Irrigation Handbook

TECHNICAL HANDBOOK
ON
PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION TECHNIQUES
A. Phocaides, FAO Consultant
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION

OF THE UNITED NATIONS
ROME, 2000
Preface
Eradication of hunger and food security for all is FAO’s main objective.
Water and food security are intimately connected and irrigated agriculture
has been an extremely important source of food production over recent
decades. Food requirements will increase in future, while global water
resources are limited. Therefore, to make the best use of water for
agriculture and to improve irrigation efficiency is a prerequisit for the
future. Shifting from surface irrigation to pressurized irrigation will
contribute substantially to the above goal.
The objective of this handbook is to provide a very practical guide to

irrigation and agriculture technicians and extension workers in the field.
The binder format of the handbook will permit future update of individual
chapters, which may become necessary with the rapid changing
pressurized irrigation technology.
Within the Land and Water Development Division of FAO, the

following people have contributed to the CD-ROM: Andreas Phocaides,
Irrigation Consultant, Davide Casanova, FAO Junior Irrigation Expert,
Simone Morini, New Media Expert, and Reto Florin, Chief, Water
Resources, Development and Management Service.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
Chapter 2: Pressure Piped Irrigation Techniques 3

Pressure piped irrigation systems 3
Network layout 3
System classification 6
a. Pressure 6
b. Water delivery method 6
c. Type of installation 7
Piped irrigation techniques compared

with traditional irrigation methods 7
Chapter 3: Irrigation equipment

and jointing techniques 11
Introduction 11
Pipes 12
Pipe connector fittings 18
Flow control devices 20
Filters 28
Fertigation equipment. 31
Water emitters 32
vi Table of Contents
Automation equipment 40
Operation equipment 41
Water-lifting devices 44
Calculation of the power requirements (P)? 50
Annex: Equipment for open canal/surface

irrigation systems 51
Chapter 4: System design 53

Introduction 53
System design 53
Design of the laterals 53
Determination of the size of the pipelines 54
Lateral lines 54
Manifolds, submain and main pipelines 56
Head control 57
Total dynamic head of the system 57
Total dynamic head of the pumping unit 58
Chapter 5: Equipment, standards

and tenders for supply 59
Working pressure of the equipment 59
Main, submain and manifold pipelines, and hydrants 60
Laterals 60
Table of Contents vii
Head control 60
Pumping unit 61
Standards 61
Tenders 64
Example 65
Tenders for the supply of irrigation equipment 65
General conditions of tenders 65
Bill of quantities 66
Equipment specification 67
Chapter 6: Irrigation scheduling 69

Soil-water relationship 69
Effective root depth 70
Permissible deficit or depletion of soil available water 70
Net irrigation application depth 71
Crop water requirements 71
Effective rainfall 73
Ground cover 74
Irrigation interval or frequency 74
Irrigation application efficiency 74
Gross irrigation application depth 75
Leaching requirements 75
System flow (system capacity) 75
General example 76
viii Table of Contents
Chapter 7: Water quality for irrigation 79

Introduction 79
Composition and concentration of soluble salts 79
Effect of soluble salts on plants 80
Salinity hazards and water deficiency 80
Toxicity hazards 81
Other problems 81
Effects of soluble salts on soil 82

Sodium hazard 82
Residual sodium carbonate (RSC) 83
Crop tolerance to salinity 83

Water quality criteria 91
Total salinity 91
Crop response to salinity 91
Sodium hazard 92
Toxicity problems 93
Salinity control 93
Micro-irrigation and salinity control 93
Example analyses 95
Case 1 95
Case 2 96
Case 3 97
Table of Contents ix
Chapter 8: Hose-move sprinkler irrigation 99

Introduction 99
System layout and component parts 100
Sprinklers 100
Design criteria and considerations 101
Irrigation scheduling programme 103
Cost 104
Advantages 104
Disadvantages 104
Example design 106
Hose-move sprinkler for cotton 106
System layout, performance and hydraulics 106
Chapter 9: Microsprinklers 109

Introduction 109
System layout and components 109
Microsprinkler emitters 110
Irrigation scheduling programme 110
Cost 112
Advantages 112
Disadvantages 112
Example design 113
Microsprinklers with potatoes 113
x Table of Contents
Chapter 10: Minisprinklers 117

Introduction 117
The minisprinkler emitter 117
Irrigation scheduling 119
Cost 121
Advantages 121
Disadvantages 121
Example design 121
Minisprinkler with citrus lemon trees 121
System layout, performance and hydraulics: 123
Chapter 11: Bubbler irrigation of trees 127

Introduction 127
Bubbler emitters 127
Cost 129
Advantages 129
Disadvantages 129
Table of Contents xi
Example design 129

Bubbler irrigation with fruit trees 129
Chapter 12: Drip irrigation 133

Introduction 133
Drip emitters (drippers) 135
Drip tapes 135
Porous-wall pipes 136
Filtration 136
Cost 138
Advantages 138
Disadvantages 139
Example design 139
Drip irrigation in watermelons 139
Dripper characteristics: 140

Lateral characteristics: 140
System flow and operation 140
Operating pressure 141
xii Table of Contents
Chapter 13: Fertigation 145

Introduction 145
Fertilizer injectors 145
Fertilizer application 147
Example: fertigation with vegetables 149
Chapter 14: Low-cost hose irrigation 151

Introduction 151
Hoses 152
System types and design criteria 153
Cost 157
Advantages 158
Disadvantages 158
Example designs 158
Hose basin with trees - conventional and drag types 158
Equipment for system installation 160

Hose basin irrigation for maize and hose furrow for tomatoes 162
Equipment for system installation 164

Table of Contents xiii
Chapter 15: Operation and Maintenance 167

Introduction 167
Operation 167
When and how long to irrigate 167
Starting and stopping the system 168
System performance 168
The equipment needed for this task is as follows: 168
Pump plant 170
Maintenance 170
System network 170
Pump plant 171
Maintenance for the off-season period 171
Centrifugal pumps 171
Internal combustion engines 171
Electric motors 172
Preparation for use before the next period 172
Centrifugal pumps 172
Internal combustion engines 172
Electric motor 173
Conclusion 173
Chapter 16: Irrigation terminology 175
Chapter 17: Irrigation equipment

supply database - IES 195
Pressurized Irrigation Techniques 1
CHAPTER 1:
Introduction
In the Proceedings of the Consultation on Irrigation in Africa (Lomé, Togo,
1997) irrigation was defined as “the application of water supplementary to
that supplied directly by precipitation for the production of crops”.
Although clearly defined, irrigation has not been clearly identified and
separated from the wide-ranging area of water development activities, such as
major and minor constructions for water harvesting, storing, conveyance and
allocation; the drilling of tube-wells; and pumping. Most of the efforts and
investments made in many countries for irrigation development result in water
resources development and very few in on-farm water use improvement.
The application of improved irrigation methods and techniques on small

farms is expanding rapidly as a result of the increasing demand for higher
irrigation efficiency, improved utilization of water and intensification and
diversification of production.
An irrigation system consists of canals and structures to convey, regulate

and deliver the water to the users. Two basic types of irrigation systems
exist: open canal systems and pressured piped systems. This book
concentrates in the latter one.
Experience gained from many countries in arid and semi-arid zones has
shown that pressure piped irrigation techniques are replacing successfully
the traditional open canal surface methods at farm level.
For any queries please contact: [email protected]
FIGURE 1.1 - Wasteful surface irrigation method

CHAPTER 2:
Pressure Piped
Irrigation Techniques
PRESSURE PIPED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
A pressure piped irrigation system is a network installation consisting of

pipes, fittings and other devices properly designed and installed to supply
water under pressure from the source of the water to the irrigable area.
The basic differences between traditional surface irrigation and piped

irrigation techniques are:
• The water flow regime: With traditional surface methods the size of
the stream should be large, while in pressure piped irrigation systems
very small flows, even 1 m3/h, can be utilized.
• The route direction of the flow: With traditional surface methods the
irrigation water is conveyed from the source and distributed to the
field through open canals and ditches by gravity following the field
contours. The piped system conveys and distributes the irrigation
water in closed pipes by pressure following the most convenient
(shortest) route, regardless of the slope and topography of the area.
• The area irrigated simultaneously: With traditional surface methods the
water is applied in large volumes per unit of area, while piped irrigation
systems distribute the water at small rates over a very large area.
• The external energy (pressure) required: Traditional surface gravity
methods do not need external energy for operation, while piped
irrigation systems require a certain pressure, 2-3 bars, which is provided
from a pumping unit or from a supply tank situated at a high point.
NETWORK LAYOUT
The pipelines that convey and distribute the irrigation water to the
individual plots are usually buried, and are so protected from farming
operations and traffic hazards. Offtake hydrants, rising on the surface, are
located at various spots according to the planned layout. With surface
methods the irrigation water can be delivered directly to the open ditches
feeding the furrows or the basins.
In micro-irrigation and other complete systems, e.g. sprinkler, the

hydrants are coupled with smaller manifold feeder pipelines placed along
the edges of the plots. These feed the lateral irrigating lines which are laid
4 Pressurized Irrigation Techniques
along the plants rows perpendicular to the manifolds. The laterals are
equipped with water emitters at frequent spaces and distribute uniformly
the irrigation water to the plants under certain pressure.
There are many kinds of irrigation systems. However, a thorough

examination of the various system layouts, the equipment and the
principles in operation shows that the same approach is always employed
from the planning procedure to their application and that all of them have
most of their features and components parts in common.
In all piped systems the main component parts (Fig. 2.1) are:
• the control station (head control unit);

• the mains and submains (pipelines);
• the hydrants;
• the manifolds (feeder pipelines);
• the laterals (irrigating pipelines) with the emitters.
FIGURE 2.1 - Scheme of a network layout.
Head control: This consists of a supply line (rigid PVC, or threaded

galvanized steel) installed horizontally at a minimum height of 60 cm
above ground. It is equipped with an air release valve, a check valve, two
_-in hose outlets for connection with the fertilizer injector, a shut-off valve
between the two outlets, a fertilizer injector and a filter. Where a gravel
filter or a hydrocyclone sand separator is needed, it is installed at the
beginning of the unit complex.
Main pipeline: It is the largest diameter pipeline of the network, capable

of conveying the flow of the system under favourable hydraulic conditions
of flow velocity and friction losses. The pipes used are generally buried
permanent assembly rigid PVC, black high density polyethylene (HDPE),

layflat hose, and quick coupling galvanized light steel pipes in sizes ranging
from 63 to 160 mm (2-6 in) depending on the area of the farm.
Submains: These are smaller diameter pipelines which extend from the
main lines and to which the system flow is diverted for distribution to the
various plots. The pipes are the same kind as the mains.
Offtake hydrants: These are fitted on the submains or the mains and
equipped with a 2-3-in shut-off valve. They deliver the whole or part of the
flow to the manifolds (feeder lines).
Manifolds (feeder lines): These are pipelines of a smaller diameter than

the submains and are connected to the hydrants and laid, usually on the
surface, along the plot edges to feed the laterals. They can be of any kind
of pipe available (usually HDPE) in sizes of 2-3 in.
Laterals (irrigating lines): These are the smallest diameter pipelines of

the system. They are fitted to the manifolds, perpendicular to them, at fixed
positions, laid along the plants rows and equipped with water emitters at
fixed frequent spacings.
Emitters: A water emitter for irrigation is a device of any kind, type and
size which, fitted on a pipe, is operated under pressure to discharge water
in any form: by shooting water jets into the air (sprinklers), by small spray or
mist (sprayers), by continuous drops (drippers), by small stream or fountain
(bubblers, gates and openings on pipes, small diameter hoses), etc.
These component parts replace the ones in the traditional surface

systems, i.e. the main gate, the main and submain canals, the canal gates
the field ditches, and the furrows or the basins, respectively.
FIGURE 2.2 - Improved surface irrigation method with pipes.

SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION
Piped irrigation systems are classified according to the pressure
required for operation, the method of delivering water to plants, and the
type of installation.
a. Pressure
The pressure of the system is the maximum water pressure required for
normal system operation and encompasses: a) the friction losses in the
piping network from the control station to the distal end of the system; b)
the pressure required at the emitter; and c) the difference in elevation (plus
or minus). Systems can be classed as:
• low pressure systems, where the pressure required is 2.0-3.5 bars;

• medium pressure, where the pressure required is 3.5-5.0 bars;
• high pressure, where the pressure required exceeds 5.0 bars.
b. Water delivery method

The water delivery method is the way the water is distributed to the
plants. Systems can be classed as:
• Sprinkler (overhead) irrigation. The water is delivered in the form of

raindrops precipitated over the entire area. There are many variations
of this method in terms of the discharge and diameter coverage, the
height of the water jet above ground (overhead, under the foliage),
the type of sprinkler mechanism, etc.
• Surface irrigation (furrow, basin, border, etc.). The water is delivered
to the field plots direct from the main or submain pipelines through
the hydrants and it is spread all over the area, or it is side applied.
• Micro-irrigation (localized irrigation) by drippers, sprayers, bubblers,
microjets, etc. The water is delivered to the plants without being
spread over the entire area but by being applied in low rates to a
limited soil surface area around the plants.
The water delivery method and the kind of the water emitter are the
main characteristics of a piped irrigation system. In many cases they
influence and specify the other characteristics (pressure and type of
installation) and performances, such as the flow capacity of the system and
the duration of application.
The flow capacity of a system is the water flow (in cubic metres per
hour or litres per second) given, or designed to meet the irrigation
requirements of the irrigable area at peak demand. It is inversely
proportional to the duration of application. Where designed, it is usually

the minimum permissible in order to economize on pipe size and other
equipment. The duration of application is the time required for the
completion of one irrigation cycle.
c. Type of installation
Systems can be classed as:
• Solid installations (fixed systems), where all the components are laid
or installed at fixed permanent or seasonal positions.
• Semi-permanent installations, where the mains and submains are
permanent while the laterals are portable, hand move or
mechanically move.
• Portable installations, where all the component parts are portable.
PIPED IRRIGATION TECHNIQUES COMPARED

WITH TRADITIONAL IRRIGATION METHODS
Irrigation efficiency: In open canal distribution networks, the water
losses are estimated at up to 40 percent in unlined ditches and up to
25 percent in lined canals. These losses are due to seepage, phreatophytes
and leakage in gates, spillways, etc. In piped systems, no such losses
occur. During the application to the plants, the water losses range from
10 percent in localized micro-irrigation to 30 percent in overhead
conventional sprinkler and surface methods. As a result, water losses can
be minimized and an irrigation efficiency of 75-95 percent can be
achieved. In open canals, the irrigation application efficiency ranges from
45 percent to a maximum of 60 percent.
Economic return per unit of water. Piped systems facilitate the

manipulation of the irrigation water under more favourable conditions than
do open canals. This can result in a yield increase of 10-45 percent and an
improvement in quality.
Operation and maintenance (O&M). The man-hours needed in the

piped systems range from one-tenth to one-quarter of those required for
open canals. Any person can easily operate the piped systems, while the
open canals can require skilled labour. In the open canals, expensive
operations are carried out to prevent damage caused by roots; seepage
through banks; the spread of weeds; siltation and sedimentation; clogging
of outlets and gates; etc. In the piped systems, no maintenance or
continuous repair of constructions is required. The basic component parts
of the piped systems require minimal maintenance during the first seven
years. The complete piped system requires a yearly maintenance costing
about 5 percent of the initial investment.
Cost: The use of thermoplastic pipes and fittings, made of unplasticized

polyvinyl chloride (rigid PVC), low density polyethylene (LDPE), high
density polyethylene (HDPE), and polypropylene (PP), which are
manufactured in almost every country in many sizes and classes, has
reduced the cost of piped irrigation installations to a relatively low level at
a time when open canal networks are becoming increasingly expensive.
The initial capital investment for the application of these techniques

varies according to the method of irrigation and the type of the installation.
The cost of the solid installations for localized methods is higher than that
of the semi-portable hand-move sprinkler systems and the piped networks
for surface methods. The costs for various piped irrigation systems
installations in Europe are presented in Table 1 and the average percentage
costs of the various parts of a piped system calculated on the basis for
smallholdings (about 1.0 ha) are presented in Table 2. A detailed cost
analysis of all the kinds and types of the piped systems has shown that the
pipes (laterals included) account for about 50 percent of the total cost of
the system.
The design complexity and the multiplicity of costly equipment is only

apparent. The technology of piped irrigation systems is simple and flexible,
and the investment yields a good return. Several mechanical difficulties are
to be expected in the early stages. Subsequently, the farmers become
familiar with the system’s features and components and make the best use
of it. The application of piped irrigation techniques produces a drastic
change in irrigation management practices at farm level.
FIGURE 2.3 - Modern irrigation techniques.

FIGURE 2.4 - Sprinkler irrigation techniques.
TABLE 1 - Comparative costs of piped irrigation systems

Piped surface method Sprinkler conventional Micro-irrigation
hand-move solid installation
Area (ha) 1 1-2 2-3 1 1-2 2-3 1 1-2 2-3
Installation cost (US$/ha) 1 700 1 600 1 400 2 800 2 700 2 100 3 950 3 300 3 000
Annual maintenance
cost (US$/ha) 85 80 70 140 135 105 200 165 150
Note: Average 1997 prices in Europe.
TABLE 2 - Cost breakdown for piped irrigation systems

Component parts Sophisticated installation Simple installation
Control station >23% 13%

Mains, submains and manifolds 10% 21%
Fittings and other accessories 22% 24%
Laterals (pipes and emitters) 45% 42%
CHAPTER 3:
Irrigation equipment
and jointing techniques
INTRODUCTION
Irrigation system installations consist of various pipes, fittings, valves and
other equipment depending on the kind of system and the type of
installation. Most installations have the same structure, and thus a relatively
small range of equipment can meet the requirements of a whole region.
Irrigation equipment can be divided into:
• pipes;
• pipe connector fittings;
• flow control devices;
• filters;
• fertigation equipment;
• water emitters;
• automation equipment;
• operation equipment;
• water-lifting devices.
The main characteristics of the irrigation equipment are:
• material, e.g. galvanized steel, rigid PVC, etc.;

• size, i.e. the nominal diameter (DN) of the ISO metric range in
millimetres (16-160 mm) and/or of the BSP threaded range in inches
(_-4 in);
• type of joint, e.g. threaded, quick coupling, solvent welded, etc.;
• working pressure PN (nominal pressure) or PR (pressure rating) in
bars, e.g. 6.0 bars;
• national and/or international standards conformed to, e.g. DIN, ISO,
BS, ASTM.
The working pressure of a pipe or a fitting is the maximum internal

water pressure to which the pipe or the fitting is subjected continuously in
ordinary use, with certainty that failure of the pipe will not occur. It is
specified as nominal pressure (PN) or pressure rating (PR).
PIPES
The pipes are the basic component of all irrigation networks. There are
various kinds and types available in many pressure ratings and in different
sizes (diameters). The pipes in use for farm-level irrigation systems are
mainly in rigid PVC and polyethylene (PE). Quick coupling light steel pipes
and layflat hoses are used on a smaller scale. Threaded galvanized steel
pipes are of limited use. All these pipes are described below.
A. Steel threaded pipes. Galvanized steel pipes have been used widely
in every country for all kinds of water works. In the past they were used as
mains and submains in pressure piped irrigation solid installations. Due to
their excellent properties, they have the ability to withstand stress, to resist
high pressures and to maintain their strength for the duration of their
service life, unlike plastic pipes which suffer a continuous creep strength
with time and temperature fluctuations. They are not often used nowadays
for irrigation because they are very expensive. However, they are useful in
small pieces needed for risers in the hydrants, connector tubes in the head
control units and similar applications. They are available in nominal
diameters (DN), usually in inch-based series of _, _, 1, 1_, 1_, 2 in, etc.,
which correspond more or less to the actual bore diameter, and in several
high pressure rates (classes) in accordance with various standards and
recommendations (ISO R-65, BS 1387, DIN 2440/41/42, or to American
Standards, etc.). Supplied in random lengths of 6 m, they are for
permanent assembling with screw-type (threaded) joints. Each pipe carries
an internal threaded socket. Welded hot-dip galvanized steel pipes have an
average life of 15-20 years on the surface ‘in the atmosphere’ and of 10-15
years in soil depending on soil physical properties. There is a large range
of pipe connector fittings made of galvanized malleable iron for jointing
these pipes.
FIGURE 3.1 - A threaded steel pipe fitting (male adapter).

B. Quick coupling light steel pipes. These pipes are made of light rolled
strip steel which has been hot-galvanized inside and outside. Each pipe is
equipped with a hand-lever quick coupling welded on one end while the
other end is arranged accordingly for water and pressureproof tight
closure. The standard pipe length is 6 m and the working pressure (PN)
ranges from 12.0 to 20.0 bars. They are light in weight, easy to install and
remove, and they are used as mains, submains, manifold feeder lines and
laterals with sprinklers. They have a full range of pipe connector fittings of
the same type of joints. They are available in many sizes and in diameters
(DN) of 70, 76 and 89 mm, which are convenient for farm-level pressure
irrigation techniques.
FIGURE 3.2 - Quick coupling light steel galvanized pipes and fittings.
C. Quick coupling aluminium pipes. They are mostly used, always

above ground, as moveable lateral lines in sprinkler irrigation portable
installations. Made of aluminium alloy by extrusion or by fusion welding,
they are light in weight (about half that of the light steel ones), relatively
strong and durable. In accordance with ASAE S263.2, they are
manufactured in nominal diameters quoted in inches, corresponding to the
outside pipe diameter, of 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 in (51, 76, 102, 127 and
159 mm). The minimum working pressure is 7.0 bars. In accordance with
ISO 11678, the same sizes in the metric series are 50, 75, 100, 125 mm
and so on with working pressures of 4.0, 10.0 and 16.0 bars. They are
supplied in standard lengths of 6, 9 and 12 m, complete with aluminium
quick couplings. These are either detachable by means of clamps and
rings, or permanently fixed on the tubes. With the use of U-shaped rubber
gaskets, the couplings seal automatically under high water pressure during
operation and drain in pressures below 1.0 bar. There are several types of
quick couplings which allow the farmer to couple or uncouple the
connections from any location along the pipe.
The most widely used are the latch system (single or dual), with a _ or 1 in
threaded outlet for sprinkler risers, or hose extensions. Quick coupling
provides a high degree of flexibility to aluminium pipelines laid on uneven
ground. The expected life of these pipes is 15 years under good
management. The light portable quick coupling pipes, steel or aluminium,
can be used not only as sprinkler lateral lines, but also as water
conveyance and distribution lines. In micro-irrigation systems they are
often used as manifolds. These pipes maintain their value for a
considerable length of time. Indeed, some cases have been reported of
farmers selling many of these pipes at a profit even after extensive use.
FIGURE 3.3 - Quick coupling aluminium pipes.
D. Rigid PVC pipes. Extruded from unplasticized polyvinyl chloride,

also called uPVC, these pipes are ideal for irrigation, (cold) water
conveyance and distribution lines as mains and submains. In many cases
they can also serve as manifolds and laterals. Very light in weight, they are
easy to transport and to handle on site. Their only limitations are that they
must always be laid permanently underground, protected from high or
very low ambient temperatures and solar radiation. The maximum flow
velocity should not exceed 1.5 m/s. They are manufactured in standard
lengths of 6 m, and in several series and classes denoting the working
pressure, in accordance with various national and international standards
applied in Europe, the United States and elsewhere (ISO 161-1/2: 1996,
ISO 3606, BS 5556, DIN 8062, ASTM D 2241, ANSI/ASAE S376.1,
ANSI/ASTM D 1785). These standards, although equivalent to each other,
vary in the pipe dimensioning, i.e. the pipe’s actual diameter, the working
pressure (PN), the safety factors, etc. In the United States, thermoplastic
pipes are mainly classified in terms of SDR (standard dimension ratio
between the pipe’s outside diameter and the pipe wall thickness) and
schedules (for higher pressures). In Europe, the hydrostatic design stress
(hoop strength) of PVC common material is 100 bars. In the United States,
several compounds are used with different stress values, thus a great
variety of pipes are produced, all in inch sizes. In accordance with the
European standards and ISO 161, rigid PVC pipes are available in nominal
diameters (DN), which is the approximate outside diameter, in 50, 63, 75,
90, 110, 125, 140, 160, 200 and 225 mm. The working pressures are 4.0,
6.0, 10.0 and 16.0 bars at 24°C. At higher temperatures, the working
pressures decrease accordingly. Usually, small diameter pipes up to 50 mm
and inch-sized pipes have one end plain with a preformed socket at the
other end for solvent cement welding. Larger diameter pipes have a
tapered spigot at one end while the other end consists of a wall-thickened,
preformed grooved socket with a rubber sealing ring for a push-fit integral
mechanical joint. There is a complete range of connector fittings for these
pipes; some made of uPVC and others of cast iron. The compression-type
polypropylene (PP) fittings are also suitable for uPVC pipes up to 110 mm.
All the fittings and the valves of underground PVC pipelines should be
thrust blocked to prevent them from moving whilst in operation due to the
thrusting force of the water pressure. The estimated average life of buried
uPVC pipes is 50 years.
Rigid PVC pipes are made for underground installation, where they are
protected from temperature changes and hazards imposed by traffic,
farming operations, etc. The trench should be as uniform as possible, firm,
relatively smooth and free of large stones and other sharp edged material.
Where ledge rock or hardpan is encountered, the trench bottom should be
filled with embedment material, such as compacted grained soil or sand, to
provide a bed depth of about 10 cm between pipe and rock. The minimum
depth of cover should be 45 cm for pipes up to 50 mm, 60 cm for pipes up
to 100 mm, and 75 cm for pipes over 100 mm DN. Where rigid PVC pipes
are installed under roads, the depth of cover should not be less than 1 m;
otherwise the pipes must be sleeved in a protective steel tube.
FIGURE 3.4 - Rigid PVC pipes.

