ABOUT Musicology PDF

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Musicology
ISMIR 2011 tutorial Musicology, part 1

Anja Volk & Frans Wiering
Department of Information and Computing Sciences,
Utrecht University
Motivation
n
musicology is a founding discipline

of MIR
musicology seems important for MIR

q
q
q
source of domain knowledge

provides ground thruth
potential power users of MIR technology
musicologists are confusing

q
q
q
q
prefer music notation over sound

go on forever about details
utterly lack methodological rigour
never give straightforward answers
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Try asking a musicologist

n
n
n
n
n
n
n
what is music?
what is the basic unit of music?
what is a genre?
how to distinguish good from bad music?
what are the rules for creating good music?
why are people moved by music?
does music have a meaning?
So what is musicology about?

n
anthropological excursion
q
q
q
q
explore habits, rituals and value systems

dangerous areas
hidden treasures
opportunities for interaction
your guides
q
Anja Volk
n
studied mathematics and musicology
Frans Wiering
n
studied biology, some mathematics and musicology
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Outline
n
musicology (Frans)
q
q
n
n
n
positivist and new musicology

musicology in action
music theory (Anja)

music similarity (Anja)
music and meaning (Frans)
q
final remarks (Anja and Frans)
What do we understand by musicology?

n
the academic study of music

q including music theory (unlike US)
q excluding musicianship (unlike UK)
q central European view
subdisciplines discussed later
good overview in Harper-Scott & Samson,
An introduction to music studies (2009)
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Musicology has a history

n
n
n
to understand musicologists you need to know the

history of musicology (a li3le)
musicology emerged in Germany and Austria in the
19th century
synthesis of
q
theory of music (since 500 BCE)
n
n
q
q
mathematical/speculative science
instruction in craftmanship
musical antiquarianism (since 18th century)

romantic aesthetics (since end of 18th century)
important changes in late 20th century
Musicology in 1885
G. Adler, Umfang, Methode und Ziel der Musikwissenschaft (1885), translated by E. Mugglestone (1981)
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Musicology in 2012
International Musicological Society Conference 2012, call for papers

10
What happened?
n
paradigm shift
q
emergence of new/critical/cultural
musicology since c. 1985
positivist musicology marginalised
strongly recommended reading

q
Nicholas Cook. Music: a very short

introduction (1998/2000)
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Guido Adlers view of musicology

n
Umfang, Methode und Ziel der

Musikwissenschaft (1885)
q
q
q
most influential musicological article

ever?
musicology as tonal science
(Tonwissenschaft)
establishes facts, derives laws
music as an art presupposes
reflection and therefore science
1855-1941
12
Umfang, Methode und Ziel

n
scope
q
q
method
q
music as an art form (Tonkunst)

study of musical art works
historical musicology: notation types, musical forms,
historical laws, musical instruments
systematic musicology: music theory, aesthetics,
pedagogy; (comparative) musicology
auxiliary disciplines
aim
q
discovery of truth and advancement of the beautiful

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How did this view arise?

n
musicology was literally constructed

around Beethovens 5th symphony
q
q
absolute, instrumental music

created independent of societal
context, for all times
work of genius but incomprehensible
urgently in need of explanation

q
E.T.A. Hoffmanns review of 1810

n
n
superiority of instrumental music

detailed description of the works structure
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=22wEhOdfAfA
14
From Hoffmanns review

When music is spoken of as an independent art
the term can properly apply only to instrumental
music, which scorns all aid, all admixture of other
arts, and gives pure expression to its own peculiar
artistic nature.
Music reveals to man an unknown realm, a world
quite separate from the outer sensual world
surrounding him, a world in which he leaves
behind all feelings circumscribed by intellect in
order to embrace the inexpressible.
only the most penetrating study of the inner
structure of Beethoven's music can reveal its high
level of rational awareness, which is inseparable
from true genius...
translated by Martyn Clarke (in: Charlton, 1989)
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Original texts
Wenn von der Musik als einer selbstndigen
Kunst die Rede ist, sollte immer die InstrumentalMusik gemeint seyn, welche, jede Hlfe, jede
Beymischung einer andern Kunst verschmhend,
das eigenthmliche, nur in ihr zu erkennende
Wesen der Kunst rein ausspricht.
Die Musik schliesst dem Menschen ein
unbekanntes Reich auf; eine Welt, die nichts
gemein hat mit der usseren Sinnenwelt, die ihm
umgiebt, und in der er alle durch Begriffe
bestimmbaren Gefhle zurucklsst, um sich dem
Unaussprechlichen hinzugeben.
so entfaltet auch nur ein sehr tiefes Eingehen in
die innere Structur Beethovenscher Musik die
hohe Besonnenheit des Meisters, welche von
dem wahren Genie unzertrennlich ist
16
Tasks for musicology

n
n
generally, to take the new aesthetics of music

into account
to define music as an independent art
q
n
n
to explain how music reached this state of

perfection
to provide (instrumental) music with explanatory
discourse to reveal hidden logic
q
in particular, no longer dependent on language
as the word was eliminated from music, it began to

fill the space around music (Cook 2000, 37)
to do so in an objective, scientific way

q
later called positivist musicology
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Positivist musicology: some answers

n
what is music?
q
q
q

q
q
q
tonal art (Adler)

tnend bewegte Form (Hanslick
1854)
art, autonomy, tones, structure
the work
timeless object (in 2 ways)
a text, rendered by the score
what is a genre?
q
a musical form, characterised by

ensemble composition, technical
features and architectural patterns
examples: symphony, string quartet,
sonata, fugue, song, opera, dance
19
How to distinguish good from bad music?
good
q
q
q
q
q
inspired
concentration
original
structure
transcendent beauty
typical example
q
German symphony,
Beethoven
bad
q
q
q
q
q
commissioned
facility
banal
empty virtuosity
expressing the outer world
typical example
q
Italian opera, Rossini
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Not created by a romantic genius
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B6kBkYyeOto
21
More positivist answers

n
rules for creating good music

q
q
q
q

q
q
internalise music theory (harmony, counterpoint)

observe forms
originality, specially of musical themes
create (thematic) unity
human capacity of aesthetic appreciation
aesthetic judgement itself considered subjective,
outside science

q
q
resides in structure (formalism)

transcendent and sublime
22
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The work concept in musicology

n
central concept in positivist

musicology
q
positivist musicology is about

autonomous musical works
represented by scores
applied to all music (old, vocal,
traditional)
creation of canon of masterworks
Barlow & Morgenstern 1949
23
Perspectives on the work

n
historical musicology perspective

q
q
editing music becomes core activity of musicology

scholarly editing establishes true intentions of
composers
systematic musicology perspective

q
q
q
q
q
music analysis develops methods to demonstrate

masterwork status
thematic unity (e.g. Reti)
tonal structure (e.g. Schenker)
formal coherence through architectural patterns
example: sonata form
24
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Example pattern:
sonata form
exposition
development
recapitulation
key
theme 2
theme 1
theme1
theme 2
tension increases
time
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonata_form
25
Sonata form, the bare essentials

n
binary form
q
exposition
n
n
establishes 2 keys (Tonic, followed by Dominant or Parallel)

presents theme(s); usually 2, with a different character
development and recapitulation

n
development
recapitulation
q
q
repetition of exposition materials in Tonic key
allows for endless variation of the basic pattern
most important form of classical period (1770-1810)

q
described only in 19th century: Reicha 1826, A.B. Marx 1848

n
n
modulation, themes changed and combined in various ways
emphasis on thematic process

DIndy (1909) describes masculine 1st and feminine 2nd theme (Cook 2000, 109)
lots of theory (and history) surrounding sonata form, e.g. Charles

Rosen, Sonata forms (1980)
26
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Positivist musicology in the 20th century

n
new developments
q
q
q
q
ideology
q
q
q
lots of new theory (Schoenberg, Schenker, Forte)

comparative musicology ethnomusicology
music sociology, psychology, cognition emerge
computational approaches
historical musicology at the centre

minor disciplines around it
positivist ideals best exemplified by Arthur Mendel, Evidence and explanation
(1962)
practice
q
q
q
musicology spreads over the entire Western world

gradual fragmentation of the discipline
pop music treated as a pathological phenomenon
27
Outcomes of positivist musicology

n
n
espcially after WW2, urgency was

felt to preserve musical heritage
large-scale collaborations
q
scolarly editions of major composers

n
Neue Bach-Ausgabe particularly

impressive (1950-2007), 114 vols.
encyclopedias
n
n
Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart

(1949-68, revised 1994-2007)
New Grove Dictionary of Music and
Musicians (1980, revised 2001)
q
accessible to subscribers through

http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/
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Crisis
n
Joseph Kerman, Contemplating music: Challenges to musicology

(1985)
q
q
starting-point of wave of critical approaches, e.g.

