
18. A single electron orbits around a stationay nucleus of charge +Ze, where Z i
s a constant and e is the
magnitude of the electric charge. It requires 47.2 eV to excite the electronfrom
the second Bohrorbit
tothe third Bohr orbit. Find :
MODERN PHYSICS
(i) the value of Z
(ii) the energy required to excite the electron from the third to the fourth Boh
r orbit.
(iii) The wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation required tomove the electr
on from.
(iv) Thekinetic energy, the potentialenergy and the angular momentumof the elect
ron in the first Bohr
ortib.
(v) the radius of the first Bohr orbit.
19. Radiations from hydrogenic C gas corresponding to 2nd line of Lyman series f
alls on a hydrogenic atom
where rotating particle s mass and charge are unknown. Nucleus contains one proton
only. This atom is
excited to 4th excited energy level.
(a) Find a relation for valid values of mass and charge of the rotating particle
s.
(b) Find the maximum K.E.of the electron ejected due to aforesaid radiation fall
ing on a hydrogenic
potassium having some of the atoms in the ground energy level & some in the 4th
energy level.
20. Stopping potentials of 24, 100, 110 and 115 kV are measured for photoelectro
ns emitted from a certain
element when it is radiated with monochromatic x-ray. If this element is used as
a target in an x-ray
tube, what will be the wavelength of K line?
21. Light from a discharge tube containing hydrogen atoms falls on the surface o
f a piece of sodium. The
kinetic energy of the fastest photo-electrons emitted form sodius is 0.73 eV. Th
e work fraction for sodium
is 1.82 eV. Find :
(i) the energy of the photons causing the photoelectric emission.
(ii) the quantum numbers of the two levels involved in the emission of these pho
tons.
(iii) the charge in the angular momentum of the eletron in the hydrogen atom in
the above transition.
(iv) the recoil speed of the emitting atom assuming it to be at rest before the
transition.
(Ionization potential of hydrogen is 13.6 eV).
22. A gas of hydrogen like atoms can absorb radiations of 68 eV. Consequently, t
he atoms emit radiations of
only three different wavelengths. All the wavelengths are equal or smaller than
that of the absorbed
photon.
(a) Determine the initial state of the gas atoms.
(b) Identify the gas atoms.
(c) Find the minimum wavelength of the emitted radiation.
(d) Find the ionization energy and the respective wavelength for the gas atoms.
23. According to the Thomson model, a helium atom consists of a cloud of positiv
e charge, within which two
electrons sit at equlibrium positions. Assume that the positive cloud has a char
ge +2e uniformly distributed
over the volume of a sphere of radius 0.50 A.
.
(a) Find the equilibrium position of the two electrons. Assume that the electron
s are symmetrically
placed with respect to the centre.
(b) What is the frequency of small radial oscillations of the electrons about th
eir equilibrium positions.

Assume that the electrons move symmetrically with identical amplitudes.
24. The Rydberg constants for hydrogen and singly ionized helium are R1 and R2 r
espectively. Find the ratio
of the mass of the proton to that of the electron in terms of R1, R2 and R. .
25. A sample contains 10 2 kg each of two substances A and B with half lives 4 sec
ond and 8 second
respectively. Their weights are in the ratio of 1.2. Find the amounts of A and B
after an interval of 16
second.
26. A sample of uranium is a mixture of three isotopes 92U234, 92U235 and 92U238
present in the ratio of 0.006%,
0.71% and 99.284% respectively. The half-lives of these isotopes are 2.5 x 105 y
ears, 7.1 x 108 years
and 4.5 x 109 years respectively. Calculate the contribution to activity (in %)
of each isotope in this
sample.
MODERN PHYSICS
27. Polonium ( 84Po210 ) emits 2He4 particles and is converted into lead (82Pb20
6). This reaction is used for
producing electric power in a space mission. Po210 has half life of 138.6 days.
Assuming an efficiency of
10% for the thermoelectric machine, howmuch Po210 is required to produce 1.2 x 1
07 J of electric energy
per day at the end of 693 days. Also find the initial activity of the material.
(Given : masses of nuclei Po210
= 209.98264 a.m.u., Pb206 = 205.97440 a.m.u., 2He4 = 4.00260 a.m.u., 1 a.m.u. =
931 MeV and Avogadro
number = 6x1023/mol.
28. 10 3 kg of radioactive isotope (atomic mass 226) emits 3.72 x 1010 . -particle
s in a second. Calculate the
half-life of the isotope. If 4.2 x 102 joule is released in one hour in this pro
cess, what is the average
energy of the . -particle?
29. In an ore containing uranium, the ratio of U238 to Pb206 nuclei is 3. Calcul
ate the age of the ore, assuming
that all the lead present in the ore is the final stable product of U238. Take t
he half-life of U238 to be 4.5 x
109 year.
30. A7 Li target is bombarded with a proton beam current of 10 4 A for 1 hour to p
roduce 7Be of activity 1.8 x
108 disintegrations per second. Assuming that one 7Be radioactive nuclei is prod
uced by bombarding
1000 protons, determine its half-life.
Level 3
1. Asmall quantityof solution containing 24Na radionuclide (half life 15 hours)
or activity1.0microcurie is
injected into the blood of a person.Asample of the blood of value 1 cm3 taken af
ter 5 hours shows an
activity of 296 disintegrations per minute. Determine the total value of blood i
n the bodyof the person.
Assume that the radioactive solutionmixes uniformly in the blood of the person.
(1 Curie = 3.7 1010
disintegrations per second) [JEE, 94]
2. At a given instant there are 25%undecayed radio-active nuclei in a sample.Aft
er 10 sec the number of
undecayed nuclei remains to 12.5%. Calculate : [JEE, 96]
(i)mean-life ofthe nuclei and
(ii)The time inwhich the number ofundecayed nuclearwill further reduce to 6.25%o
fthe reduced number.
3. Consider the following reaction ; 2H1 + 2H1 = 4He2 + Q. [JEE, 96]
Mass of the deuteriumatom= 2.0141 u;Mass of the heliumatom= 4.0024 u
This is a nuclear _______ reaction inwhich the energyQis released is _______MeV.
4. The element Curium 248
96 Cmhas a mean life of 1013 seconds. Its primary decaymodes are spontaneous
fission and . decay, the formerwith a probabilityof 8%and the laterwitha probabi
lityof92%. Eachfission
releases 200MeVof energy.Themasses involved in . decayare as follows :
248
96 Cm= 248.072220 u, 244
94 Pu = 244.064100 u & 42
He = 4.002603 u.
Calculate the power output froma sample of 1020 Cmatoms. (Iu = 931MeV/C2) [JEE,
97]
5. Nuclei of a radioactive elementAare being produced at a constant rate .. the

