Lorentz-invariant three-vectors and alternative formulation of relativistic

dynamics
Krzysztof Rebilasa
Zakad Fizyki, Uniwersytet Rolniczy im. Hugona Kotaja w Krakowie, Al. Mickiewicza 21,
31-120 Krakw, Poland

Received 29 May 2009; accepted 13 October 2009

Besides the well-known scalar invariants, there also exist vectorial invariants in special relativity. It
is shown that the three-vector dp / dt + vdp / dt is invariant under the Lorentz transformation.
The subscripts and denote the respective components with respect to the direction of the
velocity of the body v , and p is the relativistic momentum. We show that this vector is equal to a
R, which satisfies the classical Newtonian law F R = ma R in the instantaneous inertial rest
force F
frame of an accelerating body. Therefore, the relation F R = dp / dt + vdp / dt, based on the
Lorentz-invariant vectors, may be used as an invariant not merely a covariant relativistic equation
of motion in any inertial system of reference. An alternative approach to classical electrodynamics
based on the invariant three-vectors is proposed. 2010 American Association of Physics Teachers.
DOI: 10.1119/1.3258203
I. INTRODUCTION
The origins of the principle of relativity are usually attributed to Galileo,1 who used his famous illustration of a moving ship to show that none of the experiments performed on
the ship below deck allow us to decide whether the ship is
at rest or in steady motion. The same idea was later expressed by Newton2 as the statement that the motion of bodies is the same among themselves regardless of whether
the space in which the bodies are placed is at rest or moves
uniformly in a straight line. Both Galileo and Newton referred to laws of classical mechanics. Their statements were
generalized to all the laws of physics by Poincar3 and
Einstein,4 and the contemporary formulation of the principle
of relativity states that the laws of physics have the same
form in all inertial reference frames.
For forces independent of velocity and depending only on
some relative distances between bodies, this principle is satisfied by Newtons second law of motion,

= ma ,
F

representing force
because acceleration a and the function F
are invariant vectors under a Galilean transformation of co t. Thus, invariance of Newtons second law
ordinates r = r V
follows from invariance of the vectors that are contained
within this law. Acceleration and force have the status of
absolute quantities in Newtonian mechanics, and thus Eq. 1
remains valid regardless of the inertial frame in which it is
used.
In special relativistic dynamics the principle of relativity
states that the laws of physics must be invariant under the
Lorentz transformation. The three-dimensional relativistic
equation of motion is
dp
,
F =
dt

where p is the relativistic momentum defined as p = mvv

with v = 1 v2 / c21/2. However, contrary to acceleration in
classical mechanics, dp / dt is not invariant under the Lorentz
transformation. The rate of change of momentum dp / dt in a
frame S is related to the rate of change of momentum
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Am. J. Phys. 78 3, March 2010

http://aapt.org/ajp

in the frame
dp / dt in another frame S that has a velocity V
S see Fig. 1 by5,6

dp
dp
=
dt
dt

+ V

dp
dt

+ Vv

dp
V
,
2
c
dt

where the indices and refer to the directions parallel and

. Note that the vector v on the
perpendicular to the velocity V
right side of Eq. 3 is the velocity of a body measured in the
frame S. The postulate of relativity is then fulfilled in another way. Namely, the equation of motion is written using
four-vectors
dp
= K ,
d

where p = mvc , p , is the proper time and is a scalar

is a
invariant of the Lorentz transformation, and K = K0 , K

four-vector, of which the spatial part K is related to the force

= vF . Because p and K are four-vectors, the left
F as K
and right sides of Eq. 4 transform in the same manner:
p = p and K = K, where are components of a
tensor representing a Lorentz transformation a generalized
one, if a rotation of any axes is included from the frame S
to the frame S. If we substitute these relations into Eq. 4
and remember that are time independent, we see that Eq.
4 is equivalent to
dp
= K .
d

Equation 5 is the relativistic equation of motion in the

frame S and has the same form as the relativistic equation of
motion 4 written in the frame S. We say that Eq. 4 is
Lorentz covariant. The principle of relativity is thus fulfilled
in the sense that invariance of the relativistic equation of
motion is understood as its Lorentz covariance.
There is an essential difference between the formulation of
the principle of relativity in the realm of relativistic mechanics and its nonrelativistic meaning. First, the fourdimensional equation of motion 4 is not invariant in the
sense that it is not based on invariant vectors. The four 2010 American Association of Physics Teachers

294

S'

v

V

with respect to the frame S.