q
q
q
q
q
q
defining moment in musicology

importance of subjectivity, criticism, value judgements
music and meaning
cultural and political context of music (ethnomusicology)
music and identity
popular music studies
music and power
gender and sexuality
positivist musicology discredited

q
q
shown to be the product of a repressive ideology

loaded with implicit value judgements
29
Ritual murder
n
remember Adler s aim:

q
Susan McClary s interpretation of

Beethoven s 9th symphony, 1st mvt.
q
q
q
q
discovery of thruth and advancement of the

beautiful
roughly 700-900
context of sonata form
development -> recapitulation
stereotyped discourse about themes, tonality
nearly always quoted out of context

q
a female composer searching for new ways of

structuring her compositions
The point of recapitulation in the first movement of the Ninth is one of the most
horrifying moments in music, as the carefully prepared cadence is frustrated,
damming up energy which finally explodes in the throttling murderous rage of a
rapist incapable of attaining release. (McClary 1987, revised in 1991)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3SZ9QzGg95g
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Victim 1: music as autonomous art

n
n
specific to Western culture

related to capitalist economic model (after Cook 2000, 15)
production distribution consumption
composing performing listening/appraising
related to bourgeois subjectivity
q
q
q
q
autonomy not even true for most Western music

q
q
individual appreciation
different from public, shared expressivity of 17th-18th c. (vocal) music
primacy of text (early and religious music)

occasional and functional music
instead: study of musical behaviour, distinction of musics
33
Victim 2: the work concept

n
not a natural concept, but a historical phenomenon

q
q
q
q
adaptability of music, improvisation

score not a full specification
is music an object or a process? recipe or dish?
contextual determination of music (vs. authorial intention)

q
q
Lydia Goehr, The imaginary museum of musical works, 1992
creation and performance often not strongly separated
occasion, patronage, ideology, identity

the music itself becomes taboo concept
bad fit with late 20th-21th century music culture

q
q
q
q
weak separation of creator and performer in most popular genres

strong dependence on text (song replaces work)
glorification of performer
disinterested aesthetic contemplation marginalised
n
n
ubiquity of music, music as commodity

music as expression of identity or lifestyle
musical works (and musical data) no longer

focus of musicological attention
34
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New musicology
n
a.k.a. critical musicology,

cultural musicology
q
founded on postmodern
philosophical theories
now dominant musicological

approach
q
q
culture, context, gender,

identity
subjectivity: disposition to engage
in specific social and historical
practices (Kramer 2003)
35
Value system of new musicology

n
important
subjectivity
interesting, controversial ideas
q rhetorical persuasion
q maximise interpretation
q
q
less important
objectivity
q facts
q argumentation, plausibility
q incremental research, collaboration
q
36
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Example of critical musicology: mediation

n
n
based on Antoine Hennion (2003)

music is mediated through performance
q
mediation happens in many different ways

q
moment when all the musical potential

becomes irreversibly fixed
stage, record, internet
case: passage from rock to rap

q
q
q
rock stage idols lose credibility

rap happens where you hang out
function of recording changes
n
n
development in rap
q
q
rock: recreation of performance

rap: cheap medium of distribution
first, escape from the big stage and media

later, music seized back by industry
domestication of an art form

37
Possible postmodern answers (1)

n
what is music?
q

q
q
there is no universal concept of music, only musics

depends on cultural context
defined by performance, listening
what is a genre?
q
social construction: type of music with an audience

(MIR-like!)
38
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Possible postmodern answers (2)

n
how to distinguish good from bad music?

q
what are the rules for creating good music?

q
authenticity, no such thing as hit song science

q
by analysing the ideologies that shape the music
association, emotion, immersion

q
yes; it emerges in the act of listening and depends on

the listeners context and background
39
Summing up
n
positivist musicology
+ lots of carefully collected data and facts
- questions of context and value evaded
- focus on Western classical music
paradigm shift was inevitable
q but it was very messy
new musicology
+ focus on all the worlds musics
+ context and value acknowledged
- weakly connected to data and facts
today, storm is more or less over
q but its time for a next step
q data-rich musicology?
40
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Musicology in action
n
case 1: Josquin
q
case 2: Alan Lomax

q
q
historical musicology: editing, works

development of ethnomusicology
activism, sociology
computational approaches
41
Who the hell

n
n
n
n
Josquin des Prez (c. 1450/55-1521)

international career in Low Countries, France and
Italy
author of c. 150-200 compositions
first single-author music print ever featured Josquin
q
q
reputation of his music survived long after his death,

especially in Germany
q
Misse Josquin
published by Ottaviano Petrucci, 27 September 1502
Josquin is the master of the notes, which must do as he

wishes, while other composers must follow what the
notes dictate (Martin Luther)
never entirely forgotten
best known for:

q
q
masses, motets, chansons

pervading imitation
source: http://maps.thefullwiki.org/Josquin_des_Prez
42
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Example: Missa de Beata Virgine
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QEoM08WR8Mg
44
Positivist musicology and Josquin

n
n
n
n
a genius, and strongly in need of a complete edition

first of several attempts: Werken van Josquin des Prs, ed. A. Smijers
and others (Amsterdam, 192169)
how to create a body of musical works out of the surviving evidence?
major challenges
q
q
q
methods developed by trial and error

q
q
q
dealing with the original notation

underspecification
chaos of sources
Smijers preferred printed sources (anachronistic reasons!)
methods from textual philology
rules based on music theory of 16th century
outcome: domesticated works

q
problemthe music could be domesticated in many different ways

n
Smijers began 2nd edition already before 1st was completed
46
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Roma, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, MS Cappella Sistina 45
47
Dealing with the original notation
source transcription
q
q
q
q
q
voices score
modern notes, values reduced, ligatures resolved
clefs changed
bar lines added
incipits: indications of original notation
mechanical process or interpretation?

q
q
source optimised for performance practice

score optimised for work study
48
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Underspecification
n
added:
q
q
lots of text (italic)

editorial sharps and
flats (musica ficta)
additions may
misrepresent fluidity of
performance practice
danger of adaptation to
modern ears
50
Chaos of sources
n
Missa de Beata Virgine has symphonic proportions

q
69 known sources
q
q
q
q
q
q
5 movements, 30 minutes
27 more or less complete
13 contain 1-4 movements
10 contain section of movement
2 contain fragment
2 music treatises contain a section
15 lute intabulations of a section
no two sources have same text

q
q
very many variants

which variants represent composers intentions?
tablature: Diego Pisador, Libro de msica de vihuela, 1552
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Domestication
n
chaos of sources is translated into oeuvre of disciplined texts

q
q
q
q
q
compositions presented as musical creations, independent of

performance and function
variants seen as errors in transmission corrected
missing information is supplied
rational methodology followed
works are made available for study and performance
similar strategies in nearly all editorial projects of old and new

music
a process that requires lots of expertise, diligence and time

q
q
q
establishment of best possible text of work

musicologists care about details
computational methods should respect such care, otherwise they are not
acceptable
55
Creating discourse around Josquin

n
biography
q
q
determining the oeuvre?

q
q
q
q
q
many works also ascribed to others

weak/atypical compositions
anonymous works possibly by Josquin
danger of circular reasoning
number of undisputed works ever decreasing
researching the works

q
how many Josquins (Doppelmeister)?

training, employments, travels, rewards
large body of stylistic/analytical literature
portrait of Josquin(?)
by Leonardo da Vinci
outcome: Josquin canonized

Josquin research shaped (Renaissance) musicology
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Josquin and MIR

n
n
first composer to be subjected to large-scale

computational research
all (?) works encoded in 1960s-70s for Princeton
Josquin project, directed by Arthur Mendel
q
q
punchcards, Fast-Code
simple enough to learn in five to ten minutes
most encodings seem to have been lost
applications:
q
q
q
q
typesetting music
analytical studies (e.g. dissonance treatment)
creating thematic indexes for searching
ultimate philological method: stemmatic research
57
Computational stemmatics
n
stemmatics:
q
establish authorial text though

methodic comparison of errors and
variants
outcome: genealogical tree of
source relations
Thomas Hall (1975)

q
q
q
q
q
created software for variant

detection and comparing pairs of
sources
tested on Missa de Beata Virgine
most source relations obvious on
basis computer output
final stemma created manually
working on series of computer
programs
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New musicology and Josquin

n
how was Josquin shaped as a Beethovenian Genius

q
work concept problematic

q
q
q
q
Josquins texts fluid in many respects

closely tied to tradition and performance circumstances
therefore, stemmatics make little sense
are Josquins works best characterised as original expressions of genius?
new edition modes needed

q
q
Paula Higgins, The Apotheosis of Josquin des Prez and Other

Mythologies of Musical Genius (2005)
better acknowledgement of importance of variants

well suited for digital critical edition
Computerized Mensural Music Edition (Ted Dumitrescu)

q
q
project The Other Josquin

compositions of "doubtful authenticity" attributed to Josquin des Prez in
primary sources
http://www.cmme.org/
59
Contextualisation
n
how was music domesticated in the 15th-16th

century?
q
q
q
lasciviousness of music; negative influence on

morality
instrumental music particularly suspect
only safe to use under controlled circumstances
n
n
sacred texts
liturgical or devotional context (reflects harmony of creation)
emphasis on skill, not originality
how is music domesticated in MIR?

q
what savage aspects of music do we prefer to ignore?

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Ethnomusicology
n
started as comparative musicology

(Adler 1885)
q
soon becomes study of traditional

music
q
purpose: document primitive music as a

precursor of Western music
e.g. because this reflects national identity
much collecting of evidence

q
q
transcribe melodies in notation

first to work with musical audio (since c.
1900)
n
Bla Bartk, Zoltn Kodly recorded Hungarian

folksongs since 1908
62
Ethnomusicology
n
term ethnomusicology introduced by Jaap

Kunst (1950/1959)
q
ethnomusicology becomes study of music in

context (Merriam, The anthropology of music,
1964)
q
q
how does music interact with social practices?

ethnomusicological methods sometimes applied to
Western music
continuum between doing and listening musics

(Stobart 2009)
q
study of non-Western musics for their own sake
Western music an extreme case of listening music
example of doing music: jula jula (Bolivia)
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Jula jula
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3MZpZXFA_SI&feature=related
64
Alan Lomax
n
n
USA, 1915-2002
10000s of field recordings of
traditional music since c. 1933
q
q
q
n
n
recorded and interviewed legendary musicians such as

Woody Guthrie, Lead Belly, Muddy Waters
engagement
q
Mississippi, Texas, Louisiana

blues as black music
Italy, Spain
the folklorists job was to link the people who were voiceless and
who had no way to tell their story, with the big mainstream if
musical culture
Alan Lomax Collection now in Library of Congress

http://www.loc.gov/folklife/lomax/
65
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Cover songdomestication
many Lomax recordings covered by well-known musicians

q
q
field recording from 1959:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ns8bum4civI
Ry Cooder: Jesus on the mainline
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n2FrFBceLuY
piece of doing music becomes listening music