element has a decay constant
..At time t = 0, there areN0 nucleiof the element. [JEE, 98]
(a) Calculate the number Nof nuclei ofAat time t.
(b) If . = 2N0., calculate the number of nucleiofAafter one halflife ofA&also th
e limiting value ofNas
t ....
MODERN PHYSICS
6. Photoelectrons are emittedwhen 400 nmradiationis incident on a surface ofwork
function 1.9 eV. These
photoelectrons pass througha regioncontaining .-particles.Amaximumenergyelectron
combineswith an
.-particle to formaHe+ ion, emittinga single photoninthis process.He+ ions thus
formed are intheir fourth
excited state. Find the energies in eVofthe photons, lying in the 2 to 4eVrange,
that are likelyto be emitted
during and after the combination. [Take, h = 4.14 10 15 eV s] [JEE, 99]
7(a). Ahydrogen-like atomof atomic number Z is in an excited state of quantumnum
ber 2 n. It can emit a
maximumenergyphoton of 204 eV. If itmakes a transition to quantumstate n, a phot
on ofenergy40.8 eV
is emitted. Find n, Z and the ground state energy(in eV) for this atom.Also, cal
culate theminimumenergy
(in eV) that can be emitted bythis atomduring de-excitation. Ground state energy
of hydrogen atomis
13.6 eV. [JEE, 2000]
(b). When a beamof 10.6 eV photon of intensity 2W/m2 falls on a platinumsurface
of area 1 104 m2 and
work function5.6 eV, 0.53%ofthe incident photons eject photoelectrons. Find the
number ofphotoelectrons
emitted per sec and theirminimumandmaximumenergies in eV. [JEE, 2000]
8. Ahydrogenlike atom(described bytheBohrmodel) is observed to emit sixwavelengt
hs, originating from
all possible transitionbetween a group of levels. These levels have energies bet
ween 0.85 eVand 0.544
eV(including both these values) [JEE, 02]
(a) Find the atomic number of the atom.
(b) Calculate the smallest wavelength emitted in these transitions.
9. Two metallic platesAand B each of area 5 10 4m2, are placed at a separation of
1 cm. Plate B carries
a positive charge of 33.7 10 12 C.Amonochromatic beamof light,with photons of ener
gy 5 eVeach,
starts falling onplateAat t = 0 so that 1016 photons fall on it per squaremeter
per second. assume that one
photoelectron is emitted for every106 incident photons.Also assume that all the
emitted photoelectrons are
collected by plateB and thework dunction of plateAremains constant at the value
2 eV. Determine
(a) the number of photoelectrons emitted up to t = 10 sec.
(b) themagnitude of the electric field between the platesAand B at t = 10 s and
(c) the kinetic energy of the most energetic photoelectron emitted at t = 10 s w
hen it reaches plate B.
(Neglect the time taken by photoelectron to reach plate B) [JEE, 02]
10. Frequencyof a photon emitted due to transition ofelectronofa certain elemrnt
fromLtoKshellis found to
be 4.2 1018 Hz. UsingMoseley s law, find the atomic number of the element, given t
hat the Rydberg s
constant R = 1.1 107 m 1. [JEE, 03]
11. In a photoelectric experiment set up, photons of energy 5 eVfalls on the cat
hode havingwork function 3
eV.
(a) if the saturation current is iA = 4A for intensity10 5W/m2, then plot a graph b
etween anode potential
and current.
(b)Also drawa graph for intensity of incident ratiation of 2 10 5W/m2 ? [JEE, 03]
12. Aradioactive samle emits n .-particles in 2 sec. In next 2 sec it emits 0.75
n .-particles, what is themean
life of the sample ? [JEE, 03]
MODERN PHYSICS
13. The potential energy of a particle ofmassmis given by
0 E 0 x 1
V(x)
0 x 1
. . . .
. . . . . .
.1 and .2 are are the de-Brogliewavelengths of the particle, when 0 . x . 1 and
x > 1 respectively. If the
total energy of particle is 2E0, find .1/.2. [JEE, 05]
14. Highly energetic electrons are bombarded on a target of an element containin
g 30 neutrons. The ratio of
radii of nucleus to that of heliumnucleus is (14)1/3. Find [JEE, 05]
(a) atomic number of the nucleus
(b) the frequency ofK. line of the X-ray produced. (R = 1.1 107 m 1 and c = 3 108
m/s)
15. Inhydrogen-like atom(z=11), nth line ofLymanseries haswavelength. equalto th
ede-Broglie swavelength
of electron in the level fromwhich it originated.What is the value of n ? [Take
:Bohr radius (r0) = 0.53
and Rydberg constant (R) = 1.1 107m 1] [JEE, 06]
Answer Key
Assertion-Reason
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. B C D B A A B A A B
Match the Column
1. (A) . (U), (B) . (R), (C) . (P), (D) . (S)
2. (A) . (S), (B) . (T), (C) . (Q), (D) . (P)
3. (A) . (R), (B) . (P), (C) . (T), (D) . (U)
4. (A) . (R), (B) . (U), (C) . (V), (D) . (Q)
5. (A) . (Q), (B) . (R), (C) . (S), (D) . (P)
6. (A) . (PQ), (B) . (PR), (C) . (PS), (D) . (PQR)
7. (A) . (P), (B) . (T), (C) . (U), (D) . (R)
8. (A) . (PR), (B) . (QS), (C) . (P), (D) . (Q)
9. (A) . (PQT), (B) . (Q), (C) . (S), (D) . (S)
MODERN PHYSICS
Level
1
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. D C D B C A C D D A
Q. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. B B B D A D A C ABC C
Q. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. C D D C D C B D D B
Q. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. B C AD BC ABC BD ABD AB AC BD
Q. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
Ans. ABC CD AC AB AB AC AD AC AB C
Q. 52 53 54
Ans. AD C B
Q. 57 59 60 61 62 63 64 65
Ans. C A B C AC A B A
Q. 66 67 68 69 70 71 72
Ans. B BD C C A A A
56
(a-C), (b-B), (c-B), (d-E), (e-C)
58
(a-C), (b-A)
51
(i-B), (ii-A) (i-CD), (ii-D)
55
Passage
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. C B A D B B D A D A
Q. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. B B C A B C D A C D
Q. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. B A D A C B C B C A
Q. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37
Ans. B C B D D A B
Level 2
1. 1.9 eV 0 . . , . = 4125A.
2. (i) 8.426 x 10 14 n2 (ii) 25 (iii) 5.478 x 10 11 m
3. n = 4; . = 18800A.
4. 50.6 .A 5. (p) . 4.1. .. . .d2c. . 50 atm
6. P . .E/c. 1. .2 . 2. cos 2. . 35 nN.s 7. 4 R 79 eV. 0 . . . . . .
8. .. 2 .R/m.3.1.106 m/s, where m is the mass of the electron.
9. e4 / 2 3 ,
b . . . . where . is the reduced mass of the system. If the motion of the nucleu
s is not taken into
account, these values (in the case of a hydrogen atom) are greater by m/M . 0.05
5%, where m and M
are the masses of an electron and a proton.
MODERN PHYSICS
10. (a) 0.285 pm, 2.53 keV, 0.65 nm; (b) 106 pm, 6.8 eV, 0.243 . m.
11. ps 13 e 4 / r c m t 2 3 2 2e
. . 12. (a) 2.3 x 10 138 m (b) 2.5 x 1074
13. (a) 2 r
E q L
0 ..
.
. for r > r0 = 0; (b)
0 0
f 4 V
q
..
.
. . ; (c) 500 14. v = 7.45 x 1016 cycles/s, no
15. . . . . . .. .
.
b cos acos hsin sin
c
d
16. 2.93 x 1020 17. 11.72 x 1011
18. (i) x = 5 ; (ii) 16.53 eV (iii) 36.36 A ; (iv) 1.056 x 10 34 kg m2 s 1 (v) 1.06
x 10 11 m
19. (a) 1.6 x 10 17 2 2
0 . h (b) The radiation connot eject electron.
20. 0.163 A
21. 2.55 eV, electron jumps from 4th to 2nd orbits, 2.11 x 10 34 Js 0.8144 m/s
22. (a) n = 2 (b) z = 6 (c) 28.5 A. (d) 25.32 A.
23. (a) 0.25 A (b) 1.76 x 1016 Hz 24. ..
.
..
.
. .
1 R2
1
R
R 1
0.75
25. NA = 6.25 x 10 4 kg, NB = 2.5 x 10 3 26. 51.41%, 2.13%, 46.45%
27. A0 = 4.57 x 1021 per day, 320 gm 28. T = 1573 year, Energy per . particle = 1
9.5 MeV
29. 1.868 x 109 year
30. T = 8.63 x 106 s.
Level 3
1. 6 litre 2. (i) t1/2 = 10 sec., tmeans = 14.43 s; (ii) 40 seconds 3. Fusion, 2
4
4. . 33.298 W 5. (a) t t
0
N . 1 [.(1. e.. ) . .N e.. ]
. ; (b) 0
0
3N , 2N
2
6. during combination = 3.365 eV; after combination = 3.88 eV(5 . 3) &2.63 eV(4
. 3)
7.(a) n = 2, z = 4; G.S.E. 217.6 eV;Min. energy = 10.58eV; (b) 6.251019per sec, 0,
5 eV
8. (a) 3; (b) 4052.3 nm 9. (a) 5 107, (b) 2000 N/C, (c) 23 eV
10. z = 42 11.
8A I
4A
2V VP
I=210 5W/m2
I = 10 5W/m2 12. 1.75n = N0(1 e 4.), 6.95 sec,
2
ln(4 / 3)
13. 2 14. v = 1.546 1018 Hz 15. n = 24
X X X X
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
DHANALAKSHMI NAGAR
TIRUPATI.
PH NO. 9440025125
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
RADIO ACTIVITY
INTRODUCTION OF ATOMIC NUCLEUS
(a) The atomic nucleus consists oftwo types of elementaryparticles, viz. protons
and neutrons.These particles
are collectivelycalled nucleons.
(b) The electrons surround this nucleus to formthe atom.
(c) This structure ofatomwas revealed by the experiments ofRutherford inwhich a
beamof .-particleswere
made to strike a thin gold foil.
(d) Nucleus can be regarded as a small spherical volume situated at the centre o
f atom.
(e) Most of themass of the atomis concentrated in the nucleus.
(f) Nucleus has a positive charge.
PROPERTIES OF AN ATOMIC NUCLEUS
Composition:
(a) All nucleiare composed of two types of particles protons and neutrons.
(b) The onlyexceptionis the ordinary hydrogen nucleuswhich is just a single prot
on.
(c) A proton has a mass of 1.6726 10 27 kg and charge +e (= 1.6 10 19 C).
(d) Aneutron has amass of 1.6750 10 27 kg and is electrically neutral.
The atomic number Z: This is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus.
The neutron numberN: This is equal to the number of neutrons in the nucleus.
Themass numberA: This is equal to the number of nucleons (protons + neutrons) in
the nucleus.
Thus,A= Z + N
Symbolically a nucleusXshall be represented as A
ZX .
Types of Nuclei : Nuclei are of three types:
(i) Isotopes: Nuclei having the same Z value but different NandAvalues are calle
d isotopes of the element.
eg. 1H1, 1H2 and 1H3 are isotopes of hydrogen.
(ii) Isobars: Nuclides (nucleiof different elements) having the sameAvalue but d
ifferent Z andNvalues are
called isobars.
e.g. 1H3 and 2He3 are isobars.
(iii) Isotones: Nuclides having the same Nvalue but differentAand Z values are k
nown as isotones. e.g. 1H3
and 2He4 are isotones.
Radius of atomic nucleus:
The size of the nucleus is of the order of fermi (fm).
1 fm = 10 15.
Most nucleus are almost sphericalwith an average radius Rgiven by
R = R0A1/3 whereAis the mass number and R0 is a constant.
R0
~. 1.2 fm = 1.2 10 15 m
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Mass :
(a) Nuclearmasses have been accurately determinedwith the help of themass spectr
ometer.
(b) It is expressed in a.m.u. i.e. atomicmass unit.
(c) This unit is such that mass of the carbon isotope 6C12 is exactly 12 amu.
(d) 1 a.m.u. = 1.66056 10 27 kg
(e) Matter can be viewed as a condense formof energy.
(f) The energy corresponding to themass of a particlewhen it is at rest is calle
d rest mass energy.
(g) Rest mass energyis E =mc2, fromEinstein relation.
(h) Energy equivalent of 1 a.m.u. is equal to 931.5MeV. i.e. 1 a.m.u. = 931.5MeV
/c2.
Example 51: (a) Calculate the value of 1 a.m.u. fromAvogadro s number.
(b) Determine the energy equivalent of 1 a.m.u.
Sol: (a) Onemole of C12 has a mass of 12 g and containsAvogadro number, NA of at
oms.
Bydefinition eachC12 atomhas a mass of 12 a.m.u.
Thus, 12 g corresponds to (12NA) a.m.u.whichmeans,
1 a.m.u. =
A
1g
N =
3
23
10
6.022055 10
.
. kg
or 1 a.m.u. = 1.66056 10 27 kg
(b) FromEinstein relation, restmass energy
E = mc2
Hence, energy equivalent of 1 a.m.u.,
E = (1 a.m.u.) c2
= (1.66056 10 27 kg) (3 108 m/s)2 = 1.4924 10 10 J
Since, 1 eV = 1.6 10 19 J,
. E = 931.5MeV
Hence, 1 a.m.u = 931.5MeV/c2
Density:
Mass of a nucleus can be taken approximatelyAm, wheremis the mass of proton or a
neutron andAis
mass number
. Mass =Am
Also, assuming the nucleus to be a sphere of radius R, its volume is
V =
4
3
.R3 = 3
0
4 R A
3
. , [. R = R0A1/3]
The nuclear densityis thus given by,
. =
mass
volume = 3
0
Am
4 R A
3
. = 3
0
3m
4.R
It is thus independent of themass numberAand is therefore nearly the same for al
lnuclei. Putting R0 =
1.2 fm = 1.2 10 15mand m= 1.67 10 27 kg, we get, . = 2.3 1017 kg/m3.
This is almost 1014 times the densityofwater.
(a) Nuclear density . = 2.3 1017 kg/m3
(b) It is nearly the same for all nuclei.
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
C48: Find themass density of the oxygen nucleus 8O16.
Sol: Volume =
4
3
.R3 = 3
0
4 R A
3
. [. R = R0A1/3]
=
4
3
.(1.2)3 16 10 45 m3, [. R0 = 1.2 10 15, A= 16]
= 1.16 10 43 m3
Mass of oxygen atoms (A= 16) is approximately 16 a.m.u.
Therefore densityis . =
mass
volume = 43 3
16 amu
1.16.10. m
=
27
43 3
16 1.66 10
1.16 10 m
.
.
. .
. kg/m3
= 2.3 1017 kg/m3
NUCLEAR STABILITY
(a) High densityof the nucleus suggests a very tight packing of protons and neut
rons in it.
(b) The Coulomb s repulsive force between two protons in a nucleus is about 1036 t
imes as large as the
gravitational force between them. It is therefore surprising that a nucleus shou
ld be so stable.
(c) Nuclei are stable because of the presence of another force, called the nucle
ar force.
Nuclear force :
It arises due to interaction betweenprotons, protonwith neutrons, and neutronwit
h neutrons.This force is
essentially a very strong attractive force and overcomes the electrostatic repul
sion between the proton
inside the nucleus.
Properties of Nuclear forces :
(a) These are strong attractive forces.
(b) These are about 100 times stronger than the Coulomb s force.
(c) These are short ranged forces (effective upto 10 fm).
(d) They contain a small component of repulsive force which is effective up to a
distance of the order of
0.5 fmor 0.5 10 15mor less. This repulsive component prevents the collapse of the
nucleus.
(e) These forces are charge independent.
(f) Let d be the range of the effectiveness of nuclear forces, then
0.5 fm . d . 10 fm
(g) Let Fpp, Fpn and Fnn denote themagnitude of the nuclear force by a proton on
a proton, by a proton on a
neutron and bya neutron ona neutron respectively.
Then for a separation of 1 fm, Fpp = Fpn = Fnn.
N/Z ratio :
(a) N/Zratio inside a nucleus is responsible for stability of a nucleus.
N = Z line
N v/s Z curve
N
(b) It must be greater than or equal to unity and less than 1.6 Z
i.e. 1 .
N
Z
. 1.6.
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
(c) Reason forN/Zratio to be greater than unityis due to the fact that protons a
re positivelycharged and repel
on another electrically.This repulsion becomes so great in nucleiwithmore than 1
0 protons or so that an
excess of neutrons, which produce onlyattractive nuclear forces, is required for
stability. ThusN/Z ratio
increaseswith increase in Z.
(d) When excess of neutrons or protons in a nuclide is there then the nuclide .decayor .-decayto achieve the
requiredN/Zratio for stability.This causes radioactive disintegrations of nuclid
es.
Binding Energy (B.E.) :
The binding energy is equal to thework thatmust be done to split the nucleus int
o particles constituting it.
Hence, Energyof nucleus+B.E. = Energyofeach nucleon individually.
Let Mass of nucleus =M,
Mass of neutron =mn,
and, Mass of proton = mp
. Rest mass energyof nucleus =Mc2,
. Rest mass energyof neutron =mnc2,
. Rest mass energyof proton =mpc2.
Z)mn c2
Thus, Mc2 + B.E. = Z mpc2 + (A
. B.E. = [M {Zmp + (A Z)mn}]c2
The quantity,M {Zmp + (A Z)mn} is called mass-defect (.m)
. Mass defect = .m=M {Z mp + (A Z)mn}
. B.E. = .m.c2
If .mis in a.m.u., then
B.E. = .m 931.5MeV
or B.E. = [M {Z mp + (A Z)mn}] 931.5MeV
NOTE: Negative sign of B.E. represents boundedness of nucleons inside the nucleu
s.
C49: Find the binding energy of 56
26Fe .Atomicmass of 56Fe is 55.9349 u and that of 1His 1.00783 u.Mass of
neutron = 1.00867 u.
Sol: Z = The number of protons in 56
26Fe = 26 and the number of neutrons,A Z = 56 26 = 30
Then binding energy of 56
26Fe = [M {Zmp + (A Z))mn}]c2
= [26 1.00783 u + 30 1.00867 u
55.9349 u]c2
= (0.52878 u)c2
= (0.52878 u) (931MeV/u)
= 492 MeV
Negative sign indicates boundedness of nucleons.
. B.E. = 492MeVinmagnitude.
Binding energy per nucleon :
Binding energyper nucleonis obtainedbydividing
the binding energyof the nucleus bythe numberA
of nucleons in the nucleus.
i.e. B.E. per nucleon =
B.E.
A
0 50 100 150 200 250
2
4
6
8
10
56
26Fe
4He
6Li
Binding energy per
nucleon, MeV
Mass number, A
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
(a) The adjacent figure shows the dependence of
the B.E. per nucleon, B.E./Aonthemass number
Aofthe nucleus.
(b) Nucleons in nucleiwithmass number from50 to 60 have the highest B.E. TheB.E.
/Afor these nuclei
amounts to 8.7MeVand gradually decreaseswith increasingA.
(c) B.E. per nucleon is highest for 56
26Fe .
Example 52: Find the binding energy of 12
6C ?Also find the binding energy per nucleon.
Mass of 6C12 atom = 12 a.m.u.
Mass of proton = 1.00759 a.m.u.
Mass of neutron = 1.00898 a.m.u.
Sol: M = mass of C12 atom = 12 a.m.u.
mp = mass of proton = 1.00759 a.m.u.
mn = mass of neutron = 1.00898 a.m.u.
Z = number of proton = 6
A Z = number of neutrons = 12
6 = 6
. Mass-defect, .m = M {Zmp + (A Z)mn}
= 12 (6 1.00759 + 6 1 1.00898) in a.m.u.
= (12
12.009) a.m.u = 0.099 a.m.u.
. B.E. = .m 931.5MeV = 0.099 931.5 MeV = 92.22MeV
Hence, Binding energy= 92.22MeV (Negative sign indicates boundedness of the nucle
on)
Binding energy per nucleon =
B.E.
A =
92.22
12 MeV= 7.68MeV
NUCLEAR COLLISIONS
(a) Anuclear reaction in which a collision between particle a and nucleus X prod
ucesY and particle b is
represented as
a + X Y+ b
(b) The reaction is sometimes expressed inthe shorthand notationX(a, b)Y.
(c) Reaction are subjected to the restrictions imposed by
(i) The conservationof charge,
(ii) The conservationof energy,
(iii) The conservationofmomentum, and
(iv) The conservationof angularmomentum.
Q-Value or Energy of a reaction :
Let m2,m3 are nuclearmasses ofXandYrespectively.
a
m1 K1
X
m2 K2
Before collision
.
Y
m3 K3
X
m4 K4
After collision
Initial energy: Ei = m1c2 + m2c2 + K1 + K2
Final energy: Ef = m3c2 + m4c2 + K3 + K4
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Since, Ei = Ef, (fromenergyconservation)
. [(m1 + m2)
(m3 + m4)]c2 = (K3 + K4)
(K1 + K2)
The energy, [(m1 + m2) (m3 +m4)]c2, that is released or absorbed in a nuclear re
action is called the QValue
or disintegration energyof the reaction.
Hence, Q = [(m1 + m2)
(m3 + m4)]c2 J
or, Q = [(m1 + m2) (m3 + m4)] 931.5MeV, when masses are in a.m.u.
Mass defect:
The quantity [(m1 +m2)
(m3 +m4)] is called themass defect of the reaction and is
given by
.m= (m1 + m2)
(m3 + m4) ina.m.u.
Q = .m. 931.5 MeV
Example 53:Aneutron breaks into a proton and electron. Calculate the energy prod
uced in this reaction in
MeV. Mass of an electron = 9 10 31 Kg, Mass of proton = 1.6725 10 27 kg,
Mass of neutron = 1.6747 10 27 Kg. Speed of light = 3 108m/s.
Sol: 0n1
1H1 + 1e0
Mass defect,
.m = [mass of neutron
(mass of proton +mass of 1e0)]
= 1.6747 10 27 kg
(1.6725 + 0.0009) 10 27 kg
= 0.0013 10 27 kg
. Energyreleased,
Q = .m.c2
= 1.3 10 30 (3 108)2 kg m2/s2
= 1.17 10 13 J
=
13
19
1.17 10
1.6 10
.
.
.
. eV
= 0.73MeV
Example 54. Find theQ-value of the reaction
1H2 + 3Li6 . 3Li7 + 1H1
The rest masses of 1H2, 3Li6.. 3Li7, and 1H1are, respectively, 2.01410 amu, 6.01
513 amu, 7.01601 amu
and 1.00783 amu.
Sol. Suppose 1H2 + 3Li6 . 3Li7 + 1H1 + Q.
Totalmass of left-hand side = 2.01410 + 6.01513 = 8.02933 amu
Totalmass on right-hand side = 7.01601 + 1.00783 = 8.02384 amu
. 8.02933 = 8.02384 + Q
or Q = 0.00549 amu = 0.00549 931 MeV (. 1 amu = 931MeV)
Q = 5.1 MeV
INTRODUCTION OF RADIOACTIVITY
(a) In 1896, Becquerel discovered accidentally that uraniumsalt crystals emit an
invisible radiationwhich
affected a photographic plate even though it was properly covered.
(b) In 1898,Marie and PierreCurie and otherworkers showed thatmanyother substanc
es also emitted similar
radiations.
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
(c) The propertyof spontaneous emission ofradiation fromthe substance is called
radioactivityand such type
of substance is called radioactive substance.
(d) Radioactivityis due to the decay or disintegrationof unstable nuclei.
(e) The radiations arebeing emitted fromthenucleihence it is anuclear phenomenon
, not anatomicphenomenon.
(f) Some examples of radioactive substances are:U, Ra, Th, Po and Np.
(g) Electronic configuration ofatomdoes not have anyrelationshipwith radioactivi
ty.
(h) Radioactivity is explained on the basis of quantummechanics.
(i) No single phenomenon has played so significant role in the development of nu
clear physics as radioactivity.
(j) It is not influenced byexternal parameters such as pressure, temperature, ch
emical reaction (combination)
or phase ofmatter.
C50:Uraniumsalt crystals emit
(a) visible radiation (b) invisible radiation
(c) anytype of electromagnetic radiation (d) soundwaves
Sol: This is according to discovery ofradioactivityofBecquerel.
C51: The radioactivityis a/an
(a) optical phenomenon (b)Atomic phenomenon
(c) nuclear phenomenon (d) photoelectric phenomenon
Sol: Nuclear radiations are obtained fromthe nuclei hence it is a nuclear phenom
enon.
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
(a) The decayof radioactive substancemeans disintegration of nucleiofthe substan
ce byemissionof different
radiations.
(b) Despite the strength of the forces that hold nucleons (protons and neutrons)
together to forman atomic
nucleus,many nuclides are unstable and spontaneouslychange into other nuclides b
yradioactive decay.
(c) The energyliberatedduring radioactive decaycomes fromwithinindividualnucleiw
ithout externalexcitation,
unlike the case of atomic radiation.
(d) It is statisticalprocess that obeys the laws of chance.
(e) The decayof nucleus takes place to achieve the stable end products.
Kinds of Decay
There are five kinds of radioactive decays.
When radioactivitywas discovered, onlythree kinds of radioactive decays alpha(.)
, beta(.) and gamma)(.)
were known.Whichwere eventuallyidentifiedas 42
He nucleus, electronand highenergyphotonrespectively.
Later two more kinds of radioactive decays namely positron emission and electron
capturewere added.
Alpha decay
(a) In this type of decay, the unstable nucleus emits an alpha particle.
(b) It reduces the proton number Z of the nucleus by 2.
(c) It reduces the neutron number Nof the nucleus by 2.
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
(d) It reduces themass number (i.e. Z +N) of the nucleus by 4.
(e) It changes the element itself hence the chemical symbol of the residualnucle
us is different fromthat of the
originalnucleus.
(f) The alpha decay processmay be represented as
A A 4 4
Z Z 2 2 X . Y He
. . .
(g) The nucleus before the decay is called the parent nucleus and that obtained
after the decay is called the
daughter nucleus.
Ex: Let us consider the example given below:
212 208 4
83 81 2 Bi . Tl. He
In the above example of .-decay, the parent nucleus is bismuth (Bi) and the daug
hter nucleus is thallium
(Tl).
(h) Alpha decay occurs in all nucleiwithmassA> 210.
(i) In this decay, the nucleus decreases itsmass number tomove towards stability
.
(j) On emission of .-particle, the binding energyper nucleon increases and the r
esidualnucleus tends towards
stability.
Q-Value for .-decay:
If .-decay process is given by
AZ
X A 4
Z 2 . Y
. + 42
He , then
Q-value = . A . . A 4 . . 4 .
Z Z 2 2 m X m . Y m He
. .. . . .. c2
NOTE: The quantity m. . AZ
X represent atomic mass of the particle X.
Example 55. Aradon nucleus Rn86
222, ofmass 3.6 10 25 kg, undergoes .-decay. The .-particle hasmass
6.7 10 27 kg and energy 8.8 10 31 J.
(a)What is the resulting nucleus? (b) Find the velocity of recoilof the nucleus.
Sol. (a) The atomic number will be reduced by 2 and the mass number by 4.
. A = 222 4 = 218 and Z = 86 2 = 84
The resulting nucleus is 84Po218.
(b) mass of resulting nucleus = m1 = 3.6 10 25
6.7 10 27
= 3.533 10 25 kg
Let v1 = its velocity of recoil
Mass of .-particle = m2 = 6.7 10 27 kg
Velocity of .-particle = v2 =
1/2
2
2E
m
. .
.. .. with E = 8.8 10 13 J
Now m1v1 =m2v2
.
1/ 2 27 13 1/ 2
2
1 25
1
(2m E) (2 6.7 10 8.8 10 )
v
m 3.533 10
. .
.
. . . .
. .
. , v1 = 3.1 10+5 ms 1
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Beta Decay
(a) Beta decay is a process inwhich a neutron is converted into a proton.
n p + e + .
(b) It increases the atomic number (Z) of nucleus by 1.
(c) It does not alter themass number (A).
(d) If a nucleus is formedwithmore number of neutrons than needed for stability,
a neutronwill convert itself
into a proton tomove towards stability.
(e) When a neutron is converted into a proton, an electron and a newparticle nam
ed antineutrino are created
and emitted fromthe nucleus.
(f) The antineutrino is denoted bythe symbol .. It is supposed to have zero rest
mass like photon. It is chargeless
and has quantumnumber .
(g) The electron emitted fromthe nucleus is called a beta particle and is denote
d bythe symbol . or 1e0.
(h) Astreamof beta particles coming frombulk of unstable nuclei is called beta r
ay.
(i) It is also called betaminus decayas negatively charged beta particles are em
itted.
(j) The beta decay processmay be represented by
AZ
A A
Z 1Y . + e + . (. n p + e + . )
AZ
X A
Z 1Y . + . + .
(k) An example of beta decay is 6C14
7N14 + e + . (antineutrino)
Q-value for .-decay:
(a) . decay: If . -decay process is given by AZ
X A
Z 1Y . + . + . , then
Initial rest mass energy, REi = . . AZ
e ..m X . Zm .. c2
Final restmass energy, REf= . A .
Z 1 e e m Y Zm (Z 1) m . .. . . . .. c2
. Q = REi REf = . A . . A .
Z Z 1 m X m Y . .. . .. c2
Because ofthe largemass, the residual nucleus A
Z 1Y . does not share appreciable kinetic energy. Thus, the
energyQis shared by the antineutrino and the beta particle. Depending on the fra
ction taken away by the
antineutrino, the kinetic energyof the beta particle can be anything between zer
o and amaximumvalueQ.
Positron emission (.+ decay)
(a) .+ decay is a process in which a proton is converted into a neutron with emi
ssion of positron (e+) and
neutrino (v).
p n + e+ + v
(b) It reduces the atomic number (Z) of nucleus by 1.
(c) It does not alter themass number (A).
(d) An isolated proton does not beta decay to a neutron. On the other-hand, an i
solated neutron decays to a
proton.
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
(e) If the unstable nucleus has excess protons than needed for stability, a prot
on converts itselfinto a neutron.
(f) When a proton is converted into a neutron, a positron and a neutrino are cre
ated and emitted fromthe
nucleus.
(g) The neutrino is denoted by the symbol v. It is charge-less particle.
(h) The positron (e+) has a positive electric charge equalinmagnitude to the cha
rge on an electrons and has a
mass equal to themass of an electron.
(i) Positron is called the antiparticle of electron.
(j) When an electron and a positron collide, both the particles are destroyed an
d energyismade available.
(k) Neutrino and antineutrino are antiparticles of each other.
(l) The .+ decay process is represented as
AZ
X A
Z 1Y . + e+ + v [. p . n + e+ + v]
AZ
X A
Z 1Y . + .+ + v
If the unstable nucleus has excess protons than needed for stability, a proton c
onverts itselfinto a neutron.
In the process, a positron and a neutrino are created and emitted fromthe nucleu
s,
p n + e+ + v .....(iv)
The positron e+ has a positive electric charge equalinmagnitude to the chargeon
an electron and has amass
equal to the mass of an electron. Positron is called the antiparticle of electro
n.When an electron and a
positron collide, both the particles are destroyed and energy is made available.
Similarly, neutrino and
antineutrino are antiparticles of each other.When a proton in a nucleus converts
itself into a neutron, the
decay process is represented as
AZ
X A
Z 1Y . + e+ + v
or AZ
X A
Z 1Y . + .+ + v .....(v)
This process is called beta plus decay. The positron so emitted is called a beta
plus particle.
. + - decay or position - emission :
If the .+-decay or position-emission is given by
AZ
X A
Z 1Y . + .+ + v, then
R.Ei = . . AZ
e ..m X . Zm .. c2
R.Ef = . A .
Z 1 e e m Y (Z 1)m m . .. . . . .. c2
R.Ef = . A . . A .
. Q = R.Ei
Z Z 1 e m X m Y 2m . .. . . .. c2
Q = . A . . A .
Z Z 1 e m X m Y 2m . .. . . .. c2 .....(vi)
Can an isolated proton decayto a neutron emitting a positron and a neutrino as s
uggested byequation (iv)?
Themass ofa neutron is larger than themass ofa proton and hence theQ-value of su
ch a processwould be
negative. So, an isolated proton does not beta decay to a neutron.On the other h
and, an isolated neutron
decays to a proton as suggested by equation (i).
(m) The positronis also called beta plus particle.
(n) An example of .+ decay is 29Cu64
28Ni64 + e+ + v
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Asimilar process, known as electron capture, takes place in certain nuclides. In
this process, the nucleus
captures one of the atomic electrons (most like an electron fromthe K shell). Ap
roton in the nucleus
combineswith this electron and coverts itselfinto a neutron.Aneutrino is created
in the process and emitted
fromthe nucleus.
Electron capture
(a) When the nucleus has toomanyprotons relative to the number ofneutrons, the n
ucleus captures one of the
atomic electrons (most likely an electron fromtheK-shell).
(b) Aproton inthe nucleus combineswith this electron and converts itselfinto a n
eutron.
(c) Aneutrino is created in this process and emitted fromthe nucleus.
p + e n + v
(d) In this process, atomic number (Z) of the nucleus decreases by 1.
(e) This process does not alter the value ofmass number (A).
(f) When an atomic electron is captured, a vacancy is created in the atomic shel
l and X-rays are emitted
following the capture.
(g) This process is also calledK-capture.
(h) The processmay be represented as
AZ
X + e A
Z 1Y . + v [. p + e n + v]
(i) An example of electron capture is
29Cu64 + e
28Ni64 + neutrino
Q-Value of K-capture process:
IfK-capture process is given by
AZ
X + e A
Z 1Y . + v, then
Q = . A . . A .
Z Z 1 m X m Y . .. . .. c2
Example 56: Calculate theQ-value in the following decays(a) 19O 19F + e + . [. -decay]
(b) 25Al 25Mg + e+ + v, [.+-decay]
The atomic masses of 19O = 19.003576 a.m.u. 19F = 18.998403 a.m.u, 25Al = 24.990
432 a.m.u.,25Mg
= 24.985939 a.m.u.
Sol: (a) The Q-value of . -decay is
Q = [m (19O) m(19F)]c2
= [19.003576 a.m.u.
18.998403 a.m.u.] (931.5MeV/a.m.u.)
= 4.819MeV
(b) The Q-value of .+ -decay is
Q = [(mass of 25Al nucleus)
(mass of 25Mg nucleus) (mass of positron)]c2
= [(24.990432 a.m.u
13me)
(24.985939 a.m.u.
12 me) me]c2
= [(0.004593 a.m.u.) 2me]c2
= 0.004593 a.m.u. (931.5MeV/a.m.u.)
2 0.511 2
MeV
c .c2
= 4.276MeV 1.022 MeV = 3.254MeV
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Gamma Decay
(a) Nucleus has also energylevels like atoms have.
(b) This decayprocess is related to the transitions between two nuclear energy l
evels.
(c) The protons and neutrons inside a nucleusmove in discrete quantumstateswith
definite energies.
(d) In the ground state, the nucleons occupy those quantumstates whichminimise t
he total energy of the
nucleus.
(e) The higher energystates are also available to the nucleons and if appropriat
e energyis supplied, the nucleus
maybe excited to higher energies.
(f) The energydifferences in the allowed energylevels of a nucleus are generally
large (in the order ofMeV).
(g) It is difficult to excite the nucleus to higher energylevels byusualmethods
of supplying energylike heating
etc.
(h) When an alpha or a beta decay takes place, the daughter nucleus is generally
formed in one of its excited
states. The daughter nucleus in an excited state eventuallycomes to its ground s
tate byemitting one photon
ormore than one photon of electromagnetic radiation.
(i) The process of a nucleus coming down to a lower energylevelbyemitting a phot
on is called gamma decay.
(j) In this decay, atomic number (Z) aswell asmass number (A) of the nucleus rem
ain constant.
(k) In this decay, the quantumstates of the nucleons vary.
(l) The electromagnetic radiationemitted in nuclear transitions is called gamma
ray.
(m) Thewavelength ofthis radiation is given bythe common relation.
. =
hc
E where E = energy of the photon.
(n) An example of gamma decayis shown in figure below:
. .
.
57Co .+
136 keV
14 keV
0 keV
2nd excited state
1st excited state
Ground state 57Fe
When 57Co is taken in bulk, we can observe a streamof .+ particles, 136 keV phot
ons, 122 keV photons
and 14 keVphotons coming fromthe 57Co source.
NOTE: The ., . and . rays are collectively called nuclear radiation.
Comparison among the kinds of decay
(a) The velocityof .-particles is relatively low:
c/15),when c is the velocity of light
v. = (c/30
Mass m. = 4 amu
charge q. = +2e
For ..-particles: 0 . v. < c
m. =mass of an electron
q. = e
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
For .-rays:
Since .-rays are electromagneticwaves, hence theypropagatewith the speed of ligh
t.
i.e. v. = c
Rest mass,m. = 0(like photon)
q. = 0 (like photon)
(b) The penetrability of .-rays is 0 - 100 times higher than the penetrability o
f b-rays and 1000 - 10000 times
higher than the penetrability of .-rays. The penetrability of .-rays also exceed
s the penetrabilityof x-rays.
Carboard Al Lead
..
.
.
.
- particles from radioactive materials are stopped by a piece of cardboard.
-particles penetrate the cardboard but are stopped by a sheet of aluminium.
Even a thick slab of lead may not stop all the -rays.
(c) In a magnetic field, a beamof ., . and .-rays splits into
three parts. In amagnetic field, .-rays are undeviated and
.-particles aremost deviated .-particles .-particles
.-rays
Magnetic field
(d) Table for various decay directed into paper
Decay Transformation Example
.-decay AZ
X A 4 4
Z 2 2 . Y He
. . 238
92U 234 4
90 2 Th . He
.-decay AZ
X A
Z 1Y . + e + . 14
6C 14
7N + e + .
Positron emission AZ
X A
Z 1Y . + e+ + v 64
29Cu 64
28Ni + e+ + v
Electroncapture AZ
X + e A
Z 1Y . + v 64
29Cu + e 64
28Ni + v
Gamma decay A *
Z X AZ
X + . 87 *
38Sr 87
38Sr + .
The *denotes anexcited nuclear estate, .-denotes a gamma-rayphoton and v and . d
enotes neutrino and
antineutrino particles respectively.
C52:An a-particle is bombarded on 14N.As a result, a 17O nucleus is formed and a
particle is emitted. This
particle is a/an
(a) neutron (b) proton (c) electron (d) positron
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Sol: 14 4
7 N . 2He 17 1
8 1 O . p
11
p is equivalent to 11
H .
C53: In a radioactive decay, neither the atomic number nor themass number change
s.Which of the following
particles is emitted in the decay ?
(a) Proton (b) Neutron (c) .- particle (d) photon
Sol: Photon is equivalent to .-radiation. Inthis decay, onlyquantumstates of the
nucleons vary.
C54: .-rays emitted bya radioactivematerial are
(a) electromagneticwaves (b) electrons orbiting around the nucleus
(c) charged particles emitted by the nucleus (d) neutral particles
Sol: Aneutronin the nucleus decays emitting an electron.
C55: Give an equation representing the decay ofa free neutron.
Sol: 1
0 n 1 0
1 1 H e v.
. . .
C56: Howmanyelectrons, protons and neutrons are there in a nucleus of atomic num
ber 11 andmass number
24 ?
Sol: Number of electrons or protons, Z= 11
and number of neutrons, N=mass number Atomic number
= 24 11 = 12
C57: Fill up the blanks
(i) hv e + ..............
(.-photon) (electron)
(ii) 90Th234
1B0 + 91Pa234 + .............
(Thorium) (.-particle) (Protactinium)
(iii) 92U238
2He4 + ................
(Uranium) (.-particle)
Sol: (i) e+(Positron) (ii) . (Antineutrino) (iii) 90Th234(Thorium)
C58: Following the origin of gamma decay, calculate the value of
wavelength of resulting photonwhen the nucleus of 27
13Al
reaches the ground state (Eg = 0) from the state in which Eex. =
1.015MeV.The related figure is shown adjacent. .
.
1.015 MeV
27Mg
12
0 MeV
27Al
Sol: .(in ) = 13
12400
.E(eV) = 6
12400
(1.015 . 0).10
= 0.012217
LAW OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY
When the radioactive substance is only disintegrating:
Radioactive decay is a randomprocess. Each decay is an independent event, and on
e cannot tellwhen a
particular nucleuswilldecay.When a given nucleus decays, it is transformed into
another nuclidewhichmay
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
or may not be radioactive. When there is a very large number of nuclei in a samp
le, the rate of decay
i.e. dN
dt
. . . . .
. . is proportional to the number of nuclei, N, that are present i.e.
dN
dt
. N .
dN
dt = .N
where . is called the decay constant.
This equationmay be expressed in the form
dN
dt = .dt and integrated to get
0
N
N
dN
N . = .
t
0
. dt , to yield, ln
0
N
N = .t, where N0 is the initial number of parent nuclei at t = 0. The number that
survive at time t is
therefore
N = N0e .t
Definition of decay constant :
The probability of decay per second for a particular process for a sample is cal
led the decay constant for
that process for that sample.
Radioactivity lawof decay gives, . =
dN
Ndt
.
Half life :
The time period for the number of parent nuclei to fall to 50%is called the half
-life, T, andmay be related
to ..
ifwe put N =N0/2 at t = T, the exponential decay equation gives,
0.5N0 = N0e .T
. .T = ln|2| = 0.693 , T =
0.693
.
(a)It takes one half-life to drop to 50%of anystarting value.
(b) The half-life for the decayof the free neutron is 12.8min.
(c) Other half lives range fromabout 10 20s to 1016 years.
Mean life(Tm) :
Mean life of a radioactive sample is defined as the average of the lives of all
nuclei.
. Tm = 0
0
N
0
tdN
N
.
=
1
. =
T
0.693
. Tm =
1
. and T = 0.693 Tm
NOTE : (i) Radioactive decay equation, N = N0e .t, can also be written as
N = N0
t /T 1
2
. .
. .
. .
, where T is half-life of the sample.
(ii) The decay constant is also given as, . =
2.303
t log 0 N
N
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Activity of radioactive substance:
Since the number of atoms is not directlymeasurable, wemeasure the decay rate or
activity (A)
A=
dN
dt , but N = N0e .t
A =
dN
dt = .(N0e .t) = .N
. A = .N =A0e .t, whereA0 = .N0 is the initial activity.
BothNandAdecrease exponentiallywith time. The activityis characterized by the sa
me half-life.
Units of activity:
(a) The SI unit for the activityis the becquerel (Bq), but the curie (Ci) is oft
en used in practice.
1 becquerel (Bq) = 1 disintegrations per second (dps)
1 curie (Ci) = 3.7 1010 dps
1 rutherford = 106 dps
(b) Rate of decayof 1 gmsubstance is called specific activity.
(c) Activity of 1 gmRa226 is 1Ci.
Example 57: The half-life of 198Au is 2.7 days. Calculate (a) the decayconstant,
(b) the average life and (c) the
activity of 1.00mg of 198Au. Take atomicweight of 198Au to be 198 g/mol.
Sol: (a) The half-life and the decay constant are related as T =
0.693
.
. . =
0.693
T =
0.693
2.7 days =
0.693
2.7.24.3600s
. . = 2.9 10 6 s 1.
(b) Tm=
T
0.693
=
2.7
0.693 days = 3.9 days.
(c) Activity is given as,A= .N, whereNis the number of nuclei present in 1mg of
198Au.
Atomic mass of 198Au = 198 g
. N =
1 mg
198g Avogadro no
. N =
10 3
198
.
6 1023 atoms
. N = 3.03 1018 atoms
Thus, A = .N = (2.9 10 9 s 1) 3.03 1018 (atoms)
= 8.8 1012 disintegrations per sec.
=
12
10
8.8 10
3.7 10
.
. Ci = 240 Ci
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Example 58. Two radioactive materialA1 andA2 have decayconstants of 10 .0 and .0
. If initially they have
same number ofnuclei, the ratio of number of their undecayed nucleiwill be (1/e)
after a time
(A)
0
1
. (B)
0
1
9. (C)
0
1
10. (D) 1
Sol. 1t 10 0t
1 0 0 N . N e.. . N e. .
2t 0t
2 0 0 N . N e.. . N e..
0
0
10 t
1 0
t
2 0
N N e
N N e
. .
.. .
1 9 0t
2
N
e
N
. . .
. 9 0t 1 e
e
. . .
e.1 . e.9.0t
1 = 9.0t
0
t 1
9
.
. Hence (B) is correct.
C59. Acertain element has a density of 10 g cm 3 and half-life of 140 days. Over a
period of 140 days, the
average number of .-emissions per day is found to be 12 1012, from a sample of i
nitial mass 1 g.
Estimate the number of atoms in1 cm3 ofthe element.
Sol. We assume that only one emission takes place per atom.
In 140 days, no. of emissions = 140 12 1012
. initial no. of atoms present = 2 140 12 1012
(since 140 days is the half-life)
. no. of atoms in 1 g = 28 12 1013
. no. of atoms in 1 cm3, i.e., 10g = 3.36 105 107
= 3.36 1022
C60:Aradioactive sample has 3.2 1016 active nuclei at certain instant.Howmany of
these nucleiwill stillbe in