E. Polyethylene (PE) pipes. Flexible black PE pipes are extruded from

polyethylene compounds containing certain stabilizers and 2.5 percent
carbon black which protect the pipes against ageing and damage from
sunlight and temperature fluctuations. LDPE (low-density resin) pipes are
also known as soft polyethylene and PE 25, while HDPE pipes (high-
density resin) are more rigid and known as hard polyethylene or PE 50 (the
numbers correspond to the pipe material’s hydrostatic design stress). They
are manufactured in accordance with various standards in inch-based and
metric series (ISO 161-2, DIN 8072/8074, etc.) Both sorts have proved
successful in pressure piped irrigation techniques and are the predominant
kind of pipes in micro-irrigation systems. All laterals with micro-emitters
are LDPE pipes (hoses) of 12-32 mm. HDPE pipes of larger diameters are
used for main lines, submains and manifolds. They are also often used as
water conveyance pipelines. LDPE pipes are less affected by high
temperatures than HDPE pipes are. PE pipes are supplied with plain ends
in coils of 50-400 m, depending on the diameter. Laid on the surface, they
have a service life of 12-15 years. Conforming to European and
international standards, they are available in the following sizes and
working pressures:
DN (external diameter) millimetres:

12, 16, 20, 25, 32, 40, 50, 63, 75, 90 and 110;
PN (working pressure) bars:

2.0, 4.0, 6.0, 10.0 and 16.0.
Jointing PE pipes is simple. A full range of PP connector fittings is

available in all diameters and types suitable for pressures from 2.0 to 10.0
bars.
FIGURE 3.5 - Polyethilene pipe in a coil.

The manufacturers of PVC and PE pipes recommend that the maximum

flow velocity in the plastic pipes should not exceed 1.5 m/s. Based on this
recommendation, Table 3 presents the flow rates in various plastic pipes
with a flow velocity of 1.7 m/s, which should be taken as the maximum
permissible under normal operating conditions.
TABLE 3 - Maximum recommended flow in plastic pipes without outlets

Rigid PVC 6 bars DN mm 63 75 90 110 125 160
(DIN 8062) Inside d. mm 59.2 70.6 84.6 103.6 117.6 150.6
m_/h 17 24 34 51 66 109
HDPE 6 bars DN mm 50 63 75 90 110

(DIN 8074) Inside d. mm 44.2 55.8 66.4 79.8 97.4
m_/h 9 15 21 30 45
LDPE 4.0 bars DN mm 16 20 25 32

DIN(8072) Inside d. mm 12.4 16.4 20.6 27.2
m_/h 0.75 1.3 2.0 3.5
V = 1.7 m/s
F. Layflat hose. Layflat tubing has been used in irrigation for a number
of years. It is an alternative to rigid PVC pipes for surface use as water
conveyance lines, mains and manifolds, in drip and other low pressure
micro-irrigation installations. It is made of soft PVC reinforced with
interwoven polyester yarn. Layflat hoses are flexible, lightweight, and
available in various sizes (millimetres or inches) from 1-6 in and for
working pressures (PN) of 4.0-5.5 bars. They are manufactured with plain
ends and supplied in coils in standard lengths of 25, 50 and 100 m.
There are no special connector fittings for layflat hoses. The hoses are
connected by inserting small pieces of PE piping into the ends of the
hoses, or by metallic quick couplings attached to both pipe ends. Small
diameter PE tubes are used to connect laterals to the layflat manifolds. In
these cases, wire ties are needed to secure the connections. However,
several micro-irrigation industries have designed and manufactured special
connector fittings for jointing their drip lines with layflat hoses.
FIGURE 3.6 - A layflat hose.
PIPE CONNECTOR FITTINGS

A. Malleable iron threaded. These fittings are made for use with
galvanized steel threaded pipes and they are available in a wide range as
elbows, bends, reducers, tees, plugs, nipples and other. They are
characterized by toughness and ductility and they provide a sound joint
able to withstand pipeline expansion and contraction and other stresses.
They are manufactured with screw type joints male and female (taper
threads) in accordance with BS 21, DIN 2999, ISO R 7 and American
standards in nominal sizes (inside diameters) as in the galvanized steel
pipes. The sizes, usually quoted in inches, may be converted to millimeters
i.e.. 1/2” for DN 15mm, 3/4” for 20mm, 1” for 25mm, 1 1/4” for 32mm,
2” for 50mm, etc. Mostly they comply to BS 143&1256, DIN 2950, ISO R
49 for working pressures of minimum 14.0 bars.
FIGURE 3.7 - Threaded galvanized steel pipe fittings.
B. Polypropylene (PP) pipe connector fittings. PP connector plastic pipe

fittings (joints) are primary suitable for use with PE plastic pipes. There is a
full range of all kinds, sizes and types of these pipe fittings worldwide.
There are three main types with several modifications. These are:
• lock connector fittings, inserted into the pipe, with a locking ring
which securely fastens the hose pipe to the fitting and can withstand
high pressures;
• barbed type fittings, also inserted into the pipe, available only in small
diameters up to 20 mm, and for pressures up to 2.0 bars only;
• compression quick release type, which are available in all diameters
and are for high pressures, 10.0 bars. The compression fittings are also
suitable for larger size rigid PVC pipes. They are easily mounted and
dismantled without cutting the pipe. They are more expensive than the
other fittings but last longer and can be used in several installations.
All PP connector fittings are also available with one or both ends threaded.
FIGURE 3.8 - Polypropylene (PP) fittings with a lock connector.
C. PVC fittings. Pipe fittings made of PVC are available in the inch
system following the same dimensioning with the metal pipes and fittings
and in the metric system (mm) conforming the ISO and DIN
dimensioning. They are manufactured for solvent welding, threaded
jointing and for push-fit integral mechanical jointing.
FIGURE 3.9 - PVC solvent welding pipe fitting.
FLOW CONTROL DEVICES

Any device installed in a fluid supply system, in order to ensure that
the fluid reaches the desired destination, at the proper time, in the
required amount (the flow rate), and under the right pressure, is called a
control appliance.
As such an appliance controls proper operation of a fluid system,

selecting its type, size and placement is of uppermost importance and ought
to be done with the full knowledge of the various features of the device and
with complete understanding of the way it performs. Equally important is
proper maintenance in order to ensure faultless and sound performance of
the appliance. Made of metal base material or reinforced high engineering
plastics, the common flow control devices used in irrigation systems can
withstand high pressures (PN 10.0-16.0 bars) with screw-type end
connections with internal or external threads for in-line installation.
Fluid control devices can be divided into three main classes (Table 4):
• Directional devices or valves. These serve to directly regulate the fluid

flow. Installed in the pipeline, they enable starting or stopping the
flow, and setting its rate, pressure and direction. Examples of such
devices are the stop valves, the check valves and the regulating valves.
• Measuring devices or valves. In order to ensure the appropriate flow

regime, just regulating the flow is not enough. It is also necessary to
obtain accurate information about flow parameters, so that adjustments
can be made, as required, to achieve the desired flow conditions.
Water and flow meters and pressure gauges belong to this group.
• Auxiliary devices. These do not directly influence fluid flow, but
ensure an undisturbed functioning of a system. To this group belong
air valves and safety valves.
TABLE 4 - Scheme for flow control devices.
Directional devices or Shut-off valves • ball valves

valves (stop valves) • butterfly valves
• gate valves
• disk* valves (globe, angle and oblique or Y valves)
• radial valves
Check valves • swing check valve

(non-return valves) • parallel check valve
Regulating valves** • disk* valves (globe, angle and oblique or Y valves)

• radial valves
Measuring devices Meters • water meters

• flow meters
Gauges • pressure gauges
Auxiliary devices Air valves

Safety valves
A. Shut-off valves or stop valves. They are most widely used valves,
manually operated. Usually installed between the ends of two pipes they
serve to start or stop the flow of fluid in the pipeline. Stop valves are
primarily designed for just two extreme situations: either to be completely
open, to freely pass the full flow of fluid, or to be completely closed, to
prevent any flow. The most common are the gate, ball, butterfly, radial and
disk valves. In gate valves, the water moves in a straight line without
resistance when fully open. Gate valves are not recommended for
regulating or throttling flow, they must be either fully open or full closed.
Ball valves are used on a large scale in small sizes of _-2 in due to their
many advantages. They feature quick on-off operation, quarter-turn and
they can balance or throttle the flow. Of the disk valves, the most widely
used model in irrigation networks is the oblique (Y-valve), ideal for
throttling and regulating the flow. All types are made of brass in sizes of _-
4 in, screw type with internal and/or external threads, at a PN of 16.0 bars.
Oblique disk valves are also made of PP plastic material.
*: The sealing of a disk valves can be either a piston or a diaphragm.

**: Regulating valves regulate pressure, flow or water level in either a direct acting or pilot operated way.
FIGURE 3.10 - Various shut-off valves. From left to right a gate,

a butterfly and ball valves.
B. Check valves. Check valves, also called non-return valves, permit

flow in one direction only and prevent reversal flow in piping by means of
an automatic check mechanism. They come in two basic types: the swing
check, which can be installed in horizontal or vertical piping; and the lift
check, for use in horizontal lines only. Water flow keeps the check valves
open, and gravity and reversal of flow close them automatically. They are
placed in-line at the head control unit immediately after the pump. Swing
checks are used with gate valves, lift checks with disk valves. Check valves
are made of several metal materials and brass, and are screw type (female
joints) quoted in inches from _ to 4 in, at a PN of 16.0 bars.
FIGURE 3.11 - Scheme and photograph of a check valve.

C. Regulating valves. Regulating valves are directional, semi-automatic

devices, which allow controlling pressure and flow in a water supply
system. These valves operate without any intervention from the operator,
but the parameters of their performance must be preset by hand or by
remote control, according to the requirements of the water supply system.
Regulating valves can be divided basically in three categories:

• For reducing the downstream pressure.
• For sustaining or relieving the upstream pressure.
• As flow regulators.
A pressure reducing valve will throttle flow and maintain downstream

pressure at the required level, but only if the upstream pressure is higher than
the preset level. Hence, it is controlled only by the downstream pressure.
A pressure sustaining valve will maintain upstream pressure either at its

maximum permitted level, by relieving the superfluous flow, or at its
minimum required level, by throttling the flow. Hence, it is controlled by
the upstream pressure level.
Flow regulators are in-line valves that maintain a constant

predetermined flow rate, regardless of pressure changes in the system.
All the types of regulating valves work on the principle of flow

throttling, being based on the principle of inverse relationship between the
cross-sectional area of a flexible orifice and the line pressure. In most
cases the valves are of the disk (globe, angle and oblique or Y) or the
radial type. Radial valves are often preferred to disk valves. Gate, ball,
butterfly and other types are unsuitable for automatic regulation.
Regulating valves are either direct acting or pilot operated. Pressure

regulating valves are often installed at the entrance of the manifolds to
ensure a constant operating pressure for the laterals. They are made of
brass, bronze or plastic in sizes of _-3 in with threaded connections.
FIGURE 3.12 - A pressure reducing valve maintains downstream

pressure constant when pressure upstream increases.
D. Meters. A distinction must be made between water meters and flow

meters. Water meters measure and record the volumes of water passing
through them, without considering the time element. Reading the output of
a water meter gives information about the volume of water that passed
through the appliance in a period, beginning with the last reading or
zeroing of the meter. The most common type used for irrigation water is
the Woltmann type with an impeller for axial flow. The velocity of flow
activates the impeller and the turns are translated into total volume of
water transmitted to the display dial through a series of reducing gears.
They are manufactured in various designs, with the body made of cast
iron, and constructed either as compact units or with an interchangeable
inner mechanism. Sizes up to 2 in are available with threaded joints; larger
sizes having flanges.
The flow meter measures the velocity of flow or, less often, the rate of
flow or discharge. The most common type is the rotameter where a
specially shaped float moves freely in a tube so that the flow velocity or
rate is directly indicated by the float rim.
FIGURE 3.13 - Cross-section of a water meter.
E. Pressure gauges. Measurement of pressure in key points of a network

is of major importance for water system operator. The pressure gauge
should be installed in easily accessible places, so that it is convenient to
read and to maintain in proper working condition. The most common
pressure gauge used in water supply and distribution service is the
Bourdon gauge, in which the primary element is an elastic metal tube. As
the pressure inside the tube increases the oval tube tends to become
circular and this causes it to uncoil slightly.
FIGURE 3.14 - A Bourdon type pressure gauge.
F. Air valves. These valves are of great importance as they protect the
pipe network from damage by trapped air in the system or from collapse
due to a vacuum. If improperly chosen or located in a wrong place, it can
also cause severe functional problems.
The presence of free air in water installations causes many difficulties in

the piping system at start-up, during operation and when draining the
system. Air valves are needed so that air can be either released from or
admitted into the pipelines. Its operation and air flow rate cannot be
influenced either by the system operator or by the performance of any
other appliance. There are three main kinds of air valves:
1 Single automatic air release valves, for the continuous automatic

release under pressure of the trapped air pockets accumulated at the
summits of the mains. The single air valves are small in size with a 1-in
threaded connection, larger sizes not being required. They are installed
on risers above ground at the high points of the conveyance and mains
or every 200 m.
2 Large orifice air-vacuum valves (low pressure kinetic), for releasing or

admitting air in bulk when filling or draining the system. They do not
function under pressure. During normal operating conditions, a float
held up by the system water pressure closes the large orifice. Sizes of
2 in can meet the system requirements of 160-mm pipelines. They are
installed at high points of the system after the pump or the system’s
main service hydrant on the head control unit, and at the beginning and
the end of long branch pipelines.
3 Double (dual) air valves, which are a combination of the two above.
They are the safest and most efficient air valves in mains and
conveyance lines during filling, draining and operating the piped
irrigation systems. The 2-in size of the double air valve is appropriate for
most on-farm piped irrigation installations up to 160 mm in diameter.
In addition to the above air valves, small vacuum breakers of 1/2 inch
are available for preventing vacuums in drip laterals laid on the soil
surface, thus protecting them from clogging.
Air valves are manufactured for high working pressures of at least 10.0
bars PN. They are installed on-line with threaded internal or external joints.
FIGURE 3.15 - Air valves operate by introducing and

releasing air to the water system.
G. Safety valves (also called pressure relief valves). The practical use of
safety valves began with steam boilers so that steam was released at
critical pressures to avoid bursting of tanks and pipes. In water supply
systems, the compressibility of water is very low and the problem of safety
is therefore smaller. However, it is used mainly to ensure proper working
of a system in cases of failure of other pressure control appliances.
Safety valves are on-line valves of smaller diameter than the pipelines,
spring-loaded or otherwise, in which the outlet is inclined 90º to the inlet.
When the pressure in the system exceeds the pre-set value, the valves
open and release water into the air. Thus, they prevent the pipes from
bursting due to sudden high pressures which might occur in the system.
They are located immediately upstream of the main valve of the system.
They are available in sizes of 1-3 in with threads.
FIGURE 3.16 - Scheme and photograph of a safe valve.

FILTERS
The filtration of the irrigation water is essential in order to avoid
blockage damage to the micro-irrigation emitters. The type of filter used
depends on the kind of impurities contained in the water and the degree of
filtration required on the emitters. Their size should be the most
economical with the lowest friction losses ranging from 0.3-0.5 bars. The
following kinds of filters are available:
A. Gravel filters. These filters, also called media filters, are closed
cylindrical tanks which contain a gravel grain of 1.5-3.5 mm or a basalt
sand filter bed. Where the irrigation water source is an open reservoir, they
are installed at the beginning of the head control of the system. Water
entering the tank from top passes through the gravel bed, which traps the
large particles of unbroken organic matter, mostly algae, and exits through
the outlet at the bottom of the tank. They are equipped with the necessary
inlet, outlet and drain valves, and a back-flushing arrangement. The filter
body is epoxy coated metal, minimum 8.0 bars PN, and is 50-180 cm high
and 40-100 cm in diameter. They are available in threaded connection
sizes of 1-8 in.
FIGURE 3.17 - Scheme and photograph of a gravel filter.
B. Hydrocyclone (sand separator) filters. These are closed conical

metal tanks placed at the beginning of the head control unit where
needed. They separate sand or silt from well or river water through the
creation of a centrifugal force by a vortex flow inside the filter. This force
drives the solids downward to a collecting chamber attached below and
lets the clean water out. They are epoxy coated, PN 8.0 bars, and are
available in threaded connection sizes of _-8 in.
FIGURE 3.18 - Scheme and photograph of hydrocyclones.
C. Screen type filters. These are used for final filtration as a safeguard
for either moderate quality water or following a primary filtration with
gravel or hydrocyclone filters. They are installed at the end of the head
control before the main pipeline. They are made of epoxy coated metal or
high engineering plastics in various cylindrical shapes (horizontal on-line,
vertical angle, etc.), and are equipped with interchangeable perforated
filtering elements, inlet, outlet and drain valves and pressure inspection
gauges. They can withstand a working pressure (PN) of 8.0 bars. The
degree of filtration ranges from 60 to 200 mesh (75 microns). They are
available in sizes of _-4 in. Smaller sizes are made of reinforced plastic.
FIGURE 3.19 - Operational scheme and photograph of a screen filter.

D. Disk type filters. They are cylindrical, made of reinforced plastic,

horizontal in-line or vertical angle-shaped. The filtering elements consist of
stacks of grooved plastic rings with multiple intersections providing a three
dimensional filtration of high level. They are very effective in removing all
kinds of impurities of inorganic and organic origin, algae included. The
degree of filtration can range from 40 to 600 mesh (400-25 microns). They
are available in all sizes (_-6 in), PN 8.0 bars, with threaded joints. They
are placed at the end of the control unit before the main pipeline.
FIGURE 3.20 - A grooved disk and a disk filter.
E. Automatic self-cleaning filters. Most of the different kinds and types

of filters can be supplied with an automatic cleaning capability, as
determined by pressure differential, duration of filtration, volume of water
filtered, or by any combination of these. The cleaning mechanism, usually
back flushing, for the removal of accumulated debris uses the system’s
water pressure. It is activated: a) whenever the pressure difference across
the filter body increases to a predetermined value, e.g. 0.5 bar; and b) at
fixed time intervals with an electronic timer back-up.
FIGURE 3.21 - An automatic self-cleaning filter uses the back flushing

mechanism for the removal of accumulated debris.
FERTIGATION EQUIPMENT.
Fertilizers are applied with the irrigation water through the system using
special devices called fertilizer injectors installed at the head control.
There are three main types of fertilizer injectors: closed tank, Venturi type
and piston pump. All of them are water driven by the operating pressure of
the system.
A. Fertilizer (closed) tank. This is a cylindrical, epoxy coated,

pressurized tank, resistant to the system’s pressure, and connected as a
bypass to the supply pipe of the head control. It is operated by differential
pressure created by a partially closed valve, placed on the pipeline
between the inlet and the outlet of the tank. Part of the flow is diverted to
the tank entering at the bottom. It mixes with the fertilizer solution and the
dilution is ejected into the system. The dilution ratio and the rate of
injection are not constant. The concentration of fertilizer is high at the
beginning and very low at the end of the operation. However, this
apparatus is still in service on a very small scale in some countries
because of its low cost and easy manufacture.
FIGURE 3.22 - Scheme and photograph of a fertilizer closed tank.
B. Venturi type. This is based on the principle of the Venturi tube. A

pressure difference is needed between the inlet and the outlet of the
injector. Therefore, it is installed on a bypass arrangement placed on an
open container with the fertilizer solution. The rate of injection is very
sensitive to pressure variations, and small pressure regulators are
sometimes needed for a constant ejection. Friction losses are
approximately 1.0 bar. The injectors are made of plastic in sizes from _ to
2 in and with injection rates of 40-2 000 litres/h. They are relatively cheap
compared to other injectors.
FIGURE 3.23 - Scheme and photograph of a Ventury type fertilizer.
C. Piston pump. This type of injector is powered by the water pressure

of the system and can be installed directly on the supply line and not on a
bypass line. The system’s flow activates the pistons and the injector is
operated, ejecting the fertilizer solution from a container, while
maintaining a constant rate of injection. The rate varies from 9 to
2 500 litres/h depending on the pressure of the system, and it can be
adjusted by small regulators. Made of durable plastic material, these
injectors are available in various models and sizes. They are more
expensive than the Venturi type injectors.
FIGURE 3.24 - Scheme and photograph of a piston pump fertilizer.
WATER EMITTERS
The water emitters specify the kind of system and in most cases the type
of installation. Fitted on the laterals at frequent spaces, they deliver water
to the plants in the form of a rain jet, spray, mist, small stream, fountain or
continuous drops. All kinds and types of emitters in use now are of the
small orifice-nozzle, vortex or long-path labyrinth types. Thus, the flow in
the water emitters is turbulent. Some drip emitters of laminar flow used in
the past are no longer available.
A. Sprinklers. Most of the agricultural sprinklers are the hammer-drive,

slow rotating impact type, single or twin nozzle. The sprinklers shoot jets
of water into the air and spread it to the field in the form of raindrops in a
circular pattern. They are available in various nozzle sizes, flow discharges,
operating pressures and wetted diameters or diameter coverage, full circle
or part circle. They are classified as low, medium and high
pressure/capacity, as shown in Table 5; according to the height of the water
jet above the nozzle, they are divided into low angle (4º-11º), or high
angle (20º-30º). They are made of brass or high engineering plastics with
internal or external threaded connections of _-1_ in. They are installed
vertically on small diameter riser pipes, 60 cm above ground, fitted on the
laterals. The sprinkler spacing in the field is rectangular or triangular at
distances not exceeding 60 percent of their diameter coverage. Filtration
requirements, where necessary, are about 20 mesh.
TABLE 5 - Sprinkler classification

Agriculture sprinklers Nozzle size mm Operating pressure Flow rate Diameter
(two nozzle) (bars) (m_/h) coverage (m)
Low pressure 3.0-4.5 x 2.5-3.5 1.5-2.5 0.3-1.5 12-21

Medium pressure 4.0-6.0 x 2.5-4.2 2.5-3.5 1.5-3.0 24-35
High pressure 12.0-25.0 x 5.0-8.0 4.0-9.0 5.0-45.0 60-80
FIGURE 3.25 - Polypropylene (PP) fittings with a lock connector.

B. Microsprinklers. These water emitters are small plastic sprinklers of

low capacity with flow rates less than 300 litres/h. Their main
characteristics are their rapid rotation/whirling, less than a minute per
rotation, the very small size of the water drops and the low angle of the
water jet above nozzle. They have only one nozzle, of about 2.0 mm. They
discharge 150-250 litres/h at 2.0 bars operating pressure. They are full
circle and the wetted diameter is only 10-12 m. Mounted at a height of 60
cm on metallic or plastic rods inserted into the ground, they are connected
to PE laterals (25 or 32 mm) through small flexible tubes 7 mm in diameter
and 80 cm long. The spacing arrangement in the field is the same as for
conventional sprinklers. The spacing does not exceed 6.0 m, i.e.
50 percent of the wetting diameter. The filtration requirements are about
60 mesh (300 microns).
FIGURE 3.26 - A microsprinkler with a rotating spinner.
C. Spitters, micro-jets and sprayers. These are small plastic emitters

with a low water discharge at a low angle in the form of fine drops in a
sectorial or full circle pattern. They are mainly used for tree crops. They are
of various mechanisms with a wide range of flow rates and water
diameters. They have a small passage diameter, thus filtration of the water
is essential. Their main performance characteristics are:
• operating pressure: 1.5-2.0 bars;

• flow rate: 35-250 litres/h (generally 150 litres/h);
• wetting diameter: 3-6 m;
• precipitation rate: 2-20 mm/h (generally 4-8 mm/h);
• filtration requirements: 60-80 mesh (250-200 microns).
Their heads are fixed to small plastic wedges 20-30 cm above ground
and they are connected to the PE laterals with 7-9-mm flexible plastic
tubes 60-120 cm long and a barbed plunger. They are placed one per tree,
30-50 cm apart.
FIGURE 3.27 - Photograph of a micro-jet irrigating a citrus tree and

in detail the microjet's head with no-moving parts.
D. Bubblers. Low pressure bubblers are small-sized water emitters

designed for localized flood irrigation of small areas. They deliver water in
bubbles or in a low stream on the same spot. The flow rate is adjusted by
twisting the top and ranges from 110 to 250 litres/h at operating pressures
of 1.0-3.0 bars. The bubbler heads are installed, as are the minisprinklers,
on small plastic wedges inserted into the ground and connected to a PE
lateral with a 7-mm flexible plastic tube 80 cm long. They are placed in a
tree basin; one or two per tree. The basin is always needed to contain or
control the water because the bubbler discharge usually exceeds the soil
infiltration rate.
FIGURE 3.28 - Scheme of a bubbler.