67
Preserving traditions
n
idea of Global Jukebox

q database of musical diversity
q preservation and study
q http://www.culturalequity.org/
Cantometrics project
q since 1959
q global research to relate sonic features to sociological traits
through computational (statistical) analysis
q 37 style elements (scored 1-5)
q 400 cultures, 4000 songs
q attained only preliminary results
n
e.g. ensemble organisation and cohesiveness/individualisation of

society
A. Lomax, Cantometrics: an Approach to the Anthropology of

Music (Berkeley, 1977)
68
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Cantometrics code sheet
70
Computational ethnomusicology
n
many folk song encoding projects

q
not just Essen Folksong Collection
digitisation of recordings
q
e.g. Onder de groene linde (Dutch folk songs)

n
n
n
links to items in national collections

not very user-friendly
not too many IP issues here
well-established body of research into computational issues, e.g.

q
q
q
http://www.loc.gov/folklife/onlinecollections.html
includes numerous (but not all) recordings by John and Alan Lomax
Europeana (http://www.europeana.org)
n
http://www.liederenbank.nl/index.php?lan=en
Library of Congress collections
Tzanetakis et al. 2007: computational ethnomusicology

Kranenburg et al 2010: interdisciplinary collaboration
Juhsz & Sipos 2010: cultural transmission
importance of cultural context in ethnomusicology

q
MIR challenge?
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Conclusions case studies

n
Josquin
q
q
q
notation orientation
how a work is established in scholarly editing
importance attached to accuracy and details
ethnomusicology
q
q
audio and symbolic collections

doing and listening musics
n
q
q
q
is music a process or an object?
preserving traditions
social engagement
impact on contemporary culture
72
References
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
G. Adler. 1885. Umfang, Methode und Ziel der Musikwissenschaft. Vierteljahrsschrift fr

Musikwissenschaft 1, 5-20.
H. Barlow & S. Morgenstern. 1949. A Dictionary of Musical Themes. Crown
D. Charlton, ed. 1989. E.T.A. Hoffmanns Musical Writings. Cambridge University Press, 1989
N. Cook. 1998/2000. Music: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press.
L. Goehr. 1992. The imaginary museum of musical works : an essay in the philosophy of music.
Clarendon Press.
J.P.E. Harper-Scott, J. Samson, ed. 2009. An introduction to music studies. Cambridge University Press
The new Grove dictionary of music and musicians. 2001. 2nd ed. Grove.
http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/
T.Hall. 1975. Some computer aids for the preparation of critical editions of Renaissance music. Tijdschrift
van de Vereniging voor Nederlandse Muziekgeschiedenis 25, 38-53
E. Hanslick. 1854. Vom Musikalisch-Schnen: Ein Beitrag zur Revision der sthetik der Tonkunst. Repr.
Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2010. Eng. tr: On the Musically Beautiful: A Contribution Towards
the Revision of the Aesthics of Music. Hackett, 1986.
A. Hennion. 2003. Music and mediation. In: The cultural study of music: A critical introduction. Ed. M.
Clayton, T. Herbert and R. Middleton. Routledge
P. Higgins. 2005. The Apotheosis of Josquin des Prez and Other Mythologies of Musical Genius. Journal
of the American Musicological Society 57, 443-510
E.T.A. Hoffmann. 1810. [Review of Beethovens Fifth Symphony], Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung,
629ff. http://books.google.com/books?id=0t0qAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA629
Z. Juhsz, J. Sipos. 2010. A comparative analysis of Eurasian folksong corpora, using self
organising maps. Journal of Interdisciplinary Music Studies, 4/1, 1-16
73
30
27-10-11
References
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
J. Kerman. 1985. Contemplating music. Harvard University Press.

L. Kramer. 2003. Musicology and meaning. The Musical Times 144 (1883), 6-12.
P. van Kranenburg, J. Garbers, A. Volk, F. Wiering, L.P. Grijp, R.C. Veltkamp. 2010. Collaboration
perspectives for folk song research and music information retrieval: The indispensable role of
computational musicology. Journal of Interdisciplinary Music Studies 4/1, 17-43
J. Kunst. 1959. Ethnomusicology : a study of its nature, its problems, methods and representative
personalities. 3rd ed. Nijhoff.
A. Lomax. 1977. Cantometrics: an Approach to the Anthropology of Music. Berkeley
S.K. McClary. 1991. Feminine endings: Music, gender, & sexuality. University of Minnesota Press, 2002
(1991).
A. Mendel. 1962. Evidence and explanation. In: IMS report of the 8th congress, New York 1961, ed. J.
LaRue. Brenreiter. Vol 2, 3-18.
A.P. Merriam. 1964. The anthropology of music. Northwestern U.P. 1964
E. Mugglestone. 1981. Guido Adler's 'The scope, method, and aim of musicology' (1885): An English
translation with an historico- analytical commentary. Yearbook for Traditional Music 13, 1-21.
Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart : allgemeine Enzyklopdie der Musik. 1994-2008. 2nd. ed.
Brenreiter.
Nettl, B. 2006. The Study of Ethnomusicology: Thirty-one Issues and Concepts. 2nd ed. U. of Illinois
Press.
C. Rosen. 1980. Sonata forms. Norton, 1980.
H. Stobart. 2009. World musics. In: Harper-Scott, J.Samson, 2009. 97-118.
G. Tzanetakis, A. Kapur, W.A. Schloss, M. Wright. 2007. Computational Ethnomusicology. Journal of
Interdisciplinary Music Studies 1/2, 1-24
74
31
Tutoriall Musicology
T
l
Part 2: Music Theory
ISMIR Tutorial 2011
Anja
j Volk & Frans Wiering,
g ICS, Utrecht University
Outline
What is Music Theory?
Examples
Theory of melody
Theor
melod (and comp
computational
tational model)
Theory of harmony (and computational model)
Theory of meter (and computational model)
Music Theory:
y Definition
Grove Music Online (Claude Palisca)
Theory is now understood as principally the study of the structure of

music.
music
y, rhythm,
y
, counterpoint,
p
, harmony
y and
This can be divided into melody,
form, but these elements are difficult to distinguish from each other and
to separate from their contexts.
At a more fundamental level theory includes considerations of tonal
systems, scales, tuning, intervals, consonance, dissonance,
durational proportions and the acoustics of pitch systems.
Music Theory:
y Definition
Joseph Kermans response: (1985)
Tuning, rhythmic configurations, consonance and dissonance,

chord formations no doubt all these fall under the capacious mantle
off Paliscas
P li
term structure.
When musicians use this term today

today, however
however, they generally mean the
structure of total works of art what makes compositions work,
what general principles and individual features assure the musics
continuity coherence,
continuity,
coherence organization or teleology.
teleology They mean
musical form, broadly construed to denote the shape or ordering of
trains of sounds in time.
Music Theory:
y Definition
Joseph Kermans response: (1985)
Theory and Analysis

It was only in the nineteenth century, then, that theory became wedded
to analysis: the process of subjecting musical masterpieces to
technical operations,
p
, descriptions,
p
, reductions,, and demonstrations
purporting to show how they work. Theory and Analysis became a
standard joint item in the conservatory curriculum.
http://www.cam.k12.il.us/ms/6th/gillettc/Reading
Maniacs.gif
Music Theory:
y Definition
Zbikowski: (2002)
What music theory is not:

for music theory is, within the rolling seas of humanistic studies, a
rather strange fish. Put bluntly, it is clear that much of what music
theory does
does, as a discipline,
discipline does not count as any sort of theory in
modern scholarship.
http://fr.toonpool.com/cartoons/THEO
RY%20INSURANCE%20LAB%20SC
IENTIST 23447
IENTIST_23447
Music Theory:
y Definition
Wiggins, Muellensiefen, Pearce: (2010)
What music theory is not:
it is important to acknowledge the difference between the meanings of the
word theory as applied in music theory and, on the other hand, in
scientific theory
instead:
Music theory is a collection of sets of rules which describe the culturally

determined practice of people who create music in a particular culture during a
particular
ti l period.
i d music
i th
theorists
i t readily
dil acknowledge
k
l d exceptions
ti
to
t their
th i
rules
Music Theory:
y Definition
Focused on One single piece of music:
Kerman: (1985)
g
characteristic failure is superficiality,
p
y, that of the
For it the musicologists
analysts is myopia. Their dogged concentration on internal relationships
within the single work of art is ultimately subversive as far as any reasonably
complete view of music is concerned.
Zbikowski: (2002)
http://www.thenewtasman.com/
music theory continues to focus on details of musical discourse with an

obsessiveness that is both maddening and quixotic to cultural and social
theorists
Music Theory:
y Definition
Zbikowski: (2002)
What music theory could be:

for theories are the cognitive tools that guide the way we reason about the
things we experience. Theories are the basic means by which we make our
p
coherent and g
guide further action.
experience
I want to argue,
argue that music theory,
theory in all its diverse forms
forms, reflects the same
basic processes that guide our understanding of the everyday world.
Theorizing about music is an activity specialized only in its domain, not in the
cognitive processes involved
involved.
Music Theory:
y Definition
Agawu: (2009)
What music analysis could be:

An analysts fondest hope is that something he or she says sends the
reader/listener back to a particular composition or to a particular moment
g are useless abstractions if they
y do not
within it. Our theoretical scaffoldings
achieve something like this;
Therefore, I retain some hope in the possibility that the analytical fantasies
Therefore
gathered here will inspire some readers to reach for the works again; to see
if their previous hearings have been altered, enhanced, or challenged in any
way
Music Theory:
y Whyy care?
Grachten,
G
ht
Arcos
A
& Mantaras:
M t
Melody Retrieval using the Implication/Realization Model
Winner of 2005 MIREX competition on melodic similarity
Based on Eugene Narmours