the same active state after four half-lives ?
Sol: In one half-life the number of active nuclei reduces to half the original n
umber. Thus in four half-lives the
number is reduced to
1
2
. .
. .
. .
1
2
. .
. .
. .
1
2
. .
. .
. .
1
2
. .
. .
. . i.e.
1
16 th of the original number.
. The number ofremaining active nuclei is,
=
1
16 3.2 1016 = 2 1015 nuclei
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
C61: The activityof a radioactive sample falls from1200 s 1 to 1000 s 1 in 60minutes
. Calculate its half life.
Sol:We have, A=A0e .t
(1000 s 1) = (1200 s 1) e .t . 5/6 = e .t
.t = ln(6/5) . . =
ln(6 / 5)
t =
ln(6 / 5)
60min
but, T =
ln 2
.
.
ln 2
T =
ln(6 / 5)
60min
T =
ln 2
ln(6 / 5) 60 min =
0.693
0.182 60 min
. half-life = 228min
C62.At a given instant there are 25%undecayed radioactive nuclei in a sample.Aft
er 10 second themumber of
undecayed nuclei reduces to 12.5%Calculate :
(i)mean life of the nuclei
(ii) the time inwhich the number of undecayed nucleiwill further reduce to 6.25%
ofthe reduced number.
Sol. (i) In 10 second, number of nuclei has been reduced to half (25%to 12.5%).
Therefore, its half life is
t1/2 = 10 s
Relation betweenhalf life andmean life is
1/ 2
mean
t t 10 s
ln (2) 0.693
. .
tmean = 14.43 s
(ii) Frominitial100%to reductiontill6.25%, it takes four half lives.
t1/ 2 t1/ 2 t1/ 2 t1/ 2 100%...50%...25%...12.5%...6.25%
. t = 4 t1/2 = 4(10) s = 40 s
Example 59.Asample initiallycontains 1020 radioactive atoms of half-life 130days
. Calculate the activityof the
sample after 260 days have elapsed.Also find the total energy released during th
is period if the energy
released per disintegration is 8 10 13 J.
In 260 days, i.e., two half-lives, the number of undisintegrated atomswill reduc
e to 1/4th.
Sol. . no. of atoms present after 260 days = N =
1
4 1020
Also, disintegration constant = . = 0.6931/T
where T = 130 days = 130 86400 s
Now, activity = .N =
0.693
130 . 86400
1
4 1020 = 1.54 1012 s
Number of atoms present initially= 1020
Number of atoms present after 260 days =
1
4 1020
. number of disintegrated atoms = 3/4 1020
Energy per disintegration = 8 10 13 J
. total energy released =
3
4 1020 8 10 13 = 6 107 J
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Example 60. Abodyofmassm0 is placed on a smooth horizontal surface. Themass of t
he body is decreasing
exponentiallywith disintegration constant ..Assuming that themass is ejected bac
kwardswith a relative
velocity u. Initially the bodywas at rest. Find the velocityof it after time t.
Sol. Mass of the bodyleft after time t is
m = m0e .t
So
dm
dt
. . . .. .. = m0.e .t
and thrust force on the body is
Ft = ur
dm
dt
. . . .. .. (in forward direction)
or m
dv
dt
. .
.. .. = u(m0.e .t) (ur = u)
or (m0e .t)
dv
dt = m0 u.e .t or dv = u.dt
or
v t
0 0
. dv . u.. dt or v = u.t
Example 61. Aradio nuclidewith half life T = 69.31 second emits .-particles of a
verage kinetic energyE =
11.25 eV.At an instant concentration of .-particles at distance, r = 2mfromnucli
de is n= 3 1013 perm3.
(i) Calculate number ofnuclie in the nuclide at that instant.
(ii) If a small circular plate is placed at distance r fromnuclide suchthat .-pa
rticles strike the plate normallyand
come to rest, calculate pressure experienced bythe plate due to collision of .-p
articles.
[Mass of .-particle = 9 10 31 kg)]
Sol. Let activity (rate of decay) of the nuclide beAnuclie per second. It means
A..-particles are emitted per second. If a spherical surface of radius rwith
centre at position of nuclide be considered thenA .-particles cross this
surface
(v dt)
r per second. Itmeans during an elemental time intervaldt a number (A. dt)
of .-particles cross this surface. If velocity of .-particles be v then above
calculated (A. dt) .-particles are in a space having shape of a spherical
shell of radius r and radial thickness (v dt) as shown in figure.
Volume of this space = 4.r2 (v dt)
. Concentration of .-particles at distance r fromnuclide is
2
n A dt
4 r (v dt)
.
.
or activityofthe nuclide, A = 4.r2 vn
But activity, A= .NwhereNis number of nuclei
Hence, N =
4.r2vn
. but decay constant ..=
log 2
T
.
4 r2vnT
N
0.6931
.
. ...(1)
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Kinetic energy of .-particles, E 1 mv2
2
. ,
v 2E
m
.
substituting this value in equation(1),
2
N 4 r nT 2E 9.6 1022
0.6931 m
.
. . . .
(ii) At distance r fromthe nuclide (A/4.r2) .-particles cross unit area per seco
nd. Let area of small circular
plate be S, then
number of .-particles striking the plate per second
2 2 2
A S N S 0.6931 NS
4 r 4 r 4 r T
.
. . .
. . .
Momentumof eachparticle just before collisionismv andafter collisionparticles co
me to rest ormomentum
becomes zero.
. Momentumtransferred to plate due to collision is
0 = mv
.p = mv
Due to transfer ofmomentum, the plate experiences a forcewhichis equal to rate o
ftransfer ofmomentum.
. Force, F = .p no. of particles striking per second
or F = mv 2
0.6931NS
4.r T
Pressure, P = Force per unit area
. P =
F
S = 2
0.6931N
4.r T mv but v =
2E
m
. P = 2
0.6931N 2mE
4.r T = 1.08 10 4 Nm 2
RADIOACTIVE DATING OR CARBON DATING
Radiocarbon dating, also called carbon dating, is used to estimate the age oforg
anic samples. The technique
is based on the .-activity of the radioactive isotope C14;
14
6 C 147
N + . + . .. . beta particles, . . anti neutrino]
(a) High energyparticles for outer space, called cosmic rays, induce nuclear rea
ctions in the upper atmosphere
and create carbon - 14.
(b) The carbon dioxidemolecules of the earth s atmosphere have a constant ratio (~
.
1.4 10 12) ofC14 to C12
isotopes.
(c) All living organisms also showthe same ratio as theycontinuously exchange CO
2withtheir surroundings.
(d) However after its death, an organismcan no longer absorbCO2 and the ratio C1
4/C12 decreases due to the
.-decay of C14.
(e) Thus bymeasuring the .-activityper unit mass, it is possible to estimate the
age of amaterial.
(f) Half life of 14C is 5739 y.
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Example 62:When charcoalis prepared froma living tree it shows a disintegration
rate of 15.3 disintegrations
of 14C per gram per minute. Asample from an ancient piece of charcoal shows 14C
activity to be 12.3
disintegrations per gramperminute. Howold is this sample ?Half life of 14C is 57
30 y.
Sol: 14C-activity of a living tree,A0 = 15.3 dis. per min.
14C-activity of the old sample, A= 12.3 dis. permin.
Suppose, the sample is t year old, then
(14C-activity of sample) = (14C-activity of living tree )e .t
i.e. A=A0e .t .....(i) where . is decayconstant of 14C-activity
Putting values ofAandA0 in equation (i),we get
12.3 = 15.3 e .t ....t = ln
15.3
12.3 . ...t = ln(1.24) = 0.218
. t =
0.218
. =
0.218
0.693 T, [as, . =
0.693
T ]
. t =
0.218
0.693 5730 y, [T = half-life of 14C -activity= 5730 y]
. t = 1805 y
Thus, the sample is 1805 y old.
Example 63: The relative radiocarbon activityin a piece of charcoal fromthe rema
ins of an ancient camp fire is
0.18 that of a contemporary specimen.Howlong ago did the fire occur ?Half-life o
f 14C-activity is 5730 y.
Sol: Here, ratio between the 14C-activityof burnt charcoal and that of a living
tree is given.
14
14
0
C activity of charcoal (say,A)
C activity of a living tree (say,A )
.
. = 0.18 .
0
A
A = 0.18
Suppose, t year ago fire occurred and let . be the decayconstant of 14C-activity
.We have, using radioactive
decay law,
A=A0e .t ...e.t = 0 A
A
. .t = ln 0 A
A . t =
1
. ln 0 A
A
. t =
T
0.693 ln 0 A
A , [. =
0.693
T ]
=
5730
0.693 ln
1
0.18
= 8268.3 ln|5.56|
= 1.4 104 y
Thus, fire occurred 1.4 104 years ago.
Radioactivity law for different types of disintegration of the radioactive subst
ance
It is seenthat radioactive disintegration of a radioactive substance is not only
ruled bythe radioactive law,
N=N0e .t (whichis applicable onlywhenthe radioactive substance is onlydisintegrati
ng), but the radioactive
lawchanges for various types ofdisintegrationofthe substance.Let us first enlist
these types ofdisintegration
as:
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
(1) Radioactive substance only disintegrates:
For this radioactive law is
dN
dt = .N or N = N0e .t
(2) Disintegration with continuous production of the radioactive substance.
It deals with the case when production and the decay of the radioactive substanc
e are taking place
simultaneously.
Formation A decays
(.)
B
(3) Successive disintegrations of the products:
It dealswith the casewhen a substanceAdecays into a substance Band Bsuccessively
decays into a third
substance Cwith the same or different decay rates.
B decays
(. ) 2
decays C
(. ) 1
A
(4) Simultaneous disintegrations of parent nuclei:
It dealswith the casewhen a parent nucleusmaydisintegrate in a number ofways int
o different products.
A
. B 1
.2 C
Parent nucleusAmay decay in B or Cwith decay constants .1 and .2 respectively.
(5) Radioactive equilibrium:
In a radioactive series, after a period of time, successive daughter nuclei deca
y at the same rate as it is
formed. This situationis called radioactive equilibrium.
(6) Disintegration of isotopes:
Apreparationmayhave a number ofradioactive isotopes.Herewewilldealwiththe net ra
te ofdisintegration
of the preparation.
Let us discuss these types of disintegrations.
Radioactive substance only disintegrates :
Suppose disintegration ofAinto Bis taking placewithdecay constant ., then decayr
ate,
dN
dt = .N . N = N0e .t
Disintegration with continuous production:
Suppose a substanceAdecays into B with decay constant . and simultaneously the p
roduction ofAis
taking place at a constant rate q.
decays B
(.)
Formation
(q)
A
Let, Nis the number of nuclei ofApresent at time t.
q = constant rate of formation ofA.
Disintegration ratewillbe given by
dN
dt =
q + .N, where .N is the rate of decay ofA.
Rearranging,we get,
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
dN
.q . .N = dt,
Integration gives,
0
N
N
dN
. .q . .N =
t
0
.dt ,whereN0 is the no. of nuclei ofAinitially present.
Finally, N =
1
. [q + (.N0 q)e .t]
Example 64. Aradionuclidewith disintegration constant . is produced in a reactor
at a constant rate . nuclei
per second.DuringeachdecayenergyE0 isreleased. 20%ofthis energyisutilised inincr
easingthe temperature
ofwater. find the increase in temperature ofmmass ofwater in time t. Specific he
at ofwater is s.Assume
that there is no loss of energythroughwater surface.
Sol. Let Nbe the number of nuclei at any time t. Then
Rate of formation =
N Rate of decay = N
. net rate of formationof nuclei at time t is
dN
dt = . .N or
N t
0 0
dN dt
N
.
. . . . .
or N =
.
. (1 e .t)
Number of nuclei formed in time t = .t
and number of nuclei left after time t .1 e..t . .
. .
.
Therefore, number of nucleidisintegrated in time t t .1 e..t . .
. . . .
.
. energy released till time . t .
0 t E t 1 e.. . . . . .. . . . . . . .
But only20%of it is used in raising the temperature ofwater.
So . t .
0 0.2 E t 1 e.. Q . . . .. . . . . . . . where Q = ms..
. ...= increase in temperature ofwater =
Q
ms
.
. t .
0 0.2 E t 1 e
ms
.. . . . .. . .. . .. .. .
Example 65. Nuclei of a radioactive element Aare being produced at a constant ra
te .. The element has a