E. Drippers. The drippers are small-sized emitters made of high quality

plastics. They are mounted on small soft PE pipes (hoses) at frequent
spaces. Water enters the dripper emitters at approximately 1.0 bar and is
delivered at zero pressure in the form of continuous droplets at low rates
of 1.0-24 litres/h. Drippers are divided into two main groups according to
the way they dissipate energy (pressure):
• orifice type, with flow areas of 0.2-0.35 mm2;

• long-path type, with relatively larger flow areas of 1-4.5 mm2.
Both types are manufactured with various mechanisms and principles of

operation, such as a vortex diode, a diaphragm or a floating disc for the
orifice drippers, and a labyrinthine path, of various shapes, for the long-path
ones. All the drippers now available on the market are turbulent flow ones.
Drippers are also characterized by the type of connection to the lateral:

on-line, i.e. inserted in the pipe wall by the aid of a punch; or in-line,
where the pipe is cut to insert the dripper manually or with a machine.
On-line multi-exit drippers are also available with four to six ‘spaghetti’
type tube outlets.
FIGURE 3.29 - On top an on-line dripper, below an in-line dripper.
F. Drip tapes. These are thin-walled integral drip lines with emission
points spaced 10, 20, 30, 45 cm or any other distance apart, delivering
lower quantities of water than the usual drippers at very low pressures, i.e.
0.4-1.0 litres/h at 0.6-1.0 bar. They are integrated drip lines where the
drippers are built in the pipe walls at the desired spacing during the
manufacturing process. They are ready-made dripper laterals with a very
high uniformity of application. Drip tapes are made of LDPE or other soft
PE materials in various diameters from 12 to 20 mm and in several wall
thicknesses (0.10-1.25 mm). Thanks to a filtration system incorporated
inside the tubing, they are less susceptible to mechanical and biological
blockages than conventional drippers are.
FIGURE 3.30 - Scheme and photograph of a drip tape.
G. Pressure compensated (PC) emitters. Several sprinklers, drippers and

other water micro-emitters are available with built-in flow regulators.
These emitters deliver a constant flow of water at any pressure exceeding
the fixed operating one. Uniform rates of discharge are achieved along the
laterals regardless of the number of emitters, spacing, length of line or
elevation, where excessive pressure is available. Therefore, pressure
variations in the laterals due to friction losses can exceed 20 percent.
Thus, less expensive smaller diameter pipes can be installed in certain
cases. However, the self-regulated emitters, called pressure compensated,
are normally operated under pressures exceeding the fixed operational
pressures and cost more than the conventional ones.
FIGURE 3.31 - Differences in discharge between a normal emitter

and an ideal and a real pressure compensated emitters.
FIGURE 3.32 - Picture of a pressure compensated emitter showing

the membrane that is used as flow-regulator.
H. Pulsators. Pulsators are small plastic hydraulic devices used in

micro-irrigation systems to reduce emitter and system flow rates to very
low levels for higher efficiencies. The pulsators employ a built-in dripper
with a discharge of 4-8 litres/h that feeds an integral silicone sleeve
chamber. This in turn acts as a miniature pulsating pump generating
hundreds of pulses per hour and so emitting the water. Thus, they can
convert a low continuous flow into an instantaneous pressurized emission
of water in short pulses. This process enables application rates of
0.3-0.8 mm/h with spitters, minisprinklers and sprayers, and 100-300
cm3/h with drippers. They are attached to the emitters, one for each
minisprinkler or sprayer, and one for 20-70 drippers accordingly. The
emitted water per pulse is roughly 0.5 cm3. The silicone sleeve remains
closed when the water pressure drops with the termination of the irrigation
and prevents the water in the system from draining. Pressure compensated
pulsators are also available for use on mountains and sloping terrain.
FIGURE 3.33 - Operational scheme and photograph of a pulsator.

I. Porous pipes. These pipes are small-sized (about 16 mm) thin-walled

porous flexible hoses made from PE fibres, PVC, ABS or rubber. They
permit water and nutrients under low pressure to pass from inside the tube,
by transpiration, and irrigate the crops. The porous pipeline discharge is
not accurate because the size of the pores varies and is not stable. They
are used as lateral drip lines beneath the surface. Their application is
limited although they do offer some advantages.
FIGURE 3.34 - Scheme of a porous pipe.
J. Garden hoses. Flexible garden hoses are made of various plastic

materials, usually soft PVC, reinforced with textile or polyester yarn. They
come in nominal diameters, the approximate inside diameter, of _-1_ in
(15, 19, 25, 32 and 38 mm) with plain ends. They have a wide range of
water applications.
FIGURE 3.35 - Photograph of a garden hose with outlet.

AUTOMATION EQUIPMENT
The main component parts for automation in an irrigation system are
the remote control (electric) valves, the controller and the field wiring,
where electricity is the transmitting power.
A. Electric (solenoid) valves. These are automatic valves which can be

commanded from a distant point to turn the water flow on and off. The
body construction is based on the globe valve design. They open and close
by means of a flexible diaphragm or a piston, utilizing hydraulic pressure
controlled by an electrically actuated solenoid valve mounted on top.
Made of reinforced glass or plastic, the electric valves, normally closed,
are in inches with screw-type connections, a working pressure of 10.0 or
14.0 bars, and with a handle for manual operation and flow control.
FIGURE 3.36 - Operational scheme and photograph of an

electric control valve.
B. Controllers. These are automatic timing devices which supply the

actuating power to operate the remote control (electric) valves, i.e. to open
and close on a pre-set programme. They contain a transformer which
reduces the standard voltage to 24-30 V. The power output from the
electric controllers is transmitted to the electric valves through
underground wiring. Their main features are the stations and the
programmes. Each station usually operates one valve. The operation of the
stations is sequential. There are many types of controllers available in
many stations, up to 30, with dual or triple programmes for different
scheduling and variable cycles of more than 14 days, and 0-12-hour
station timing. Battery powered controllers are also available for
independent stations.
FIGURE 3.37 - Operational scheme and photograph

of an irrigation controller device.
C. Automatic volumetric metering valves. These valves consist of a

water meter, a pilot assembly and a shut-off mechanism. Once the pre-set
volume of water has been delivered, they shut off automatically. Small
sizes are operated mechanically and larger ones hydraulically by means of
a diaphragm or a piston. Small sizes are available with screw-type joints
while larger sizes, made of cast iron, come in flanged connections.
They have a relatively limited application, mainly due to their high cost.
FIGURE 3.38 - Operational scheme and photograph

of an automatic volumetric metering valve.
OPERATION EQUIPMENT
For the proper management of the irrigation systems, frequent simple
water and soil checks and other measurements must be carried out on site.
For this purpose, there are several instruments that give direct readouts of
the results.
A. Soil moisture sensors. Soil moisture measurement is difficult mainly

because of the variability in soil types, calibration of the sensor, area of
influence of the sensor, and the extrapolation of that measurement to crop
management. Basically, two parameters are of interest: (i) the volumetric
soil moisture because it provides information on the ratio of soil water to
solid phase plus air (it is a useful measurement for irrigation control
informing about how much water is needed in order to “fill the sponge”)
and (ii) the soil moisture tension because it informs about the effort the
plant has to make to extract moisture from the soil. At present, there are
various technologies for soil moisture measurement. Two of them, because
of their relevance, are briefly explained below:
• Tensiometers operate by allowing the soil solution to come into

equilibrium with a reference pressure indicator through a permeable
ceramic cup placed in contact with the soil. At the state of field
capacity the soil moisture tension is normally 10 cbars in sandy soils,
20 cbars in medium soils and 30 cbars in clays. Readings below 10
cbars indicate saturated soil, readings of 20-40 cbars indicate
excellent soil water availability, while readings exceeding 55 cbars
indicate a risk of water stress. A characteristic is that they are not
affected by the osmotic potential of the soil solution (the amount of
salts dissolved in the soil water), as the salts can move into and out of
the ceramic cup unhindered, and they measure soil matric potential
with good accuracy in the wet range. Their main disadvantages are
that they provide point measurement, slow reaction time, usually only
operate between saturation and about 70 cbars (thus they cannot
operate in relatively dry soils), require maintenance to refill after dry
periods, and if the ceramic cup looses contact with the soil then this
could cause an apparent “lack of response” of the instrument.
• Time Domain Reflectometry (or TDR). The method is based on the
principle that velocity of an electromagnetic wave depends on the
conducting medium. The larger the soil water content is, the slower
the wave will travel. Thus, the wave travelling time along a probe of
known length can be related to the soil water content. The main
advantages of the method is that it is accurate, continuous, and it
does not require calibration. The main disadvantage is that it has
complex electronics and expensive equipment.
FIGURE 3.39 - Scheme and photographs of tensiometers and a TDR.
B. Conductivity meters. These portable instruments are battery powered

and enable rapid and accurate determination of the concentration of
soluble salts in the soil solution and the irrigation water. They are
temperature compensated but they need frequent calibration.
FIGURE 3.40 - Measurement of irrigation water

with a conductivity meter.
C. Class A evaporation pan. This is an open circular pan which is widely

used to measure evaporation. It is made of 22-gauge galvanized steel plate,
all surfaces painted aluminium, or of 0.8-mm Monel metal. The pan has a
standard size: 121 cm in diameter and 25.5 cm deep. It is placed level on a
wooden beamed base support 15 cm above ground.
It is filled with water to 5 cm below the rim. It has a simple or advanced

reading mechanism to indicate the decrease in water level due to
evaporation. Measurements are recorded every morning at the same time.
The water is topped up when its level drops to about 7.5 cm below the rim.
FIGURE 3.41 - A class A evaporation pan in the field.
WATER-LIFTING DEVICES
Pumps and lifting/propelling devices are often classified on the basis of
the mechanical principle used to lift the water: direct lift, displacement,
creating a velocity head, using the buoyancy of a gas or gravity. Most
categories sub-divide into further classifications “reciprocating/cyclic” and
“rotary”. The first of these relates to devices that are cycled through a
water-lifting operation (for example, a bucket on a rope is lowered into the
water, dipped to fill it up, lifted, emptied and then the cycle is repeated);
in such cases the water output is usually intermittent, or at best pulsating
rather than continuous. Rotary devices were generally developed to allow
a greater throughput of water, and they also are easier to couple to engines
or other mechanical drive.
Virtually all water lifting devices can best be characterized for practical
purposes by measuring their output at different heads and speeds.
Normally the performance of a pump is presented on a graph of head
versus flow (an H-Q graph, as in Figure 3.43) and in most cases curves can
be defined for the relationship between H and Q at different speeds of
operation. Invariably there is a certain head, flow and speed of operation
that represents the optimum efficiency of the device, i.e. where the output
is maximized in relation to the power input. Some devices and pumps are
more sensitive to variations in these factors than others; i.e. some only
function well close to a certain design condition of speed, flow and head,
while others can tolerate a wide range of operating conditions with little
loss of efficiency. For example, the centrifugal pump characteristic given in
Fig. 3.43 shows an optimum efficiency exceeding 80% is only possible for
speeds of about 2000 rpm.
FIGURE 3.42 - Typical curves showing relationship between head,

flow, speed, and efficiency (example for a centrifugal pump).
A. Direct-lift devices. These are all variations on the theme of the

bucket and are the earliest artificial method for lifting and carrying water. It
generally improves both efficiency and hence productivity if the water
lifting element can move on a steady circular path. An obvious
improvement to the simple rope and bucket is to fit numerous small
buckets around the periphery of an endless belt to form a continuos bucket
elevator. The original version of this, which is ancient in origin but still
widely used, was known as a “Persian wheel”. The water powered Noria, a
water wheel with pots, is similar in principle.
FIGURE 3.43 - Scheme of a Persian wheel and photograph of a Noria.

B. Displacement pumps. The most common and well-known form of

reciprocating/cyclic are the piston-type pumps and of rotary/continuous
are the Archimedean screw-types. In the piston pump, water is sucked into
the cylinder through a check valve on the up-stroke, and the piston valve
is held closed by the weight of water above it; simultaneously, the water
above the piston is propelled out of the pump. On the down-stroke, the
lower check valve is held closed by both its weight and water pressure,
while the similar valve in the piston is forced open as the traped water is
displaced through the piston ready for the next up-stroke. The rotary
positive displacement pumps have their origins among the Archimedean
screw. Modern concepts have appeared such as the progressive cavity
pump (also called “mono” pump), yet they all have a number of
similarities. The principle is that water is picked up by the submerged end
of the helix each time it dips below the surface and, as it rotates, a pool of
water gets trapped in the enclosed space between the casing and the lower
part of each turn. The progressive cavity (mono) pump is ready to fit in
down boreholes and it is of great advantage because positive displacement
pumps can cope much more effectively than centrifugal pumps with
variations in pumping head. Therefore, any situation where the water level
may change significantly with the seasons makes the progressive cavity
pump an attractive option.
FIGURE 3.44 - Left: Scheme of a hand pump with single acting bucket
piston (piston valve shown open as on the down-stroke, and inlet
valve is closed). Center: A peadle piston-type pump.
Right: Scheme of a progressive cavity or "mono" pump.
C. Velocity pumps. Their mechanism is based on the principle that

when water is propelled to a high speed, the momentum can be used
either to create a flow or to create a pressure. The reciprocating/cyclic
ones are rarely used while the rotary/continuous ones are highly
widespread. The latter are called rotodynamic pumps and their mechanism
is based on propelling water using a spinning impeller or rotor.
Since any single rotodynamic pump is quite limited in its operating

conditions, manufacturers produce a range of pumps, usually
incorporating many components, to cover a wider range of heads and
lows. Where high flows at low heads are required (which is common in
irrigation pumps), the most efficient impeller is an axial-flow one (this is
similar to a propeller in a pipe). Conversely, for high heads and low flows
a centrifugal (radial-flow) impeller is needed.
Where a higher head is needed than can be achieved with a single

pump, two pumps can be connected in series. Similarly, if a greater
discharge is needed, two centrifugal pumps may be connected in parallel.
FIGURE 3.45 - Rotodynamic pumps: (a) radial or centrifugal pump

and (b) axial pump.
FIGURE 3.46 - Left: a rotodynamic pump powered by a tractor.

Right: a pumping unit with rotodynamic pumps in parallel.
D. Air-lift pumps. A rising main, which is submerged in a well so that

more of it is below the water level than above it, has compressed air
blown into it at its lowest point. The compressed air produces a froth of air
and water, which has a lower density than water and consequently rises to
the surface. The compressed air is usually produced by an engine driven
air compressor. The main advantage of the air-lift pump is that there are no
mechanical below-ground components to wear out, so it is essentially
simple, reliable, virtually maintenance-free and can easily handle sandy or
gritty water. The disadvantages are rather severe: first it is inefficient as a
pump, probably no better than 20-30% in terms of compressed air energy
to hydraulic output energy and this is this is compounded by the fact that
air compressors are also generall inefficient. Second, it usually requires a
borehole to be drilled considerably deeper (more than twice the depth of
the static water level) than otherwise would be necessary.
FIGURE 3.47 - Scheme of an air-lift pump.
E. Impulse (water hammer) pumps. These devices apply the energy of

falling water to lift a fraction of the flow to a higher level than the source.
The principle they work by is to let the water from the source flow down a
pipe and then to create sudden pressure rises by intermittently letting a
valve in the pipe slam shut. This causes a “water hammer” effect which
results in a sudden sharp rise in water pressure sufficient to carry a small
proportion of the supply to a considerably higher level. They therefore are
applicable mainly in hilly regions in situations where there is a stream or
river flowing quite steeply down a valley floor, and areas that could be
irrigated which are above that level that can be commanded by small
channels contoured to provide a gravity supply. A practical example of this
pumps is the hydraulic ram pump or “hydram”. The main virtue of the
hydram is that it has no substantial moving parts, and is therefore
mechanically extremely simple, which results in very high reliability,
minimal maintenance requirements and a long operational life. However,
in most cases the output is rather small (in the region of 1-3 litre/sec) and
they are therefore best suited for irrigating small-holdings.
FIGURE 3.48 - Schematic diagram of hydram installation.
F. Gravity devices. Syphons are the most common device of this type,
though strictly speaking they they are not water-lifting devices, since, after
flowing through a syphon, water finishes at a lower level than it started.
However syphons can lift water over obstructions at a higher level than the
source and they are therefore potentially useful in irrigation. Syphons are
limited to lifts about 5m at sea level for exactly the same reasons related to
suction lifts for pumps. The main problem with syphons is that due to the
low pressure at the uppermost point, air can come out of solution and
form a bubble, which initially causes an obstruction and reduces the flow
of water, and which can grow sufficiently to form an airlock which stops
the flow. Therefore, the syphon pipe, which is entirely at a sub-
atmospheric pressure, must be completely air-tight.
FIGURE 3.49 - A syphon arrangement.

Calculation of the power requirements (P)?

The power requirements are calculated as:
Q(l / s) × Ht ( m)
P( HP) =
75 × e1 × e2
Q(l / s) × Ht ( m)
P( kw ) =
102 × e1 × e2
where:
Ht is the total head;
e1 is the pump efficiency (fraction in the order of 0.5-0.8); and
e2 is the driving efficiency (fraction of 0.7-0.9 for electric motors and
0.5-0.75 for diesel engines).
The total head (Ht) required for the normal operation of the system is
the sum of the following pressures:
FIGURE 3.50 - Ht is the total head, Ha is the elevation head,

Hi is the emitter operation head and Hp is the friction losses head
(sum of friction losses in the main line, submains, manifolds, laterals,
valves, pipe fittings and minor losses).
ANNEX:
Equipment for open
canal/surface irrigation systems
1 Water Control devices. In open canals, water flow is controlled with
different kind of devices. The most common one are gates. Gates are
used in canal turnouts. A special type are the downstream constant
level gates, commonly known as Neyrpics.
FIGURE 3.51 - Left: a gate for a farm turnout. Right: a Neyrpic gate.
2 Flow measurement devices. Discharges can be measured with weirs or

flumes. Weirs are sharp-crested, overflow structures that are built across
open canals. The water level upstream of the structure is measured
using a measuring gauge. The discharge corresponding to that water
level is then read from a table which is specific for the size and type of
weir being used. Flumes consist of a narrowed canal section with a
particular, well-defined shape. Like measurements with weirs, the water
level upstream of the flume is a measure of the discharge trough the
flume, and when the head has been measured the discharge can be
obtained by reading the value on a diagram which is specific for the
flume being used.
FIGURE 3.52 - Left: Scheme of a "V" notch weir. Right:

Photograph of a "V" notch weir installed in a furrow.
FIGURE 3.53 - A Parshall-type flume.
3 Water application devices. Syphons and gated pipes are commonly

used in surface irrigation. A syphon is a curved pipe filled with water
and laid over the channel bank at every irrigation. Gated pipes are used
to control the water applied to individual furrows.
FIGURE 3.54 - Left: Syphons. Rigth: A gated pipe.

CHAPTER 4:
System design
INTRODUCTION
The engineering design is the second stage in irrigation planning. The
first stage is the consideration of the crop water requirements, the type of
soil, the climate, the water quality and the irrigation scheduling. The water
supply conditions, the availability of electricity and the field topography
also need to be considered. The economic considerations, the labour and
the know-how also need to be taken into account. The irrigation system is
selected after a thorough evaluation of the above data and the
computation of the system’s flow, the irrigation dose, the duration of
application and the irrigation interval.
Once the design has been completed, a detailed list of all the
equipment needed for the installation of the system must be prepared with
full descriptions, standards and specifications for every item.
SYSTEM DESIGN
The engineering and hydraulic design procedure is almost the same in
all kinds of pressurized irrigation systems. It consists of a series of
interlinked calculations. The various stages are outline below.
Selection of the water emitter (sprinkler, dripper, minisprinkler,

bubbler, hose, etc.) according to the crop, irrigation method and
requirements:
• type, flow rate, operating pressure, diameter coverage;

• spacing and number per lateral line.
DESIGN OF THE LATERALS

• length, direction, spacing and total number of lateral lines (in solid
systems) or lateral positions (in semi-permanent installations);
• flow of the lateral = number of emitters per lateral x emitter flow rate;
• number of laterals operating simultaneously = system flow/flow of lateral;
• number of shifts to complete one irrigation = total number of lateral
lines or positions ÷ number of laterals operating simultaneously;
• Duration of application = irrigation dose in millimetres ÷ application

rate in millimetres per hour, or irrigation dose in cubic metres per
hour ÷ system flow in cubic metres per hour.
DETERMINATION OF THE SIZE OF THE PIPELINES
Lateral lines
It is important to understand the water emitter’s functions and principle
of operation before commencing the design process. One of the main
characteristics of all types of emitters is the relationship between flow rate
and operating pressure, which is usually expressed by the empirical
formula:
q=kdH*
where q is the emitter discharge, k and d are coefficients (constants), H

is the pressure at the emitter and * is an exponent characterized by the
emitter flow regime and the flow rate curve as a function of the pressure.
The lower the value of *, the less the influence of pressure variations on
the emitter flow rate along the lateral line. Most of the water emitter flow
regime is fully turbulent with an exponent value equal to 0.5. Thus, the
difference in discharge is half the difference in pressure, when the ratio of
the two different pressures is < 1.3/1.0.
In order to ensure a high uniformity of water application over the field,

the differences in the discharge of the emitters should be kept to the
minimum possible and in no case exceed 10 percent. These criteria were
established by J. Christiansen for sprinklers and are now applied in all
pressurized systems. As a general rule, the maximum permissible
difference in pressure between any two emitters in operation should be no
more than 20 percent. The lateral lines with emitters must be of a size that
does not allow a loss of head (pressure) due to friction of more than
20 percent.
The loss of head due to friction (friction losses) in lateral pipes is taken
from a graph or a table. The reading is usually given as loss of head of
water in metres or feet per 100 m or 100 ft of pipe. For example, in a
50-mm quick coupling sprinkler lateral pipe with a 15 m_/h flow, the
friction losses are 7 percent. If the length of the lateral is 120 m, the
friction losses are: 7/100 x 120 = 8.4 m. However, this figure is for the
total flow of 15 m_/h running the whole length of lateral. Thus, it is not the
true figure as the flow is distributed en route through the emitters. In order
to compute the actual losses the above figure is multiplied by
Christiansen’s reduction coefficient, F, to compensate for the water

delivered along the lateral line. The F values depend on the number of the
outlets uniformly spaced along the pipeline (Table 5).
Three different series of F values exist corresponding to the Q exponent

(m) of the three main friction loss formulas: Hazen Williams, 1.85; Scobey,
1.9; and Darcy Weisbach, 2.0. Moreover, lower values are taken if the
distance of the first outlet is half the spacing of the outlets, etc. However,
the differences between the various F values are almost negligible.
TABLE 5 - F factor for multiple outlets
Number F value Number F value

of outlets (m = 2.0) of outlets (m = 2.0)
1 1.0 12 0.376
2 0.62 15 0.367
3 0.52 20 0.360
4 0.47 24 0.355
5 0.44 28 0.351
6 0.42 30 0.350
7 0.41 40 0.345
8 0.40 50 0.343
9 0.39 100 0.338
10 0.385 > 0.333
Assuming that in the above example there are ten emitters (in this case
sprinklers) on the lateral, the F value is 0.4. Then, in a 50-mm quick
coupling lateral, 120 m long, with a flow of 15 m_/h, with 10 sprinklers of
1.5 m_/h at 2.0 bars, the friction losses are: 7/100 x 120 x 0.4 = 3.36 m
head of water. This figure must not exceed the maximum permissible,
which is 20 percent of the emitter’s average operating pressure, i.e. 2.0
bars x 0.20 = 0.4 bars (4 m) on level ground. Where the lateral slopes
downwards, the difference in elevation is added to the maximum
permissible loss of pressure. Similarly, it is deducted where the lateral
slopes upwards.
Due to the multiplicity of emitters with variable flow regimes and other
factors affecting the pressure/discharge relation along the laterals in the
field, such as local minor losses that occur at the connection of the
emitters on small-sized pipes and temperature fluctuations, the
manufacturers should always provide charts for the optimum length of
emitter laterals, based on the size of pipe, emitter spacing, operating
pressure, flow rate and slope.
Manifolds, submain and main pipelines

On the manifolds, whether these pipelines are the submains or the
mains as well, a number of laterals are fed simultaneously. The flow of
the line is distributed en route, as in the laterals with the emitters.
Consequently, when computing the friction losses, Christiansen’s
reduction coefficient, F, is also considered. Example: 120 m of 75-mm
HDPE, 6 bars, manifold line, 16.3 m_/h, 6 laterals operating
simultaneously; the friction loss under full flow is 3.3 percent, i.e. 4.0 m
x 0.42 = 1.7 m approximately.
The mains, submains and all hydrants are selected in such sizes that
the friction losses do not exceed approximately 15 percent of the total
dynamic head required at the beginning of the system’s piped network.
On level ground, these friction losses amount to about 20 percent of the
emitter’s fixed operating pressure. This is a practical rule for all
pressurized systems to achieve uniform pressure conditions and water
distribution at any point of the systems. The above figure should not be
confused with or related in any way to the maximum permissible friction
losses along the laterals.
In the above figure, Pa is the average emitter pressure, or fixed pressure

taken from the catalogue; Pn is the lateral inlet pressure; Po = 0.95 Pa is
the distal end emitter pressure; and Pm is the pressure at the inlet of the
main line.
Pn - Po = 0.20 Pa;
Po = Pn ÷ 1.21;
Pn = 1.15 Pa;
Pm = 1.35 Pa.
The friction loss in a lateral with emitters is very high at the beginning
and drops rapidly after the first few outlets and then more gradually toward
the end of the line. In the upper one-fourth of the lateral the friction loss is
approximately 75 percent of the total.
Another important element is the flow velocity in the mains, submains

and hydrants. This value should always be kept below 1.7 m/s_ in plastic
tubes and a maximum of 2 m/s_ in other pipes (steel, aluminium, etc.). From
the flow velocity formula, V = Q/A, the pipe inside diameter is determined
for a given flow: diameter (mm) = Q (m_/h) ÷ V (m/s_) x 0.0028.
HEAD CONTROL
The component parts of the head control and their size are in
accordance with the system requirements. In micro-irrigation systems the
units are complete with filters and fertilizer injectors, while in sprinkler
and hose irrigation systems the head controls are simple with the
minimum of equipment. The friction losses in the various component parts
vary accordingly from 3 to 10 m.
The friction loss formulas are empirical and include many variables and
correction factors. In calculating the pipe friction losses from equations,
extensive practical experience is needed. In view of the fact that great
accuracy is not possible due to the unpredictable changes in pipe
roughness, water viscosity, nozzle wear, clogging, etc., the use of friction
loss tables and nomographs is recommended.
TOTAL DYNAMIC HEAD OF THE SYSTEM