Fig. 1. The frame S moves with a velocity V
The velocity of a body measured in the frame S is v . Note that the orientation of the axes of the frames S and S can be chosen arbitrarily because in
the three-dimensional equations the components of the vectors are established with respect to the velocity V .

vectors p and p are not invariant, and likewise neither are

the four-vectors K and K. We have no quantity, analogous
to acceleration in nonrelativistic mechanics that represent a
numerically invariant universal result of the action of force.
The invariance of the relativistic law of motion is form invariant, as shown in Eqs. 4 and 5, but not numerically
invariant as is the case for the nonrelativistic law of motion
1.
Another problem concerning the principle of relativity formulated by means of covariant four-vectors is that Eq. 4 is
redundant. Contrary to the four-vector t , x in which all
components are relevant for a description of a physical situation, in Eq. 4 only its spatial part equivalent to Eq. 2 is
physically meaningful. The zero components of p and K
are not independent of their spatial parts because dp0 / dt
v / c = K
v / c.
= dp / dt v / c, which means also that K0 = vF
In this context, the construction of the four-vectors p and
K as representing a physical reality may seem artificial.
Because the complete physical information about the behavior of an accelerating object is included in the spatial part of
dp / d, it is strange that what is real in the physical world is
represented by the superfluous four-vectors rather than by the
.
relevant Euclidean three-vectors dp / dt and F
The advantage of the tensor approach is elegantly expresses the requirement of covariance of the law of motion.
If we had restricted ourselves only to the three-dimensional
formulation of the law in the form of Eq. 2, the requirement
of covariance would have had to be expressed in a much less
representing force
concise way, requiring that the function F
should transform covariantly in the same way as the vector
dp / dt according to Eq. 3,

= F + VF + Vv
F

V
F .
c2

The relations 3 and 6 imply that the relation F

= dp / dt is satisfied in the frame S, in the same form as the
three-dimensional equation of motion in the frame S.
We can verify directly that the spatial components of Eq.
4 transform in accordance with Eqs. 3 and 6 so that both
the tensor and the three-vector approach are equivalent. Nevertheless, the covariance requirement referring to the relevant
three-dimensional physical law 2 expressed by Eqs. 3 and
6 is less transparent than its four-vector version. In con295

Am. J. Phys., Vol. 78, No. 3, March 2010

Fig. 2. The situation from the point of view of the frame S.

trast, the clarity of the four-vector approach is achieved at

the expense of the artificial construction of the redundant
four-vectors p and K.
The aim of this paper is to show that besides the known
scalar invariants such as the space-time interval or other
tensor contractions, there also exist Lorentz-invariant threevectors. We use them to develop an alternative approach to
relativistic dynamics and a strong meaning of the principle
of relativitysimilar to that in nonrelativistic mechanics
can be preserved.
The cornerstone of our theory is the notion that the threedimensional vector dp / dt + vdp / dt is invariant under
the Lorentz transformation and that this vector amounts to
the force F R in the instantaneous inertial rest frame R of a
moving body. Similar to the Galilean transformation, which
leaves acceleration unchanged and allows the law of motion
F = ma to be invariant for forces independent of the velocity
of the body, the vector dp / dt + vdp / dt serves as an
invariant measure of the action of force analogous to ma
and permits us to formulate the invariant relativistic equation
of motion F R = dp / dt + vdp / dt, which is not only
structurally but also numerically the same in any inertial system of reference. Contrary to the invariance in the Galilean
transformation, no restrictions need to be imposed on the
force.
II. THREE-DIMENSIONAL LORENTZ-INVARIANT
VECTOR
We refer to Eq. 3 and choose the primed frame to be the
instantaneous inertial rest frame R, which can be connected
at any moment with an accelerating body. The velocity of the
body in the frame R is zero and dp / dtR = mdv R / d, where
m is the rest mass of the object and dv R is its velocity change
measured in the frame R. In some other systems of reference
S the velocity of the body is v so that the velocity of the
frame R measured in S is V = v see Fig. 2. Equation 3 can
then be rewritten as
m