decay constant ..At time t = 0 , there areN0 nucleiof the element.
(a) Calculate the number Nof nuclei ofAat time t
(b) If . =2N0., calculate the number of nucleiofAafter one half life ofA, and al
so the limiting value ofN
as t ....
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Sol. (a) Let at time t , number of radioactive nuclei areN.
Net rate of formation of nucleiofA.
dN
dt = . .N or
dN
. . .N = dt
or
0
N t
N 0
dN dt
N
.
. . . .
Rate of formation = A Rate of decay = N
t = t
N = N
Solving this equation,we get
. . t
0
N . 1 .. . . . .N e.. . . . . ...(1)
(b) (i) Substituting . = 2.N0 and t = t1/2 =
ln (2)
. in equation (1), we get
0
N 3 N
2
.
(ii)Substituting . = 2.N0 and t ... in equation (1), we get
N =
.
. = 2N0 or N = 2N0
Example 66. Aradionuclide with half life T is produced in a reactor at a constan
t rate q nuclei per second.
During each decay, energyE0 is released. If production of radionuclide is starte
d at t = 0, calculate.
(i) rate of release of energyas function of time t and
(ii) total energy released upto time t.
Sol. To calculate rate of release of energy at time t and total energy released
upto time t, rate of decayat that
instant and totalnumber of decays upto that instantmust be known.
Since, nucleiproduced are radioactive, therefore, their decay starts as soon as
their production is started.
Let at some instant number of nuclei in the radionuclide beN. Then rate ofits de
cay= .Nwhere . is decay
constant which is equal to e log 2
T
. .
.. .. .
Since, rate of production is q nuclei per second, therefore, at instant t, net r
ate of increase of nuclei
e dN q N q Nlog 2
dt T
. . . . .
or e dN qT Nlog 2
dt T
.
.
.
e
dN dt
qT N log 2 T
.
. ...(1)
Integrating above equationwith limits at t = 0, N= 0 and at t,N = ?
N t
0 0
e
dN dt
qT N log 2 T
.
. . .
.
t loge 2
T
e
qT
N 1 e
log 2
. . .
. . . . . .
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Hence, rate of decay,
t loge 2
A N q 1 e T . . .
. . . . . . . .
Since, energyE0 releases during each decay, therefore, rate of release of energy
at time
t loge 2
T
0 0 t AE qE 1 e. . .
. . . . . . .
Total number of nuclei produced upto time t = q . t
But the number of nuclei remaining undecayed at that instant isN. Therefore, tot
al number of nucleiwhich
decayed upto time t = (qt
N)
Hence, total energy released upto this time = (qt N)E0
t loge 2
0 T
0
e
qTE
qtE 1 e
log 2
. . .
. . . . . . .
Successive disintegration :
Suppose a radioactive substanceAdecays into B with decay constant .1 andB succes
sivelydecays into
another stable product Cwith a decay constant .2.
decays C (stable product)
.2
B
.1
A decays
Let N0 be the number of nuclei ofApresent at t = 0, N1, N2, N3 be the number of
nuclei ofA, B and C
respectively at anyinstant t.
Decay rate ofAis given by
dN
dt
.
= .1N1 . N1 = N0e .1t .....(i)
Rate of change of no of nucleiofB is
2 dN
dt = (Rate of decay ofA)
(Rate of decay of B)
But,
Rate of decay ofA= .1N1
and rate of decay of B = .2N2 hence, 2 dN
dt = .1N1
.2N2 .....(ii)
Rate of change of number of nuclei ofC is 3 dN
dt = (rate of decay ofB) = .2N2
. 3 dN
dt = .2N2 .....(iii)
Solving (i), (ii) and (iii),we get
N1 = N0e .1t
N2 = 0 1
2 1
N .
. . . [e .1t e .2t]
N3 = N0
2t 1t
1 2
2 1
e e 1
.. .. . . .. .
. . . . . . . .
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
NOTE : In this case total number of nuclei remains constant,
hence, N1 + N2 + N3 = N0 at any time.
Example 67:Aradioactive nucleusAdecays to a nucleus B with a decay constant .1.
B further decays to a
stable nucleusCwith a decayconstant .2. Initiallythere are onlyAnuclei and their
number isN0. Set up the
rate equations for the populations ofA,BandC.The population ofBnucleus as functi
on of time is given by
N2(t) = 0 1 1t 2t
2 1
N (e e )
( )
.. .. . . .
. . . . . . . .
. Calculate the population ofCas a function of time t.
Sol: Let N1, N2 and N3 be the number ofA, B and C nuclei respectively present at
a time t.
Decay rate forAnucleiwill be
1 dN
dt = .1N1 . N1 = N0e .1t
Rate of change of the number of nucleiofB is
2 dN
dt = .1N1 .2N2 where .2N2 = decay rate of B and .1N1 = decay rate ofA
Rate of change of the number of nuclei ofC is 3 dN
dt = (Rate of decay of B) = .2N2
3 dN
dt = .2N2 .
N3
3
0
. dN =
t
2 2
0
. . N dt , after integrating.
. N3 = .2
t
2
0
. N dt but, N2 is given as, N2 = 0 1 1t 2t
2 1
N (e e )
( )
.. .. . . .
. . .
. . . . .
. N3 = 1 2
t
0 1 2 t t
2 1 0
N . . (e.. e.. )dt
.
. . . . = 0 1 2
2 1
N . .
. . .
1 2
t t t
1 2 0
. e.. e.. .
. . . . .. .. .
= 0 1 2
2 1
N . .
. . .
1t 2t
1 2 1 2
. e.. e.. . 1 1 ..
. . . . .. . .. .. . .. . ..
. N3 = 0
2 1
N
. . .
2 t 1t
1 2 [. e.. . . e.. ] + N0
. N3 = N0
2t 1t
1 2
2 1
e e 1
.. .. . . .. .
. . . . . . . .
Simultaneous disintegration:
Aradioactive nucleus can decay bytwo different processes. For example a nucleusA
may either a-decay
to a nucleusB or .-decay to nucleus C.
A
. B 1
.2 C
Let .1 and .2 be the decay constants for these two decay processes.
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
The probability that an active nucleus decays by the first process in a time int
erval dt is .1dt .As decay
constant, . is defined as the probabilityofdecayper second for a particular proc
ess for a sample. Similarly,
the probability that it decays by the second process is .2dt.
Hence, the probability the it either decays by the first process or by the secon
d process is
.1dt + .2dt.
If the effective decay constant is .eff, this probability is also equal to .effd
t.
Thus, .effdt = .1dt + .2dt
. .eff = .1 + .2
For a number of different process for decay, .eff = .1 + .2 + ............
Example 68:Aradioactive nucleus can decay bytwo different processes. The half li
fe for the first process is t1
and that for the second process is t2. Showthat the effective half-life t of the
nucleus is given
1
t =
1
1
t
+
2
1
t
.
Sol: The decay constant for the first process is .1 =
1
ln 2
t
For the second process, .2 =
2
ln 2
t
Probability of decay by the first process = .1dt
Probability of decay by the second process = .2dt
Probability that it either decay by the first process or the second process = .1
dt + .2dt
This probability also equals to .effdt,where .eff is the effective decay constan
t.
Thus, .effdt = .1dt + .2dt
. .eff = .1 + .2 .
ln 2
t =
1
ln 2
t
+
2
ln 2
t
.
1
t =
1
1
t
+
2
1
t
Proved.
Example 69. Anumber N0 of atoms of a radio active element are placed inside a cl
osed volume.The radiactive
decayconstant for the nucleus of this element is .1. The daughter nucleus that f
ormas a result of the decay
process are assumed to be radioactive toowitha radioactive decayconstant .2.Dete
rmine the time variation
of the number of such nucleus. Consider two limiting cases .1>> .2 and .1<< .2.
Sol. In time intervaldt, number of increase ofdaughter nuclei are
dN2 = .1N1dt
.2N2dt
or dN2 = .1N0
e..1t dt .2N2dt (N1 = N0
e..1t )
or 2 dN
dt + .2N2 = .2N0
e..1t ...(1)
Case-1 : When .1 > >..2 i.e. (t1/2)1 < < (t1/2)2 (t1/2 = half life)
We can assume that N20 . N0 so that N2 = N0
e..2t
(N20 = number of daughter atoms at time t = 0)
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Physicallythismeans that parent nucleipractivallyinstantlytransforminto daughter
nuclei,which thendecay
according to the lawof radioactive decaywith decay constant .2.
Case-2 : When .1 < <..2 i.e. (t1/2)1 > > (t1/2)2
In this case number of parent nuclei can be assumed to remain constant over a si
zable time interval and is
equal to N0.
This transforms equation (1) into 2 dN
dt =
(.2N2
.1N0)
or
N2 t
2
0 1 0 2 2 0
dN
dt
N N
.
. . . . .
Which after integration gives
N2 = 1
2
.
. N0(1 e..2t )
Example 70. Aradio nuclide consists of two isotopes.One of the isotopes decays b
y .-emission and the other
by .-emissionwith half livesT1 = 405 second and T2 = 1620 second, respectively.A
t t = 0, probabilities
of getting ..and ..particles fromthe radionuclide are equal. Calculate their res
pective probabilities at t =
1620 second.
If at t = 0, total number of nuclie in the ratio-nuclide areN0, calculate time t
when total number of nuclie
remained undecayed becomes equal to 0 N
2 .
Given log10 2 = 0.30103, log10 13 = 1.11394
Sol. Since, at t = 0, probabilities of getting . and . particles fromthe radionu
clide are equal, therefore, initial
activities of two isotopes are equal. Let it beA0.
Activity of first isotope at t = 1620 sec.
t /T1
0
1 0
1 A A A
2 16
. . . . .. ..
That of second isotope,
t /T2
0
2 0
1 A A A
2 2
. . . . .. ..
. Total activity of radionuclide at t = 1620 sec,A=A1 +A2 =
9
16 A0
. Probabilityofgetting .-particle, 1
1
P A 1
A 9
. .
and that of getting .-particle, 2
2
P A 8
A 9
. .
Let at t = 0, number of nuclei of two isotopes beN01 andN02, respectively.
Initial activityof first isotope, 1 01 1 01
1
A N N log 2
T
. . .
That of second isotope, 2 02 2 02
2
A N N log 2
T
. . .
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Since, A1 =A2, therefore 01 02
1 2
N N
T T
.
or 01 1
02 2
N T 1
N T 4
. .
Initially, total number of nuclei, N0 =N01 +N02
. 01
N 1
5
. N0 and 02
N 4
5
. N0
At time t, number of nucleiof first isotope that remain undecayed,
t /T1 t / 405
1 01 0
N N 1 1 N 1
2 5 2
. . . . . . .. .. .. ..
That of second isotope,
t /T2 t /1620
2 02 0
N N 1 4 N 1
2 5 2
. . . . . . .. .. .. ..
. Total number of nuclei remaining undecayed at time t,
N = N1 + N2 =
t / 405
0 N 1
5 2
. .
.. .. +
t /1620
0
4 N 1
5 2
. .
.. .. =
4 t /1620
0 N 1 4 1
5 2 2
.. . . . . .. . . . . . ... . .. . .
But it is equal to 0 N
2 .
.
4 t /1620
0 0 N 1 4 1 N
5 2 2 2
.. . . . . .. . . . . . . ... . .. . .
or
t /1620 1 8
2 13
. . . .. ..
Taking log,
t
1620
. log 2 = log 8
log 13
or
.log13 log8. 1620
t s
log 2
. .
.
or
.log13 3log 2. 1620
t s 1134 s
log 2
. .
. .
Radioactive equilibrium :
Decayof 238
92 U into a stable end product 206
82 Pb is aradioactive serieswhichcontains anumber ofintermediate
members. The intermediatemembers of each decayseries havemuch shorter half-lives
than their parent
nuclide.As a result, ifwe start with a sample NA nuclei of a parent nuclideA, af
ter a period of time an
equilibriumsituationwill come about inwhich each successive daughter B, C, .....
...... decays at the same
rate as it is formed. Thus the activities RA, RB, RC, ........... are all equal
at equilibrium, and sinceR = .Nwe
have.
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
.ANA = .BNB = .CNC = ...........
This situation is called radioactive equilibrium. The above equation can be used
to establish the decay
constant (or half-life) of anymember ofthe series if the decayconstant of anothe
rmember and their relative
proportions in a sample are known.
Example 71: The atomic ratio between the uraniumisotope 238Uand 234Uin amineral
sample is found to be 1.8
104. The half-life of 234U is 2.5 105 year. Find the half-life of 238U.
Sol: The two isotopes are in radioactive equilibrium.Hence activities of the two
willbe equal.
Thus, .1N1 = .2N2,
where, .1, .2 are decay constant of 238U and 234Urespectively.
N1 and N2 are number of atoms of 238U and 234U respectively, we have
.2 = 5
ln 2
2.5.10 (year) 1,
1
2
N
N = 1.8 104,
.1 =
ln 2
T , where T is half life of 238U.
Now, .1N1 = .2N2 ...
ln 2
T
1
2
N
N
. .
. .
. .
= 5
ln 2
2.5.10 (year) 1
. T = 1
2
N
N
. .
. .
. .
2.5 105 year
= 1.8 104 2.5 105year
. half life of 238U = 4.5 105 year
Disintegration of isotopes :
Suppose a sample is a mixture of three radioactive isotopesA, B and C.
Let .1, .2 and .3 be the decay constant ofA, B and C respectively.
N1, N2 and N3 be the number of nuclei of isotopesA, B and C respectively at any
instant.
IfA1,A2,A3 are decay rates ofA, B and C respectively then, the net decay rate is
Anet = A1 + A2 + A3
but, A = .N .. .net N = .1N1 + .2N2 + .3N3
. .net = 1 1 2 2 3 3 N N N
N
. . . . .
Nis the total no. of nuclei in the sample at any instant
. N = N1 + N2 + N3
hence net decay constant, .net = 1 1 2 2 3 3
1 2 3
N N N
N N N
. . . . .
. .
Example 72:Asample of uraniumis amixture of three isotopes 234
92 U, 235
92U and 238
92U present in atomic ratio
of 0.006%, 0.71%and 99.284%respectively.The half life of these isotopes are 2.5
105 years, 7.1 108
years and 4.5 109 years respectively. Calculate the contribution of activity (in
%) of each isotope in this
sample.
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Sol: Let N1, N2 and N3 be the number of the three isotopes in the sample.
we haveN
1 : N2 : N3 = 0.006 : 0.71 : 99.284 .....(i)
If .1, .2, .3 are decay constants of these isotopes and as activityA= .N, we hav
e
A1 :A2 :A3 = .1N1 : .2N2 : .3N3
A1 :A2 :A3 = 1
1
(ln 2)N
T : 2
2
(ln 2)N
T : 3
3
(ln 2)N
T , [as . =
ln 2
T ]
. A1 :A2 :A3 = 1
1
N
T : 2
2
N
T = 3
3
N
T .....(ii)
where, T1, T2 and T3 are half lives of the isotopes.
Comparing (i) and (ii) we get
A1 :A2 :A3 =
1
0.006
T :
2
0.71
T :
3
99.284
T
= 5
0.006
2.5.10 : 8
0.71
7.1.10 : 9
99.284
4.5.10
=
60
2.5 : 1 :
99.284
4.5
= 24 : 1 : 22.06
A1 :A2 :A3 = 24 : 1 : 22.06
=
24 100
24 1 22.06
.
. . :
1 100
24 1 22.06
.
. . :
22.06 100
24 1 22.06
.
. .
=
2400
47.06 %:
100
47.06 %:
2206
47.06
= 51.00%: 2.12%: 46.88%
Activityratio = 51%: 2.12%: 46.88%
. Contribution of 234
92 U = 51%;
Contribution of 235
92 U = 2.12%;
and Contribution of 238
92 U = 46.88%in activityof the sample.
Example 73. The isotopes of uraniumU238 andU235 occur in nature in the ratio 128
: 1.Assuming that at the
time ofthe earth s formationtheywere in equal ratio,make an estimate ofthe age of
the earth.The half-lives
of U238 and U235 are 4.5 109 years and 7.13 108 years, respectively.
Sol. Let N0 be the initial number of atoms. Then fromN= N0e .t, (ln 2/T1)t
1 0 N . N e. and (ln 2/ T2 )t
2 0 N . N e.
. ln 2.1/T2 1/T1.t
1 2 N / N e . .
ln 2.1/ 7.13 108 1/ 4.5 109 .t 128 e . . . .
. 128 eln 2 1.18 10 9 t . . . . or 27 eln 2 1.18 10 9 t . . . .
or
t 7
1.18
. 109 = 5.9 109 years
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Types of Nuclear Collision:
Exoergic collision / reaction: IfQis positive, restmass energyis converted to ki
neticmass energy(K3,K4
etc), radiation energyor both, and the reactionis called exoergic.
Note: (i) The kinetic energyKE. of the emitted .-particle is never quite equal t
o the disintegration energyQ
because the nucleus recoils with a small amount of kinetic energywhen the .-part
icle emerges (since
momentummust be conserved).
.
* KE A 4 Q
A .
.
. ,Ais themass number of the parent nucleus.
(ii) Themass numbers of nearlyallalpha-emitters exceed 210, and hence most ofthe
disintegration energy
appears as theKE of the .-particle.
(iii) In the . decay process, the energyQis shared bythe antineutrinos and the bet
a particle. The kinetic
energy of the beta particle can be anything between zero andmaximumvalue ofQ.
* K. + Ky = Q & p. = py
p2
2m
.
.
+
2
y
y
p
2m = Q
p2
2m
.
. y
1 m
m
. . .
.. . ..
. .
= Q
K.
1 4
A 4
. . . . . . . . = Q
. K. =
A 4
A
. . .
. .
. .Q
C63: Find the kinetic energy of the .-particle emitted in the decay 238Pu 234U+
..
The atomic masses of 238Pu = 238.04955 a.m.u.; of 234U = 234.04095 a.m.u; of 4He
= 4.002603 a.m.u.
Neglect any recoilof the residualnucleus.
Sol: Using energyconservation,
m(238Pu)c2 = m(234U)c2 + m(4He)c2 + K