Narmour s Implication-Realization-Model
Implication Realization Model
Music Theory:
y Whyy care?
G ht
Grachten,
A
Arcos
& Mantaras:
M t
M l d Retrieval
Melody
R ti
l using
i the
th Implication/Realization
I li ti /R li ti Model
M d l
Music Theory:
y Whyy care?
G ht
Grachten,
A
Arcos
& Mantaras:
M t
M l d Retrieval
Melody
R ti
l using
i the
th Implication/Realization
I li ti /R li ti Model
M d l
Edit-Distance on I-R-analyses
Outline
Examples
Theory of melody
Theor
melod (and comp
computational
tational model)
Melody:
y I-R-Model
I li ti
Implication:
2 di
dimensions:
i
iinterval
t
l size
i and
d di
direction
ti
I
I = Implication
I li ti
R = Realization
Melody:
y I-R-Model
I li ti
Implication:
2 di
dimensions:
i
iinterval
t
l size
i and
d di
direction
ti
I
I = Implication
I li ti
R = Realization
Melody:
y I-R-Model
E
Expectations:
t ti
influenced
i fl
db
by G
Gestalt
t lt principles
i i l off proximity,
i it similarity
i il it and
d good
d continuation
ti
ti
small melodic intervals imply a process P:
realized
li d iinterval
t
l iis iin th
the same direction
di ti and
d iis off similar
i il size
i
large melodic intervals imply a reversal R:

realized interval is in a different direction and is smaller in size
Melody:
y I-R-Model
Definitions
Intervall size:
small interval: size <=P4 (perfect fourth)
large interval: size >= P5 (perfect fifth)
Tritone: ambiguous,
ambiguous depends on context
Intervallic difference:
equal: =
similar: diff <=M3
<=M3,m3
m3 (major
(major, minor third)
different: diff >M3,m3
I-R-Model: Melodic Archetypes

yp
I li ti
Implication:
2 di
dimensions:
i
iinterval
t
l size
i and
d di
direction
ti
I
completely realized

yp
I li ti
Implication:
2 di
dimensions:
i
iinterval
t
l size
i and
d di
direction
ti
I
completely realized
partially realized

yp
I li ti
Implication:
2 di
dimensions:
i
iinterval
t
l size
i and
d di
direction
ti
I
completely realized
partially realized
denied

yp
D i ti
Derivatives
off Process
P
completely realized

yp
D i ti
Derivatives
off Process
P
Derivatives of Reversal
completely realized
Intervallic Process
Registral Process
Intervallic Reversal
Registral Reversal
partially realized:
prospective

yp
D i ti
Derivatives
off Process
P
completely realized
Intervallic Process
Registral Process
partially realized:
prospective
Registral Reversal

yp
D i ti
Derivatives
off Process
P
Intervallic Process
Registral Process
Registral Reversal

yp
D i ti
Derivatives
off Process
P
completely denied
Intervallic Process
Registral Process
Registral Reversal
Retrospective
x (x): the same directional characteristics, differ from their counterpart in the size of their
antecedent interval

yp
D i ti
Derivatives
off Process
P
completely denied
Intervallic Process
Registral Process
Registral Reversal
Retrospective
x (x): the same directional characteristics, differ from their counterpart in the size of their
antecedent interval

yp
Matthew S. Royal, Music Theory Online, Vol. 1, No. 6, 1995
I-R-Model: Closure
With respect to the main concerns of musicology and music theory, I-Rs most important
contribution is not expectation but closure; closure, for example, is the concept that
allows I-R to generate the reductive analyses so important in music-theoretical discourse
(A. Cramer: Beyond Expectation in the Analysis of Melody, ICMPC 2004)
I-R-Model:
The Analysis and Cognition of Basic Melodic Structures
Eugene Narmour, 1990
University Chicago Press
http://www.writeawriting.com/academicwriting/how-to-write-book-review/
Review of The Analysis and Cognition of Basic Melodic

Structures and The Analysis and Cognition of Melodic
Complexity by Eugene Narmour
Matthew S. Royal, Music Theory Online, Vol. 1, No. 6, 1995
http://free-clipart-of.com/FreeBookClipart.html
M. Pearce, G. Wiggins: Expectation in Melody: The Influence of Context and Learning Music
Perception Vol 23
Perception,
23, 2006
2006, pp 377-405
377 405
Outline
Examples
Theory of melody
Theor
melod (and comp
computational
tational model)
Fred Lerdahl: Tonal Pitch Space

p
Tonal organization
Distances between chords
What is tonality?
y
System for interpreting pitches or chords through their relationship to

a reference pitch, dubbed the tonic (Huron, 2006, p. 143)
Tonal distances: Circle of Fifths
David Heinichen: Musicalischer Circul (1728)
Major
j
Minor
David Heinichen: Musicalischer Circul (1728)
David Kellner: Circul (1737)
Major
j
Minor
David Kellner: Circul (1737)
Circle of Fifths: modern approach

pp
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EadPQxdmBlA
Chordal space
p
Gottfried Weber
Tonal distances: Tonnetz
Leonhard Euler: Tentamen novae theoriae musicae (1739)
Oettingen: Harmoniesystem in dualer Entwickelung (1866)
Riemann: Musiklexikon (1900)
Major
j chord
Minor chord
Riemann: Musiklexikon (1900)
Tonnetz: Modern approach

pp
Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy: Paulus

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7nZ5h_0DTj4
Tonal distances
Carol Krumhansl:
Cognitive Foundations of Musical Pitch, 1990
Lerdahl: Tonal Pitch Space

p
Basic space of tonic chord in C-Major
Distance between chords ((within region)

g )
Distance between
Di
b
chords
h d (short
( h version):
i )
Number of distinct pitch classes + Number of diatonic fifth intervals between root
Distance between chords ((within region)

g )
C major
D minor
d(x,y) = k+j = 6+2 = 8
Example: distance C-major and D minor chord in C-major
Distance between chords ((across regions)

g
)
Principle
p of the shortest p
path
Wagner: Parsifal bars 45-55

(Thomas Noll: Review of Tonal Pitch Space, ZGMTH, 2005)
Problem:
t many
too
paths of same
length
Noll & Garbers (2004) Harmonic Path Analysis
Principle
p of the shortest p
path
Wagner: Parsifal bars 45-55

(Thomas Noll: review TPS, 2008)
Lerdahl
Cohn
Tonal Pitch Space:

p
Critique
q
Emmanuel Bigand and Richard Parncutt:
Perceiving musical tension in long chord sequences
P h l i lR
Psychological
Research
h (1999) 62
62: 23
237-254
2 4
By reacting to these local structures, tension ratings fit quite well with a
hierarchic model
model, even though the participants were relatively insensitive to
the global structure of the pieces
TPS: Application
pp
in MIR
Bas de Haas,
Haas Remco C
C. Veltkamp
Veltkamp, Frans Wiering:
Tonal Pitch Step Distance: A Similarity Measure For Chord Progressions
ISMIR proceedings 2008
Tonal Pitch Step

p Distance ((TPSD))
Graph shows distance to the tonic
Shift the graphs minimizing the area between them
Size-of-area
Size
of area / length-of-shortest-song
length of shortest song = distance
Successfully applied to 388 sequences of chord labels that describe the

chords of 242 jjazz standards found in the Real Book
Outline
Examples
Theory of melody
Theor
melod (and comp
computational
tational model)
Yeston/Krebs/Lerdahl
/
/
& JJackendoff
I define the meter of a work as the union of all layers

y
of motion ((i.e.,,
series of regularly recurring pulses) active within it.
Harald Krebs
Rhythm:
y
Meter
Accent Pattern
/
/
& JJackendoff
Harald Krebs
Harald Krebs:
Krebs Beethovens Eroica
Harald
I define the meter of a work as the union of all layers of motion

((i.e., series of regularly
g
y recurring
gp
pulses)) active within it.
Harald Krebs
/
/
& JJackendoff
Harald
Harald Krebs
Krebs

((i.e., series of regularly
g
y recurring
gp
pulses)) active within it.
Harald Krebs
Inner Metric Analysis

y
Metric Weight
g

(i
(i.e.,
series
i off regularly
l l recurring
i pulses)
l
) active
ti within
ithi it.
it
Harald Krebs
Anja Volk, Persistence and Change: Local and Global Components of Metre Induction
using Inner Metric Analysis, In: Journal of Mathematics and Computation in Music, 2008

y
Metric Weight
g
Picture from www.ritzenhoff.de

y
Metric Weight
g

y
Metric Weight
g

y
Metric Weight
g

y
Metric Weight
g

y
Metric Weight
g

y
Ragtime
left hand
right hand
Anja Volk, The Study of Syncopation using Inner Metric Analysis: Linking Theoretical and
Experimental Analysis of Metre in Music, In: Journal of New Music Research, 2008
Harald Krebs
Weight profile
Weight profile without local meters of period 2
Weight profile without local meters of period 3
Anja Volk, The Study of Syncopation using Inner Metric Analysis: Linking Theoretical and
Experimental Analysis of Metre in Music, In: Journal of New Music Research, 2008
Similarity based on IMA

Elaine Chew, Anja Volk (Fleischer) and Chia-Ying Lee
Dance Music Classification using

g Inner Metric Analysis
y
A Computational Approach and Case Study Using 101 Latin American Dances and National Anthems
allll iin 4/4!