dv R
dp
=
d
dt

+ v

dp
dt

Note that the projections refer to the direction determined by

the velocity v .
On the right-hand side of Eq. 7 there are only quantities
like p and t that characterize the moving object in the frame
S. Because the frame S is chosen arbitrarily, it follows that in
Krzysztof Rebilas

295

any inertial frame the vector mdv R / d can be expressed in

the same form as the vector dp / dt + vdp / dt. It means
that it is a Lorentz-invariant, and in contrast to the transformation 3, we have for arbitrary frames S and S the equality

dp
dt

+ v

dp
=
dt

dp
dt

dp
+ v
dt
v

.
v

To further verify the correctness of our conclusion 8, we

calculate the contraction of the four-vector dp / d. Such a
contraction is a scalar Lorentz invariant. To obtain its value,
we can calculate it in the rest frame R. We find

dv R
dp dp
= m
d
d d

In contrast, we have

dp
dp
dp
, v ,
= v
dt
dt
d

10

= v / c, and we can write

where

dp dp
dp
= 2v 2
d d
dt

dp
dt

11

2
and 2 1 = 1 / 2v,
Because dp / dt2 = dp / dt2 + dp / dt
we obtain

dp dp
=
d d
or
dp dp
=
d d

dp
dt

+ 2v

dp
dt

dp
dt

+ v

dp
dt

12

III. INVARIANT EQUATION OF MOTION

We have shown that the invariant vector dp / dt
+ vdp / dt is equal to mdv R / d measured in the rest frame
R of an accelerating body. In the frame R, the relation of the
force and acceleration is valid
d
R = m v R ,
F
d

13

Am. J. Phys., Vol. 78, No. 3, March 2010

14

R depends on the force source established

where the force F
R
in the frame R. For example, for a charge q, we have F

= qER, where ER is the electric field given by Maxwells

R is determined in frame R, it
equations. Once the function F
is an established proper quantity for a given physical situation. As such, F R is invariant and can be used in any reference frame. Taking the force F R to describe motion in an
arbitrary frame S means that we use the same numerically
invariant function F R, in which only its arguments spacetime coordinates should be transformed from R to a given
R , x R F Rt , x , x Rt , x
system of reference S: F
F Rt , x .
We insert the relation 7 into Eq. 14 and obtain
Rt,x =
F

Equation 13 is a direct confirmation that the length of

dp / dt + vdp / dt is a Lorentz invariant and Eqs. 9 and
13 agree with our main result 7.
To better elucidate our idea, we refer to an analogy with
the space-time interval between two events ds2 = c2dt2 dx 2,
which is the well-known scalar Lorentz invariant. If the interval is timelike ds2 0, we can find a frame in which
dx = 0; that is, the two events occur at the same place, and
ds / c represents the proper time interval d between the
events. The value of a proper quantity d established in a rest
frame is not affected by the Lorentz transformation, which is
why it is Lorentz invariant. We can thus say that the invariance of ds2 is derived from the invariance of the proper
quantity it represents. To put it simply, the invariant ds2
= c2dt2 dx 2 represents one and the same proper quantity
c2d2, expressed by means of coordinates t , x used in a
chosen reference frame. Similarly, the spacelike interval
ds2 0, for which we can find a frame where the two
events are simultaneous, is Lorentz invariant because it represents an invariant proper length dx 0 of ds2 = dx 02. In
other words, in any frame, ds2 = c2dt2 dx 2 is the proper
quantity dx 02 expressed by coordinates in the given system of reference.
For the vector dp / dt + vdp / dt, the situation is similar: this vector is Lorentz invariant because in any frame, it is
one and the same proper vector mdv R / d expressed by
means of coordinates connected with a chosen inertial system of reference. In the form dp / dt + vdp / dt, it is a
296