The total pressure head or dynamic head required for the normal
operation of the system is the sum of the following pressures:
Pressure at the emitter Metres head

Friction losses in the lateral line Metres head
Friction losses in the manifold Metres head
Friction losses in the submains and in the main line Metres head
Friction losses in the valves and pipe fittings and minor losses
(usually up to 15 percent of the total losses in the pipes) Metres head
Difference in elevation (plus or minus) Metres head
Loss of pressure in the head control Metres head
Total pressure head of system Metres head
TOTAL DYNAMIC HEAD OF THE PUMPING UNIT

This is the sum of the system’s total head plus the pumping lift. The
brake horsepower formula is:
BHP = Q x TDH ÷ 270 x e1 x e2
where Q is the flow capacity in cubic metres per hour, TDH is

expressed in metres, e1 is the pump efficiency (fraction), e2 is the driving
efficiency (fraction), and 270 is a constant for metric units.
• Pump efficiency: 0.5-0.8;

• Electric motor efficiency: 0.7-0.9;
• Diesel engine efficiency: 0.5-0.75.
The overall pumping efficiency under field conditions ranges

accordingly from 0.35 in engine driven units to 0.50 in motor driven
pumps. Higher efficiencies are not realistic.
CHAPTER 5:
Equipment, standards and
tenders for supply
With the completion of the design, a detailed list of all the equipment
needed (bill of quantities) for the installation of the system must be
prepared with full descriptions, standards and specifications for every item.
The preparation of this list is of great importance. In addition to the
quantities, it is imperative to determine and specify:
• size and name (2-in ball valve, 50-mm pipe, etc.);

• kind of material (brass, uPVC, etc.);
• pressure rating (PN 16 bars, 6 bars, etc.);
• type of joints (screw, solvent welded, etc.);
• standards complied with (ISO 161, 3606, BS 21, ISO 7, etc.).
Three different lists may be prepared: one for the mains, submains and
manifolds with the hydrants; one for the laterals with the emitters; and one
for the head control. Sizes will have already been decided on during the
design stage.
WORKING PRESSURE OF THE EQUIPMENT

A closed pipe pressurized system installation consists of pipes of
different working pressures according to the location. The main pipelines
are subjected to higher pressures than the submains, manifolds and
laterals, therefore the main lines should be stronger than the other
pipelines. The working pressure of the pipes to be installed should always
be higher than the system’s operating pressure. For example, in a micro-jet
(minisprinkler) installation the approximate operating pressure is 2.3-2.5
bars in the laterals, 2.5-2.7 bars in the manifolds and 2.7-3.0 bars in the
mains. A pipe working pressure of 4.0 bars seems to meet the
requirements of the system. However, although the low to medium
pressure systems are not subjected to the very high pressures created by
water hammer, it is advisable to use 6.0-bar pipes for the main line and
4.0 bars for the other pipelines.
MAIN, SUBMAIN AND MANIFOLD PIPELINES, AND HYDRANTS

The most widely used kinds of pipes for these lines are rigid PVC,
HDPE, LDPE and quick coupling light steel or aluminium. The following
must be determined:
• total length and pieces of the pipelines (about 5 percent should be

added to the total);
• quantities of pipe connector fittings (bends, tees, end plugs, reducers,
etc.) of the same type of connection to be used with the above pipes;
• number of bends, tee outlets and clamp saddles, which have two
different types of connections, e.g. tee 90 mm x 90 mm x 2 in
(internal threaded), bend 110 mm x 3 in (flanged);
• quantity of adaptors (starters). These fittings have one end threaded or
flanged and the other end arranged in the same type of connection as
the pipes. They are used at the starting point of the pipelines and at
any other point where valves are fitted;
• number of shut-off and air valves on the distribution network.
The air valves are fitted on riser pipes connected with clamp saddles
on the mains;
• quantities of the riser pipes for the hydrants, if the mains are buried,
and of the shut-off valves or the special hydrant valves. If the mains
are not buried, then the fittings for connecting clamp saddles with the
shut-off valves must be determined. The number of these fittings is
equal to the number of the hydrants.
LATERALS
Quick coupling and LDPE pipes are used as surface laterals in the
majority of the systems. The following must be determined:
• total length of pipes required;

• quantities of adaptors, tees, bends, end plugs and line filters;
• total number of emitters and their connector fittings if any,
e.g. minisprinkler complete with plunger, connecting flexible tube
and plastic wedge, or specify in terms of set, e.g. minisprinkler
complete set.
HEAD CONTROL
All the components of the head control of the system must be
determined, i.e. shut-off valves, check valve, air valve, fertilizer injector,
filters, pressure regulators, etc. In addition, all the auxiliary fittings must be
included, such as the pipe pieces, hoses and fittings needed to assemble
the unit, and the pressure gauges and other small devices required.
PUMPING UNIT
A full and detailed description of the pumping unit must be given,
including the following:
• the average BHP calculated of the driving force and the type (engine
or motor);
• the kind of pump (centrifugal single or multi-stage, turbine, electro-
submersible), the inlet and outlet diameter, and the type and number
of stages;
• the capacity and output of the pumping unit, i.e. the water delivery
versus the dynamic head.
STANDARDS
All pipes, pipe fittings and other irrigation equipment are manufactured
according to various standards applied in the countries of origin. These
standards, although equivalent to each other, vary in terms of the
dimensioning, the class rating, the safety factor and the nomenclature.
Much technical engineering effort has been devoted by the International
Standards Organization (ISO) to the establishing of international standards
and specifications so that all national and regional standards are in broad
conformity. However, at present the variety of standards causes small
farmers a great deal of confusion regarding thermoplastic irrigation
equipment. Below is an example of a 4-in rigid PVC pipe, 6.0 bars, in two
different national standards
to DIN 8062 to ASTM D2241
(SDR 4.1)
Nominal diameter 110.0 mm 4 in

Outside diameter 110.0 mm 114.3 mm
Inside diameter 103.6 mm 108.7 mm
Wall thickness 3.2 mm 2.8 mm
Working pressure 6.0 bars 6.8 bars (100 psi)
The description of the equipment should be as clear and simple as

possible. An example with the minimum specifications required for two
items is as follows:
Item 1: Black LDPE pipe, PN 4.0 bars, to DIN 8072 or equivalent

standards in compliance with ISO standards, supplied in coils
of 200 m:
a. 32 mm DN, 1 800 m;
b. 25 mm DN, 3 200 m.
Item 2: Polypropylene connector fittings manufactured to ISO metric

dimensions. Quick release, compression type and/or threaded
(screw-type) ends male or female, to ISO 7 or BS 21, PN 10
bars for use with the above PE pipes:
a. 63 mm x 2 in (male) adaptor, 7 pieces;
b. 63 mm x 2 in (female) clamp saddle, 2 pieces;
c. 50 mm x _ (male) adaptor, 2 pieces.
Should the equipment not comply with any standard, due to many
reasons, a full technical description should be given of the material it is
made of, the working pressure and the use. The latter is important because
the fittings should be made of material recommended for use with the
particular pipe.
Most of the irrigation equipment should meet the appropriate material,

dimensional, and quality requirements recommended in the specifications
in Table 6.
TABLE 6 - Equipment specifications

Standard name: Standard description:
ASAE EP419 Evaluation of furrow irrigation systems.

ASAE S435 Drip/trickle polyethylene pipe used for irrigation laterals.
ASAE S447 Procedure for testing and reporting pressure losses in irrigation valves.
ASAE EP458 Field evaluation of micro-irrigation systems.
ASTM D-2235 Standard specification for solvent cement for ABS plastic pipes and fittings.
ASTM D-2464 Standard specification for threaded PVC plastic pipe fittings, Schedule 80.
ASTM D-2466 Standard specification for threaded PVC plastic pipe fittings, Schedule 40.
ASTM D-2467 Standard specifications for socket-type PVC plastic pipe fittings, Schedule 80.
ASTM D-2468 Standard specification for ABS plastic pipe fittings, Schedule 40.
ASTM D-2469 Standard specifications for socket-type ABS plastic pipe fittings, Schedule 40.
ASTM D-2609 Standard specifications for plastic insert fittings for polyethylene (PE) plastic pipes.
ASTM D-2683 Standard specification for socket-type PE fittings for outside diameter controlled PE pipe.
ASTM D-2855 Standard practice for making solvent cemented joints with PVC pipe and fittings.
ASTM D-3036 Standard specifications for socket-type PVC plastic line couplings.
ASTM D-3139 Standard specifications for joints for plastic pressure pipes using flexible elastometric seals.
ASTM D-3261 Standard specifications for butt heat -fusion PE plastic fittings for PE plastic pipe tubing.
ISO 7714: 1995 Agricultural irrigation equipment - volumetric valves - general requirements and test methods.
ISO 7749-1: 1995 Agricultural irrigation equipment - rotating sprinklers -
Part 1: design and operational requirements.
ISO 7749 —2: 1990 Irrigation equipment - rotating sprinklers - Part 2: uniformity of distribution and test methods.
ISO 8026: 1995 Agricultural irrigation equipment - sprayers - general requirements and test methods.
ISO/TR 8059: 1986 Irrigation equipment - automatic irrigation systems - hydraulic control.
ISO 8224—1: 1985 Traveller irrigation machines - Part 1: laboratory and field test methods.
ISO 8224—2: 1991 Traveller irrigation machines - Part 2: softwall hose and couplings - test methods.
ISO 8779: 1992 PE pipes for irrigation laterals - specifications.
ISO 8796: 1989 PE 25 pipes for irrigation laterals - susceptibility to environmental stress-cracking induced by
insert-type fittings - test. method and specification
ISO 9260: 1991 Agricultural irrigation equipment - emitters - specification and test methods.
ISO 9261: 1991 Agricultural irrigation equipment - emitting pipe systems - specification and test methods.
ISO 9625: 1993 Mechanical joint fittings for use with PE pressure pipes for irrigation purposes.
ISO 9635: 1990 Irrigation equipment - hydraulically operated irrigation valves.
ISO 9644: 1993 Agricultural irrigation equipment - pressure losses in irrigation valves - test methods.
ISO 9911: 1993 Agricultural irrigation equipment - manually operated small plastic valves.
ISO/DIS 9912—1 Agricultural irrigation equipment - filters - Part 1: classification.
TABLE 6 - Equipment specifications (cont’d)

Standard name: Standard description:
ISO 9912—2: 1992 Agricultural irrigation equipment - filters - Part 2: strainer-type filters.
ISO 9912—3: 1992 Agricultural irrigation equipment - filters - Part 3: automatic self-cleaning strainer-type filters.
ISO 9952: 1993 Agricultural irrigation equipment - check valves.
ISO 10522: 1993 Agricultural irrigation equipment - direct-acting pressure-regulating valves.
ISO 11419: 1997 Agricultural irrigation equipment - float-type air release valves.
ISO 11545: 1995 Agricultural irrigation equipment - centre-pivot and moving lateral irrigation machines with
sprayer or sprinkler nozzle. — Determination uniformity of water distribution
ISO 11678: 1996 Agricultural irrigation equipment - aluminium irrigation tubes.
ISO/DIS 11738 Agricultural irrigation equipment - head controls.
ISO 12347: 1995 Agricultural irrigation - wiring and equipment for electrically driven or controlled
irrigation machines.
ISO/DIS 13457 Agricultural irrigation equipment - water driven chemical injector pumps.
ISO/DIS 13460 Agricultural irrigation equipment - plastic saddles for PE pressure pipes.
ISO 161-1: 1996 Thermoplastics pipes for fluid conveyance - nominal outside diameters and nominal
pressures - Part 1: metric series.
ISO 161-2: 1996 Thermoplastics pipes for fluid conveyance - nominal outside diameters and nominal
pressures - Part 2: inch-based. series
ISO 4065: 1996 Thermoplastics pipes - universal wall thickness table.
ISO 3606: 1976 Unplasticized PVC pipes - tolerances on outside diameters and wall thickness.
ISO 3607:1977 PE pipes - tolerances on outside diameters and wall thickness.
ISO 7-1: 1994 Pipe threads - pressure-tight joints are made on threads - Part 1.
ISO 49: 1994 Malleable cast iron fittings threaded to ISO 7-1.
BS 21:1985 Specification for pipe threads for tubes and fittings - pressure-tight joints on threads
(ISO 7/1, 7/2: 1982).
BS 143 &1256: 1986 Specification for malleable cast iron and cast copper alloy threaded pipe fittings.
BS 1387:1985(1990) Specification for screwed/socketed steel tubes and for plain steel tubes suitable for welding
or for screwing to BS 21. pipe threads
BS 3867: 1987 Method of specifying outside diameters and pressure ratings for thermoplastic pipes
(inch series) (ISO 161/2).
BS 4346:Part 1,2,3 Joints and fittings for use with unplasticized PVC pressure pipes.
BS 5556:1978(1986) Specification for dimensions and pressure ratings for thermoplastic pipes (metric) (ISO 161/1).
DIN2999(1,2,3,4,5,6 Pipe threads for tubes and fittings.

DIN 2440/41/42 Steel tubes (medium-weight) suitable for screwing.
DIN 8161 (1994) Unplasticized PVC pipes - general quality requirements and testing.
DIN 8062 (1988) Unplasticized uPVC, PVC-HI pipes, dimensions.
DIN 8072 (1972) LDPE pipes, dimensions.
DIN 8074 (1987) HDPE pipes, dimensions.
ASAE S263 Minimum standards for aluminium sprinkler irrigation tubing.
ASAE S330 Procedure for sprinkler distribution testing for research purposes.
ASAE S376 Design, installation and performance of underground, thermoplastic irrigation pipelines.
ASAE S398 Procedure for sprinkler testing and performance reporting.
ASAE EP405 Design and installation of micro-irrigation systems.
ASAE EP409 Safety devices for chemigation.
ASAE: Society for Engineering in Agriculture, Food, and Biological

Systems (former American Society of Agricultural Engineers).
ASTM: American Society for Testing Material.
BS: British Standards.
DIN: (Deutsches Institut für Normung) German standards.
ISO: International Standards Organization.
TENDERS
The purchasing of irrigation equipment or execution of services, such as
the installation, operation and maintenance of irrigation networks and or
pumps, should be subject to public tender.
For equipment and services up to a value of US$500, the purchase can be

effected through ‘quotations’, i.e. written quotations may be asked from a
representative number (2-3) of suppliers. Where the value of the equipment
exceeds a certain amount, e.g. US$600, their purchase should be effected
through tender. This is done in accordance with the ‘stores regulations’
applied in the project or the country concerned.
Wide publicity should be given to every ‘notice inviting tenders’ (invitation

for tenders). This must include the name of the buyer, a brief description of
the items for which tenders are invited, the address for delivery of equipment,
and the closing date and time of the tenders. Moreover, it should include a
statement that the buyer is not bound to accept the lowest or any other
tender, and also state to whom the bidders must apply for full particulars.
In the case of ‘local tenders’ for the purchase of relatively limited

quantities, the tender document that must be available and given to
prospective bidders on request should include only the general conditions of
the tender and the technical specifications of goods. It is important that all
required conditions be clearly stated in detail in the tender document,
including the time and method of delivery, i.e. FOB, CIF, ex-stock; method of
payment, i.e. letter of credit, cash against documents, payment on delivery,
etc.; and other related information. For tenders over US$3 000, bidders
should furnish a bank guarantee or cheque equal to 10 percent of the value
of the tender price. An example of this kind of tender is given below.
In the case of ‘international bids’, the contract documents must include,

in detail, the following:
• invitation for bids (as described above);

• instructions to bidders (source of funds, eligible bidders, goods and
services, cost, content of bidding documents, preparation and
submission of bids, opening and evaluation, award of contract, etc.);
• general conditions of contract (definitions, country of origin and
standards, performance, security, inspection and tests, insurance,
transportation, warranty, payment, amendments, delays, force
majeure, etc.);
• special conditions;
• technical specifications (general, materials and workmanship,
schedules of requirements/bill of quantities, and particular technical
requirements/specifications);
• bid form and price schedules;
• contract form, bid security and performance security.
EXAMPLE
Tenders for the supply of irrigation equipment

Tenders are hereby invited for the supply of irrigation equipment
required for a private farm in the Project area, as per attached quantities,
description and specification.
General conditions of tenders

1 Price: Bidders to quote prices per unit and total, CIF nearest port,
Republic of …, full liner terms, including bank charges on the attached
price schedules. Prices to be firm for at least 90 calendar days from the
closing date of tender.
2 Delivery: Date of delivery in the project site should not exceed 60 days
from the time of awarding the tender.
3 The tenders should be sealed and addressed to the General Manager,

Irrigation Project, P.O. Box 5564. Tenders should be marked ‘TENDER
FOR THE SUPPLY OF IRRIGATION EQUIPMENT FOR PRIVATE FARM’
on the envelope and should reach Project main offices not later than 31
December 1999.
4 The bidder shall be prepared to accept the prices tendered by him.

The tender shall become binding and be carried into effect upon being
accepted by the Project. Should the bidder delay execution of the
tender or refuse to execute the tender, the bidder shall be liable for any
expenses incurred by the Project.
5 Payment: The Project shall make all necessary arrangements towards the
opening of the letter of credit in US dollars for goods to be supplied in its
name and on behalf of the supplier within seven days after receiving the
import licence. The Project shall make a first payment of 50 percent of
the value of the tender upon submission of all the necessary shipping
documents. Such documents shall reach the Project at least one month
before the scheduled date of arrival of goods into the port of entry. A
second payment of 50 percent of the value of contract shall be paid to
the supplier after receipt of goods at Project’s store and issuing certificate
of acceptance in accordance with the technical specifications.
6 Insurance to cover all the risks for the CIF value, plus 10 percent from
warehouse up to the Project’s stores.
7 Bidders to quote the country of origin. It is imperative to quote for the

items according to the specifications and standards as per the attached
list. Otherwise, full details are required.
8 Bidders should provide a guarantee of excellent workmanship and

against faulty material of not less than 12 months.
9 Selected candidates should confirm by fax without delay their receipt of

the invitation to tender.
10 Tenders shall not be considered unless all the above conditions have
been strictly observed.
11 Tenders to be submitted in duplicate.
12 The Project does not bind itself to accept the lowest or any tender.
Bill of quantities
Item Description Unit Quantity Rate (US$) Amount (US$)
1. HDPE pipe ø 75 mm m 300

4. LDPE pipe ø 25 mm m 3 600
5. LDPE pipe ø 16 mm m 1 400
6. Clamp saddle ø 75 mm x 2 in (F) pcs 8
7. Clamp saddle ø 63 mm x _ in (F) pcs 70
8. Clamp saddle ø 50 mm x _ in (F) pcs 10
9. Adaptor (starter) ø 75 mm x 3 in (M) pcs 1
12. Adaptor (starter) ø 25 mm x _ in (M) pcs 240
13. Adaptor (starter) ø 16 mm x _ in (M) pcs 150
14. Coupling ø 75 mm pcs 2
19. Tee ø 50 x 50 x 50 mm pcs 1
20. Tee ø 25 x 25 x 25 mm pcs 10
21. Tee ø 25 mm x _ in (M) pcs 10
22. Tee ø 25 mm x _ in (F) pcs 150
23. Cross ø 2’’ pcs 1
24. Nipple hexagon ø 2 in pcs 8
25. Nipple hexagon ø _ in pcs 80
26. End plug ø 75 mm pcs 1
29. Ball valve ø 2 in pcs 8
30. Ball valve ø _ in pcs 80
31. Filter strainer ø 3 in pcs 1
32. Dripper emitter 24 litres/h pcs 5 000
33. Sprinkler pop-up full circle pcs 4
34. Air valve _ in pcs 2
35. Valve box pcs 8
36. Excavation of trench and backfill m 1 050
Equipment specification
Item
number Equipment specification
1,2,3 Black HDPE pipes, PN 6.0 bars, in accordance with CYS104: Part 1: 1985 or equivalent other national
standards in compliance with ISO. Supplied in 100 and 60 m rolls.
4,5 Black LDPE pipes, PN 4.0 bars, in accordance with CYS106: Part 1, Part 2: 1985 or equivalent other national
standards in compliance with ISO. Supplied in 200 m rolls.
6-28 Polypropylene connector fittings for use with PE Pipes to CYS and ISO dimensions, quick release compression
type and/or screw ends to BS 21, or ISO 7, PN 10 bars.
29,30 Ball valves, quarter-turn, on-off operation, made of brass, PN 16 bars to BS 5154, threaded to BS 21, or ISO 7.
31 Filter (strainer), screen type, or grooved disks, 120 mesh/130 micron, epoxy coated metal body, or other high
quality material, PN 10, complete with pressure inspection valves, wash-out drain valve, threaded connection
to BS 21.
32 On-line, point-source dripper emitters, turbulence flow made of high quality plastic material, 24 litres/h
discharge, 1.0 bar operating pressure, cv < 7%, filtration requirements 120 mesh/130 micron.
33 Pop-up sprinkler rotary gear driven full circle, 0.7-0.8 m3/h discharge at 2-2.5 bars operating pressure, radius
7 m, interchangeable nozzle, c/with small strainer, drain mechanism and plastic cover, threaded (F)
connection _ in to BS 21.
35 Valve boxes, made of reinforced plastic or any other material, with cutout openings for pipe on opposite sides
of the open bottom, c/with tight-fitting lids or covers on the top. Approximate dimensions: 33 cm x 45 cm
(base) x 30 cm height.
36 The trench should be as uniform and level as possible, free of large stones and any other sharp-edged
materials. Where required it must be filled with embedment material such as grained soil or sand to a depth
of 10 cm. Trench dimensions should be 60 cm minimum depth for the 75-mm pipe and 50 cm for the 63 and
50-mm pipes, and 35 cm minimum width in all cases.
CHAPTER 6:
Irrigation scheduling
Irrigation scheduling is one of the factors that influence the agronomic
and economic viability of small farms. It is important for both water
savings and improved crop yields. The irrigation water is applied to the
cultivation according to predetermined schedules based upon the
monitoring of:
• the soil water status;

• the crop water requirements.
The type of soil and climatic conditions have a significant effect on

the main practical aspects of irrigation, which are the determination of
how much water should be applied and when it should be applied to a
given crop.
In addition to the basic factors relevant to the preparation of irrigation

schedules examined below, other important elements should also be
considered, such as crop tolerance and sensitivity to water deficit at
various growth stages, and optimum water use.
SOIL-WATER RELATIONSHIP
Table 7 presents a summary table of soil physical properties.
TABLE 7 - Soil physical properties (average values)
Light Medium Heavy (fine)

Type of soil (coarse) texture texture texture
Saturation capacity (SC) % weight 25-35% 35-45% 55-65%

Field capacity (FC) % weight 8-10% 18-26% 32-42%
Wilting point (WP) % weight 4-5% 10-14% 20-24%
SC/FC 2/1 2/1 2/1
FC/WC 2/1 1.85/1 1.75/1
Bulk density(volume weight) 1.4-1.6 g/cm_ 1.2-1.4 g/cm_ 1.0-1.2 g/cm_
Soil available water (moisture) by volume 6% 12% 16-20%
(FC-WP x bulk density)
Available moisture (Sa) in mm per metre soil 60 mm 120 mm 160-200 mm
depth (FC-WP x bulk density x 10)
Soil water tension in bars:
• at field capacity 0.1 0.2 0.3
• at wilting point 15.0 15.0 15.0
Time required from saturation to field capacity 18-24 h 24-36 h 36-89 h
Infiltration rate 25-75 mm/h 8-16 mm/h 2-6 mm/h
Example:
The field capacity (FC) of a 45-cm layer of soil is 18 percent. How
much water in cubic metres per hectare does this layer hold?
Answer:
FC = 18%, WP = FC ÷ 1.85 = 9.7%, Sa = 18-9.7 = 8.3%;
Bulk density = 1.2 g/cm_;
Sa mm/m = 8.3 x 1.2 x 10 = 99.6, Sa mm/45 cm = 8.3 x 1.2 x 10 x
0.45 = 44.8 mm;
m_/ha = 0.0996 ÷ 1 x 0.45 x 10 000 (1 ha) = 448.2, or
m_/ha = Sa (mm/m) x depth of layer (m) x 10.
Therefore, the answer is 448.2 m_/ha.
EFFECTIVE ROOT DEPTH

This is the soil depth from which the plants take nearly 80 percent of
their water needs, mostly from the upper part where the root system is
denser. The rooting depths depend on the plant physiology, the type of soil,
and the water availability (kind of irrigation). Indicative figures are
presented in FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 24, Table 39.
In general, vegetables (beans, tomatoes, potatoes, onions, peanuts,

cucumbers, etc.) are shallow rooted, about 50-60 cm; fruit trees, cotton
and some other plants have medium root depths, 80-120 cm. Alfalfa,
sorghum, and maize have deeper roots (Table 8). Moreover, rooting depths
vary according to age.
TABLE 8 - Example of rooting depth (metres) during the growing season

August September October November December January
Maize - 0.4 0.9 1.2 1.2 -

Cotton 0.4 0.8 1.0 1.0 1.0 -
Tomato - - 0.3 0.7 0.9 0.9
PERMISSIBLE DEFICIT OR DEPLETION