Merengue
Rumba
Tango
BossaNova
March/Anthem
Picture from www.mondolatino.it

Picture from www.accomodationbsas.co.ar
Pict re from www.armygermany.com
Picture
arm german com
Picture from www.danceuniverse.co.kr
Classification
Complete Book of the Worlds Dance Rhythm
http://andrewjpeterswrites.com/
?tag=stephanie-spinner
Similarity based on IMA

Elaine Chew, Anja Volk (Fleischer) and Chia-Ying Lee
Dance Music Classification using

g Inner Metric Analysis
y
A Computational Approach and Case Study Using 101 Latin American Dances and National Anthems
Merengue
Rumba
Tango
BossaNova
March/Anthem
Picture from www.mondolatino.it

Picture from www.accomodationbsas.co.ar
Picture from www.danceuniverse.co.kr
80 % correct
Pict re from www.armygermany.com

Picture
arm german com
Summary: Why care about Music Theory?
?
http://www.info.music.indiana.edu/
http://www.globalnerdy.com
Might provide surprising insights into music
Lots of analyzed music
Even though formalization is often not the strength of music theory

rich source of interesting musical examples
Theories often not large-scale tested, but example-based
Possible contribution of MIR: data-rich approach
Interdisciplinary discourse
http://www.info.music.indiana.edu/
http://www.globalnerdy.com
http://withfriendship.com/user/Athiv/mathematician.php
About intertwining of musicology and computing:

Achievements
Failures
Challenges
Perspectives
of mathematical and
computational approaches to music
research
Alan Marsden
Guerino Mazzola
Geraint Wiggins
Guest Editors:
Anja Volk and Aline Honingh
Panel discussion MCM 2011, IRCAM, Paris: Bridging

g g the Gap
p
References 1
Kofi Agawu, Music as Discourse, Oxford University Press, 2009.

Emmanuel Bigand & Richard Parncutt, Perceiving musical tension in long chord sequences,
Psychological Research,
Research 62
62, 237-254
237-254, 1999.
1999
Elaine Chew, Anja Volk (Fleischer), and Chia-Ying Lee, Dance Music Classification Using Inner
Metric Analysis: a computational approach and case study using 101 Latin American Dances and
National Anthems. in The Next Wave in Computing, Optimization and Decision Technologies:
Proceedings of the 9th INFORMS Computer Society Conference.
Conference Bruce Golden,
Golden S.
S Raghavan,
Raghavan
Edward Wasil (eds.) Kluwer, 2005.
Leonhard Euler: Tentamen novae theoriae musicae,1739.
Grove Music Online: Subject entry Music Theory (author: Claude Palisca).
Maarten Grachten, J. Ll. Arcos, R. Lpez de Mntaras ,Melody Retrieval using the
Implication/Realization Model, ISMIR, 2005.
Bas de Haas, Remco C. Veltkamp, Frans Wiering, Tonal Pitch Step Distance: A Similarity
Measure For Chord Progressions, ISMIR 2008.
David Huron: Sweet anticipation Music and the Psychology of Expectation, MIT Press, 2006.
Joseph Kerman, Musicology, 1985.
Haral Krebs: Fantasy Pieces: Metrical Dissonance in the Music of Robert Schumann, Oxford
Universityy Press,, 1999.
Carol Krumhansl: Cognitive Foundations of Musical Pitch, 1990
Fred Lerdahl: Tonal Pitch Space, Oxford University Press, 2005.
References 2
Eugene Narmour, The Analysis and Cognition of Basic Melodic Structures, University Chicago
Press, 1990.
Thomas Noll, Review of Tonal Pitch Space (Zwischen theoretischer Strenge und Milde:
Anmerkungen zu Fred Lerdahls Tonal Pitch Space), ZGMTH, http://www.gmth.de/zeitschrift.aspx,
2005.
Thomas Noll & Joerg Garbers, Harmonic Path Analysis, Perspectives in Mathematical and
Computational Music Theory, (eds. G. Mazzola et al), epOs-music: Osnabrck, 399431, 2004.
Matthew S. Royal, Review of The Analysis and Cognition of Basic Melodic Structures and The
Analysis and Cognition of Melodic Complexity by Eugene Narmour, Music Theory Online, Vol. 1,
No. 6, 1995
Arthur von Oettingen, Harmoniesystem in dualer Entwickelung,1866 .
Hugo Riemann, Musiklexikon, 1900.
Anja Volk (2008), Persistence and Change: Local and Global Components of Metre Induction
using Inner Metric Analysis, In: Journal of Mathematics and Computation in Music, Vol. 2:2, p. 99115.
Anja Volk (2008), The Study of Syncopation using Inner Metric Analysis: Linking Theoretical and
Experimental Analysis of Metre in Music, In: Journal of New Music Research, Vol. 37:4, p. 259273.
Maury Yeston: The Stratification of Musical Rhythm, Yale University Press,1976.
Geraint Wiggins, Daniel Muellensiefen, Marcus Pierce, On the non-existence of music: Why music
theory is a figment of the imagination, Musicae Scientiae, Discussion Forum 5, 231 -255, 2010
Lawrence Zbikowski, Conceptualizing Music: Cognitive Structure, Theory, and Analysis (New
York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
Tutoriall Musicology
T
l
Part 3: Music Similarity
ISMIR 2011
Anja
j Volk & Frans Wiering,
g ICS, Utrecht University
Music Similarityy
ISMIR 2000:
y Crawford, and Larson: Lecture, Recital, Discussion, and Survey
y session
Byrd,
on music similarity
ISMIR 2009:
Downie, Byrd, Crawford: The similarity problem remains a huge challenge, not
least because of the difficulty of establishing ground-truth in this subjective area
Musicology:
gy Similarityy
Oxford Music Online: subject entry: similarity
no result
Music similarity no research subject per se

(other than: tonality, rhythm, sonata form )
Musicology:
gy Similarityy
Yet: many topics inherently linked to music similarity
musical style, early Schubert vs. late Schubert

typical harmonic chord progression
sonata form (first and section thematic section, study of
derivatives)
study of prototypical patterns
no explicit model
http://weirdo-from-nowhere.blogspot.com
Musicology:
gy Similarityy
Most prominent examples of similarity studies
Tune family
Motivic-thematic relationships in Classical Western music
Musicology:
gy Similarityy
Tune family
Similarity:
y Tune familyy
Bayard 1950: tune family consists of folk songs that are supposed to have a
common origin in history
Variations introduced through oral transmission
TUNE FAMILY
Similarity:
y Tune familyy
Similarity:
y Tune familyy
Bayard 1950: tune family consists of folk songs that are supposed to have a
common origin in history
Variations introduced through oral transmission
Wiora ((1941):
) list of changes
g
Changes in contour
Changes in tonality
Changes in rhythm
Inserting and deleting of parts
Changes of form
Changes in expression
Demolition of the melody
Bronson 1950:
id weights
i ht ffor some ffeatures
t
for
f a
provides
corpus of British-American folksongs
Similarity:
y Tune familyy
Cowdery 1984: not one single anchestor in history, tune families can blend
to each other, pool of motifs
Experiment:
p
Tune familyy
Klusen, Moog, Piel: Experimente zur mndlichen Tradition von Melodien, 1978
Experiment
p
Tune familyy
Song
variant
Text
changes
Rhythm
changes
Pitch
changes
14
77
13
65
178
18
23
104
90
117
219
all
135
214
578
percentage
14,6%
23,1%
62,3%
rhythm is bound to text!
Klusen, Moog, Piel: Experimente zur mndlichen Tradition von Melodien, 1978
Study:
y Tune familyy
Annotation study:
360 songs out of 6000 songs of Dutch folksongs

numerical ratings regarding contribution of similarity of single features
Features: melodic contour
contour, rhythm
rhythm, mode
mode, lyrics
lyrics, motifs
provided by musicological experts
most important feature: recurring melodic motifs
Cowderyy 1984
A. Volk, P. van Kranenburg, J. Garbers, F. Wiering, R.C. Veltkamp, L.P. Grijp, A manual
annotation method for melodic similarity and the study of melody feature sets, ISMIR, 2008
Musicology:
gy Similarityy
Tune family (ethnomusicology)

Similarity:
y Motivic-thematic relations
similarity relationships give the listener the feeling that he understands

what he is listening to without having to study the compositional rules on
which the music was based (Leonard B. Meyer)
e.g. Schoenberg,
S h
b
W
Webern,
b
R ti
Reti
Similarity:
y Motivic-thematic relations
M l & Wachsmann
Melen
W h
(2001) Koniare
(2001),
K i
ett al.
l (2001):
(2001)
McAdams et al (2004):
infants (6 to 10 months, 10- to 11-years-old) form categories of musical motifs

(Schubert, Diabelli)
experts and novices build categories within a contemporary piece
Ziv & Eitan (2007):
listeners build categories of motifs in Beethoven piece
Open issue: What musical features do listeners attend to?

Discussion of surface vs. deep features
Music cognition
g
Melodic similarity
Melodic Similarityy
(Sloboda & Parker, Immediate recall of melodies, 1985)
Melodic Similarityy
Results
The most fundamental feature that is preserved in this melody is the metrical
gg
that metre is a primary
y structural frame for melodic
structure ... This suggests
comprehension and recall.
Within the metrical phrase structure
structure, subjects do not reproduce the exact rhythms
of the original. Rather, they substitute metrical equivalents in about half of the
cases.
There is evidence that harmonic structure may be coded even when exact
melodic structure is lost.
Sloboda & Parker, Immediate recall of melodies, 1985
Melodic Similarityy
Results
The most fundamental feature that is preserved in this melody is the metrical
gg
that metre is a primary
y structural frame for melodic
structure ... This suggests
comprehension and recall.
Even in the absence of text, time structure is the most stable element of melody!
Sloboda & Parker, Immediate recall of melodies, 1985
Melodic Similarityy
Please identify a song in as few notes as possible!
I have no idea!
Sounds familiar, but I am not sure enough
I am pretty sure that it is ______
I am sure that it is ________
Schulkind, Posner, Rubin: Musical Features That Facilitate Melody Identification, 2003
Melodic Similarityy
Tonal Functions
Pitch Height
Features
3 levels
Phrase placement
p
Local patterns
Size, direction
Duration
Meter
Number of semitones with respect to anchor
Contour
Interval
Perceived distance to the key (tonic)
Alternation, run, pair
Serial Positions
early vs. late in the melody
Melodic Similarityy
Tonal Functions
Pitch Height
Features
3 levels
Phrase placement
p
Local patterns
Size, direction
Duration
Meter
Contour
Interval
Serial Positions
Melodic Similarityy
Tonal Functions
Pitch Height
Features
3 levels
Phrase placement
p
Local patterns
Size, direction
Duration
Meter
Contour
Interval
Serial Positions
Melodic Similarityy
Tonal Functions
Pitch Height
Contour
Interval
Size, direction
Duration
Meter
3 levels
Phrase placement
Local patterns
Serial Position
Surprising: temporal factors

contribute more than pitch factors!