or K = [m(238Pu)
m(234U)
m(4He)]c2
= (238.04955 a.m.u.
234.04095 a.m.u. 4.002603 a.m.u.]c2
= 0.0059970 a.m.u. (931.5)MeV/a.m.u.
= 5.59MeV
C64: Neon-23 beta decay in the followingway:
23
10 Ne 23
11 Na + 01
e . + .
Find theminimumandmaximumkinetic energy that the beta particle 01
e . canhave. The atomicmasses
of 23Ne and 23Na are 22.9945 u and 22.9898 u, respectively.
Sol: Reactant Product
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
23
10 Ne 22.9945
10me
23
11 Na 22.9898 11me
01
e . me
Total 22.9945 10 me Total 22.9898
10 me
Mass defect, .m= 22.9945 u 22.9898 u = 0.0047 u
. Q = .m c2 = (0.0047 u) 931.5MeV/u) = 4.4MeV
The .-particle and neutrino share this energy.Themaximumkinetic energyofa beta p
article inthis decayis,
therefore, 4.4MeVwhenthe antineutrino does not get anyshare. Energyof . particle
can range from0 to
4.4MeV.
Endoergic collisions
(a) IfQis negative, the reaction is endoergic.
(b) For endoergic reaction to take place aminimumenergy has to be supplied.
(c) Threshold energyEth: Theminimumamount of energy that a bombarding particle m
ust have in order to
initiate an endoergic reaction, is called threshold energyEth.
Usingmomentumconservationalso,we get
Eth = Q 1
2
m 1
m
. .
. . .
. .
, wherem1 =mass of the bombarding particle,m2 =mass of the target nucleus.
m1c2 + m2c2 + K1 = (m3 + m4)c2 + K3 + K4
& p1 = p3 + p4; Q + K1 = K3 + K4
Q +
2
1
1
p
2m =
2
3
3
p
2m +
24
4
p
2m =
2
3
3
p
2m +
2
1 3
4
(p p )
2m
.
. 2Q +
2
1
1
p
2m = 2
3
3 4
p 1 1
m m
. .
. . .
. .
1 3
4
2p p
m +
2
1
4
p
m
2
3
3 4
p 1 1
m m
. .
. . .
. .
1 3
4
2p p
m + 2
1 p
4 1
1 1
m m
. .
. . .
. .
2Q = 0
2
1
24
4p
m 4
3 4
1 1
m m
. .
. . .
. .
2
1
4 1
p 1 1
m m
. . . .
. . . . . . . . .
2Q . 0
2
1
1
p
2m .
Q 3 4
3 4 1
m m
m m m
.
. . ; K1 . Q 3 4
3 4 1
m m
m m m
.
. .
If m1 + m2
~
Q 1
2
1 m
m
. .
. . .
. .
C65: Howmuch energymust a bombarding proton possess to cause the reaction
7
3 Li + 11
H 74
Be + 1
0 n atomicmasses of 7Li, 1H, 7Be and 1
0 n are 7.01600 u, 1.0783
u, 7.01693 u and 1.0866 u respectively.
Sol: Since themass of an atominclude themasses of the atomic electrons, the appr
opriate number of electron
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
massesmust be subtracted fromthe given values to getmasses of nuclei.
. Q-value, = [m( 7
3 Li )
3me+m(11
H ) me]c2
[m(74
Be ) 4me + m(1
0 n )]c2
= [m( 7
3 Li ) +m(11
H ) m(74
Be ) m(1
0n )]c2
= (8.02383
8.02559)u.c2
= 0.00176 u (931.5MeV/c2)
= 1.65MeV
Negative sign ofQindicates endoergic reaction. Energymust be supplied for this r
eaction to take place.
The energyis supplied as kinetic energy of the bombarding proton. The incident p
rotonmust havemore
than this energy because the system must posses some kinetic energy even after t
he reaction, so that
momentumis conserved.Withmomentumconservationtakeninto account, theminimumkineti
c energyof
the incident can be foundwiththe formula.
Eth =
1 m
M
. . . . .
. .Q =
1 1
7
. . . . .
. . ( 1.65 MeV) = 1.89 MeV.
C66.Making use ofthe table of atomicmasses find the energies of the following re
achings Li7(., n) B10
Sol. 3Li7 + 2He4 . 5B10 + 0n1
Q = (7.01601 + 4.00260)
(10.0124 + 1.00867)
Q = 0.00300 amu =
2.79 MeV
Example 74: Find the energyof the reactionN14(., p) O17, if the
kinetic energy of the incoming .-particle is T. = 4.0MeV
and protonoutgoingat anangle .=60 to themotiondirection
of the alpha-particle has a kinetic energyTp = 2.09MeV. N . = 60
.
TO
Tp p
X
..
T.
Y
Sol: T..= 4.0 MeV, Tp = 2.09MeV
Let TO is kinetic energyafter collisionof oxygen.
Reaction is, 7N14 + 2He4
8O17 + 1p1
Let Q - value of reactionQ.
Energy conservation gives, Q + T. = TO + Tp .....(i)
Momentumconservationalong x-directiongives,
2m T . . = O O 2m T .cos. + p p 2m T .cos.
. 2m T . . p p 2m T .cos.. = O O 2m T .cos. .....(ii)
Momentumconservationalong y-direction gives,