OF SOIL AVAILABLE WATER
The fraction of moisture in the soil which amounts to 20-70 percent of
the total available moisture (Sa) and is easily absorbed by the plants
(without any stress that results in yield reduction) is called readily available
moisture. It is a product of Sa multiplied by p, which represents the
maximum permissible depletion of available water (moisture). The p value
differs according to the kind of plant, the root depth, the climatic
conditions and the irrigation techniques. Values for p are given in FAO
Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 33, Tables 19 and 20, and vary from
0.25 in shallow rooted sensitive crops to 0.70 in deep rooted tolerant

crops. Table 23 of the same paper provides information on the sensitive
growth periods of different crops.
Field observations have shown that the lower the soil moisture
depletion (p), the better the crop development and yield. Hence, the
recommended p values are:
• 0.20-0.30 for shallow rooted seasonal crops;

• 0.40-0.60 for deep rooted field crops and mature trees.
NET IRRIGATION APPLICATION DEPTH

Irrigation takes place when the permissible percentage (p) of available
water (Sa) is depleted from the root depth, i.e. to replenish the depleted
water. Therefore:
Net depth of irrigation dose (d) (mm) = (Sa x p) D
where Sa is the available water in millimetres per metre, p is the

permissible depletion (fraction), and D is the root depth (m).
Example:
Where Sa = 99 mm/m, p = 0.5, D = 0.4 m, what is the net irrigation
dose (d) in millimetres to replenish the moisture deficit?
d = 99 x 0.5 x 0.4 = 19.8 mm.
CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS

The amount of water which evaporates from wet soils and plant surfaces
together with the plant transpiration is called evapotranspiration (ET). Its
value is largely determined by climate factors, such as solar radiation,
temperature, humidity and wind, and by the environment. Out of the total
evapotranspiration, evaporation accounts for about 10 percent and plant
transpiration for the remaining 90 percent. Crop water requirements
encompass the total amount of water used in evapotranspiration.
Alternative approaches for estimating the evapotranspiration, such as

the radiation, Penman and pan methods, are presented in FAO Irrigation
and Drainage Papers Nos. 24 and 33. Reference evapotranspiration (ETo)
represents the rate of evapotranspiration of green grass under ideal
conditions, 8-15 cm tall, with extensive vegetative cover completely
shading the ground. It is expressed as a mean value in millimetres per day
over a period of 10-30 d.
The most practical method for determining ETo is the pan evaporation
method. This approach combines the effects of temperature, humidity,
wind speed and sunshine. The best known pans are the Class A
evaporation pan (circular) and the Colorado sunken pan (square).
The evaporation from the pan is very near to the evapotranspiration of

grass that is taken as an index of ETo for calculation purposes. The pan
direct readings (Epan) are related to the ETo with the aid of the pan
coefficient (kpan), which depends on the type of pan, its location
(surroundings with or without ground cover vegetation) and the climate
(humidity and wind speed). Hence, ETo = Epan x kpan.
The kpan values for both types of pans are given in FAO Irrigation and
Drainage Paper No. 24, Tables 18 and 19. For the Class A pan the average
kpan is 0.70 and for the Colorado sunken pan it is 0.80.
Example:
Estimate of ETo in millimetres per day in the Wadi Tuban Delta

Month June July August September October November December
Epan 9.0 8.8 8.8 8.2 8.0 6.5 5.7

kpan average 0.70
ETo 6.3 6.2 6.2 5.7 5.6 4.5 4.0
In order to relate ETo to crop water requirements (ETc), the specific crop
coefficient (kc) must be determined: ETc = ETo x kc.
The crop coefficient (kc) depends on the crop leaf area and its
roughness, the stage of growth, the growing season and the prevailing
weather conditions. Tables 9 and 10 list the kc values for different crops at
various growth stages.
Example:
Cotton, growing season August-December
August September October November December
ETo mm/d 6.2 5.7 5.6 4.5 4.0

Cotton kc 0.4 0.7 1.1 1.0 0.8
Cotton ET cmm/d 2.5 4.0 6.2 4.5 3.2
Cotton ET cmm/month 78 120 192 135 99
Total net water requirement approximately 580 mm

(December taken as half)
TABLE 9 - Crop factor (kc) for seasonal crops (average figures)

Crop Initial Crop development Mid-season Late and harvest
Bean (green) 0.35 0.70 1.0 0.9

Bean (dry) 0.35 0.75 1.1 0.5
Cabbage 0.45 0.75 1.05 0.9
Carrot 0.45 0.75 1.05 0.9
Cotton 0.45 0.75 1.15 0.75
Cucumber 0.45 0.70 0.90 0.75
Eggplant 0.45 0.75 1.15 0.80
Groundnut 0.45 0.75 1.0 0.75
Lettuce 0.45 0.60 1.0 0.90
Maize (sweet) 0.40 0.80 1.15 1.0
Maize (grain) 0.40 0.75 1.15 0.70
Melon 0.45 0.75 1.0 0.75
Onion (green) 0.50 0.70 1.0 1.0
Onion (dry) 0.50 0.75 1.05 0.85
Pea (fresh) 0.45 0.80 1.15 1.05
Pepper 0.35 0.75 1.05 0.90
Potato 0.45 0.75 1.15 0.75
Spinach 0.45 0.60 1.0 0.90
Squash 0.45 0.70 0.90 0.75
Sorghum 0.35 0.75 1.10 0.65
Sugar beet 0.45 0.80 1.15 0.80
Sugar cane 0.45 0.85 1.15 0.65
Sunflower 0.35 0.75 1.15 0.55
Tomato 0.45 0.75 1.15 0.80
TABLE 10 - Crop factor (kc) for permanent crops

Crop Young Mature
Banana 0.50 1.10

Citrus 0.30 0.65
Apple, cherry, walnut 0.45 0.85
Almond, apricot, pear, peach, pecan, plum 0.40 0.75
Grape, palm tree 0.70 0.70
Kiwi 0.90 0.90
Olive 0.55 0.55
Alfalfa 0.35 1.1
EFFECTIVE RAINFALL
In many areas, seasonal rain precipitation (P) might provide part of the
water requirements during the irrigation season. The amount of rainwater
retained in the root zone is called effective rainfall (Pe) and should be
deducted from the total irrigation water requirements calculated. It can be
roughly estimated as:
Pe = 0.8 P where P > 75 mm/month;

Pe = 0.6 P where P < 75 mm/month.
GROUND COVER
Another element to consider when estimating crop water requirements
is the percentage of the field area (ground) covered by the cultivation. A
reduction factor, expressed as kr, is applied to the conventional ET crop
calculations. This factor is slightly higher, by about 15 percent, than the
actual ground covered by the crop. For example, if the actual ground
cover is 70 percent, kr = 0.70 x 1.15 = 0.80.
IRRIGATION INTERVAL OR FREQUENCY

This is the number of days between two consecutive irrigations, i = d ÷
ETc, where d is the net depth of irrigation application (dose) in millimetres
and ETc is the daily crop evapotranspiration in millimetres per day.
Example:
Where d is 19.8 mm, and ETc is 2.5 mm/d, then
i = 19.8 ÷ 2.5 = 8 days.
IRRIGATION APPLICATION EFFICIENCY

The amount of water to be stored in the root zone is estimated as the
net irrigation dose (d). However, during the irrigation process, considerable
water loss occurs through evaporation, seepage, deep percolation, etc. The
amount lost depends on the efficiency of the system (Table 11). Irrigation
field application efficiency is expressed as:
Ea = water stored in the root zone (d)/water applied x 100
Example:
The net irrigation dose (d) for an area of 1 ha is 19.8 mm, i.e. 198 m3. The
water delivered during irrigation is 280 m3. What is the application efficiency?
Answer:
Ea = 198 x 100 ÷ 280 = 70.7%, or expressed as a fraction, 0.70.
The remaining 30 percent of water applied is lost.
TABLE 11 - Approximate application efficiency

of various on-farm irrigation systems and methods
System/method Ea %
Earth canal network surface methods 40-50

Lined canal network surface methods 50-60
Pressure piped network surface methods 65-75
Hose irrigation systems 70-80
Low-medium pressure sprinkler systems 75
Microsprinklers, micro-jets, minisprinklers 75-85
Drip irrigation 80-90
GROSS IRRIGATION APPLICATION DEPTH

Given the irrigation efficiency as a fraction, i.e. Ea = 0.60 (60 percent),
the gross depth of irrigation application or gross irrigation dose (dg) is
calculated as follows:
dg = d ÷ Ea (fraction)
LEACHING REQUIREMENTS
The salinity level in the root zone is related directly to the water quality,
the amount of fertilizers and the irrigation application depth. A high salt
content in the soil is controlled by leaching. An excess amount of water,
10-15 percent, is applied during the irrigation where necessary for
leaching purposes. In this way a portion of the water percolates through
and below the root zone carrying with it a portion of the accumulated
soluble salts. The leaching requirements (LR) are considered for the
calculation of the gross irrigation application (d).
SYSTEM FLOW (SYSTEM CAPACITY)

The minimum flow capacity of any irrigation system should be the one
that can meet the water requirements of the area under irrigation at peak
demand:
minimum Q = 10 A x dg ÷ it
where Q is the system flow in cubic metres per hour, A is the area
in hectares, dg is the gross irrigation application depth (irrigation dose)
in millimetres, i is the interval in days between two irrigations at peak
demand, t is the operating hours per day, and 10 is a constant for hectares.
However, the minimum flow of the system should be the one that enables
the completion of irrigation at least two days before the next irrigation. This
allows time to repair any damage to the system or pumping unit. Therefore,
the value of i in the above formula should be reduced by two days.
The duration of application per irrigation is determined as:
T = 10 A x dg ÷ Q
where T is the total operating hours of the system.

GENERAL EXAMPLE
In the following example the effective rainfall (Pe), the ground cover (kr)
and the leaching requirements (LR) are not considered. However, these
elements are important in localized micro-irrigation systems.
Crop: Cotton
Area: 1.5 ha. Location: Tuban Delta. Growing season: August-December.
Irrigation method: Pressure piped surface method.
Irrigation efficiency: 70 percent.
Soil of medium texture, Sa = 99 mm/m.
August September October November December
Soil available water Sa mm/m 99 99 99 99 99

Depletion of available water p 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
Cotton root depth D m 0.4 0.7 1.0 1.0 1.0
Net irrigation application d mm 19.8 41.6 59.4 59.4 59.4
Epan mm/d 8.8 8.2 8.0 6.5 5.7
kpan 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
ETo mm/d 6.2 5.7 5.6 4.5 4.0
Cotton kc 0.4 0.7 1.1 1.0 0.8
Cotton ETc mm/d 2.5 4.0 6.2 4.5 3.2
Irrigation interval i days 8 10.5 9.6 13 18.5
Gross irrigation dose dg mm 28.3 59.4 85.0 85.0 85.0
Gross irrigation dose dg m3/h 425 891 1 275 1 275 1 275
The peak demand is in October when ETc is 6.2 mm/d and the
irrigation frequency (interval) is 8 days. If the number of operating hours
per day is seven, the system flow should be:
Minimum Q = 10 x 1.5 x 85 ÷ (9 days - 2 days) x 7 = 26 m3/h.
The duration of application per irrigation would be as follows:
August: T = 10 x 1.5 x 28.3 ÷ 26 = 16.3 hours, i.e. 2 days;

September: T = 10 x 1.5 x 59.4 ÷ 26 = 34.3 hours, i.e. 5 days;
October: T = 10 x 1.5 x 85.0 ÷ 26 = 49.0 hours, i.e. 7 days;
November: T = 10 x 1.5 x 85.0 ÷ 26 = 49.0 hours, i.e. 7 days;
December: T = 10 x 1.5 x 85.0 ÷ 26 = 49.0 hours, i.e. 7 days.
Irrigation programme
End of July pre-sowing irrigation to wet 0.6 m soil depth 1 273 m3_
Beginning of August crop establishment

8 August irrigation 425 m3
1 September irrigation 891 m3
2 October irrigation 1 275 m3
13 November irrigation 1 275 m3
26 November irrigation 1 275 m3
The last irrigation on 26 November can last up to 9 December, i.e.

until harvest. The total amount of water that must be applied to this crop
on an area of 1.5 ha is: 11 598 m3 plus 1 273 m3 as the minimum
amount for pre-irrigation, for a total of 12 871 m3.
CHAPTER 7:
Water quality for irrigation
INTRODUCTION
Salinity is a common problem facing farmers who irrigate in arid
climates. This is because all irrigation waters contain soluble salts. Whether
derived from springs, diverted from streams, or pumped from wells, the
waters contain appreciable quantities of chemical substances in solution,
dissolved from the geological strata through and over which the waters
have flowed. Waters with a high salt content may have moved from a
saline water table. In areas with intensive agriculture, fertilization is a
major cause of aquifer salinization.
COMPOSITION AND CONCENTRATION OF SOLUBLE SALTS

The composition of salts in water varies according to the source and
properties of the constituent chemical compounds. These salts include
substances such as gypsum (calcium sulphate, CaSO4.2H2O), table salt
(sodium chloride NaCl) and baking soda (sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3).
When dissolved in water, salts separate into ions; e.g. sodium chloride
breaks down into sodium and chloride ions. Thus, it is customary to refer
to ions rather than salts. The principle ions in irrigation water and their
characteristics are listed in Table 12.
TABLE 12 - Principle ions present in irrigation water

Ions Chemical symbol Equivalent weight
Anions (acidic ions)

Chloride Cl¯ 35.5
Sulphate SO4¯ ¯ 48
Carbonate CO3¯ ¯ 30
Bicarbonate HCO3¯ 61
Nitrate NO3¯ 62
Cations (basic ions)

Sodium Na+ 23
Potassium K+ 39.1
Calcium Ca++ 20
Magnesium Mg++ 12.2
All ions are expressed in the form of milligrams per litre (mg/litre or ppm)
and milliequivalents per litre (meq/litre). The latter unit is preferable because
water quality criteria involve milliequivalents per litre calculations.
The conversion formula is:
meq/litre = mg/litre ÷ equivalent weight
Boron is also present in irrigation waters as un-ionized boric acid

expressed as boron element (B) in milligrams per litre. The salt
concentration in most irrigation waters ranges from 200 to 4000 mg/litre
total dissolved solids (TDS). The pH of the water is also an indicator of its
quality and it normally ranges from 6.5 to 8.4.
The common method for evaluating the total salts content in water is by
measuring the electrical conductivity of water (ECw) at 25°C. Electrical
conductivity is expressed in deciSiemens per metre. There is a relation
between the electrical conductivity and the concentration of salts in
milliequivalents per litre and in milligrams per litre when the ECw is in the
range of 1-5 dS/m. Thus, every 10 meq/litre of salts (cation concentration)
create 1 dS/m ECw. The relationship between electrical conductivity and
total dissolved salts (TDS) is:
ECw (dS/m) x 640 = TDS (mg/litre)
The sum of cations should equal the sum of anions. The accuracy of the
chemical water analyses should be checked on the basis of the above
relationships.
EFFECT OF SOLUBLE SALTS ON PLANTS

The application of irrigation water to the soil introduces salts into the
root zone. Plant roots take in water but absorb very little salt from the soil
solution. Similarly, water evaporates from the soil surface but salts remain
behind. Both processes result in the gradual accumulation of salts in the
root zone, even with low salinity water. This situation may affect the plants
in two ways: a) by creating salinity hazards and water deficiency; and b)
by causing toxicity and other problems.
Salinity hazards and water deficiency

The build-up of salinity in the root zone increases the osmotic pressure
of the soil solution and causes a reduction in both the rate of water
absorption by the plants and the soil water availability. Thus, a continuous
water deficiency may exist even though the field is heavily irrigated. Plant
wilting symptoms may not become apparent, but growth and yield are
depressed. Under such circumstances it is not possible to maintain good
crop development conditions and obtain high yields. Instead, plant growth
is delayed and there is a considerable reduction in yield. Seed germination

is also affected by the presence of salts. It is usually delayed and in some
cases does not occur.
The level of salinity build-up depends on both the concentration and

the composition of salts in the water. Chloride is highly soluble and
remains in the soil solution, while sulphate and bicarbonate combine with
calcium and magnesium, where present, to form calcium sulphate and
calcium carbonate, which are sparingly soluble compounds.
Toxicity hazards
Many fruit trees and other cultivations are susceptible to injury from salt
toxicity. Chloride, sodium and boron are absorbed by the roots and
transported to the leaves where they accumulate. In harmful amounts, they
result in leaf burn and leaf necrosis. Moreover, direct contact during
sprinkling of water drops with a high chloride content may cause leaf burn
in high evaporation conditions. To some extent, bicarbonate is also toxic.
Other symptoms of toxicity include premature leaf drop, reduced growth
and reduced yield. In most cases, plants do not show clear toxicity
problems until it is too late to remedy the situation.
Chloride and sodium ions are both present in the solution. Thus, it is
difficult to determine whether the damage caused is due to the one or to
the other. Chloride ions in high concentrations are known to be harmful to
citrus and many woody and leafy field crops. A chloride content exceeding
10 meq/litre may cause severe problems to crops. The effect of sodium
toxicity is not very clear. However, it has been found that it may cause
some direct or indirect damage to many plants.
Boron is an essential element to the plants. However, where present in

excessive amounts, it is extremely toxic, even at relatively very low
concentrations of 0.6 mg/litre. Toxicity occurs with the uptake of boron
from the soil solution. The boron tends to accumulate in the leaves until it
becomes toxic to the leaf tissue and results in the death of the plant. In arid
regions, boron is considered the most harmful element in irrigation water.
Other problems
In addition to the moisture availability effect and the toxicity problems to
which the soluble salts contribute, certain salt constituents may interfere
with the normal nutrition of various crops. Bicarbonate ions in high
concentrations may affect the uptake of mineral nutrients and their
metabolism in the plant. Chlorotic symptoms in sensitive plants may be due
to the direct or indirect effects of bicarbonate, e.g. an increase in soil pH.
Excessive nitrate contents, higher than 100 mg/litre, may affect

transplants and sensitive crops at the initial growth stage. However, no
negative effects have been reported in the last three decades from
fertigation with pure nitrogen concentrations in irrigation water of about
200 ppm. Although there is no doubt about the problem’s existence, it
seems that the main concern should be the nitrate content in the irrigation
water, when calculating the total nitrogen application, NO3 equals 0.226
N (pure nitrogen).
EFFECTS OF SOLUBLE SALTS ON SOIL
Sodium hazard
A soil permeability problem occurs with a high sodium content in the
irrigation water. Sodium has a larger concentration than any other cation
in saline water, its salts being very soluble. Positively charged, it is
attracted by negatively charged soil particles, replacing the dominant
calcium and magnesium cations. The replacement of the calcium ions with
sodium ions causes the dispersion of the soil aggregates and the
deterioration of its structure, thus rendering the soil impermeable to water
and air. The increase in the concentration of exchangeable sodium may
cause an increase in the soil pH to above 8.5 and reduce the availability of
some micronutrients, e.g. iron and phosphorus.
The degree of absorption to the clay particles of the sodium depends on

its concentration in the water and the concentration of the calcium and
magnesium ions. This reaction is called cation exchange and it is a
reversible process. The capacity of soil to adsorb and exchange cations is
limited. The percentage of the capacity that sodium takes up is known as
the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP). Soils with ESP > 15 are
seriously affected by adsorbed sodium.
The sodium problem is reduced if the amount of calcium plus

magnesium is high compared with the amount of sodium. This relation is
called the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and it is a calculated value from
the formula:
SAR = Na (meq/litre) ÷ v Ca (meq/litre) + Mg (meq/litre) ÷ 2
The use of water with a high SAR value and low to moderate salinity
may be hazardous and reduce the soil infiltration rate. The SAR of
irrigation water indicates the approximate ESP of a soil with water.
Residual sodium carbonate (RSC)

This is defined as the difference in milliequivalents per litre between the
bicarbonate ions and those of calcium and magnesium. Calcium and
magnesium may react with bicarbonate and precipitate as carbonates. The
relative sodium concentration in the exchangeable complex increases
resulting in the dispersion of soil. When the RSC value is lower than 1.25
meq/litre, the water is considered good quality, while if the RSC value
exceeds 2.5 meq/litre, the water is considered harmful.
CROP TOLERANCE TO SALINITY

Crop tolerance is the degree to which a crop can grow and yield
satisfactorily in saline soil. Different crops vary widely in their response to
salinity. Some can tolerate less than 2 dS/m and others up to and above 8
dS/m. Salt tolerance also depends considerably upon cultural conditions
and irrigation management practices. Many other factors such as plant,
soil, water and climate interact to influence the salt tolerance of a crop.
Relative salt tolerance data have been developed for many crops and
are used as general guidelines. The following data are related to the
expected decline in yield. The ECe is the soil salinity in terms of electrical
conductivity measured from the soil saturation extract, with a value of 1.5
EC for irrigation water (ECiw). Tables 13-18 (taken from Maas, 1990) give
two important parameters for expressing a plant’s salt tolerance:
• Threshold - the maximum allowable salinity of soil saturation extract (ECe).

• Slope - the percent yield decrease per unit increase in salinity.
The rating of plants according to their sensitivity/tolerance to salts is

even more important as it provides vital information at first sight for the
evaluation of and diagnosis for potential salinity problems.
TABLE 13 - Relative salt tolerance of herbaceous crops - vegetables and fruit crops
Common name Botanical name Threshold dS/m Slope % per dS/m Rating
Artichoke cynara scolymus - - MT*

Asparagus asparagus officinalis 4.1 2.0 T
Bean phaseolus vulgaris 1.0 19.0 S
Bean, mung vigna radiata 1.8 20.7 S
Beet, red beta vulgaris 4.0 9.0 MT
Broccoli brassica oleracea botrytis 2.8 9.2 MS
Brussels sprouts b. oleracea gemmifera - - MS*
Cabbage b. oleracea capitata 1.8 9.7 MS
Carrot daucus carota 1.0 14.0 S
Cauliflower brassica oleraca botrytis - - MS*
Celery apium graveolens 1.8 6.2 MS
Corn, sweet zea mays 1.7 12.0 MS
Cucumber cucumis sativa 2.5 13.0 MS
Eggplant solanum melongena esculentum 1.1 6.9 MS
Kale brassica oleracea acephala - - MS*
Kohlrabi b. oleracea gongylode - - MS*
Lettuce lactuca sativa 1.3 13.0 MS
Muskmelon cucumis melo - - MS
Okra abelmoschus esculentus - - S
Onion akkium cepa 1.2 16.0 S
Parsnip pastinaca sativa - - S*
Pea pisum sativa - - S*
Pepper capsicum annuum 1.5 14.0 MS
Potato solanum tuberosum 1.7 12.0 MS
Pumpkin cucurbita pepo pepo - - MS*
Radish raphanus sativus 1.2 13.0 MS
Spinach spinacia oleracea 2.0 7.6 MS
Squash scallop curcubita melo melopepo 3.2 16.0 MS
Squash zucchini curcubita melo melopepo 4.7 9.4 MT
Strawberry fragaria sp. 1.0 33.0 S
Sweet potato ipomoea batatas 1.5 11.0 MS
Tomato lycopersicon lycopersicum 2.5 9.9 MS
Tomato cherry l.esculentum var cerasiforme 1.7 9.1 MS
Turnip brassica rapa 0.9 9.0 MS
Watermelon citrullus lanatus - - MS*
Notes: S sensitive, MS moderately sensitive, MT moderately tolerant,

T tolerant. The above data serve only as a guideline to relative tolerance
among crops. Absolute tolerance varies, depending upon climate, soil
conditions, and cultural practices.
In gypsipherus soils, plants will tolerate an ECe about 2 dS/m higher

than indicated.
*: Ratings are estimates.

TABLE 14 - Relative salt tolerance of herbaceous crops - woody crops

Almond ** prunus duclis 1.5 19.0 S

Apple malus sylvestris -- -- S
Apricot ** prunus americana 1.6 24.0 S
Avocado ** persea americana -- -- S
Blackberry rubus sp 1.5 22.0 S
Boysenberry rubus ursinus 1.2 22.0 S
Castor seed ricinus communus -- -- MS *
Cherimoya annona cherimola -- -- S*
Cherry, sweet prunus avium -- -- S*
Cherry, sand prunus besseyi -- -- S*
Currant ribes sp. -- -- S*
Date palm phoenix dactylifera 4.0 3.6 T
Fig ficus carica -- -- MT *
Gooseberry ribes sp. -- -- S*
Grape ** vitis sp. 1.5 9.6 MS
Grapefruit ** citrus paradisi 1.8 16.0 S
Guayule parthenium argentantum 15.0 13.0 T
Jojoba ** simmondsia chinensis -- -- T
Jujube ziziphus jujuba -- -- MT *
Lemon ** citrus limon -- -- S
Lime citrus aurantiifolia -- -- S*
Loquat eriobotrya japonica -- -- S*
Mango mangifera indica -- -- S*
Olive olea europea -- -- MT
Orange citrus sinensis 1.7 16.0 S
Papaya ** carica papaya -- -- MT
Passion fruit passiflora edulis -- -- S*
Peach prunus persica 1.7 21.0 S
Pear pyrus communis -- -- S*
Persimmon diospyros virginiana -- -- S*
Pineapple ananas comosus -- -- MT *
Plum, prune ** prunus domestica 1.5 18.0 S
Pomegranate punica granatum -- -- MT *
Pummelo citrus maxima -- -- S*
Raspberry rubus idaeus -- -- S
Rose apple syzygium jambos -- -- S*
Sapote, white casimiroa edulis -- -- S*
Tangerine citrus reticulata -- -- S*
Notes. Data applicable when rootstocks are used that do not

accumulate Na or Cl rapidly, or when these ions do not predominate in
the soil. In gypsipherus soils, plants will tolerate an ECe about 2 dS/m
higher than indicated.