universal quantity that is structurally and numerically the

same in any reference frame analogous to ds2 = c2dt2 dx 2.

dp
dt

+ v

dp
dt

15

This equation is valid for any frame of reference, and thus

we have arrived at the desired invariant relativistic equation
of motion based on the invariant three-vectors.
The meaning of the proposed equation of motion in the
form of Eq. 15 is simple and intuitive. It is the Newtons
law 14 in the rest frame R, written in terms of the quantities
R,
used in the laboratory frame of reference S. The function F
originally established in the frame R, has universal and fundamental significance because by using it, we can formulate
the equation of motion in any system of reference. It is understandable that the relevant features of the force source are
to be established relative to the accelerating body, that is, in
its instantaneous rest frame R, because only the state of the
source of the force with respect to the accelerating body is
meaningful.
It is easy to check that in the limit v / c 0, the equation of
motion 15 becomes the nonrelativistic Newtons second
law of motion.
= dp / dt,
The usual relativistic equation in the form F
which is the same as the nonrelativistic equation of motion
with the momentum generalized to its relativistic form, is
conceptually less attractive than Eq. 15. The standard equation of motion is not Lorentz invariant but merely Lorentz
covariant. Instead of dp / dt, it is more useful to regard the
actual Lorentz-invariant quantity dp / dt + vdp / dt as
the effect of the action of a force. Because it is equal to the
well-defined proper force F R established in the rest frame of
a moving body, we obtain the equation of motion 15 based
on the Lorentz-invariant quantities. Additionally, because in
Eq. 15 we use the same function F R in any frame, we avoid
Krzysztof Rebilas

296

the problem of the relativistic force transformation, leading

to a complex equation such as Eq. 6 or its four-dimensional
counterpart.
IV. ALTERNATIVE VERSION OF CLASSICAL
ELECTRODYNAMICS
According to the theory of electromagnetism, the equation
of motion that is, its physically meaningful threedimensional version in a laboratory system S is
dp
+ qv B ,
= qE
dt

16

are the electric field and magnetic induction

where E and B
in the frame S. If we pass to another frame S, we obtain,
according to Eq. 3,

dp
V
+ VF Vv
,
=F
F
dt
c2

17

+ qv B . We substitute this exwhere, from Eq. 16, F = qE

pression for F into Eq. 17, express v by means of v and V

and obtain, after some tedious algebra,
dp
+ VE + VV B + qv
= qE
dt

+ VB
B

V
E .
V
c2

18

Subsequently, the electric and magnetic fields are defined in

the frame S as

= E + VE + VV B ,
E

19

V
E .
V
c2

20

+ VB
B = B

In this way, Eq. 18 appears to have the same form as Eq.

16,
dp
+ qv B .
= qE
dt

21

Although Eq. 21 has the same form as Eq. 16, the electromagnetic fields in each frame are numerically different.
That is, the commonly used relativistic law of motion is Lorentz covariant, but not Lorentz invariant.
The use of the standard equation of motion 2 and the
usual procedure for transforming this equation is conceptually inconvenient mixed electromagnetic fields that are
different in different systems of reference. Instead, we propose to use the Lorentz invariant law of motion 15. For the
case of electromagnetism, this equation in the laboratory
frame S is

dp
dt

+ v

dp
dt

R.
= qE

22

R is the well-known electric field measured in

The vector E
the instantaneous rest frame of the accelerating charge q. The
R which is originally expressed by means of
arguments of E
the quantities , x R used in R should be expressed through
the Lorentz transformation by t , x , used in the frame S, so
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Am. J. Phys., Vol. 78, No. 3, March 2010