p p 2m T .sin..= O O 2m T .sin. .....(iii)
Squaring the equation (ii) and (iii) on both sides and adding the result,we get,
( 2m T . .
p p 2m T .cos.)2+ 2mpTp sin2. = 2mOTO
. 2m.T.
2 p p (2m T )(2m T ) . . .cos. + 2mpTp(cos2. + sin2.) = 2mOTO
. TO =
O
1
m [m. T. + mpTp
2 p p m m T T . . .cos.] .....(iv)
Fromequation (i), Q = TO + Tp
T. .....(v)
Putting the value TO fromequation (iv) in equation (v),we get,
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Q = Tp
T. +
O
1
m [m. T. + mp Tp
2 p p m m T T . . . cos.]
= 2.09 MeV 4.0 MeV +
1
16 [1 4 + 1 2.09
2 4.1.4.2.09 .co60] MeV
. Q = 1.14MeV
NUCLEAR FISSION
Continuous research or artificialtransmuttionand especiallythe studyof inducedra
dioactivity, culminated in
the discovery of nuclear fissionwhich is accompanied by the release of enormous
amounts of energy. In
ordinarynuclear disintegrations, both natural and artificial, the nucleus isonly
chipped off rather than broken
and accordingly, the amount of energyreleased is comparatively less i.e. fromabo
ut 10 to 23MeV.
It was discovered in 1939 that the heavyunstable uraniumnucleuswhen bombarded by
neutrons splits into
two almost equalfragmentswhich flyapart with great speed and the amount of energ
yreleased per fission
is about 200MeV.
This division of a nucleus into two approximately equalparts as called nuclear f
ission.
Discovery of fission
The starting point in the discovery of nuclear fission can be traced to the atte
mpts of Fermi in 1934, to
produce transuranic elements by bombarding uraniumwith neutrons. However, the fi
ssion process itself
was discovered in 1939 by German radio chemists Otto Hahn and his two associates
Meitner and
Strassmann.After bombarding uraniumwith neutrons, theyperformed a series of chem
ical separations to
identify the products. To their great surprise, they found that the atoms produc
ed bythe bombardment of
uraniumbelonged to elementswhich lie near the centre ofthe periodic table.Obviou
sly, a uraniumnucleus
after capturing neutronhad become so unstable that instead ofdisintegrating byej
ecting oneor two particles,
it had split up into two parts.
The actualfissionprocess canbeunderstoodwiththe helpoffigurewhich shows a uraniu
mnucleus capturing
a neutron.
0n1
92U236
92p
143n
92U236
.-rays
Unstable
Antimony
Nuclide
51Sb133
51p
82n
.-rays
Unstable
Niobium
Nuclide
41p
48n
41Nb99
(a) (b)
(c)
The newly-formed nucleus of figure (b) isunstable and starts breaking up into tw
o parts. Inbreaking up, the
uraniumnucleus, behaving like a liquid drop, splashes out smalldroplets, i.e. ne
utron and .-rays. So great
is the release of energy that the two fission fragments fly apart in opposite di
rections with tremendous
speeds. It amy, however, be noted that not all uraniumnuclei break into Sb and N
b as shown in figure.
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
There are at least 30 different ways inwhich a fissile nuclide can divide itself
. The experimental evidence
seems to favour pairs of fissionfragments of unequalmasses (asymmetrical fission
) accompanied byone to
five or some time more neutrons. In general, fission fragments are unstable nucl
ei containing an excess
number of neutrons.After a series of .-emissions in which neutrons are converted
into protons in the
nucleus, a stable nuclide results.
Out ofall the neutrons ejected during the fission of uranium, about 99 per cent
are ejected inan extremely
short interval oftime and are called prompt neutrons. The remaining one per cent
of neutrons are emitted a
little later and are called delayed neutrons. The delayed neutrons originate fro
munstable fragments that
decay by neutron emission on theirway to becoming stable nuclei.
Itmaybe noted that divisionofa fissile nucleus into three fragments ofcomparable
sizes (ternaryfission) has
been observed although it is a rare event, occurring about 5 times permillionbin
aryfissions.
Types of Fission Reactions
Historicallyspeaking, uraniumwas the first element to undergo fission.However, s
oon after itwas found
that other elementsof high atomicweight could also bemade to undergo fissionand
that particles other than
neutron could be equallyeffective inthis respect.
Naturaluraniumcontains three principal isotopeswith the following relative abund
ance:
U238 99.28% 4.51 109 Y
U235 0.714% 7.1 108 Y
U234 0.006% 2.48 105 Y
It is found that slowneutrons cause fission ofU235 but not ofmore abundant isoto
peU238whichrequires fast
neutronswith energies exceeding 1MeV. Similarly,Th232 and Pa231 undergo fissionw
henbombardedwith
fast neutrons. Fission can also be produced in uraniumand thoriumby high-energy
.-particles, protons,
protons, deuterons and .-rays etc.Two other nuclideswhich do not occur in nature
but have proved to be
fissionalbe by neutrons of all energies are 92U233 and 94Pu239. In 1947, success
ful fission of bismuth, lead,
thallium,mercury, gold, platinumand tantalumwas achieved inUSAbymeans of ..-part
icles, deutrons and
neutrons of 100 MeV and more.With bismuth (Z = 83) fission was detected with 50M
eV deuterons
whereas tantalum(Z= 73) required .-particles of 400MeVenergy.
It isworthnothing that onlythree fissilematerialsU233,U235, Pu239 are important
inthe large-scale application
of nuclear energy.
Finally, some heavynucleihave beenfound to undergo spontaneous fission. In this
process, nucleus divides
in the ground statewithout bombardment byparticles fromoutside.
Mass distribution of Fission Products
During uraniumfission, a large number of nuclides of intermediate charge andmass
are found. Their study
is a promising source of information about the mechanismof the fission process i
tself and also offers the
possibility of discovering hitherto unknown nuclides. Investigations of the fiss

ion products ofU235 have
shown that the range of their mass numbers is from72 to 158.About 97%of theU235
nuclei undergoing
fission give fragmentswhich fall into two groups as shown inthe fission yield cu
rve of figure .
(i) light groupwithmass numbers from85 to 104 and
(ii) heavygroupwithmass numbers from130 to 149.
Themost probable type of fissionwhich occurs in about 7%of the total cases, give
s fission productswith
mass numbers 95 and 139.
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
60 80 100 120 140 160 180
10
100
1000
10000
95
139
Mass Number (A)
Number of Fragments
Asmentioned earlier, fission fragments have toomany neutrons in their nuclei for
stability. Consequently,
most ofthemdecay byelectron emission. Each fragment starts a short radio-active
series involvingmany
emission of .-particles. These series are called fission decay series and chain
has threemembers on the
average althoughlonger and shorter chains occur frequently.One suchfission decay
chain is shownin figure
which startswith one of the unstable fragments of the fission ofU235 nucleus.
51
82
51Sb133
5m
Unstable
Antimony
52
81
52Te133
60m
Unstable
Tellurium
O .
53
80
53I133
5d
Unstable
Iodine
O .
54
79
54Xe133
5d
Unstable
Xenon
O .
55
78
55Cs133
Stable
Cesium
O .
Energy Distribution of Fission Products
Energy distribution among the fission products can
be found bymeasuring their kinetic energywith the
help of suitable ionization chambers. The results of
such studyonU235 fissionhave shown that the energy
distribution curve is not uniform; rather it is a doublepeaked
curvewithmaxima at 67MeVand 100MeV.