**: Tolerance is based on growth rather than yield
TABLE 15 - Relative salt tolerance of herbaceous crops - grasses and forage crops
Vetch, common vicia angustifolia 3.0 11.0 MS

Rescuegrass bromus unioloides -- -- MT*
Rhodesgrass chloris gayana -- -- MT
Rye (forage) secale sereale -- -- MS*
Ryegrass, Italian lolium italicum multiflorum -- -- MT*
Ryegrass, perennial l. perenne 5.6 7.6 MT
Saltgrass, desert distichlis stricta -- -- T*
Sesbania sesbania exaltata 2.3 7.0 MS
Sirato macroptilium atropurpureum -- -- MS
Sphaerophysa sphaerophysa salsula 2.2 7.0 MS
Sudangrass sorghum sudanense 2.8 4.3 MT
Timothy phleum pratense -- -- MS*
Trefoil, big lotus uliginosus 2.3 19.0 MS
Wheat (forage) triticum aestivum 4.5 2.6 MT
Wheat, durum (forage) t. turgidum 2.1 2.5 MT
Wheatgrass, standard agropyron sibiricum 3.5 4.0 MT
Wheatgrass, fairway a. cristatum 7.5 6.9 T
Wheatgrass, intermediate a. intermedium -- -- MT*
Wheatgrass, slender a. trachycaulum -- -- MT
Wheatgrass, tall a. elongatum 7.5 4.2 T
Wheatgrass, western a.smithii -- -- MT*
Wildrye, Altai elymus angustus -- -- T
Wildrye, beardless e. triticoides 2.7 6.0 MT
Wildrye, Canadian e. canadensis -- -- MT*
Wildrye, Russian e. junceus -- -- T
Trefoil, narrowleaf l. corniculatus tenuifolium 5.0 10.0 MT
Trefoil, broadleaf l. corniculatus arvenis -- -- MT
Panicgrass, blue panicum antidotale -- -- MT*
Rape brassica napus -- -- MT*
Alfalfa medicago sativa 2.0 7.3 MS
Alkaligrass, Nuttal puccinellia airoides -- -- T*
Alkali sacaton sporobolus airoides -- -- T*
Barley (forage) hordeum vulgare 6.0 7.1 MT
Bentgrass agrostis stolonifera palustris -- -- MS
Bermudagrass cynodon dactylon 6.9 6.4 T
Bluestem, Angleton dichanthium aristatum -- -- MS*
Brome, mountain bromus marginatus -- -- MT*
Brome, smooth b. inermis -- -- MS
Buffelgrass cenchrus ciliaris -- -- MS*
Barnet poterium sanguisorba -- -- MS*
Canarygrass, reed phalaris arundinacea -- -- MT
Clover, alsike trifolium hybridum 1.5 12.0 MS
Clover, Berseem trifolium alexandrinum 1.5 5.7 MS
Clover, Hubam melitotus alba -- -- MT*
Clover, ladino trifolium repens 1.5 12.0 MS
Clover, red trifolium pratense 1.5 12.0 MS
Clover, strawberry melitotus -- -- MT*
Clover, white Dutch trifolium repens -- -- MS*
Corn (forage) zea mays 1.8 7.4 MS
Cowpea (forage) vigna unguiculata 2.5 11.0 MS
Dallisgrass paspalum dilatatum -- -- MS*
Fescue, tall festuca elatior 3.9 5.3 MT
TABLE 15 - Relative salt tolerance of herbaceous crops - grasses and forage crops (cont’d)
Fescue, meadow f. pratensis -- -- MT*

Foxtail, meadow alopecurus pratensis 1.5 9.6 MS
Grama, blue bouteloua gracilis -- -- MS*
Hardinggrass phalaris tuberosa 4.6 7.6 MT
Kallargrass diplachne fusca -- -- T*
Lovergrass eragrostis sp. 2.0 8.4 MS
Milkvetch, Cicer astragalus cicer -- -- MS*
Oatgrass, tall arrhenatherum danthonia -- -- MS*
Oats (forage) avena sativa -- -- MS*
Orchardgrass dactylis glomerata 1.5 6.2 MS
Notes. The above data serve only as a guideline to relative tolerance

among crops. Absolute tolerance varies, depending upon climate, soil
conditions, and cultural practices.
In gypsipherus soils, plants will tolerate an ECe about 2 dS/m higher

than indicated.
TABLE 16 - Boron tolerance limits for agricultural crops

Common name Botanical name Threshold ** mg/litre Slope % per mg/litre
Very sensitive
Lemon* Citrus limon -- --
Blackberry Rubus sp. -- --
Sensitive
Avocado persea american 0.5-0.75 --
Grapefruit* citrus paradisi 0.5-0.75 --
Orange* c. sinensis 0.5-0.75 --
Apricot* prunus americana 0.5-0.75 --
Peach* p. persica 0.5-0.75 --
Cherry* p. avium 0.5-0.75 --
Plum* p. domestica 0.5-0.75 --
Persimmon* diospyros kaki 0.5-0.75 --
Fig, kadota* ficus carica 0.5-0.75 --
Grape* vitis vinifera 0.5-0.75 --
Walnut* juglans regia 0.5-0.75 --
Pecan* carya illinoienis 0.5-0.75 --
Onion allium cepa 0.5-0.75 --
Garlic allium sativum 0.75-1.0 --
Sweet potato ipomea batatas 0.75-1.0 --
Wheat triticum aestivum 0.75-1.0 0.33
Sunflower helianthus annuus 0.75-1.0 --
Bean, mung* vigna radiata 0.75-1.0 --
Sesame* sesamum indicum 0.75-1.0 --
Lupine* lipinus hartwegii 0.75-1.0 --
Strawberry* fragaria ap. 0.75-1.0 --
Artichoke, Jerusalem* helianthus tuberosus 0.75-1.0 --
Bean, kidney* phaseolus vulgaris 0.75-1.0 --
Bean, limab p. lunatus 0.75-1.0 --
Peanut arachis hypogaea 0.75-1.0 --

TABLE 16 - Boron tolerance limits for agricultural crops (cont’d)

Common name Botanical name Threshold ** mg/litre Slope % per mg/litre
Moderately sensitive
Broccoli brassica oleracea botrytis 1.0 1.8
Pepper, red capsicum annuum 1.0-2.0 --
Pea* pisum sativa 1.0-2.0 --
Carrot daucus carota 1.0-2.0 --
Radish raphsnus sativus 1.0-2.0 1.4
Potato solanum tuberosum 1.0-2.0 --
Cucumber cucumis sativus 1.0-2.0 --
Moderately tolerant
Cabbage* brassica oleracea capitata 2.0-4.0 --
Turnip b. rapa 2.0-4.0 --
Bluegrass, Kentucky* poa pratensis 2.0-4.0 --
Barley hordeum vulgare 3.4 4.4
Cowpea vigna unguigulata 2.5 12
Oats avena sativa 2.0-4.0 --
Corn zea mays 2.0-4.0 --
Artichoke* cynara scolymus 2.0-4.0 --
Tobacco* nicotiana tabacum 2.0-4.0 --
Mustard* brassica juncea 2.0-4.0 --
Clover, sweet* melitotus indica 2.0-4.0 --
Squash cucurbita pepo 2.0-4.0 --
Muskmelon* cucmis melo 2.0-4.0 --
Cauliflower b. oleracea botrytis 2.0-4.0 1.9
Tolerant
Alfalfa* medicago sativa 4.6-6.0 --
Vetch, purple* vicia bengalensis 4.6-6.0 --
Parsley* petroselinum crispum 4.6-6.0 --
Beet, red beta vulgaris 4.6-6.0 --
Sugar beet b. vulgaris 4.9 4.1
Tomato lycopersicum 5.7 3.4
Very tolerant
Sorghum sorhgum bicolor 7.4 4.7
Cotton gossypium hirsutum 6.0-10.0 --
Celery* apium graveolens 9.8 3.2
Asparagus* asparagus officinalis 10.0-15.0 --
*: Tolerance based on reduction in vegetative growth

**: Maximum permissible concentration in soil water without reduction in yield. Boron tolerances may vary,
depending upon climate, soil conditions, and crop varieties.
TABLE 17 - Salt tolerance of ornamental shrubs, trees and ground cover (cont’d)
Common name Botanical name Max. permissible ECe dS/m
Very sensitive
Star jasmine Trachelospermum jasminoides 1-2
Pyrenees cotoneaster Cotoneaster congestus 1-2
Oregon grape Mahonia aquifolium 1-2
Photinia Photinia fraseri 1-2
Sensitive
Pineapple guava feijoa sellowiana 2-3
Chinese holly, cv. Burford Ilex cornuta 2-3
Rose cv. Grenoble Rosa sp. 2-3
Glossy abelia Abelia grandiflora 2-3
Southern yew Podocarpus macrophyllus 2-3
Tulip tree Liriodendron tulipifera 2-3
Algerian ivy Hedera canariensis 3-4
Japanese pittosporum Pittosporum tobira 3-4
Heavenly bamboo Nandina domestica 3-4
Chinese hibiscus Hibiscus rosa sinensis 3-4
Laurustinus cv. Robustum Viburnum tinusm 3-4
Strawberry tree, cv compact Arbutus unedo 3-4
Grape myrtle Lagerstroemia indica 3-4
Glossy privet Ligustrum lugidum 4-6
Yellow sage Lantana camara 4-6
Orchid tree Bauhinia purpurea 4-6
Southern magnolia Magnolia grandiflora 4-6
Japanese boxwood Buxus microphylla var. japonica 4-6
Xylosma Xylosma congestum 4-6
Japanese black pine Pinus thunbergiana 4-6
Indian hawthorn Raphiolepis indica 4-6
Dodonaea, cv. atropurpurea Dodonaea viscosa 4-6
Oriental arborvitae Platycladus orientalis 4-6
Thorny elaeagnus Elaeagnus pungens 4-6
Spreading juniper Uniperus chinensis 4-6
Pyracantha, cv. Graberi Pyracantha fortuneana 4-6
Cherry plum Prunus cerasifera 4-6
Moderately tolerant
Weeping bottlebrush Callistemon viminalis 6-8
Oleander Nerium oleander 6-8
European fan palm Chamerops humilis 6-8
Blue dracaena Cordiline indivisa 6-8
Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis 6-8
Aleppo pine Pinus halepensis 6-8
Sweet gum Liquidamabar styraciflua 6-8
Tolerant
Brush cherry Syzygium paniculatum > 8
Ceniza Leucophyllum frutescens > 8
Natal plum Carssa grandiflora > 8
Evergreen pear Pyrus Kawakamii > 8
Bougainvillaea Bougainvillaea spectabilis > 8
Italian stone pine Pinus pinea > 8
Very tolerant > 10

White iceplant Delosperma alba > 10
Rosea iceplant Drosanthemum hispidum > 10
Purple iceplant Labranthus productus > 10
Croceum iceplant Hymenocyclus croceus > 10
Note: Salinities exceeding the maximum permissible ECe may cause

leaf burn, loss of leaves and/or excessive stunting.
TABLE 18 - Boron tolerance limits for ornamentals

Common name Botanical name Threshold mg/litre
Very sensitive
Oregon grape Mahonia aquifolium
Photinia Photinia x fraseri
Xylosma Xylosma congestum
Thorny elaeagnus Elaeagnus pungens
Laurustinus Viburnum tinus
Wax-leaf privet Ligustrum japonicum
Pineapple guava Feijoa sellowiana
Spindle tree Euonymu japonica
Japanese pittosporum Pittosporum tobira
Chinese holly Ilex cornuta
Juniper Juniperus chinensis
Yellow sage Lantana camara
American elm Ulmus americana
Sensitive
Zinnia Zinnia elaeagnus 0.5-1.0
Pansy Viola tricolor 0.5-1.0
Violet Viola odorata 0.5-1.0
Larkspur Delphinum sp. 0.5-1.0
Glossy abelia Abelia x grandiflora 0.5-1.0
Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis 0.5-1.0
Oriental arborvitae Platycladus orientalis 0.5-1.0
Geranium Pelargoium x hortorum 0.5-1.0
Gladiolus Gladiolus sp. 1.0-2.0
Marigold Calendula officinalis 1.0-2.0
Poinsettia Euphorbia pulcherrima 1.0-2.0
China aster Callistephus chinensis 1.0-2.0
Gardenia Gardenia sp. 1.0-2.0
Southern yew Podocarpus macrophyllus 1.0-2.0
Brush cherry Syzygium paniculatum 1.0-2.0
Blue dracaena Cordyline indivisa 1.0-2.0
Ceniza Leucophyllus frutenscens 1.0-2.0
Moderately tolerant
Bottlebrush Callistemon citrinus 2.0-4.0
California poppy Eschscholzia californica 2.0-4.0
Japanese boxwood Buxus microphylla 2.0-4.0
Oleander Nerium oleander 2.0-4.0
Chinese hibiscus Hibiscus rosa-senensis 2.0-4.0
Sweet pea Lathyrus odoratus 2.0-4.0
Carnation Dianthus caryophyllus 2.0-4.0
Tolerant
Indian hawthorn Raphiolepis indica 6.0-8.0
Natal plum Carissa grandiflora 6.0-8.0
Oxalis Oxalis bowiei 6.0-8.0
Notes: Species listed in order of increasing tolerance based on appearance as well as growth reductions.
Boron concentration exceeding threshold may cause leaf burn and leaf loss.
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA

There have been calls to establish standards as a guide for judging the
suitability of water for irrigation. Any classification should be based on the
total concentration and the composition of salts. However, the suitability
of water for irrigation also depends on other associated factors, such as the
crop, soil, climate and management practices. The classification adopted
by FAO in 1985 (after Maas), and proposed as an initial guide, has proved
most practical and useful in assessing water quality for on-farm water use.
The principal parameters for water classification (crop response to salinity,
sodium hazard and toxicity) are quite clear and understood by both the
extension engineers and the farmers themselves for proper irrigation
management and follow-up purposes.
With the FAO assessment method, the parameters taken into

consideration are the four presented below.
Total salinity
TABLE 19 - Water classification by salinity
EC dS/m TDS mg/litre
Non-saline water < 0.7 < 500

Saline water 0.7-42 500-30 000
Slightly saline 0.7-3.0 500-2 000
Medium saline 3.0-6.0 2 000-4 000
Highly saline > 6.0 > 4 000
Very saline > 14.0 > 9 000
Brine > 42 > 30 000
Crop response to salinity

The figure below shows the expected yield reduction for each crop in
accordance with its sensibility/tolerance to salt. This graph enables a quick
assessment of the two main parameters for the water suitability.
FIGURE 7.1 - Divisions for relative salt tolerance ratings of

agricultural crops (Maas, 1984)
Sodium hazard
The sodium adsorption ratio is commonly used as an index of the sodium
hazard of soils and waters, and as a substitute soil ESP. The SAR (Sodium
Absorption Ratio) of a given water determines, to a certain extent, the relative
amount of sodium that may be adsorbed by the soil. The effect of sodium ions
in the irrigation water in reducing the infiltration rate and soil permeability is
dependent on the total salt concentration, as shown in Table 20.
TABLE 20 - Potential infiltration problem due to sodium in irrigation water

Salinity levels of
irrigation water dS/m No reduction Slight reduction Medium reduction Severe reduction
SAR SAR SAR SAR

ECw = 0.7 <1 1-5 5-11 > 11
ECw = 0.7-3.0 < 10 10-15 15-23 > 23
ECw = 3.0-6.0 < 25 > 25 No effect No effect
ECw = 6.0-14.0 < 35 > 35 No effect No effect
ECw = >14.0 No effect No effect No effect No effect
Based on Rhoades, Oster and Schroer.

Toxicity problems
Toxicity problems may be created by excess chloride, sodium, boron,
bicarbonate, nitrates and an abnormal pH. The evaluation of the water
quality for irrigation should include these and a few other parameters in
association with all the other factors involved.
SALINITY CONTROL
The salts that accumulate in the soil can be effectively removed only by
leaching. For this to occur, enough water must enter the surface to produce
downward percolation and outflow of drainage water from the root zone.
The extra amount of this water in addition to the irrigation dose is called
the leaching requirement (LR), and can be estimated exactly with the use
of the equation:
LR = ECw ÷ 5 (ECe) - ECw
where LR is the leaching requirements as a fraction of the irrigation

dose, and ECe is the permissible level of salinity in the soil solution
primarily related to the salt tolerance of the crop grown at a 100 percent
yield potential. The average value usually taken for ECe is 1.5 ECw. In this
case, LR = 0.15.
Leaching is especially necessary as a soil preparation for crops with

high plant density, such as carrots, onions and groundnuts. The salinity
over the entire area should be the same with no difference between the
wetted and the non-wetted parts of the field during the preceding season.
The leaching of the salts in the top layer is particularly important because
crops are sensitive to salinity during the first stages of their growth.
For the control of the salinity level in the root zone, frequent
observations should be conducted with soil sampling for the laboratory
determination of the soil extract EC. The use of soil solutions, extractors
and portable metering devices on the spot enables the continuous
monitoring, for immediate action, of any significant change in the EC of
the soil solution, the chloride and nitrate content, and the soil pH as a
result of irrigation and fertilization.
MICRO-IRRIGATION AND SALINITY CONTROL

In drip irrigation, the distribution of dissolved salts in the soil profile
follows the pattern of the water flux with the tendency for accumulation at
the periphery of the wetted soil mass. Most of the wetted zone below the
emitter, where most of the roots concentrate and function, remains free
from salts during the irrigation season with low to medium salinity values.
Near the surface, due to evaporation, the salt accumulation is five times
greater than in the deeper layers and increases with distance from the
emitters. This, in combination with the use of poor quality irrigation water
and the application of fertilizers through the system, will cause a salinity
build-up, which might become a problem in areas where the annual
rainfall does not exceed 250 mm. In these cases, it is essential to flood the
total area once a year, at the end of the season, with adequate amounts of
water in order to leach the salts beyond the rooting depth.
The salinity level in the root zone is related to the water quality, the
amount of fertilizers and the irrigation dose. The salt accumulation in the
vicinity of the emitters is less than half that between the emitter lines. The
EC value of the saturation extract beyond the emitter is 2-3 times the ECw,
and between the lines it is six to ten times higher. This high salt content
can be controlled only by leaching or by reducing the amount of fertilizer
during the growing season. In no case should the fertilizer concentration in
the irrigation water exceed EC 0.5 dS/m, that is added to the total salinity
of the irrigation water.
In drip irrigation, extra leaching with increased quantities of water every

application during the irrigation season is not recommended unless salt
accumulation reaches hazardous levels. Leaching should take place after
the crop harvest, between irrigation seasons, where the salt content is
excessive and the rainfall is not sufficient. It is done either by flooding the
area or by low precipitation sprinklers with very fine drops.
Example analyses
Case 1
Water chemical analysis data sheet
Submitted by: Andreas Christoforou Date: 11.9.97
Locality: Potamia Laboratory No.: W-76/97
Analysis requested: Full ionic plus boron Borehole No.: N332
Remarks: Planning cropping patterns - fruit trees, vegetables
Analyst: N. Antoniou
LABORATORY RESULTS Date: 19.9.97
Electrical conductivity ECw dS/m: 3.6 pH: 7.1

Anions mg/litre meq/litre Cations mg/litre meq/litre
Chloride (Cl¯) 429 2.09 Sodium (Na+) 480 20.8

Sulphate (SO4 552 11.50 Potassium (K+) 19 0.5
Carbonate (CO3¯ ¯) Nil Nil Calcium (Ca++) 160 8.0
Bicarbonate (HCO3¯) 480 7.90 Magnesium (Mg++) 60 5.0
Nitrate (NO3¯) 180 2.90 Boron (B) 1.5 ------
Total 1 641 34.3 719 34.3

TDS: 2 360
Evaluation and remarks: SAR = 8, RSC = Nil

Medium saline water - High in sodium and boron content at toxic levels for most fruit trees (citrus,
deciduous, etc.) grapes, strawberries and some vegetables (onion, garlic, beans) - there is no sodium
hazard - under proper management, on light soil with good infiltration and internal drainage and no
impermeable layer, it can be used for irrigation of crops tolerant to salinity and boron, such as olives,
pomegranates, pistachio, date palms, most of the vegetables, watermelons, potatoes, etc. and forage
crops - some delay in crop development and certain yield reduction should be expected - any problems
from bicarbonates can be solved easily - due to high nitrate content, which is equal to 40 g of net nitrogen
per cubic metre of water, the application of nitrogen fertilizer should be reduced by 66 percent for fruit
trees and 20-30 percent for vegetables accordingly - frequent irrigation is recommended - LR 0.15.
Signature: ________________________________________________________________________________
Case 2
Submitted by: N. Papas Date: 2.10.1997
Locality: Orini Laboratory No.: W/400/97
Analysis requested: Full ionic plus boron Borehole No.: N335
Remarks: Irrigation use
Analyst: A.Magnetis


Sulphate (SO4 244 5.10 Potassium (K+) 2 --
Carbonate (CO3¯ ¯) Nil Nil Calcium (Ca++) 48 2.4
Nitrate (NO3¯) 41 0.66 Boron (B) 0.56
Total 932 18.9 401 18.9

TDS: 1 333
Evaluation and remarks: SAR = 9, RSC = 2.11

Slightly saline water - no sodium hazard or any severe toxicity problem - under proper management and
on light soils with good structure and internal drainage it is suitable for use in the majority of the crops -
bicarbonate may cause some micronutrient deficiency problems that can be overcome.
Signature: ________________________________________________________________________________
Case 3
Submitted by: G. Demosthenous Date: 3.11.97
Locality: Limassol Laboratory No.:
Analysis requested: Full ionic plus boron Borehole No.:
Remarks: Irrigation of olives and other field crops
Analyst: E. Iasonos


Sulphate (SO4 278 5.80 Potassium (K+) 6 0.10
Carbonate (CO3¯ ¯) 14 0.48 Calcium (Ca++) 8 0.40
Nitrate (NO3¯) Nil Nil Boron (B) 2.88
Total 1 023 19.5 438 19.5

TDS: 1 461
Evaluation and remarks: SAR = 20, RSC = 8.67

Slightly saline water, however problematic - boron content at toxic levels for the majority of fruit trees
and most herbaceous agricultural crops - danger of severe soil infiltration and permeability problem from
the use of this water - excess bicarbonate salts could cause chlorosis to some plants - pH is higher than
normal and may result in imbalanced nutrition - usage of this water should be done with caution, very
good management, on light soils with high infiltration rate and permeability, and selected crops tolerant
to boron toxicity, such as date palms, cabbage, cauliflower, squash, parsley, tomato, celery, asparagus,
corn, alfalfa, sugar beet - the existing olive trees may be irrigated reservedly - soil improvement additives
(washed manure, gypsum, etc.) should be applied occasionally - frequent irrigation is preferable -
a follow-up based on a schedule is essential.
Signature: ________________________________________________________________________________
CHAPTER 8:
Hose-move sprinkler irrigation
INTRODUCTION
In recent decades various sprinkler irrigation methods and installations,
both solid and portable, have been developed to meet farmers’ needs. The
most widely adopted and least expensive system for irrigating small to
medium-sized farms is the piped hand-move system with a low to medium
operating pressure (2.0-3.5 bars). The sprinklers are mounted at equal
spacings (6-12 m) on the lateral pipelines laid across the field at
predetermined intervals (called lateral positions) of 6-18 m so that the
irrigation water is sprinkled uniformly over the area covered.
To avoid lateral movement and to reduce labour requirements, the

hose-move sprinkler system has been developed. It is an improvement on
the conventional piped hand-move system and combines some features of
semi-permanent installations with those of permanent ones. In this system
the sprinkler lateral lines are placed permanently at a wide spacing up to
60 m apart. The sprinklers, mounted on tripod stands, are not fitted directly
to the lateral pipes, but connected to them via flexible PE hoses which are
20-25 mm in diameter and up to 30 m in length. The hoses with the
sprinklers can be moved laterally on either side to cover a number of
lateral positions.
As the sprinklers are of low to medium pressure, this system can be

classed as a low or medium pressure, semi-permanent, hand-move
installation. It is recommended for the irrigation of full coverage crops
such as alfalfa, maize, cotton, potatoes, carrots and groundnuts. It should
be noted that hose-move systems are different from the drag-hose system.
The latter is used only for under-tree sprinkling and the sprinklers are fitted
on small skids which can be easily dragged backwards from a distance.
SYSTEM LAYOUT AND COMPONENT PARTS

The layout of the system is the standard one consisting of a head
control, a pipe distribution network (mains, submains and manifolds,
where needed), hydrants, laterals and a number of hoses (one per
sprinkler).
The head control is simple and includes only the regulating valves (shut-
off, non-return, air, etc.). The main and submain pipelines are usually buried
90-150-mm rigid PVC pipes, or 75-110-mm HDPE pipes laid on the surface.
The hydrants (2-3 in) are located along the manifolds (mains or submains) at
the same wide spacing as the sprinkler laterals. The manifolds and the
sprinkler laterals can be either HDPE or quick coupling light steel/aluminium
pipes (63-75 mm). The flexible hoses are soft 20-25-mm LDPE pipes. The
tripod stands for the sprinklers can be made of 8-mm iron rods.
SPRINKLERS
The water discharged through the sprinkler devices is shot into the air
and falls to the ground in a circular pattern around the sprinkler. Most of
the agricultural sprinklers have a hammer-drive slow-rotating or revolving
mechanism (hammer wedge and spring, or hammer and rocker weight)
and use a low to medium operating pressure (2.0-3.5 bars). They are
equipped with two nozzles for discharging the water: the range and the
spreader. The range nozzle, larger in diameter, shoots a water jet and
covers the area distant from the sprinkler, activating the rotating
mechanism at the same time. The spreader nozzle sprays the water in the
vicinity of the sprinkler. The nozzles are interchangeable to allow
variability in performance according to requirements. The sprinklers are
made of brass or heavy-duty plastic. Most of them have several parts made
of brass and others of plastic. The axle and the spring are made of stainless
steel. The main performance characteristics of the sprinklers used in hose-
move systems are:
• two nozzles: 3.0-6.0 mm (range) x 2.5-4.2 mm (spreader);