Melodic Similarityy
Results
The placement of a note within a musical phrase was the most

consistent predictor ... Identification performance was highest at
phrase boundaries
Notes that completed consecutive alternations between rising and

falling pitch contours were a significant predictor in half of the
regression models
The last two musical variables that entered the best-fit models
were both temporal in nature
nature. ... Identification was most likely to
occur at long notes and metrically accented locations.
Melodic Similarityy
How effectively can the statistical properties of
melodies account for listeners
listeners similarity judgments?
Eerola,, Jrvinen,, Louhivuori,, & Toiviainen: Statistical Features and Perceived Similarityy of Folk Melodies,, 2001
Melodic Similarityy
Melodies from five distinct folk music styles :

North Sami yoiks,
Fi i h Spiritual
Finnish
S i it l folk
f lk h
hymns,
Irish hornpipes,
German folksongs
G k folksongs.
Greek
f lk
Melodic Similarityy
rate the similarity of pairs of melodies on a scale from 1 to

corresponded to very similar and 9 to very dissimilar.
Melodic Similarityy
Similarity measures: statistical properties
distribution of the tones,

distribution of the intervals
intervals,
distribution of the tone durations,
distribution of two-tone transitions,
distribution of the interval transitions
transitions,
distribution of the duration transitions
Melodic Similarityy

intervals,
transitions,
Melodic Similarityy

intervals,
transitions,
Melodic Similarityy

intervals,
transitions,
Melodic Similarityy
Similarity measures: Descriptive variables
Tonal Stability
Qualities of successive intervals
Rhythm
correlation between
tone profile of the
melody and the C-major
probe-tone profile)
mean proximity of tones,

registral return
return,
registral direction,
closure,
intervallic difference,
consonance
syncopation,
rhythmic variability
variability,
rhythmic activity,
total number of tones
Melodic Similarityy
Similarity measures: Statistical Properties
The similarity measures were regressed upon the similarity ratings of the listeners
for all pairs of melodies.
Only moderate success! R2 = .39
Melodic Similarityy
Similarity measures: Descriptive Variables
6 descriptive variables could explain 62% of the variance in similarity ratings:

melodic predictability,
mean pitch,
tonal stability,
consonance,
number of tones,
closure
Melodic Similarityy
Conclusion
the descriptive variables were somewhat better predictors of melodic
similarity than were frequency-based variables, but further research is
warranted before their individual roles in similarity formation can be
assessed
... most important, it is safe to assume that the events in a melody are
not equally salient. The prediction rate might have been higher if the
salience of individual events had considered aspects such as melodic,
harmonic or contour accents.
Melodic Similarityy
More experiments on similarity:
18 algorithmic similarity measures tested in listening experiments

2 main dimensions that differentiate the tested 18 algorithmic measures: the
incorporation of rhythmic information and the reflection of local (motivic) vs.
global similarit
similarity.
Listeners have a balanced judgement with respect to local vs. global similarity,
but influence of rhythm depends on the experimental context
Mll i f & F
Mllensiefen
Frieler:
i l M
Modelling
d lli experts
t notions
ti
off melodic
l di similarity,
i il it 2007
Melodic Similarityy
More experiments on similarity:
The similarity judgement of experts seems to be a flexible concept that adapts

to the specific experimental task or context of melodies. At the same time it
seems to be a stable notion that can be very well agreed upon among experts
in a given situation.
Mll i f & F
Mllensiefen
Frieler:
i l M
Modelling
d lli experts
t notions
ti
off melodic
l di similarity,
i il it 2007
Musicae Scientiae
Special issue Similarity 2007

Special
p
issue Similarity
y 2009
Conclusion
Similarity is a complex notion for music

cognition research
Depending on the context similarity can be
described using very different features
Similarity is not yet sufficiently understood
Outlook: Project
j MUSIVA
Information
Retrieval
Musicology
Variation principle
MUSIVA
Cognitive Science
Modelling MUsical SImilarity over time through the VAriation principle
MUSIVA: Variation Principle

p
Relating musical patterns
listeners experience similarity
classical, folk and popular music
MUSIVA: Variation Principle

p
MUSIVA: Computational model realizing variation

Interaction local and global features
Interaction between local and gglobal features
General melodic line: global feature
Interaction between local and gglobal features
Global feature helps to discover salient local elements
MUSIVA: 2011-2016
Information
Retrieval
Musicology
MUSIVA
Marcelo Rodrguez-Lpez
Anja Volk
Principal Investigator
PhD student
Cognitive Science
N.N.
Bas de Haas
Frans Wiering
P td
Postdoc
Part-time member
programmer
http://www.cs.uu.nl/research/projects/vidi-volk/
References 1
S. Bayard, Prologeman to a study of the principal melodic families of british-american folk song. Journal of
American Folklore, 63(247), 1-44, 1950.
BH B
B.H.
Bronson, S
Some observations
b
ti
about
b t melodic
l di variation
i ti iin british-american
b iti h
i
f lk tunes.
folk
t
J
Journal
l off the
th American
A
i
Musicological Society, 3, 120-134, 1950.
J.R. Cowdery, A fresh look at the concept of tune family. Ethnomusicology, 28(3), 347-350,1984.
S. Downie, D. Byrd, T. Crawford: Ten years of ISMIR: Reflections on challenges and opportunities, ISMIR, 2009.
Eerola Jrvinen,
Eerola,
Jrvinen Louhivuori,
Louhivuori & Toiviainen,
Toiviainen Statistical Features and Perceived Similarity of Folk Melodies
Melodies, Music
Perception, Vol 18 (3), 2001.
Klusen, E., Moog, H. & Piel, W., Experimente zur mndlichen Tradition von Melodien, Jahrbuch zur
Volksliedforschung, Vol 23, 1978.
Krebs, H., Fantasy Pieces. Oxford University Press,1999.
D. Koniari, S. Predazzer, Categorization and schematization processes used in music perception by 10- to 11-year
old children, Music Perception, 18(3), 2001.
Krumhansl, C. and Kessler, E.J., Tracing the dynamic changes in perceived tonal organization in a spatial
representation of musical keys, Psychological Review 89, 1982.
Lerdahl,, F. & Jackendoff,, R.,, A g
generative theory
y of tonal music. Cambridge:
g MIT Press,, 1983.
McAdams et al, Perception of musical similarity among contemporary thematic materials in two instrumentations,
Music Perception, Vol 22(2), 2004.
L.B. Meyer
M. Melen & J. Wachsmann (2001), Categorization of musical motifs in infancy, Music Perception, Vol 18 (3), 2001.
M i
Musicae
S i i
Scientiae,
Di
Discussion
i F
Forum 4a,
4 200
2007 (Special
(S
i l IIssue on M
Music
i similarity)
i il i )
Musicae Scientiae, Discussion Forum 4b, 2009 (Special Issue on Music similarity)
Mllensiefen, D. & Frieler, K., Modelling experts notions of melodic similarity, Musicae Scientiae, Discussion
Forum 4a, 2007
References 2
Peretz, I., The nature of music from a biological perspective, Cognition, Vol 100, 2006
Phillips-Silver, J. & Trainor, L., Feeling the Beat: Movement Influences Infant Rhythm Perception, Science, Vol 308
(3) 2005
(3),
2005.
Povel, D. & Essens, P., Perception of Temporal Patterns, Music Perception, Vol 2 (4), 1985.
Schulkind, M., Posner, R. & Rubin, D., Musical Features That Facilitate Melody Identification, Music Perception,
Vol 21 (2), 2003.
Sloboda J. & Parker, D., Immediate recall of melodies, Musical Structure and Cognition, 1985.
A. Schoenberg, Fundamentals of musical composition, 1967.
R. Reti, The thematic process in music, New York: Macmillan, 1951.
Yeston, M. The Stratification of Musical Rhythm. Yale University Press, New Haven and London.1976
A. Volk, P. van Kranenburg, J. Garbers, F. Wiering, R.C. Veltkamp, L.P. Grijp, A manual annotation method for
melodic similarity and the study of melody feature sets, ISMIR, 2008
A.Webern, The path to the new music, London: Theodor Presser, 1963
W.Wiora, Systematik der musikalischen Erscheinungen des Umsingens, Jahrbuch fuer Volksliedforschung, 7,
1941.
N Ziv & Z.
N.
Z Eitan,
Eitan Themes as prototypes: Similarity judgments and categorization tasks in musical contexts
contexts.
Musicae Scientiae, Discussion Forum 4 A, 2007.
27-10-11
Music and Meaning
ISMIR 2011 tutorial Musicology, part 4

Anja Volk & Frans Wiering
Department of Information and Computing Sciences,
Utrecht University
Contents
n
n
n
n
motivation and illustration

types of musical meaning
theories of musical meaning
connecting empirical and musicological
approaches
concluding remarks about entire tutorial
27-10-11
Motivation
n
music is meaningful
q
q
q
most important reason for engaging with music

central concept in new musicology
underlies MIR research
n
n
n
music makes life more valuable

q
motivation of the researchers

emotion and music
music industry is driven by meaningfulness of music
like for example sports, entertainment,

arts, friendship, religion
our brains are optimised for attaching

meaning to anything
3
Meaning in new musicology

n
musical meaning used to be taboo subject

q
q
positivist musicology: objective study of musical materials

meaning and emotion considered subjective, private and
irrational
addressed in new musicology

q
Kermans criticism (1985) centred around questions of

value and meaning
n
ultimate motivation for research
with notable precursors

n
n
hermeneutic interpretations (Kretschmar 1887-1890)

Leonard Meyer (1956)
27-10-11
Generation of meaning
n
Lawrence Kramer, Musicology and

meaning (2003)
q
q
new musicology = cultural musicology

aim: understanding musical subjectivity in
history
subjectivity: disposition to engage in specific
social and historical practices
new musicology is first and foremost about
musical meaning
meaning is
q
q
a product of action rather than structure

emergent, resulting from a negotiation
process involving musical text and context
musical structure has potential meaning
Musical meaning an intractable problem?