R , x R E Rt , x , x Rt , x E Rt , x . If we
that we obtain E
pass to the frame S, the equation of motion in this frame is

dp
dt

+ v

dp
dt

R,
= qE

23

R t , x in
and it remains to express the former arguments of E

terms of the primed ones t , x or directly, the original

variables , x R in terms of the primed variables t , x.
Compared to the standard approach, the simplicity obtained, thanks to the really invariant equation of motion, is
evident. No transformation of the electromagnetic vectors is
required. In any frame, we use the same function, E R, in
which we must transform only its arguments to a given system of reference. The mathematical and conceptual transparency of this approach is emphasized by the fact that the
vector dp / dt + vdp / dt is understood as the invariant
and in this sense absolute measure of the action of force.
Moreover, Eq. 22 shows that instead of the full set of Max and B in laboratory frames, it is
wells equations for fields E
enough to formulate the laws of electromagnetism only for
R alone allows us to
the field E R in the frame R. The field E
write the equation of motion 22 for any laboratory system
of reference.
On the basis of Eq. 16, we can express E R by means of
the standard electromagnetic fields measured in the frame S,
which leads to

dp
dt

+ v

dp
dt

+ vE + qvv B .
= qE

24

R
The right-hand side of Eq. 24 shows the dependence of E

on the velocity v of accelerating charge q the fields E and B

are independent of v . Surprisingly, we have also discovered
a new invariant three-vector in electromagnetism. Namely,
+ vE + vv B
E

25

is a Lorentz-invariant three-vector. It is invariant because it is

R expressed by the quantities and variables
the proper field E
used in an arbitrary frame S.
Note that if we introduce the new quantities defined as

+ vE ,
E E

26

vB ,
B

27

we can rewrite Eq. 24 as

dp
dt

+ v

dp
dt

.
= qE + qv B

28

Equation 28 is another form of the invariant equation of

motion 22. Equation 28 together with the definitions 26
and 27 differ from the standard equation 16, containing
the ordinary electromagnetic fields only by the factor v. It
appears then that the truly invariant equation of motion can
be achieved from the standard covariant one by a slight
modification.

It would be interesting to find laws that govern E and B

and B and
instead of Maxwells equations for the fields E
Krzysztof Rebilas

297

then use the Lorentz-invariant law of motion in the form of

Eq. 28 to describe the behavior of accelerating charged
particles.

y


FR

FR
v

V. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

It is well known that the Galilean transformation in threedimensional Euclidean space leaves the acceleration vector
unchanged. In turn, the Lorentz transformation in fourdimensional pseudo-Euclidean space-time from all possible
four-vectors does not change only the null four-vectors examples are the world line of the light ct , x t, where x t
= ct or the wave four-vector / c , k for the electromagnetic
wave. In nonrelativistic physics, acceleration is an absolute
quantity that characterizes a moving object. In special relativity, the speed of light is absolute, which is reflected in the
null four-vectors. We have shown that a universal quantity
may be ascribed not only to light propagation but to any
accelerating object. The three-vector dp / dt + vdp / dt
was shown to remain unchanged under the Lorentz transformation. It contains only relevant information about a bodys
motion. Thus, we avoid the problem of redundant tensors for
representing the observer-independent physical reality and
obtain the three-dimensional quantity that corresponds to the
physical process in a natural way. The same applies to the
R representing a proper force and alinvariant three-vector F
lows us to write the truly Lorentz-invariant equation of motion 15 based on invariant three-vectors.
Our method to identify invariant vectors by starting from
acceleration measured in the rest frame of moving object
applies for any type of coordinates transformations used in
special relativity, and thus for a transformation based on everyday clock synchronization as conceived by Tangherlini,7
later discussed by Mansouri and Sexl,8 and more recently by
Selleri911 who named the transformations following from it
the inertial transformations. Among the outstanding features of the inertial transformation, we mention that they
assume the existence of an absolute speed and rest of a
body and absolute simultaneity of events for different observers moving with a relative velocity. It is beyond the
scope of this paper to discuss in more detail the respective
expressions for invariant vectors that can be derived from the
inertial transformations.