• low to medium operating pressure: 1.8-3.5 bars;
• water discharge: 1.1- 3.0 m_/h;
• diameter coverage (wetted): 18-35 m;
• jet angle: 20¡-30¡ (except where low angle jet is needed, e.g. strong
wind, treated water);
• type of connection: threaded internal or external _-1 in.
To ensure satisfactory sprinkling with impact rotating conventional

sprinklers, the minimum operating pressure should be at least 2.0 bars.
DESIGN CRITERIA AND CONSIDERATIONS

The water discharged from a single sprinkler is not uniformly distributed
over the entire area; a greater quantity falls near the sprinkler and less in
the periphery. To ensure a uniform precipitation over the entire area under
irrigation, the sprinklers are always placed so that they overlap each other
from both directions. This setting is termed sprinkler spacing. The spacing
of the sprinklers along the lateral lines is known as SL, and the spacing
between two lines as Sm. The spacing pattern is square, rectangular or
triangular, with SL = Sm.
In order to obtain good distribution uniformity by overlapping, the

sprinkler spacing (Sm) should not exceed 65 percent of the sprinkler
diameter coverage under light to moderate wind conditions in the square
and rectangular patterns. In the triangular pattern, the spacing can be
extended up to 70 percent of the diameter coverage. In strong wind
conditions, the spacing should be 50 percent of the diameter coverage
with the lateral direction perpendicular to the wind direction. With a wind
strength of over 3.5 m/s, sprinkling is not recommended.
The average application (precipitation) rate is a function of the sprinkler

discharge and the spacing of the sprinklers:
Precipitation rate (mm/h) = sprinkler discharge (litres/h) ÷ SL x Sm (m)
The rate of precipitation should not exceed the soil intake (infiltration)
rate (25 mm/h in light soils, 8-16 mm/h in loams and 2-8 mm/h in clays).
Profile of wetted soil under sprinklers
The common sprinkler spacing in low-medium pressure systems is 6, 9,

or12 m along the laterals and 12 or 18 m between the laterals. Initially,
these spacings were convenient given the standard length of the quick
coupling pipe (6 m). However, they have proved most practical as the
close spacing, low discharge and precipitation rates of 8-14 mm/h give
better results. The height of the sprinklers above ground should be a
minimum of 60 cm for low-growing crops. For high-growing crops, the
height should be adjusted accordingly.
The light portable quick coupling pipes (steel or aluminium) can be

used not only as sprinkler lateral lines but also as water conveyance and
distribution lines. These pipes maintain their value for a considerable
length of time. There are cases where farmers have sold many of these
pipes at a profit even after extensive use.
The design procedure is the same as for the pipe-move sprinkler

systems. The sprinkler laterals are laid across the field perpendicular to the
manifold line (mains or submains) on lateral positions in accordance with
the designed Sm spacing, every 6, 12 or 18 m. The number of laterals
operating simultaneously, capable of delivering the flow of the system, is
called the set of lateral lines; these lines are fewer in number than their
positions. Therefore, after the completion of their operation at one position,
the set of laterals is moved to the next position and so on. The number of
lateral positions should be a multiple of the number of lateral lines per set.
The quotient of the two numbers is the number of movements or shifts per
irrigation cycle.
In hose-move sprinkler systems, the sprinklers can be extended on both

sides of the lateral line to cover a distance of up to 60 m, which
corresponds to six lateral positions at 12-m Sm spacing. Instead of the
lateral positions and movements, there are sprinkler positions and
movements (shifts). Thus, one lateral line may cover up to six sprinkler
positions. Two sets of complete lateral lines with their hoses and sprinklers,
one in operation and one on stand-by, can cover an entire field area just
by moving the sprinklers from one position to another.
The maximum permissible length of the lateral lines is a function of the

size of the pipe, the number of the sprinklers (the spacing) and their
discharge. The loss of pressure due to friction in the lateral line should not
exceed 20 percent of the pressure at its entrance. Based on this
assumption, some indicative figures for quick coupling light steel or
aluminium laterals are presented in Table 21.
TABLE 21 - Maximum number of low-medium pressure sprinklers on quick coupling lateral pipes
50 mm 70 mm 89 mm
Sprinkler Sprinkler SL
pressure discharge spacing
bars m_/h 6m 12 m 6m 12 m 6m 12 m
2.5 1.5
3.0 1.65 12 10 23 18 36 28
3.5 1.8
2.5 2.0
3.0 2.2 10 8 19 15 30 23
3.5 2.3
IRRIGATION SCHEDULING PROGRAMME

With sprinkler irrigation, the whole area is wetted and, thus, a larger
volume of soil is wetted. This allows a relatively lower water content in the
soil to be maintained than is the case with localized methods, thereby
increasing the irrigation interval. The larger the volume of wetted soil, the
later the crop goes into deficit. The preparation of the irrigation programme
follows the standard procedure, i.e. taking into consideration the soil
moisture holding capacity, the plant physiology (root depth, growing
stages, crop coefficient, etc.) and the climate. The irrigation efficiency is
about 75 percent. In general, the irrigation dosage application depth for
deep rooted field crops under sprinkling ranges from 40 to 100 mm. With
a precipitation rate of about 14 mm/h, the operating time at each position
is approximately 3-7 hours. Irrigation intervals of two weeks are common
in sprinkler irrigation.
COST
The total cost for the installation of the system in 2.0 ha (as in the
example design) is US$1 790.00, or less than US$1 000/ha. A cost analysis
shows that the head control costs about US$70. The major cost items are the
plastic pipes, PVC and PE tubes, for the system’s network which amount to
US$1 177, 65.7 percent of the total cost. Imported sophisticated equipment,
such as the sprinklers, rarely exceeds 10 percent of the total cost.
ADVANTAGES
• High irrigation application efficiency - 75 percent.
• Easy design, simple installation and operation.
• Adaptability for all types of soils, many kinds of field crops and small
irregular plots.
• Less expensive than many other modern irrigation systems.
• Involves unskilled labour.
DISADVANTAGES
• Moving the hoses with the sprinklers is heavy and unpleasant work.
• Long duration for the irrigation cycle.
Hose move sprinkler irrigation

(Sample design) 2.0 ha
EXAMPLE DESIGN
Hose-move sprinkler for cotton

Area and crop: An area of approximately 2.0 ha planted with cotton at
the beginning of August. The field is square and level.
Soil, water and climate: Medium texture soil of good structure, with
good infiltration and internal drainage. The soil available moisture (Sa) is
110 mm/m depth. The water is of good quality with no salinity or
toxicity hazards; the source is a tube-well equipped with a pumping unit
delivering 36 m3/h. The peak irrigation demand is in October, at the mid-
season growth stage of the crop.
Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling: The pan average

readings in October are 5.6 mm/d. This figure multiplied by 0.66 (pan
correction factor) gives an ETo of 3.7 mm/d. The crop factor kc for cotton
at this stage is taken as 1.05, the root depth 1.0 m and the moisture
depletion 50 percent. Then, ETc cotton = 3.7 x 1.05 = 3.88 mm/d. The net
application depth is Sa 110 mm x root depth 1.0 m x depletion 0.5 = 55
mm. The maximum permissible irrigation interval in October is 55 mm ÷
3.88 mm/d = 14 days. The irrigation frequency depends on many factors
and in no case should exceed the maximum permissible irrigation interval.
The system’s application efficiency is 75 percent, therefore, the gross
application depth at peak is: 55 mm ÷ 0.75 = 73.3 mm. The gross
irrigation dose is: 73.3 mm x 10 x 2.0 ha = 1 466 m3.
System layout, performance and hydraulics

A 90-mm rigid PVC main pipeline is buried along the northern
boundary of the field. Two 63-mm HDPE lateral pipelines are placed
perpendicular to the mains, from north to south, 60 m apart and
connected with the mains through offtake surface hydrants. On the lateral
lines and at a regular spacing of 12 m, 25-mm flexible PE hoses 30 m long
are fitted and extended on the sides. At the other end of the hoses are
sprinklers on tripod stands.
• sprinkler characteristics and performance: low pressure, two-nozzle

sprinklers, discharge = 1.5 m_/h at 2.5 bars operating pressure,
diameter coverage = 26 m;
• sprinkler spacing: 12 x 12 m;
• precipitation rate: 10.4 mm/h;
• number of sprinklers per lateral: 12;
• number of laterals: 2;
• total number of sprinklers: 24 (operating simultaneously);

• lateral discharge: 18 m_/h;
• system discharge: 36 m_/h;
• number of (lateral) sprinklers positions (shifts): 6;
• duration of application per shift: 73.3 mm ÷ 10.4 = 7 hours;
• duration of irrigation cycle: 42 hours.
bars
Pressure required at sprinkler 2.50

Friction losses in the 25-mm LDPE sprinkler hose, 30 m 0.33
Friction losses along the 63-mm HDPE lateral line 0.47
Friction losses along the 90-mm PVC main line 0.15
Minor local and other losses 0.25
Total dynamic head required 3.70
List of the equipment required for the hose-move sprinkler system

installation (bill of quantities)
List of the equipment required for the hose-move sprinkler system installation (bill of quantities)
Item Description Quantity Unit price US$ Total price US$
System distribution network

1. 90-mm rigid PVC pipe, 6 bars 110 m 2.50 275.00
2. 63-mm HDPE pipe, 6 bars 280 m 1.80 504.00
3. 3-in x 90-mm PP adaptor 1 pc 10.00 10.00
4. 2_-in x 63-mm PP adaptor 2 pcs 5.00 10.00
5. 90-mm PP end plug 1 pc 10.00 10.00
6. 63-mm PP end plug 2 pcs 5.00 10.00
7. 90-mm x 2_-in PP clamp saddle 2 pcs 3.00 6.00
8. 63-mm x _-in PP clamp saddle 24 pcs 1.30 31.20
9. _-in x 25-mm PP adaptor 48 pcs 1.00 48.00
10. 2_-in threaded riser pipe, 60 cm 2 pcs 4.00 8.00
11. 2_-in gate valve 2 pcs 13.00 26.00
12. 2_-in nipple 2 pcs 1.00 2.00
13. Tripod sprinkler stand 24 pcs 8.00 192.00
14. Sprinkler two nozzle, 1.5 m_/h at 2.5 bars 24 pcs 8.00 192.00
15. 25-mm LDPE hose, 4 bars 720 m 0.40 288.00
Trench excavation and backfilling 110 m 1.00 110.00
1722.20
Head control
16. 2_-in brass check valve 1 pc 15.00 15.00
17. 2_-in brass shut-off valve 2 pcs 13.00 26.00
18. 2_-in tee (galvanized iron, or PVC) 3 pcs 3.50 10.50
19. 2_-in nipple 4 pcs 1.00 4.00
20. 1-in single air valve 1 pc 12.00 12.00
67.50
Total cost 1789.70

HOSE - Move sprinkler jointing techniques

CHAPTER 9:
Microsprinklers
INTRODUCTION
Microsprinklers are low capacity water emitters, sprinkler in type, but
smaller in size than the conventional sprinklers and with flow rates up to
250 litres/h. They are placed on a relatively close rectangular or triangular
spacing for the maximum overlap to irrigate potatoes, carrots, leafy
vegetables, groundnuts and other densely planted field crops. This method
is reliable, highly efficient, and easy to apply, operate and handle.
The system is a seasonal, low pressure, micro-irrigation solid

installation which can be easily placed in the field and quickly removed
(collected) at the end of the season.
SYSTEM LAYOUT AND COMPONENTS

The layout of the system consists of a head control equipped only with
the regulating valves (shut-off, non-return, air) and a filter of about 40-60
mesh (200-300 microns). No injectors are needed as fertigation through
this system is not a common practice among farmers.
The arrangement of the main and submain lines, hydrants and

manifolds is the same as in other micro-irrigation piping networks.
The size of the manifold feeder lines should be 50-63 mm and in no

case exceed 75 mm. Pipelines of 50-63 mm are recommended for flows of
approximately 12-18 m_/h when the water is distributed en route
continuously.
The pipes used for the system’s distribution network are mainly in rigid
PVC (buried) or black HDPE (normally laid on the surface). Other kind of
pipes are used also, such as layflat hoses and quick coupling galvanized
light steel pipes.
The laterals are soft PE pipes, 20, 25 or 32 mm in diameter, according

to the length, PN 4.0 bars, laid permanently on the surface. The
microsprinklers are placed along the laterals at a spacing of 5-7 m, fixed
70-80 cm above the surface on iron rods inserted into the ground. They
are connected to the laterals through a small flexible PVC tube 7-9 mm in
diameter and 1 m long.
MICROSPRINKLER EMITTERS
These emitters are low capacity rotary sprinklers designed for low
discharges uniformly distributed over the irrigated area in a rainfall pattern.
Made of durable plastic, they have various operating mechanisms, and are
usually compact without external moving parts. They have one low
trajectory (jet angle above nozzle), quick rotating, 1.5-2.0-mm nozzle.
The main performance characteristics are:
• operating pressure: 2.0 bars;

• flow rate (discharge): 130-250 litres/h (recommended 160-180 litres/h);
• wetting diameter (coverage): 12 m average;
• precipitation rate: 4-7 mm/h (recommended);
• filtration requirements: 40-60 mesh (300-250 microns) approximately.
A complete set consists of: a) the sprinkler emitter compact head; b) a

6-mm iron rod 1 m long; and c) a 7-9-mm flexible PVC tube with a barbed
plunger for connection with the PE lateral line.
IRRIGATION SCHEDULING PROGRAMME

This system enables a high degree of control of both when to apply and
how much irrigation water to apply. The restrictions imposed by the system
are limited. Thus, there are more timing options in the irrigation scheduling
programme. The vegetables are mostly shallow rooted crops, so the
selected option is generally that of fixed depletion irrigation.
A gross application depth of 20-30 mm is common for potatoes and

vegetables. The gross water requirements of a vegetable or a potato
plantation vary from 300 to 400 mm in terms of depth. Thus, the total
number of irrigations required is about 12-15, at intervals based on the
cumulative evaporation.

In addition to the standard design criteria, such as area, crop, water
supply, soil and climate, it is important to examine the system’s special
features and characteristics as these parameters influence the final decision.
Microsprinklers deliver the water in low application rates and in fine

drops. Such drops easily drift in the air, even under low to moderate wind
conditions. In order to ensure a high uniformity of application, the
sprinkler spacing should be decreased and not exceed 50 percent of the
diameter coverage, i.e. the sprinkler spacing along the laterals and
between the laterals should range from 5 to 7 m. Hence, common
spacings are 5 x 5 m, 5 x 6 m, 5 x 7 m and 6 x 7 m. Furthermore, to
mitigate the adverse effects of the wind, a relatively large number of
sprinklers per unit area should be operated simultaneously. The operation
shifts should be arranged so that the area irrigated at the same time is as
compact as possible.
The system laterals are made of LDPE. Experience has shown that the
optimum size of these pipes for this system is 32 mm as such pipes are
easy to handle on site, to place, to remove, etc. Larger diameters are not
recommended.
The maximum permissible length of various size laterals on level

ground depending on the number of the sprinklers, the spacing and the
flow rate is as follows:
160 litres/h 180 litres/h
Lateral size and spacing No. of sprinklers Lateral length m No. of sprinklers Lateral length m
20 mm 5 m 8 40 7 35
20 mm 6 m 7 42 6 36
20 mm 7 m 7 49 6 42
20 mm 8 m 7 56 6 48
25 mm 5 m 12 60 11 55
25 mm 6 m 11 66 10 60
25 mm 7 m 10 70 10 70
25 mm 8 m 10 80 9 72
32 mm 5 m 21 105 18 90
32 mm 6 m 20 120 17 102
32 mm 7 m 18 126 16 102
32 mm 8 m 18 144 15 120
All pipes LDPE 4.0 bars to DIN 8072 (inside diameter 16.0, 20.2 and
27.2 mm respectively).
COST
The cost for a complete installation of this system is approximately
US$3 300/ha. The head control unit accounts for 8-10 percent of the total
cost of the system; the plastic pipes (tubes), exactly 50 percent; and the
low capacity sprinklers, nearly 35 percent.
ADVANTAGES
• Low labour O&M requirements.
• Flexibility and adaptability: the technology is simple and easy to
adopt and manage. The safe transition from traditional surface
methods to advanced micro-irrigation can be successfully
accomplished through the installation of this kind of system.
• High irrigation application efficiency.
DISADVANTAGES
• High initial purchase cost.
Low capacity sprinkler irrigation in potatoes (solid system)

(Sample design)
EXAMPLE DESIGN
Microsprinklers with potatoes

Area and crop: The plot dimensions are 120 x 85 m (1.0 ha) planted
with spring potatoes.
Soil, water and climate: Fine texture soil of good structure with a
permeability of approximately 11 mm/h, and a high water holding
capacity (200 mm/m). The water is supplied from a properly treated
reservoir; it is clean, but slightly saline. The spring potato season is from
January to May. In April the average pan readings are 3.3 mm/d; multiplied
by the pan correction factor (0.66), this gives ETo = 2.18 mm/d.
Crop water requirements and irrigation schedule: Peak demand is in

April and the kc value is 0.9. Then, ETc = 2.18 x 0.9 = 1.96 mm/d (net
water requirements at peak). The system’s application efficiency is
75 percent. In addition, an extra amount of about 15 percent should be
applied for leaching salts. The peak gross irrigation requirements are:
1.96 mm/d x 100/75 = 2.61 mm/d x 100/85 = 3.1 mm/d x 10 x 1.0 ha

= 31 m_/day
The soil available moisture is 200 mm/m depth, the effective root depth
is 0.35-m, and the maximum recommended moisture depletion is
40 percent. The maximum irrigation interval in April is:
200 x 0.35 x 0.4/1.96 = 14 days
The irrigation scheduling programme is arranged at a fixed depletion of

about 20 mm (cumulative evaporation). Thus, the interval in April is: 20 ÷
1.96 = 10 days. The gross irrigation application is 31.4 mm, which gives a
gross amount of 314 m_/ha per irrigation.
System layout: The system is a solid installation with all the sprinkler
laterals permanently laid on the field. The head control unit is equipped
with regulating valves and a screen filter of 60 mesh. There is only the
main line, 75-mm HDPE, 6.0 bars, laid along the side of the field serving
also as a manifold, feeding the laterals. The sprinkler laterals are 32-mm
LDPE, 4.0 bars, connected with the mains through _-in hydrants.
Sprinklers: 160 litres/h at 2.0 bars, full circle, wetting diameter

(coverage) 11 m. Spacing: 5 m along the lateral x 5 m between the
laterals. Precipitation rate: 6.4 mm/h. Number of sprinklers per lateral: 17.
Lateral line discharge: 2 720 litres/h. Total number of laterals: 24.

Number of laterals operating simultaneously (per shift): 6. System
discharge: 16.3 m_/h. Number of shifts per irrigation: 4. Duration of
application per shift: 4.9 h (4 h 50 min). Time required for one irrigation:
19.5 h (all shifts).
System’s operating pressure:

bars
Pressure required at the sprinkler head: 2.00
Friction losses in the lateral: 0.20
Friction losses in the main line: 0.35
Friction losses in the head control: 0.50
Minor local losses: 0.20
Total dynamic head 3.05
Low capacity (micro) sprinkler system

List of equipment needed for the installation


1. 75-mm black HDPE, 6.0 bars 120 m 2.60 312.00
2. 32-mm black LDPE, 4.0 bars 2040 m 0.65 1326.00
3. 75-mm x 2_-in PP adaptor 1 pc 9.00 9.00
4. 32-mm x 1-in PP adaptor 24 pcs 1.25 30.00
5. 75-mm PP end plug 1 pc 9.00 9.00
6. 32-mm PP end plug 24 pcs 1.25 30.00
7. 75-mm x 1-in PP clamp saddle 24 pcs 1.80 43.20
8. 1-in brass shut-off valve 24 pcs 3.50 84.00
9. 1-in nipple 24 pcs 0.40 9.60
10. Low capacity sprinklers, full circle, 160 408 pcs 2.80 1142.40
litres/h at 2.0 bars, 11 m wetted diameter, 2995.20
complete with supporting stake and
connector tube
Head control
13. 2_-in tee (galvanized iron or PVC) 3 pcs 3.50 10.50
14. 2_-in nipple 4 pcs 1.00 4.00
15. 1-in air valve (single automatic) 1 pc 12.00 12.00
16. 2_-in filter screen type 60 mesh 1 pc 180.00 180.00
247.00
Total cost 3242.20

CHAPTER 10:
Minisprinklers
INTRODUCTION
With this method a single minisprinkler emitter is placed for each tree.
The emitter sprays water in a circular pattern under the foliage at low rates
over a limited area around the tree. This approach combines the principles
and advantages of both sprinkler and localized drip irrigation.
Minisprinkler irrigation is a localized micro-irrigation approach which

uses a low pressure system in a solid permanent or seasonal installation.

The control station can be as simple as possible. However, a filtering
device is necessary as in all micro-irrigation installations. The fertilizer
injector is not always needed, as many farmers prefer to apply fertilizer
manually. Nonetheless, the arrangement of the equipment should be one
which will enable the installation of a fertilizer injector at a later stage.
The mains and the submains can be of any kind of permanently

assembled pipes, either on the surface or buried, with hydrants (2-3 in)
rising on the surface, or protected in valve boxes where buried.
The manifold (feeder) pipelines can be either surface-laid HDPE or

buried rigid PVC pipes. Other kinds of pipes can also be used, such as
layflat hose or quick coupling light steel pipes.
The laterals with the minisprinklers are laid along the rows of the trees
near the trunks, one line at each row, with one minisprinkler per tree.
The lateral pipelines are generally (soft) 16, 20, 25 and 32-mm LDPE
pipes, 4.0 bars PN. Buried small-diameter PVC pipes can also be used for
the laterals, with longer connecting small plastic tubes, rising on the surface.
THE MINISPRINKLER EMITTER

The microsprayers used in tree orchards, called minisprinklers, spitters
or micro-jets, are small plastic emitters of the static sprinkler type with a
low-angle small water discharge in the form of fine drops which is
uniformly distributed around the trees in a full or part circle pattern.
They can be of various mechanisms (capped with a rotating needle,

non-capped with a swivel spreader, or with a deflector) with a wide range
of flow rates and water diameters. All kinds have rather small flow
sectional areas (nozzle diameter 1-1.7 mm approximately). The irrigation
water needs to be filtered before it enters the system.
The main performance characteristics of the minisprinklers are:
• operating pressure: 1.5-2.0 bars;

• flow rate: 35-250 litres/h (generally 150 litres/h);
• wetting diameter: 3-6 m;
• precipitation rate: 2-20 mm/h (generally 4-8 mm/h);
• filtration requirements: 60-80 mesh (250-200 microns).
The minisprinkler heads are fixed to small plastic wedges or metallic

rods 20-30 cm above the ground and they are connected to the PE laterals
with 7-9-mm flexible plastic tubes 60-120 cm long and a barbed plunger.
Thus, a complete minisprinkler emitter consists of the head, support wedge
and connecting tube with plunger. All component parts are press-fit,
interchangeable and easily assembled and dismantled.
Minisprinklers with trees

IRRIGATION SCHEDULING
As in all localized micro-irrigation methods, the amount of water stored
in the root zone is restricted as a result of the limited wetted soil volume.
However, with this method the wetted volume of soil exceeds 65 percent
of the total volume, there thus being no urgent need for very frequent
irrigations unless the soil water holding capacity is very low.
The common practice is to irrigate at a fixed interval on a weekly basis

and to apply the accumulated water requirements in the preceding days.
With young trees, the irrigation interval is shorter, twice a week. Farmers in
most arid and semi-arid zones apply water to their tree crops (citrus,
guavas, avocado, etc.) as per Table 22.
TABLE22 - Minisprinkler irrigation scheduling

Age of trees years Litres per tree per day Irrigation interval Average irrigation Average operation
(days) dosage per tree (litres) time (hours)
1-2 8-15 4-6 60 0.5

3-4 20-40 6-7 200 1.6
4-6 50-60 7 380 3.0
7 plus 80-120 7-10 900 7.5

Minisprinklers are mainly used with intensively irrigated fruit trees. They
can also be used with rainfed trees for supplementary irrigation. One
emitter per tree is sufficient; therefore, the emitter spacings are identical to
the tree spacings. The distance between the minisprinklers and the tree
trunks is 30-50 cm depending on the age and size of the tree. For young
trees, the minisprinkler heads can be mounted upside down to reduce the
wetting diameter.
The emitter flow rate should be one which matches the existing conditions
of water availability; the area; the number, age and size of the trees; and the
number of irrigation shifts (irrigation programme). This is not a difficult task,
considering the large range of minisprinkler flow rates available.
The minisprinkler emitters are short-path nozzle-orifice emitters with

fully turbulent flow. Therefore, the variation in minisprinkler discharge
is half the variation in the operating pressure; e.g. a 20-percent difference
in pressure results in a 10-percent difference in discharge, which is
considered the maximum permissible. Table 23 is based on this principle.
TABLE 23 - Maximum number of minisprinklers on the lateral and length

of lateral on level ground. Minisprinkler flow rate at 2.0 bars
70 litres/h 120 litres/h 150 litres/h
Lateral size and Max. no. of Lateral length Max. no. of Lateral length Max. no. of Lateral length
spacing (metres) mini-sprinklers (metres) mini-sprinklers (metres) mini-sprinklers (metres)
16 mm 3 10 30 7 21 6 18
4 9 36 6 24 6 24
5 8 40 6 30 5 25
6 8 42 5 30 5 30
8 7 56 5 40 4 32
20 mm 3 16 48 11 33 9 27
4 15 60 10 40 9 36
5 14 70 9 45 8 40
6 13 78 9 54 8 48
8 11 88 8 64 7 56
25 mm 3 25 75 18 54 15 45
4 22 88 16 64 14 56
5 20 100 15 75 13 65
6 19 114 14 84 12 72
7 18 144 12 96 11 88
Note: All pipes are LDPE, 4.0 bars, to DIN 8072.
Minisprinklers with trees