It is seen that while the greatest probability is for a
fragment of 100MeV, the areas under the two peaks
which represent the total number of particles in the
two groups are approximatelyequal.
0
100
200
300
400
40 60 80 100 120
Energy (MeV)
Number of frangments 67
100
Neutron Emission in Nuclear Fission
One ofthe notable features ofnuclear fission is thatwhile it is initiated byneut
rons it is also accompanied by
the emissionof fast-moving neutrons. The number of neutrons released depends on
themode of fission and
on the energyof the neutronswhichinduce fission. The average values for the numb
er of neutrons emitted
per thermalneutron absorbed bythe three important fissilematerials are given bel
ow:
U235 2.43
U233 2.50
Pu239 2.89
These neutrons are emitted bythe fission fragments and not bythe compound nucleu
s.
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
The neutrons emitted as a result of fission process (i.e. fissionneutrons) can b
e divided into two groups:
(i) Prompt Neutrons: Thesemake up about 99.36%of the total fission neutrons and
are ejected by the
product nucleiwithin 10 14 second of the fission process. Prompt .-rays are also e
mitted at the same time.
(ii) DelayedNeutrons: These constitute about 0.64%of the totalneutrons fromthe f
ission ofU235.These
are emittedwithgraduallydecreasing intensityfor severalminutes after actual fiss
ionprocess.Although the
number ofdelayed neutrons is small, theyhave a strong influence on the time-depe
ndent behaviour of chainreacting
systems based on fission and play an important role in the controlofnuclear-fiss
ion reactors.
Fissile and Fissionable Nuclides
Elements likeU235, U233 and Pu239 undergo fission by neutrons of energy fromalmo
st zero upwards. Such
nuclei are referred to as fissile nuclides. On the other hand, U238 and Th232 nu
clei which have a fission
threshold at 1MeV are said to be fissionable nuclides.
In general, fissile nuclides have either an even number of protons and an odd nu
mber of neutrons or odd
numbers ofboth. Fissionalbe nuclides, onthe other hand, have either even number
ofprotons and neutrons
or an odd number of protons and an even number of neutrons.
Fission Energy
One ofthe striking features ofthe fissionprocess is themagnitude of the energyre
leasedwhich is about 200
MeV per fission ofU235 nuclide. Before 1939, the largest known nuclear reaction
energywas 22.2MeV
associatedwith Li6 (d, .) He4 reaction.
The amount ofenergyreleased per fissionofU235 nuclidemaybe calculated bythe foll
owing threemethods:
(i) Binding-energymethod:Asmentioned above all stable fission products havemass
numbers in the range
72 to 158where the average binding energyper nucleon is about 8.5MeV.However, in
the neighbourhood
of uranium, its value is 7.6MeV. Hence, average binding energy per nucleon is (8
.5 7.6) = 0.9MeV
greater inthe fission products thanin the compound nucleus ofU235. The excess en
ergyis released as fission
energy. Its value is 235 0.9 ~. 200MeVper fission ofU235 nuclide (which has 235
nucleons).
(ii) MassDefectMethod: The energy released per fission can also be estimated byc
omparing themass of the
interacting particles and the final fission products.
As mentioned, U235 splits in manyways and the nuclei obtained in the greatest yi
eld in fission by slow
neutrons havemass numbers of 95 and 139. The fissionproducts being initiallyradi
oactive, undergo many
.-emissions to formultimatelystable nuclides. Ifmolybdenum-95 and lanthanum-139
are takenas pair of
stable products fromfission ofU235, the fission reaction can bewritten as
92U235 + 0n1
62Mo95 + 57La139 + 20n1
Comparingmasses on both sides of the above equationwe get,
mass ofU235 nuclide = 235.124 amu
mass of one neutron = 1.009 amu

Total = 236.133 amu
mass ofMo95 nuclide = 94.946 amu
mass of La139 nuclide = 138.955 amu
mass oftwo neutrons = 2.018 amu
Total = 235.919 amu
mass of defect = 236.133
235.919 = 0.214 amu
Therefore, energy released per fission ofU235 nucleus
= 0.214 931 ~. 200 MeV
(iii) Kinetic energymeasurementmethod: The total amount ofenergyreleased per fis
sionis equal to the sum
ofthe following energies:
(a) the kinetic energy of fission fragments.As seenfromfigure the average value
of this energy for U235 is
167MeV.
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
(b) the kinetic energyof fissionneutrons. Since the average number of neutrons e
mitted per fission ofU235
is 2.43 or say 2.5 and the average kinetic energyof these neutrons is 2MeV, tota
l kinetic energyof fission
neutrons is 2.5 2 = 5MeV.
(c) the kinetic energy of prompt .-rays. Its value is about 7MeV.
(d) the total energy of the decay process in the fission decay chains.
This includes the energy carried away byradiations like .-rays, .-rays and neutr
ons. Its value is nearly 21
MeV.
The totalof all the above energies is
= 167 + 5 + 7 + 21 = 200 MeV
C67:AU235 nucleus is fissioned bya thermalneutron and two fission fragments and
two neutrons are produced.
Compute the fissionenergyreleased if the average binding energyper nucleon is 7.
8MeVin fissionedU235
nucleus and 8.6MeVin the fission fragments.
Sol: Greater binding energyof the fissionfragments indicates that there has been
release ofenergyduring fission
of low-binding energynucleusU235.
236 7.8)
Fission energy released is = (234 8.6
= 171.6 MeV
Theory of Fission Process
The first attempt to explain themechanismoffission processwasmade byBohr andWhee
lerwho accounted
formanyof the properties offission on the basis of the liquid-dropmodelof the nu
cleus.
1 2 3 4 5 6
The shape of the drop depends on a balance betweenthe surface tension forces and
Coulombic repulsive
forces. The excitation energy given to the drop during the capture of the slow o
r thermalneutron sets up
oscillationswithin the drop. These oscillations tend to distort the spherical sh
ape so that the drop becomes
ellipsoid in shape.The surface tension forces trytomake the dropreturn to its or
iginalspherical shapewhile
the excitation energytends to distort the shape stillfurther. Ifthe excitation e
nergyandhence oscillations are
sufficientlylarge, the drop pattains the dumbbell shape as shownin figure. TheCoul
ombic repulsive forces
thenpush the two bells further apart untilthe dumbbell splits into two similar dro
ps eachofwhich assumes
a spherical shape. The sequence of steps leading to fission is shown in figure.
However, if the excitation energy is not large enough, the ellipsoidwillreturn t
o the sphericalshape. In that
case, the excitation energyis givenout in the formof .-rays and the process beco
mes a radioactive capture
process rather than fission process.
LECTURE
5
Nuclear Reactors :
(a) Anuclear rectoris a systemdesignedto controlthe chainreactionoffissionwithco
ntinuous energyproduction.
(b) Ausefulfactor for describing the levelof operation of a reactor is the repro
duction constant K. It is defined
as the average of neutrons available fromeach fission that will cause another fi
ssion. For a controlled or self
sustained chain reactionKmust bemaintained close to unit.
i.e. K. 1 for controlled chain reaction.
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
(c) Fuel: This is the fissionablematerial.Commonly usedmaterials
areU238 enriched inU235 and plutonium(Pu239).
(d) Moderator:Fastmoving neutrons cannot triggerthe fission
ofU235 and have a very high chance of being captured by
U238 which is not fissionable. It is therefore necessary to
usemoderators to slowdown the neutrons.
Control
rods
Shield
Moderator
Fuel
elements
Nuclear Reactor
(e) Coolant: Air, water or CO2 are used as a coolant to
remove the heat released inside the reactor.
(f) Control Rods: Cd(cadmium) which is a good absorber
of neutrons is used to controlthe rate of fissionand also to
shut down the reactor in case of emergency.
(g) Types of reactors:
(i) Thermal reactors: In these reactors fission is produced by
slowneutrons ro thermalneutrons.
(ii) Breeder reactor: Breeder reactors generally use fast neutrons in these reac
torsU238 is converted into
Pu239 by capture of neutrons. Pu239 is fissionable. Thus such reactors also prod
uce fuel in addition to the
energyreleased through fission.
(h) Critical mass: For a fuel there is a criticalmass belowwhich the fissionable
material is completely safe.
But for amass above the criticalmassmore neutrons are produced than are lost so
that the chain reaction
builds up rapidlyand the systemexplodes.
The atomic bombare therefore stocked as subcriticalmass such that the combinedma
ss is greater than the
criticalmass resulting in a spontaneous explosion.
Example 75: In a nuclear reactor, fission is produced in 1 g for U235 (235.0439u
) by a slowneutron (1.0087 u).
Assume that 35Kr92 (91.8973 u) and 56Ba141 (140.9139 u) are produced inall react
ion and no energy is lost.
(a) Write the complete reaction,
(b) Calculate the energy released per fission,
(c) Calculate the total energy produced in kilowatt hour.Given 1 u = 931.5MeV/c2
.
Sol: (a) The nuclear fission reaction is
92U235 + 0n1
56Ba141 + 36K92 + 3 0n1
(mBa + mKr + 3mn)
(b) Mass defect, .m= [(mu + mn)
.m= 256.0526 u 235.8373 u = 0.2153 u
Energyreleased per fission,
Q = 0.2153 u 931.5MeV/u = 200.6MeV
(c) Number of atoms in 1g =
6.02 1023
235
.
= 2.56 1021
Energy released in fission of 1 g ofU235
= 200.6 2.56 1021 MeV
= 5.14 1023 MeV
= (5.14 1023) (1.6 10 13)J

= 8.2 1010 J = 8.2 1010 W-s
=
10
6
8.2 10
3.6 10
.
. KWh
= 2.28 104 KWh
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Example 76: In neutron-induced binary fission of 92U235 (235.044) two stable end
-products usuallyfound are
42Mo98 (97.905) and 54Xe136 (135.917).Assuming that these isotopes have come fro
mthe original fission
process, find (i) what elementary particles are released (ii)mass defect of the
reaction (iii) the equivalent
energy released.
Sol: (i) The reaction can bewritten as
0n1 + 93U235 = 43Mo98 + 51Xe136
It is seen that the totalZ-value of the two stable fission products is (42 + 54)
=96. It is 4 unitsmore than
that of 92U235. For balance, the original unstable fission products must have go
t Z = 92. Obviously, the
originalunstable productsmust have emitted 4 .-particles before becoming stable.
Now,mass number on
right-hand side is 2 units less than on the left-hand side. It means that towfis
sion neutronsmust have been
produced.Hence, the fission reaction canbe represented by the following equation
:
0n1 + 92U235 = 42Mo98 + 54Xe136 + 4 1e0 + 20n1
(ii) .m= LHS mass RHS mass
LHSmass = (1.009 + 235.055) = 236.053 amu
RHSmass = (97.905 + 135.917 + 4 0.0055 + 2 1.009)
= 235.842 amu
. .m = 236.053 235.842
= 0.211 amu
(iii) Energy released = 0.211 931 = 196MeV
Example 77. About 180MeVenergy is releasedwhen one nucleus of 92U235 undergoes f
ission. estimate the
energy released from1 kg ofU235, assuming that each nucleus undergoes fission.
Sol. 1 kg of U235 = 1000 g =
1000
235 mole
. number of atoms =
1000
235 6.02 1023
. total energy released =
6.02
235 1026 180MeV
=
6.02 18
235
.
1027 106 1.6 10 19 J = 7.37 1013 J
C68. Calculate the energy released in slowneutron capture by Pu239.Mass of Pu239
= 239.127 amu, Pu240 =
240.1291 amu, 0n1 = 1.008665 amu.
Sol. Energy released =mass defect in energy units
= (239.127 + 1.008665
2401) amu
= 0.006565 931MeV = 6.1 MeV
Example 78.Anuclear reactor generates P =20MWpower at efficiency. =60%bynuclear
fission of a radionuclidewhose
half life isT= 2.2 years. If each fission releases energyE = 200MeV, calculate t
ime during
which = 10mole of the radionuclidewill be consumed completely.
(Avogadro number, N = 6 1023, loge 2 = 0.693, 1 year = 3.15 107 s)
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Sol. To operate the nuclear reactor, let the number of fissions required per sec
ond be n0. Thenenergy released
per second byfission reactions = n0E
Since, efficiencyofthe reactor is ., therefore, power output fromthe reactor = .
n0E.
But it is equal to P therefore, P = .n0E
or 0
n P
E
.
.
Let at an instant number of nuclei of radionuclide be n then rate of decay= .nwh
ere . is decay constant
which is equal to e log 2
T .
Hence, net rate of decrease of nuclei 0
dn n n
dt
. . . . . . .. ..
or e e dn n log 2 P n Elog 2 PT
dt T E ET
. . . .
. .. . . . . . . . .
.
e
dn dt
PT n E log 2 Et
. .
. . . ...(1)
At t = 0, number of nuclei are n = Nand time t is to be calculated when all the n
uclei are consumed or
when n = 0, t = ?
Integrating equation (1)withthese limits,
0 t
N 0
e
dn dt
PT n E log 2 ET
. .
. . . . .
. e 8 . .
e e
e
T N Elog 2
t log 1 10 log 1.0576 s
log 2 PT
. . . . . . . . . .
Example 79. The element Curium 248
96 Cmhas a mean life of . = 1013 second. Its primary decaymodes are
spontaneous fission and .-decay, the former with a probabilityof P1 = 8%and latt
er with a probability of
P2 = 92%. each fission releasesE = 200MeVenergy. The masses involved in .-decay
are as follows
248
96 Cm= 248.072220 u, 244
94 Pu = 244.06400 u and 42
He = 4.002603 u.
Calculate the power output froma sample ofN = 1020 Cmatoms. (1 u = 931MeV/c2)
Sol. Decayconstant, 1 10 13 sec 1
mean life ( )
. . . . .
.
Rate of decay froma sample of N atom,A= .N = 107 sec 1
Since, probabilities of fission and .-decay are P1 and P2 respectively, therefor
e, rate of decay due to
fission, A1 = P1A
or A1 = 8 105 sec 1
and rate of decay due to .-emission,A2 = P2A= 9.2 106 sec 1.
Since, each fission releases energyE, therefore, rate of release of energydue to
fission
=A1 . E
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Equation of .-decay is 248 244 4
96 94 2 Cm... Pu . He
Massmost during each .-decay,
..m= [248.072220
(244.06400 + 4.002603)] u
= 5.617 10 3 u
. Energy released during each .-decay, E = 5.617 10 3 931 MeV
E = 5.23MeV
. Rate of release of energy due to .-decay =A2 . E
. Total rate of release of energy =A1E +A2E
But totalrate of release of energy is equal to power output.
Therefore, power output, P = A1E + A2E = 3.33 10 5W
Nuclear fusion
It is the process of combining or fusing two lighter nuclei into a stable and he
avier nuclide. Inthis case also,
large amount of energyis released becausemass of the product nucleus is less tha
n themasses oftwo nuclei
which are fused.
Many reactions between nuclei of lowmass numbers have been brought about by acce
lerating one or the
other nucleus in a suitable manner. These are often fusion processes accompanied
by release of energy.
However, reactions involving artificially-accelerated particles cannot be regard
ed as ofmuch significance
for the utilizationof nuclear energy.To have practicalvalue, fusion reactionsmus
t occur in suchamanner as
tomake themself-sustaining, i.e.more energymust be released thanis consumed in i
nitiating the reaction. It
is thought that the energyliberated inthe Sun and other stars of themainsequence
type is due to the nuclear
fusion reactions occurring at the very high stellar temperature of 30million K. S
uchprocesses are called
thermonuclear reactions because they are temperature-dependent.
Steller Thermonuclear Reactions:
Following two sets of thermonuclear reactions have been proposed as sources of e
nergy in the Sun and
other stars of themain sequence:
(i) proton-proton (p - p) chain and (ii) carbon-nitrogen (C-N) cycle.
At lowtemperatures corresponding to those in the Sunwhenit was first formed, the
proton-proton chain
was predominant. In the present state of the Sun with its higher central tempera
ture and larger He4
concentration, the C-Ncycle is supposed to be the main source of its energy.
Proton-Proton Chain
It is so called because the step involves the combination of two protons.When tw
o protons fuse, they
produce a deuteronnucleus, a positron and a neutrino thus:
1H1 + 1H1 = 1D2 + 1e0 + v 2
The deutron thencombineswith another proton to yield helium-3.
1D2 + 1H1 = 2He2 + . 2
The two helium-3 nuclei fuse to produce helium-4 thus
2He3 + 2He3 = 2He4 + 21H1 + 1e0
It should be noted that for the third reaction to occur, each of the first two r
eactionsmust occur twice. The
net effect ofthe reactions is
41H1 = 2He4 + 21e0 + 2. + 2v
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Obviously, four hydrogen atoms are fused to produce one heliumatomwith a total e
nergyrelease of about
26.7 MeV.When the kinetic energy of neutrions is substracted, the energy is 26.2
MeV. The emitted
positrons are annihilated by free electronswith the production of .-rays.
Carbon-Nitrogen Cycle
It was proposed byH.A. Bethe to account for the energy production in the Sun and
other stars ofmain
sequence. In this cycle, carbon acts as a nuclear catalyst. The cycle startswhen
a proton (hydrogen atom)
first interactswith carbon-12 nucleuswiththe release of fusionenergythus
6C12 + 1H1 = 7N13 + .
The product N13 is known to be radioactive, emitting a positronwith a half-life
of 10minutes. Hence, it
decays in a very short time according to the relation
7N13 = 6C13 + 1e0 + v
The stable C13 nucleus reactswith another proton, therebyliberatingmore energy
6C13 + 1H1 = 7N14 + .
The stable product N14 combineswith third proton thus
7N14 + 1H1 = 8O15 + .
TheO15 nucleus is a positron emitterwith a half-life of 2.06minuteswhich decays
by the process
8O15 = 7N15 + 1e0 + v
Finally, the resultingN15 nucleus interactswiththe fourthproton thus:
7N15 + 1H1 = 6C12 + 2He4
By adding up the above six equations and cancelling out those nucleiwhich appear
on both sides, it is seen
that four hydrogen atoms are consumed and, in return, 2 positrons, 3 .-rays and
one heliumnucleus are
created. In otherwords, hydrogen is burned and heliumis created.
The overall processmay bewritten as
41H1 = 2He4 + 21e0 + 24.7 MeV
The annihilation of positrons supplies an additional energy of 2MeVso that total
energyreleased is 26.7
MeV.
The fusion energy releasedmayalso be found by the loss ofmass during the above r
eaction:
41H1 = 4 1.008144 = 4.032576 amu
2He4 = 4.003873 amu
21e0 = 2 0.000558 = 0.001115 amu
. mass loss = 4.032576
(4.003873 + 0.001115)
or .m = 0.028857 amu
. energy released = 931 0.028857 = 26.7MeV
It is worthnoting that the above energy release is less than that in nuclear fis
sion. However, its value is
26.7/4 = 6.7MeVper nucleon as compared to less than 1MeVper nucleon in fission p
rocess.
Controlled Thermonuclear Reactions
The fact that nuclear fusion reactions release large amounts of energy, as in st
ars, has attracted much
attention and continuous search is beingmade for finding practicalmeans or contr
olled release of such
energy. It has however, been found that reactions ofC-Ncycle and proton-proton c
hain occur too slowly
to be of any practical use.Other thermonuclear reactionswhich occurmuchmore rapi
dlyand depend on
aboundant hydrogen isotopes like deuteron (1D2 or 1H2) and tritium(1T3 or 1H3) a
nd hence seemmore
practicalproposition, are as under:
(i) 1H2 + 1H2 = 2He3 + 0n1 + 3.3 MeV
NUCLEAR PHYSICS NUCLEAR PHYSICS