1 Derive Eq. 3.
2 Verify Eq. 18, which can be understood as the transformation for electric and magnetic fields directly from the
transformation of the Lorentz force.
in a laboratory
3 From Eq. 15, it follows that a force F
R as
frame can be expressed by means of the force F

R +
F = F

29

Consider two charged particles with charges q and Q at rest

one with respect to each other. In the laboratory system of
reference, the particles have a velocity v and lie along a line
R
parallel to the y-axis. Imagine we know the force F R = qE
exerted on charge q in its rest frame. According to Eq. 29
in the laboratory frame see Fig. 3.
we can find the force F
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Am. J. Phys., Vol. 78, No. 3, March 2010

FR

v

v

Q
x
on the basis of Eq. 29.
Fig. 3. The geometrical construction of the force F

in
This geometrical approach demonstrates why the force F
the laboratory system has a nonzero component in the
R in the rest frame has no
x-direction even if the force F
x-component. Apply the transformation relations 19 and
and B
20 and express the field E R in terms of the fields E
measured in the laboratory system and verify that the right + qv B .
hand side of Eq. 29 has the form qE
4 Consider a charged particle that moves with the arbitrary
velocity v in a uniform constant electric field as measured in
a laboratory system of reference. The force acting on the
. On the basis of
charge in this frame is a constant vector F
Eq. 15, the force F R felt in the instantaneous rest frame of
the moving particle is
R = F + vF .
F

30

As can be seen, the simplest possible physical situation of

constant force measured in the laboratory frame is nontrivial
R and thus also the electric
in the rest frame. The force F

field ER depends on the magnitude and direction of the ve R does not coincide with the
locity v , and the direction of F

direction of the force F. Show that

FR = Fcos2 + 2v sin2 ,

31

and v see Fig. 4, and show

where is the angle between F
R and F depends on as
that the angle between F

VI. SUGGESTED PROBLEMS

F R

v

F FR
v
v

++++++++++++++++++++++++++

+q


F

FR

v
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Fig. 4. A particle carrying a charge q in a uniform electrostatic field. For a

measured in the laboratory system of reference, the force
constant force F
F R in the rest frame of the particle depends on its instantaneous velocity v
and is determined by Eqs. 31 and 32.
Krzysztof Rebilas

298

form electrostatic field that appears not to be constant in the

rest frame of the particle. Another example is Coulombs
law, which is valid only for the case when the source charge
is at rest, which is commonly realized in laboratory systems
but is usually not satisfied in the rest frame of a moving
object. Therefore, to solve the equation of motion 22 we
should rewrite it in the form of Eq. 24 and, omitting the
projections of the vectors, use it in the form of the standard
equation of motion 16.





ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to thank P. Prawda for inspiring him to
elaborate the issues discussed in this paper. He is grateful to
the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments that
improved the final version of the paper.






R and F as a function of the angle
Fig. 5. The angle between the force F
between the force F and the velocity of the particle v .

= arccos

1 + cos2 + 2v 1sin2
2cos2 + 2v sin2

32

Plots of the function for different values of v are

shown in Fig. 5.
Note that, in practice, to calculate the motion of a particle
on the basis of Eq. 15, it is convenient to refer to forces
fields in a laboratory system of reference because in typical
situations they are much simpler than in the instantaneous
particles rest frame. The example is the situation of a uni-

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Am. J. Phys., Vol. 78, No. 3, March 2010

Electronic mail: [email protected]

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