Is meaning entirely mediated by culture, or are there identifyable
universals? Is meaning communicable from one person to
another, given the vagaries of subjective response? For music to
communicate, must it also be beautiful? Does music convey
anything at all beyond its play of sounds? What, indeed, does
meaning mean? What methodological tools are appropriate? Is
music like a language, a natural object, an article of faith? Or is
meaning more like a subjective confession, an idiosyncratic
recognition of meaningful patterns? Is there any common ground
at all on which to lay a foundation for a theory of meaning?
(Pearsall & Almn 2006, 1)
6
27-10-11
Desperate housewives, season 7 trailer
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nxvMgCpgiYM
n
n
play without / with sound

what is it the music adds?
7
Desperate housewives
n
n
n
what is it the music adds?

story line depends on music
meaning through allusion
q
q
q
The Good, the Bad and the Ugly

hook in particular
theres a new girl in town, and shes dangerous
question remains: what makes this an

effective piece in the first place?
8
27-10-11
Closer (2004)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QlyqGmPXgBI
n
n
movie trailer; scene at 042 is same as in analysis, but with different music
music suitable for romantic drama
10
Closer (2004)
n
two couples
q
q
Dan (Jude Law) and Alice (Natalie Portman)

Anna (Julia Roberts) and Larry (Clive Owen)
play ultimate game of partner swap

Dan
Alice
Anna
Larry
scene: first encounter between Dan and Anna

q
what is the role of the music here?
full plot: http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0376541/synopsis
11
27-10-11
Photo shoot
relevant scene is 9561457

12
Photo shootthe music

n
n
n
the music is played during the photo shoot

q Anna and Dan hear the music
q switched off at the end
music creates two layers of meaning
does the music follow the action, or the action the music?
q near-perfect synchronisation of musical and erotic gesture
q acting follows dynamics of the music
q or is it set in motion by it?
q Davies contour theory
what is being played?
q Mozart, Cos fan tutte
q part of the farewell scene
13
27-10-11
Cos fan tutte, Soave sia il vento
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9ixCRu9FwHg
14
Farewell scene
n
whats going on here?

q
q
q
two couples
two men have joined the army
fiancees stay behind, supported by elderly friend
Ferrando
Dorabella
Fiordiligi
Guglielmo
why?
q
love as a high-risk game

15
27-10-11
Back to Closer
n
two layers of musical meaning

q
q
Mozarts music is effective under different

circumstances
q
expression of passionate love

specific information about the plot through reference to
opera
not just emotion
farewell (opera) and encounter (movie)
musical structure allows for range of meanings

q
meaning as an emergent property ( Cook, Kramer)

16
150th anniversary of Italian unification
n
n
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gaXE0v0bJoE&feature=related
why this sad music?
17
27-10-11
Expressing what cannot be said

n
from Verdi, Nabucco

q
q
context of creation an early reception (1842-1870)

q
q
q
q
VERDI = Vittorio Emmanuele Re dItalia

powerful political meaning
but see http://www.gresham.ac.uk/lectures-and-events/verdi-and-milan
for a myth-busting view (Roger Parker)
other examples
q
Italy oppressed by foreign powers

censure, no freedom of speech
longing for independence and unity expressed through this

opera, this scene
q
Babylonian captivity
Va pensiero: longing for return to Israel
USSR, Reformation
censorship shows reality of musical meaning

18
Expressing what cannot be said

n
from Verdi, Nabucco

q
q
context of creation an early reception (1842-1870)

q
q
Italy oppressed by foreign powers

censure, no freedom of speech
longing for independence and unity expressed

through this opera, this scene
other examples
q
Babylonian captivity
Va pensiero: longing for return to Israel
USSR, Reformation
censorship shows reality of musical meaning

19
27-10-11
Important types of musical meaning

n
n
expression, emotion
multimedia
q advertising
q film
q video games (cf. Joris de Man, ISMIR 2010)
n
ambience, game state, interaction
social meaning
q ritual (cf. jula jula)
q bonding (nursery songs)
q identity (hiphop, rap, metal)
q power / oppression / torture
n
n
music of the Sistine Chapel (Rome), San Marco (Venice)

Panamese dicatator Noriega driven out of Vatican Embassy, allegedly by
means of hard rock music
20
Patels taxonomy of musical meaning

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
structural interconnection of
musical elements
expression of emotion
experience of emotion
motion
tone painting
musical topics
social associations
imagery and narrative
association with life experience
creating and transforming the
self
musical structure and cultural
concepts
n
n
about meanings attached to

instrumental music
note that 2 are about emotion,
and 9 about other meanings
rather weak on social meanings
positivist musicology best
represented by (1)
ethnomusicology by (7) and (11)
also recommended: Cross &
Tolbert (2008)
Patel 2008, ch. 6
21
10
27-10-11
Music and semantics

n
n
some authors deny the existence of musical meaning

formal theories of semantics
q
aspects of semantics are

n
n
n
q
q
q
n
n
referenceability to denote
senseterms can be related
capability of making true and false propositions
music does not have these properties

so music cannot have semantics (or express meaning)
see Cross & Tolbert 2008; Wiggins 1998
semiotic theories of meaning are better suited to music

relationship musiclanguage is important (but skipped)
q
q
q
music as language particularly strong in 17th-18th century theory (see

e.g. Cook & Dibben 2010)
intermediate forms. e.g. silbo (whistling language)
widely studied from biological perspective (e.g. Fitch 2006)
22
Theories of musical meaning
23
11
27-10-11
Philosophical approach to meaning

n
n
Stephen Davies. Emotions expressed and

aroused by music (2010)
puzzles in the expressiveness of instrumental music
how can music express emotions? such expression
properly belongs to sentient beings.
mirroring responses to musics expressiveness
negative responses. why do people enjoy sad music?
1.
2.
3.
assumptions
q
q
listener familiar with the repertoire

a catalog of musical features is not the answer
n
how do they work?
musical emotions felt are the same as felt elsewhere

n
listeners are not mistaken in experiencing sadness in music

24
Cognitive theory of emotion

n
n
emotions help us survive

emotions involve
q
q
q
q
q
q
sensation
physiological change
are object oriented
categorisation of objects
attitudes
behaviours
25
12
27-10-11
Philosophical approach to meaning

n
Stephen Davies. Emotions expressed and

aroused by music (2010)
puzzles in the expressiveness of instrumental
music
how can music express emotions? such
expression properly belongs to sentient beings.
mirroring responses to musics expressiveness
negative responses. why do people enjoy sad
music?
1.
2.
3.
26
1. How can music express emotions?

n
n
problem: music is not a sentient being, so it cannot

have an emotion
various explanations rejected
q
through conventional signs

n
n
n
n
cannot induce sensation (dinner bellno taste)
represents emotion of a human being

composer, artist
not necessarily experiencing emotion in creation/performance
persona imagined in music (various problems)
arousal theory
n
n
n
properties induce sensations

grass induces sensation of greenness
not enough consistency in perception
27
13
27-10-11
Contour theory
n
behaviours, comportments, physiognomies are

experienced as expressive
q The car and the puppet are happy looking
and the dog and the weeping willow are sadlooking. These attributions apply to the
appearances the depicted items present, not
to occurent emotions.
music presents emotional characteristics, not
emotions
q property of music itself
q unfolding in time, dynamic pattern
q such patterning is manipulated in
compositions
cf. David Hurons raccoon experiment at ISIMIR
2011
28
2. Mirroring responses
n
response to expression often mirrors that

expression
q
q
e.g. sad music experience of sadness

lacks usual beliefs (e.g. unfortunate event
happened)
sadness is a feeling, not an emotion

q
q
q
no emotional object
appropriate reaction to appearance of sadness
emotional contagion
Schubert, Das Wirtshaus (Winterreise)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Iw8NmTWKkeE
30
14
27-10-11
3. Negative responses
n
negative expression is echoed in feeling

q
rejected explanations
q
q
then why not evade such feelings

compensated by other properties (e.g. beauty)
better understanding of emotions
Davies explanation
q
q
negative often integral to the whole

common experience in our life stories
n
training, education, career
negative feelings present no special problem as they are

part of the reward
31
How to proceed from here?

n
n
emotion resides in high-level patterns

same probably true for other forms of musical
meaning
some theories of musical meaning involving
high-level patterns and structures
q
q
q
Meyer: expectation
Brower: embodiment
Cook: potential meaning
many studies about role of mid-level features

q
e.g. Gabrielsson & Lindstrm 2010

32
15
27-10-11
How to proceed from here?