or 1D2+ 1D2 = 2He3+ 0n1+3.3MeV
(ii) 1H2+ 1H2 = 1H3+ 1H1+4MeV
or 1D2+ 1D2 = 1T3+ 1H1+4MeV
(iii) 1H2 + 1H3 = 2He4 + 0n1 + 17.6 MeV
or 1D2+ 1T3 = 2He4+ 0n1+17.6MeV
The most important aspect of the above nuclear fusion reactions is that deuteriu
m is available easily and
aboundantly. It occurs in nature with an aboundance of one part in six thousands
of hydrogen and can be
separated fromthe lighter isotope quite cheaply. Five litres of water contain ab
out 1/8 gram of deuterium
but its energy content if it could be used as a fuel in a thermo-nuclear reactor
, would be equivalent to 130
litres of petrol! The more than 5 1019 kg of water present in the oceans could t
hus supply world s power
requirement for severalmillion years at negligible cost ifthe deuteriumcould be
utilized to provide energyby
fusion reactions. However, as discussed below, there are some difficult problems
to be solved before manmade controlled fusion reactors can become a reality.
Condition for Controlled Fusion
In order to provide useful energy, the fusion process must be self-sustaining. O
nce the temperature of
deuterium (or a mixture of D2 and T3) has been raised to the point at which fusi
on occurs at an appreciable
rate, the energyreleased must be sufficient, at least, to maintain that temperat
ure. The minimumtemperature
is known as critical ignition temperature and may be defined as that temperature
above which the rate of
energy production by fusion exceeds the rate of energy loss. Its value is about
5 keV (i.e. 50 million K) for
a D-D-reaction. At these temperatures, the atoms are entirely stripped of their
electrons. The result is a
completely ionized gas or plasma consisting of atomic nuclei (like deuterons, tr
itons and protons) and
electrons in rapid random motion. It is practically impossible to contain such p
lasma in walls of ordinary
materials. In the Sun, the fusion reactions are contained bya tremendous gravita
tional pressure. Such a high
pressure is yet not available for controlled thermo-nuclear reactions on earth a
lthough the plasma can be
contained in a magnetic field. Hence, main problem is to devise an apparatus in
which plasma can be
obtained by meansofa magnetic field at the kinetic temperaturesrequired for the
fusionreactions to proceed.
Another necessary condition for a self-sustaining thermonuclear system is known
as Lawson criterion. It is
based on the requirement that in the operation of a fusion reactor, the total us
efulrecoverable energyshould
be at least sufficient to maintain the temperature of te reacting nuclei. Lawson
criterion can be expressed in
terms of the product nt where nis the number of reacting nuclei per m3 and t is th
e time inseconds in which
the thermonuclear reaction takes place. The minimum value of nt for D-T system is
7 1019 and D-D
system is 2 1021. In controlled thermonuclear reactions, t is taken as the time
during which the high-
temperature plasma can be confined.

It will be seen from above that both the critical ignition temperature and Lawso
n criterion are much more
favourablefor D-TsystemthanforD-Dsystem. Buttheformersystemhasthedraw-backthat i
trequires
tritium which has to be obtained by nuclear reactions (because it does not occur
in nature). Tritium can,
however, bemadebybombardinglithiumwithslowneutronsinareactorthus:
3Li6+ 0n1= 1H3+ 2He4+4.8MeV
Thisreactioncanbemadetoservetwousefulpurposes.InthethermonuclearreactorusingD-T
reaction,
the escaping neutrons carry off much of the energy (about 14 MeV per neutron). T
his energy can be
converted into heat byslowing down these fast neutrons in a blanket of beryllium
surrounding the reactor in
whichplasmaisproduced. Theslowneutronsarecapturedbylithiumwhichproducestritium.T
heblanket
couldthusconsistofmoderator (i.e.beryllium),coolantandlithium.Theheatgeneratedby
themoderation
and absorption of neutrons could thus be transferred by coolant to external heat
exchangers and then to
turbines whichcould run alternators.
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Hydrogen bomb
This bomb is 1000 timesmore powerfulthan the atomic bombwhich is based onnuclear
fission.Hydrogen
bomb is based on the fusion if the hydrogen atoms into heavier ones by the therm
onuclear reactionswith
release ofenormous energy.The essentialconditions for the operationof the hydrog
en bombare extremely
high temperatures and pressures required for the fusion to start.Once started, t
he fusionitselfmaintains the
temperatures to keep the process going. For this purpose, the atombomb (fission
bomb) is used as a
primer which, byfirst exploding, provides the high temperature and pressure nece
ssaryfor the successful
working of the hydrogen bomb (fusion bomb).
Afusion bomb is superior to a fission bomb because of the following reasons:
(i) The energy release in a hydrogen bomb is open-ended i.e. it has no upper lim
it. It depends on howmuch
fusiblematerial is present in the bomb.
(ii) It hasno limitation of a critical size of the fusiblematerialunlike anatomi
c bomb. If the activematerial in
an atomic bombexceeds the critical size, spontaneous explosion results.Hydrogen
bomb cannot explode
unless ignited i.e., heated to critical ignition temperature and anyamount of fusi
blematerial is safe until
ignited. Thus the amount of fusiblematerialin a hydrogen bombis not limited.
Cobalt Bomb
It consists of a hydrogen bomb which is encased in a sheath of metallic cobalt a
nd is more lethal and
destructive thana simple uncased hydrogenbomb.When the hydrogenbomb explodes, it
gives off neutrons
which act on the cobalt cover and render it intensivelyradioactive due to the fo
rmation ofCo60 that is 300
timesmore powerfulthan radium.During explosion, the radioactive cobalt is pulver
ised and converted into
a gigantic radioactive cloudwhich canspread over thousands ofkilometres killing
everything living in that
area.
Fission and Fusion:
One thing common between the two nuclear processes si that they release very lar
ge amounts of energy.
But there aremanydifferences inthemechanisms of the two processes.
(i) Fission involves breaking up of a heavy nucleus into lighter nuclei. Fusion,
on the other hand, involves
combining oftwo lighter nuclei into on heavynucleus.
(ii) The links of the fission process are neutronswhile the links of a fusion pr
ocess are protons.
(iii) Fission proceeds best with thermalneutronswhere thermalmeans roomtemperatu
re. Fusion proceeds
best withthermalparticleswhere thermalmeans temperatures ofmillions of K.
Example 80: the masses of 1H1 and 2He4 atoms are 1.00813 amu and 4.00386 amu res
pectively. Howmuch
hydrogenmust be converted to heliumif solar constant is 1.35 kW/m2 anthe earth i
s 1.5 1011mfromthe
Sun.
Sol: This thermo-nuclear reactionmay bewritten, inits essentials as
41H1 = 2He4 + 1e0
Neglecting the two positrons, it is seen that 4 hydrogen atoms fuse to produce o
ne atomof helium.
Mass of 4 hydrogen atoms = 4 1.00813 = 4.03252 amu
Mass ofone heliumatom = 4.00386 amu
Decrease inmass, .m = 4.03252
4.00386
= 0.002866 amu
energy produced = 0.02866 931 = 26.68 MeV
This is the energy released when four hydrogen atoms fuse. Hence, energy produce
d by one hydrogen
atom.
=
26.68
4 = 6.67 MeV = 6.67 1.6 10 13 = 10.67 10 13J
= 6.02 1026 10.67 10 13 = 6.42 1014 J
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
The solar constant represents the amount of energy received per second
by 1m2 area held perpendicular to the Sun s rays at a distance equal to the
mean distance of the earth fromthe Sun. Sun 1.5 1011
Given value of solar constant
= 1.35 kW/m2
= 1.35 1000 W/m3
= 1350 J/s/m2
Total energyemitted bythe Sunis equal to the energyreceived bythe inner surface
of the imaginary sphere
drawnwith Sun as centre and radius = 1.5 1011m.
Surface area of the sphere
= 4.R2 = 4. (1.5 1011)2 = 28.28 1022 m2
. energy received by this surface area per second is
= 1350 28.28 1022 = 38.18 1025 J/s
It also represents the energy emitted by the Sun per second.
Mass of hydrogen consumed is
=
25
14
38.18 10
6.42 10
.
. = 5.59 1011 kg/s = 5.95 108 tones/second
C69: Calculate the energyliberatedwhen aHeliumnucleus is formed bythe fusion of
two deuteriumnuclei. The
mass 1H2 = 2.01478 a.m.u. and mass of 2He4 = 4.00388 amu.
Sol: The reactionmaybewritten as
1H2 + 1H2 = 2He4 + Q
. 2.01478 + 2.01478 = 4.00388 + Q ,
. Q = 0.02568 amu = 0.02568 931 = 23.9 MeV
C70. In the fusion reaction 1H2 + 1H2 . 2He3 + 0n1, deuteron, heliumand the neut
ron havemasses 2.015 amu,
3.017 amu and 1.009 amu, respectively.Estimate the total energyreleased if 1 kg
of deuteriumundergoes
complete fusion.
Sol. Mass difference = 2 2.015 (3.017 + 1.009) = 0.004 amu
. energy released = 0.004 931MeV = 3.724MeV
Energy released per deuteron =
1
2 3.724MeV
No. of deuterons in 1 kg =
6.02 1026
2
.
. energy released per kg = 1.862 3.01 1026 MeV = 5.6 1026 106 1.6 10 19 . 9 101
C71. In some stars, three 2He4 nuclides fuse together to form6C12 ofmass 12.0000
amu. Howmuch energy is
released per fusion of 6C12 ? Rest mass of 2He4 = 4.002603 amu. Find also the ra
te of consumption of
heliumto maintain the radiative power of the star at 4 1021MW.mass of 2He4 atom=
6.9 10 27 kg.
Sol. Energy released per fusion =mass defect in amu
= (3 4.00263
12.0000) amu = 0.007809 931MeV = 7.27 MeV
. energy released by n atoms
7.27 1.6 10 19 106
n J
3
.
.
=
.
=
. . .
.
4 1021 106 (given) , n = 1.103163 1040
mass of heliumatoms burnt per second
1.03163 1040 6.9 10 27 kg = 7.1 1013 kg

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3

41. Adisk of radius a/4 having a uniformlydistributed charge 6Cis placed

and M respectively. This arrangement is placed on a horizontal table. There is

.The pressure at depth hmay

Andsimilarlyfor two points insameverticallinewitha separationh, thepressure

(ii) The point at the centre of the base is just exposed.

(b) the reading of the barometer ?

(a) If a bodyis partially orwhollyimmersed in a fluid, it experiences anupward f

bottomof a homogeneous cylinder so that Glies belowB.Aslight

Sol. For equilibrium,

streamlines. Fluid in this pipe flows in a disciplined way,

P2 ismeasured bymanometer. It equals .ghwhere . is de

city in a direction normal to

minal velocity. IfVT be the

Balancing forces along the solid surface gives

It is also called shaearing stress. It tries to move the surface tangentially ca

whereminus signin put to keepBa positive quantity.

cross sectional area .. They are loaded as in the figurewithweightsW1 andW2.

The value ofYcan be calculated :

the volume of it inside the liquid. Then

V.ice g = V 1.2 1000 g ice

(C) Spraying of liquid (R) Surface energy increases

(D) liquid willnot flow out ofA

The rod is in compressive stress.

with the vertical in the equilibriumposition. (Exclude the case .= 0)

5. Anonviscous liquid of constant density 1000 kg/m3 flows in a streamline

FLUID MECHANICS FLUID MECHANICS

PHYSICS ROTATIONAL MOTION ROTATIONALMECHASNHIECEST

Differentiating relative to time,

PHYSICS ROTATIONAL MOTION ROTATIONALMECHASNHIECEST

PHYSICS ROTATIONAL MOTION ROTATIONALMECHASNHIECEST

as acceleration a. and velocityV .

PHYSICS ROTATIONAL MOTION ROTATIONALMECHASNHIECEST

. ) Using rules of cross product, ( ..

PHYSICS ROTATIONAL MOTION ROTATIONALMECHASNHIECEST

PHYSICS ROTATIONAL MOTION ROTATIONALMECHASNHIECEST

PHYSICS ROTATIONAL MOTION ROTATIONALMECHASNHIECEST

PHYSICS ROTATIONAL MOTION ROTATIONALMECHASNHIECEST

PHYSICS ROTATIONAL MOTION ROTATIONALMECHASNHIECEST

a point is described bynet torque.

PHYSICS ROTATIONAL MOTION ROTATIONALMECHASNHIECEST

PHYSICS ROTATIONAL MOTION ROTATIONALMECHASNHIECEST

to be balanced and Newton s first law ofmotion is obeyed if . i F. = 0.

PHYSICS ROTATIONAL MOTION ROTATIONALMECHASNHIECEST

PHYSICS ROTATIONAL MOTION ROTATIONALMECHASNHIECEST

PHYSICS ROTATIONAL MOTION ROTATIONALMECHASNHIECEST

and must be concurrent forces for they are balanced.

PHYSICS ROTATIONAL MOTION ROTATIONALMECHASNHIECEST

PHYSICS ROTATIONAL MOTION ROTATIONALMECHASNHIECEST

rotation.Thismeans thatmoment ofinertia about an axis is ameasure ofrotationalin

PHYSICS ROTATIONAL MOTION ROTATIONALMECHASNHIECEST

If the axes be rotated about Z-axis by ., even then

PHYSICS ROTATIONAL MOTION ROTATIONALMECHASNHIECEST

PHYSICS ROTATIONAL MOTION ROTATIONALMECHASNHIECEST

PHYSICS ROTATIONAL MOTION ROTATIONALMECHASNHIECEST

PHYSICS ROTATIONAL MOTION ROTATIONALMECHASNHIECEST

PHYSICS ROTATIONAL MOTION ROTATIONALMECHASNHIECEST

PHYSICS ROTATIONAL MOTION ROTATIONALMECHASNHIECEST