n
n
emotion resides in high-level patterns

same is probably true for other forms of
musical meaning
some theories of musical meaning involving
high-level patterns and structures
q
q
q
Meyer: expectation
Brower: embodiment
Cook: potential meaning
33
Leonard Meyer
n
first important musicologist to address meaning

systematically
q
q
distinction of designative and embodied meaning

focus is on embodied meaning: meaning within the
work
tied secondarily to designative meaning
Emotion and meaning in music (1956)

q
meaning of an event lies in the

consequence to which it points
failure of habitual response
emotion and/or meaning
34
16
27-10-11
Theory of musical expectation

n
music displays patterns of antecedent-consequent

structures
q
q
q
meaning arises out of these patterns

q
e.g. melodic phrases

chord progressions: I-V I
strategies: consequent is delayed, consequent is
unexpected; antecedent is ambiguous
composing involves manipulating these processes
antecedent gets meaning when consequent is unexpected
Meaning in music and information theory (1957)

q
q
relates meaning to Markoff models and entropy

important distinction
n
probabilistic models focus on consequent of message

35
Meyers contribution
n
n
many leads for computational methods

possible weaknesses
q
theory extended by Narmour 1990, Huron

2006
q
preference for novelty: how does this work in

music you know?
is expectation sufficient for explaining richness of
emotional responses to music?
see part 2: theory
neuroscientific evidence in support of Meyer

36
17
27-10-11
Embodiment
n
n
Candace Brower: A cognitive theory of musical

meaning (2000)
central ideas
q
q
q
embodied cognition of music

q
all thinking is pattern matching (Howard Margolis)

most thinking is metaphorical: patterns are mapped
between domains (Mark Johnson)
most basic patterns derive from immediate experience of
our bodies
embodied has different
meaning in Meyer 1956!
musical pattern matching

through cognitive schemas
37
Image schemas
n
n
schemas: categories of patterns

embodied image schemas are e.g.:
q
q
q
shape our understanding of music

q
q
container; balance;
center-periphery; source-path-goal
combinations of those
tonality
nested container/center-periphery
Schenker analysis
source-path-goal
patterns work at many levels

q
create narrative structures

n
e.g. sonata form as a journey
related work: Zbikowski 2002

40
18
27-10-11
Potential meaning
n
Nicholas Cook, Theorizing musical meaning (2001)

q
musical meaning is emergent

q
q
q
meaning is created in the act of performance

musical structure has potential meaning
limits the range of possible meanings
meta-analysis of McClary
q
musical meaning in new musicology is important but

untheorized
how might music support, or not support the meanings
ascribed to it?
extreme meaning, supported by potential meaning
potential meaning in Closer example

q
multiple meanings can be ascribed to Mozarts music

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3SZ9QzGg95g (700-900)
42
Theories of meaningconclusion
n
many kinds of musical meaning

q
q
musicology has a lot to say about meaning

q
q
q
emotion important but not the only type

more emotions than just happy and sad
mostly case-based
few generic approaches
deep philosophical issues, mainly classical instrumental music
meaning probably not in music itself

q
potential meaning in structure

n
model for perception provided by Brower audio MIR
shaped by context
n
models models provded by Davies, Meyer symbolic MIR
actualised in performance
addressed by Cook, Kramer web mining for MIR
meaning can contribute to understanding relevance

q
q
beyond similarity
towards better computational models
43
19
27-10-11
Connecting empirical and

musicological approaches
45
Contrasting musicology and MIR

n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
data-poor approach
philosophical, maximum
interpretation
culture of disagreement
diversity of repertoire
social context important
much good data
lots of theory, insights
many unanswered
questions
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
data-rich approach
empirical, maximum
strength of evidence
culture of collaboration
homogeneous repertoire
metadata important
data-hungry
lack of domain knowledge
lots of computational
methods
areas exist where we can help each other

46
20
27-10-11
Relating musicology and MIR

n
placing music in context is hallmark of new musicology

q
issues of meaning and value occur in both disciplines

q
q
proposal for integrated approach in Wiering 2009

added value of connecting meaning-centred and structurecentred approaches (Cross 2007)
opportunities for new empiricism proposed by Huron

(1999)
q
study of context strongly suggests data-rich approaches
postmodernism and empiricism two sides of the same (sceptical)

coin
widely believed in musicology that it is time for something

new to happen
47
Concluding the tutorial
49
21
27-10-11
Things we wanted to attain today

n
give some experience of the culture of

musicology
q
show range of musicological topics

q
ethnomusicology, source study, analysis, philosophy
point out key publications

q
language, practices, values, taboos
introductions, classics, state-of-the-art
generally, communicate the idea that there is

something worthwhile to explore out there
50
Musicologists: the user manual

n
musicology is tribal. Musicologists often belong to a subdiscipline

and tend to be hostile to other tribes
q
learn to speak their language
invest in trust
q
its an ethical thingso pragmatic arguments do not work
interest in context, performance, culture, media, internet and popular

musics
do not assume they mean the same things with these words as you
q
dont use the M-word: the music itself
they want it all: 99% success rate is just not good enough
q
find out where they stand
not much interest in objective analysis, large-scale data processing
only if you show respect for their values they will share their insights
remember, you dont bring the truth, you just belong to a tribe with a
different value system
51
22
27-10-11
Computer scientists: the user manual

n
n
n
computer scientists are not programmers

if they do music they are passionate about it
you can do a lot with stuff theyve created that is
not 100% correct
q
just skip the math stuff in their papers

q
they love to show you how this can be done

most of them do the same thing
they think its easier to model the entire universe

than it is to understand a particular item
52
References 1
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n
B. Almn and E. Pearsall. 2006. Approaches to meaning in music. Indiana U. Press

C. Brower. 2000. A cognitive theory of musical meaning. Journal of Music Theory 44/2, 323-379
N. Cook. 2001. Theorizing musical meaning. Music Theory Spectrum 23, 170-95.
N. Cook & N. Dibben. 2010. Emotion in culture and history: perspectives from musicology. In:
Juslin & Sloboda 2010, 45-72
I. Cross. 2007. Music, science, and culture. Proceedings of the British Academy 147, 147-165
I. Cross & E. Tolbert. 2008. Music and Meaning. In: Hallam et al. 2009
S. Davies. 2010. Emotions expressed and aroused by music: philosophical perspectives. In:
Juslin & Sloboda 2010, 15-44
W.T. Fitch. 2006. The biology and evolution of music: a comparative perspective. Cognition, 100
(1), 173-215.
A. Gabrielsson & E. Lindstrm (2010) The role of structure in the musical expression of emotions.
In: Juslin & Sloboda 2010, 367-400
S. Hallam, I. Cross and M. Thaut, eds. 2009. Oxford Handbook of Music Psychology, Oxford U.
Press
E. Hanslick. 1854. Vom Musikalisch-Schnen: Ein Beitrag zur Revision der sthetik der Tonkunst.
Repr. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2010. Eng. tr: On the Musically Beautiful: A
Contribution Towards the Revision of the Aesthics of Music. Hackett, 1986.
D. Huron. 1999. The New Empiricism: Systematic musicology in a postmodern age.
http://music-cog.ohio-state.edu/Music220/Bloch.lectures/3.Methodology.html
D. Huron. 2006. Sweet anticipation Music and the psychology of expectation, MIT Press
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References 2
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P.N. Juslin & J.A. Sloboda (eds.). 2010 Handbook of music and emotion. Oxford U. Press
L. Kramer. 2003. Musicology and meaning. The Musical Times 144 (1883), 6-12
H. Kretschmar. 1902. Anregungen zur Frderung der musikalischen Hermeneutik. Leipzig
L.B. Meyer. 1956. Emotion and meaning in music. Chicago U. Press
L.B. Meyer. 1957. Meaning in music and information theory. Journal of Aesthetics and Art
Criticism 15/4, 412-424
E. Narmour. 1990. The analysis and cognition of basic melodic structures. Chicago U. Press
A. Patel. 2008. Music, language, and the brain. Oxford U. Press
P. Vuust & M. Kringelbach. 2010. The Pleasure of Making Sense of Music. Interdisciplinary
Science Reviews 35/2, 166-182
F. Wiering. 2009. Meaningful music retrieval. In: A. Anglade & J. Hockman (eds.), 1st Workshop
on the Future of Music Information Retrieval, ISMIR 2009, 1-3
http://www.columbia.edu/~tb2332/fmir/Papers/Wiering-fmir.pdf
G.A. Wiggins. 1998. Music, syntax, and the meaning of meaning. Proceedings of the First
Symposium on Music and Computers, 18-23
L. Zbikowski. 2002. Conceptualizing music: Cognitive structure, theory, and analysis. Oxford U.
Press
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27-10-11

ISMIR 2011 tutorial Musicology, part 1

musicology is a founding discipline

musicology seems important for MIR

source of domain knowledge

musicologists are confusing

prefer music notation over sound

Try asking a musicologist

So what is musicology about?

explore habits, rituals and value systems

studied mathematics and musicology

studied biology, some mathematics and musicology

positivist and new musicology

music theory (Anja)

final remarks (Anja and Frans)

What do we understand by musicology?

the academic study of music

Musicology has a history

to understand musicologists you need to know the

theory of music (since 500 BCE)

musical antiquarianism (since 18th century)

important changes in late 20th century

International Musicological Society Conference 2012, call for papers

strongly recommended reading

Nicholas Cook. Music: a very short

Guido Adlers view of musicology

Umfang, Methode und Ziel der

most influential musicological article

Umfang, Methode und Ziel

music as an art form (Tonkunst)

discovery of truth and advancement of the beautiful

How did this view arise?

musicology was literally constructed

absolute, instrumental music

urgently in need of explanation

E.T.A. Hoffmanns review of 1810

superiority of instrumental music

From Hoffmanns review

Tasks for musicology

generally, to take the new aesthetics of music

to explain how music reached this state of

in particular, no longer dependent on language

as the word was eliminated from music, it began to

to do so in an objective, scientific way

later called positivist musicology

Positivist musicology: some answers

what is the basic unit of music?

tonal art (Adler)

a musical form, characterised by

How to distinguish good from bad music?

Italian opera, Rossini

Not created by a romantic genius

More positivist answers

rules for creating good music

why are people moved by music?