COST
The total cost for the installation of the system on 1.0 ha, as in the
example design, is US$1 634. A cost analysis shows that the head control
unit costs US$470, i.e. 26 percent of the total. The same unit can serve an
area of at least 3.0 ha. The most important cost item is the PE pipes (tubes),
i.e. the system network, at US$864. This is 55 percent of the total cost for
a 1.0-ha system. For a 3.0-ha complete installation, the pipes represent
about 65 percent of the total cost.
ADVANTAGES
• High irrigation application efficiency. The amount of water is
precisely controlled and only a partial area is wetted. No losses occur
due to evaporation, deep percolation or runoff.
• Salinity control. The water movement through the soil profile is
vertical downwards and the accumulated salts in the root zone can
easily be leached to deeper layers.
• Flexibility and adaptability. It is the most flexible micro-irrigation
system and is easily adopted and managed by farmers. The
technology is simple and the range of equipment relatively low.
• Low labour requirements.
DISADVANTAGES
EXAMPLE DESIGN
Minisprinkler with citrus lemon trees

Area and crop: The plot is 85 x 120 m, i.e. about 1 ha, planted with
mature (12-year-old) citrus lemon trees in rows at a spacing of 6 x 6 m.
There are 20 rows with 14 trees in each row for a total of 280 trees. The
slope of the plot is 0.5 percent from west to east and from north to south.
Soil, water and climate: The soil is of medium texture with a

permeability of approximately 4 mm/h, a water holding capacity of
22 percent, and soil available moisture of 150 mm/m depth. There are no
salinity or toxicity hazards. The source of water is an existing tube-well
with a safe output of 5 litres/s (18 m3/h). The water is of good quality with
the electrical conductivity of the irrigation water ECw = 1.5 dS/m total
salinity. The evaporation pan average readings in mid-July are 7.0 mm/d.
The irrigation season is from April to October.
Crop water requirements and irrigation schedule: A pan reading of 7.0

mm/d multiplied by 0.66 (pan correction factor) gives an ETo of 4.65
mm/d. The crop factor kc is 0.65. Thus, ETc = 4.65 x 0.65 = 3.0 mm/d. The
area shaded by the tree canopy is 70 percent and for calculation purposes
it is taken as 82 percent. Therefore, the daily water requirements are: 3.0 x
0.82 = 2.48 mm/d net. With a system application efficiency of 80 percent,
the gross daily irrigation requirements are: 2.48 x 100 ÷ 80 = 3.1 mm (31
m3). If irrigation takes place every 10 days, the gross irrigation dosage is:
10 x 31 = 310 m3.
The maximum permissible irrigation interval in July with a 50-percent

moisture depletion for a tree root depth of 0.6 m is: 150 x 0.6 x 0.5 ÷ 3.0
= 15 days. The irrigation frequency depends on many factors and in no
case should exceed the maximum permissible irrigation interval.
However, as mentioned, the common practice is to irrigate every seven

days. The seven-day interval accumulates gross irrigation requirements of
217 m3, i.e. the irrigation dosage at peak demand in July.
Mini sprinkler irrigation in fruit trees. (Sample design)

SYSTEM LAYOUT, PERFORMANCE AND HYDRAULICS:

• One lateral irrigating line of 25-mm LDPE pipe, 81 m long, is laid
along each row of trees, with one minisprinkler per tree, i.e. 14
minisprinklers per line. The laterals lines are connected directly to the
main line, a 63-mm HDPE pipe laid along the plot boundaries, which
also serves as a manifold.
• Minisprinkler performance: 120 litres/h flow rate full circle, 2.0 bars,
60 mesh, filtration required.
• Number of minisprinklers per lateral line: 14
• Lateral discharge: 1 680 litres/h
• System discharge: 7-18 m/h
• Total number of laterals: 20
• Maximum number of laterals operating simultaneously: 10
• Number of shifts per irrigation: 2
• Duration of irrigation application per shift: 6.2 hours approximately.
bars
Pressure required for minisprinkler operation 2.00
Friction losses along the lateral line 0.35
Friction losses along the main line 0.25
Friction losses in the head control unit 0.50
Minor local losses 0.20
3.30
Difference in elevation 0.15
Mini sprinkler system

Equipment required for the system installation


1. 63-mm black HDPE pipe, 6.0 bars 120 m 1.80 216.00
2. 25-mm black LDPE pipe, 4.0 bars 1620 m 0.40 648.00
3. 63-mm x 2_-in PP adaptor 1 pc 6.00 6.00
4. 25-mm x _-in PP adaptor 20 pcs 1.00 20.00
5. 63-mm PP end plug 1 pc 6.00 6.00
7. _-in brass shut-off valve 20 pcs 2.30 46.00
8. Minisprinkler full circle, 120 litres/h, 2.0 bars 280 pcs 0.70 196.00
1164.00
Head control
12. 2_-in galvanized iron nipple 2 pcs 1.00 2.00
13. _-in galvanized iron nipple 2 pcs 0.25 0.50
14. 2_-in galvanized iron tee 3 pcs 3.50 10.50
15. 1-in air valve automatic single 1 pc 12.00 12.00
16. 2_-in filter (screen or disk type) 60 mesh 1 pc 180.00 180.00
250 60
Total cost 1415.00

CHAPTER 11:
Bubbler irrigation of trees
INTRODUCTION
Bubbler irrigation is a localized, low pressure, solid permanent
installation system used in tree groves. Each tree has a round or square
basin which is flooded with water during irrigation. The water infiltrates
into the soil and wets the root zone. The water is applied through
bubblers. These are small emitters placed in the basins which discharge
water at flow rates of 100-250 litres/h. Each basin can have one or two
bubblers as required.

The system layout is the typical one of all pressurized systems.
It consists of a simple head control unit without filters and fertilizer
apparatus. The mains and the submains are usually buried rigid PVC pipes,
with hydrants rising on surface. The manifolds and laterals are also often
buried rigid PVC pipes. The bubblers are placed above ground, supported
on a stake, and connected to the laterals with a small flexible tube rising
on the surface, or they can be fitted on small PVC risers connected to the
buried laterals.
The difference between bubbler systems and other micro-irrigation

installations is that whereas in the other installations the lateral lines are
small (12-32 mm), the bubblers are usually 50 mm (due to the lateral high
discharge). This is why the laterals need to be underground.
BUBBLER EMITTERS
The bubblers are small plastic head emitters with a threaded joint.
They were originally designed for use on risers above ground for flood
irrigation of small ornamental areas. In recent decades they have been
used successfully in several countries for the irrigation of fruit trees.
They perform well under a wide range of pressures delivering water in the
form of a fountain, small stream or tiny umbrella in the vicinity of the emitter.
The main performance characteristics are:
• Operating pressure: 1.0-3.0 bars;

• Flow rate (discharge): 100-250 litres/h (adjustable);
• No filtration is required.
There is a wide range of flow rates up to 800 litres/h; this paper

presents only low discharge bubblers.
With bubbler irrigation the percentage of the root soil volume wetted is
about 80 percent. Thus, there are no restrictions on the way the irrigation
programme is prepared. This can be either fixed depletion or fixed interval,
taking into consideration the soil water holding capacity, the availability of
the irrigation water, the size of flow, etc.

Bubbler irrigation is mainly applied in fruit tree orchards. The most
important criteria, apart from the routine design criteria, are the system’s
special features and characteristics.
Bubbler emitters discharge water on the same spot of ground at high

rates. Thus, for a uniform distribution over the basin area, a minimum of
land preparation is needed. In sandy soils, the water infiltrates at the point
of application and high losses occur due to deep percolation. In fine soils
with low infiltration rates, the water ponds and evaporation occurs.
Mature trees always take two bubbler emitters, one on each side, in
order to ensure an acceptable uniformity of application. The flow rate per
tree is relatively high compared with other micro-irrigation techniques at
about 500 litres/h. Thus, the diameter of an 80-m-long lateral for a single
row of 13 trees spaced at 6-m intervals should be 50 mm.
The common practice is to have one lateral per two rows of trees with
small flexible tubes extended on both sides and connected to the bubblers.
In this way, the same size of lateral pipe (50 mm), placed (buried) between
two rows can serve 12 trees on each side (24 trees in total) spaced at 6-m
intervals with 48 bubbler emitters.
The size of the equipment for the installation should always be able to
accommodate the flows required for mature trees.
For longer laterals, pressure compensated bubblers can be used, though

this involves higher energy consumption and more expensive higher
pressure pipes.
COST
The cost for a complete permanent installation of this system is about
US$3 900/ha, of which US$70 are needed for the head control unit, i.e.
less than 2 percent. The cost of the pipes (all rigid PVC) is US$1 250 plus
US$970 for the trench (excavation and backfilling), i.e. approximately
56 percent of the total cost. The bubblers with the connecting small
flexible tubes cost US$980, or 25 percent of the total cost of the system.
The cost per tree of the laterals with the bubblers is about US$6.60.
ADVANTAGES
• High irrigation application efficiency, up to 75 percent, resulting in
considerable water savings, with absolute control of the irrigation
water from the source to the tree basin.
• All the piping network is buried, so there are no field operations
problems.
• The technology is simple and no highly sophisticated equipment is
used. The system can be operated by unskilled farmers and labourers.
No filters or fertilizer injectors are needed.
DISADVANTAGES
• Small water flows cannot be used as in other micro-irrigation systems.
• In sandy soils with high infiltration rates, it is difficult to achieve a
uniform water distribution over the tree basins.
EXAMPLE DESIGN
Bubbler irrigation with fruit trees

Area and crop: The plot dimensions are 120 x 85 m (1.0 ha) with
mature guava trees in rows at a spacing of 6 x 6 m. There are 20 rows with
14 trees in each row for a total 280 trees. The slope of the plot is
0.5 percent from west to east and from north to south.
Soil, water and climate: Medium texture soil with an infiltration rate of
approximately 8 mm/h and a soil available moisture of 150 mm/m depth.
The source of water is an existing tube-well with a safe output of 25 m3/h
of suitable quality. The evaporation pan average readings in July are
7 mm/d.
Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling: The pan reading of

7.0 mm/d multiplied by 0.66 (pan correction factor) gives an ETo of 4.65
mm/d. The crop factor kc is 0.65, thus ETc = 4.65 x 0.65 = 3.0 mm/d. The
area shaded by the tree canopy is 70 percent and for calculation purposes
it is taken as 82 percent. Therefore, the daily water requirements are: 3.0 x
m3). If irrigation takes place every ten days, the gross irrigation dosage is:
10 x 33 = 330 m3.
The maximum permissible irrigation interval in July on a 50-percent

moisture depletion for a tree root depth of 0.6 m is: 150 x 0.6 x 0.5 ÷ 3.0
System layout, performance and hydraulics: The main line also serves as
a manifold (feeder) line. The laterals are buried 50-mm rigid PVC pipes
laid between every other row of trees with 12-mm flexible tubes rising on
both sides and extended to the tree basins with two bubblers in each tree
basin. The main characteristics of the bubblers are:
• flow rate: 225 litres/h at 2.0 bars;

• number of bubblers per lateral: 56 (each lateral irrigates two rows of
trees, i.e. 28 trees);
• lateral discharge: 12 600 litres/h (12.6 m3/h);
• total number of laterals: 10;
• system discharge: 25 m_/h;
• number of laterals operating simultaneously: 2;
• number of shifts per irrigation: 5;
• operating hours per shift: 2.64 h (3 h 26 min);
• time to complete one irrigation: 13.2 h (13 h 15 min);
Pressure at the bubbler bars 2.00

Friction losses in the lateral 0.34
Friction losses in the main line 0.60
Friction losses in the head control unit 0.20
3.34
Difference in elevation 0.10
Bubbler in fruit trees (example design)
Equipment required for the system installation


1. 75-mm uPVC pipe, 6.0 bars, push-fit joint 120 m 1.90 228.00
2. 50-mm uPVC pipe, 6.0 bars, push-fit joint 850 m 1.20 1020.00
5. 75-mm x 2_-in PP adaptor 1 pcs 9.00 9.00
6. 50-mm x 2-in PP adaptors 10 pcs 4.00 40.00
7. 75-mm PP end plug 1 pc 9.00 9.00
8. 50-mm PP end plug 10 pcs 4.00 40.00
9. 2-in nipple 10 pcs 1.00 10.00
11. 1-in PVC tee threaded 140 pcs 1.00 140.00
12. 1-in x _-in PVC bushing 280 pcs 0.60 168.00
13. 12-mm PP tee barbed 280 pcs 0.30 84.00
14. 12-mm x _-in PP adaptor barbed 280 pcs 0.25 70.00
15. 12-mm soft flexible PVC tube 1120 m 0.25 280.00
16. Bubbler set, 225 litres/h at 2.0 bars (adjustable) 560 pcs 0.70 392.00
17. Valve box, plastic 31 x 50 x 40 cm 10 pcs 20.00 200.00
18. Trench excavation and backfilling 970 m 1.00 970.00
3956.50
Head control
21. 2_-in tee (galvanized iron or PVC) 3 pcs 3.50 10.50
22. 2_-in nipple 4 pcs 1.00 4.00
23. 1-in single air valve 1 pc 12.00 12.00
67.50
Total cost 4024.00

Bubbler irrigation
CHAPTER 12:
Drip irrigation
INTRODUCTION
In drip irrigation, water is applied to each plant separately in small,
frequent, precise quantities through dripper emitters. It is the most
advanced irrigation method with the highest application efficiency. The
water is delivered continuously in drops at the same point and moves into
the soil and wets the root zone vertically by gravity and laterally by
capillary action. The planted area is only partially wetted.
In medium-heavy soils of good structure, the lateral movement of the

water beneath the surface is greater than in sandy soils. Moreover, when
the discharge rate of the dripper exceeds the soil intake rate and hydraulic
conductivity, the water ponds on the surface. This results in the moisture
being distributed more laterally rather than vertically. The following water
lateral spread values are indicative:
Type of soil Average radius of water spread

Light texture 0.30 m
Medium texture 0.65 m
Fine texture 1.20 m

A complete drip irrigation system consists of a head control unit, main
and submain pipelines, hydrants, manifolds and lateral lines with dripper
emitters.
Control station (head control unit): Its features and equipment depend
on the system’s requirements. Usually, it consists of the shut-off, air and
check (non-return) valves, a filtering unit, a fertilizer injector and other
smaller accessories.
Main and submain pipelines: The main and submain pipelines are
usually buried, especially when made of rigid PVC.
Hydrants: Fitted on the mains or the submains and equipped with 2-3-
in shut-off valves, they are capable of delivering all or part of the piped
water flow to the manifold feeder lines. They are placed in valve boxes for
protection.
Manifold (feeder) pipelines: These are usually 50, 63 or 75 mm. Where

made of HDPE, they are attached to the hydrants through compression-
type, quick release, PP connector fittings and remain on the surface.
Dripper laterals: These are always made of 12-20-mm soft black LDPE,
PN 3.0-4.0 bars. They are fitted to the manifolds with small PP connector
fittings at fixed positions and laid along the plant rows. They are equipped
with closely spaced dripper emitters or emission outlets.
The mains, manifold and dripper laterals
In general, the distribution network (mains, submains and manifolds)

consists of thermoplastic pipes and fittings (PVC, PE, PP, etc.), PN 6.0 and
10.0 bars. However, for the mains, submains and manifolds, other kind of
pipes can also be used, such as quick coupling light steel pipes. In the
past, permanently assembled buried rigid PVC pipes were used as mains
and submains, with hydrants rising on the surface at desired points. More
recently, surface-laid 50-75-mm HDPE pipes, PN 6.0 bars, have been
used for the whole distribution network in smallholdings. Larger diameter
PE pipes are also available but cost more than rigid PVC pipes of the
same size.
The system’s pressure ranges from 2.0 to 3.0 bars. Therefore, all drip
irrigation systems can be classed as low pressure, localized, solid
permanent or seasonal installation systems.
DRIP EMITTERS (DRIPPERS)

The drippers are small-sized emitters made of high quality plastics. They
are mounted on small soft PE pipes (hoses) at frequent spaces. Water enters
the dripper emitters at approximately 1.0 bar and is delivered at zero
pressure in the form of continuous droplets at low rates of 1.0-24 litres/h.
Drippers are divided into two main groups according to the way they
dissipate energy (pressure):
• orifice type, with tiny flow areas of 0.2-0.35 mm2;

• long-path type, with relatively larger flow areas of 1-4.5 mm2.
Both types are manufactured with various mechanisms and principles

of operation, such as a vortex diode, a diaphragm or a floating disc for
the orifice drippers, and a labyrinthine path, of various shapes, for the
long-path ones. All the drippers now available on the market are
turbulent flow ones.
Drippers are also characterized by the type of connection to the lateral:

on-line, i.e. inserted in the pipe wall by the aid of a punch; or in-line,
where the pipe is cut to insert the dripper manually or with a machine.
On-line multi-exit drippers are also available with four to six ‘spaghetti’
type tube outlets.
Specifications that should be stated by the supplier are:
• dripper discharge (flow rate) at the recommended operating pressure,

usually 1.0 bar;
• dripper discharge versus pressure variations and the optimum length
of dripper line with different spacing and slopes;
• type of connection;
• filtration requirements;
• Coefficient of variation (cv) (the drippers’ manufacturing variability).
Dripper emitters which are available as separate items, not built into the
pipe, can be referred to as separate source point drippers.
DRIP TAPES
These are thin-walled integral drip lines with emission points spaced
10, 20, 30, 45 cm or any other distance apart, delivering lower quantities
of water than the usual drippers at very low pressures, i.e. 0.4-1.0 litres/h
at 0.6-1.0 bar. They are integrated drip lines where the drippers are built in
the pipe walls at the desired spacing during the manufacturing process.
They are ready-made dripper laterals with a very high uniformity of

application. Drip tapes are made of LDPE or other soft PE materials in
various diameters from 12 to 20 mm and in several wall thicknesses (0.10-
1.25 mm). Thanks to a filtration system incorporated inside the tubing, they
are less susceptible to mechanical and biological blockages than
conventional drippers are.
POROUS-WALL PIPES
These pipes are small-sized (about 16 mm) thin-walled porous flexible
hoses made from PE fibres, PVC, ABS or rubber. They permit water and
nutrients under low pressure to pass from inside the tube, by transpiration,
and irrigate the crops. The porous pipeline discharge is not accurate
because the size of the pores varies and is not stable. They are used as
lateral drip lines beneath the surface. Their application is limited although
they do offer some advantages.
FILTRATION
The filtration of the irrigation water is of major importance for the
normal application of this system. The solid content in the water must be
removed through effective filtration in order to avoid blockage damage in
the drippers. The kind of filtration depends on the impurities contained in
the water and the degree of filtration required.
In drip irrigation, the soil volume in the root zone is only partly wetted
and the availability of moisture restricted. The soil moisture depletion
should not exceed 40 percent of the soil available moisture in the late
growing stages of vegetables and fruit trees, and 20-30 percent in the early
stages for vegetables. However, in order to obtain higher yields, the
common practice is to irrigate every day in the later stages. Proper
irrigation scheduling can be arranged by using tensiometers to indicate the
soil moisture tension in the root zone. This should range from 10 cbars for
light soils to 25 cbars for heavy soils.

Drip irrigation is mainly applied in intensive cultivations planted in
rows (vegetables, fruit trees, melons, bananas, papayas, flowers, grapes,
etc.). It is not recommended for potatoes, salad leafy vegetables,
groundnuts, alfalfa and other dense planted crops, although it can be
applied successfully.
The drippers and/or the lateral spacing are directly related to the crop
planting spacing. In most vegetable crops, the dripper spacing is identical
to the crop planting spacing, i.e. one dripper per plant and one dripper
lateral per row of cultivation. With drip tapes there are several emission
points per plant in order to ensure a continuous wetted strip along the row.
Here, the arrangement is one drip tape per row of crop.
Under drip irrigation, most of the vegetables develop the bulk of

their roots in the first 30 cm depth of the soil profile below the emission
point. Thus, if both the crop and the emission points along the rows are
closely spaced, most of the soil volume can be sufficiently wetted with
optimum results.
Where the crop is planted closely in beds, one dripper lateral per two
rows might be applied with good results. Other crops planted in double
rows (celery, capsicum and hot peppers) are also irrigated by one dripper
lateral placed in between the rows.
In widely spaced tree orchards, the dripper spacing differs from that for
vegetables. As the soil surface is partially wetted, only a part of the root
system is being wetted too. The main consideration is to wet the largest
possible volume of soil per tree (root system volume), not less than
35 percent, and at the same time to avoid deep percolation, beyond
50-60 cm, which is the average root depth of fruit trees under drip
irrigation. The above percentage corresponds to an area of approximately
10-12 m2 of soil surface with a tree spacing of 5 x 6 m or 6 x 6 m. Based
on this consideration and the indicative lateral water spread figures, the
dripper lateral design arrangements in tree orchards can be as follows:
• Single line per row of trees, with 4-8 drippers at approximately every
0.8-1.2 m along the line;
• Circular layout, or ‘loop around the tree’. In this arrangement there is
a single line per row and for each tree there is either a smaller
extension line with 5-8 drippers around the tree, or a multi-exit
dripper with 4-6 small emission tubes extending radially around the
tree. The circle diameter can be from 1.2 to 2.2 m. Newly planted
trees can have two drippers only on both sides of the trunk, 35-40 cm
away from the trunk.
• Double lines per row of plants. This design is applied in banana
plantations, with two dripper lines per row, one on each side, set
approximately 1.2-1.6 m apart. The drippers along the lines are
spaced at 0.7-1.2 m accordingly.
Double lines with bananas
COST
The cost for a complete drip irrigation installation is US$4 000-
5 000/ha. The cost of the pipes (all tubing, laterals included) is about
US$2 000, i.e. 45 percent of the total cost. The head control unit accounts
for 30 percent of the total cost.
ADVANTAGES
• Water savings. The planted area is partially wetted with precisely
controlled water amounts. Thus, large quantities of irrigation water
are saved and the irrigated area can be expanded with the same
water supply, resulting in higher income per unit of water.
• Utilization of saline water resources. With drip irrigation, low soil
moisture tensions in the root zone can be maintained continuously
with frequent applications. The dissolved salts accumulate at the
periphery of the wetted soil mass, and the plants can easily obtain the
moisture needed. This enables the use of saline water containing
more than 3 000 mg/litre TDS, which would be unsuitable for use
with other methods.
• Use on marginal fields. Small irregular marginal plots, remote

because of land fragmentation with varying topography and shallow
soil full of rocks, can be productive under drip irrigation techniques
that deliver the required amounts of water and nutrients directly to
the plants.
• Low labour operating requirements, reduced cultivation and weed
control, and uninterrupted operation are among the other advantages
of this irrigation method.
DISADVANTAGES
• Good irrigation management is essential for skilled system operation,
application of fertigation and maintenance of the head control unit
equipment (filters, injectors, etc.).
• Emitter blockages. The first limitation on the successful introduction of
drip irrigation techniques in developing countries is mechanical
clogging of the emitters because of insufficient filtration of impurities
in the irrigation water.
EXAMPLE DESIGN
Drip irrigation in watermelons

Area and crop: The plot dimensions are 120 x 83 m (about 1 ha),
planted in the open with watermelons in rows 2.20 m apart and spaced
along the rows at 0.5 m. The plot is divided into two parts, each with 54
rows 40.5 m long. There are 81 plants per row. Thus, there are
4 374 plants in each part, i.e. 8 748 plants in the whole plot and 108
plant rows.
Soil, water and climate: Heavy texture soil with low permeability
(approximately 6 mm/h) and a high water holding capacity. The source of
water is a nearby open water reservoir; it is of good quality but with a high
impurity content of organic origin (algae). The crop growing season is from
early April to early July; the evaporation pan average maximum readings
are 3.3 mm/d in April, 4.64 mm/d in May and 6.13 mm/d in June.
Crop water requirements and irrigation schedule: The maximum

irrigation requirements of the watermelons are during the mid-season stage
and the yield formation in late May-early June, when the kc value is 1.0.
The average reading for the two months is 5.38 mm/d, which multiplied by
a correction factor of 0.66 gives an ETo of 3.55 mm/d. As kc = 1.0, ETc =
3.55 mm/d. The system’s application efficiency is 90 percent.
Therefore, the daily gross requirements at peak are:

3.55 x 0.90 ÷ 100 = 3.94 mm/d
3.94 x 10 x 1 ha = 39.4 m3/d
The irrigation scheduling in late May is not arranged at a fixed

depletion of the available soil moisture, but at a fixed interval of one day.
Therefore, irrigation takes place every day and the dose is 39.5 m3. At the
early stages of the growing season, the irrigation interval ranges from 4 to
2 days.
System layout: The system consists of a head control equipped with a gravel filter and
a strainer, a fertilizer injector and a regulating valve. The 63-mm HDPE main line is
laid on surface along the middle of the field. On this main line (which also serves as a
manifold), there are 54 _-in hydrants at a spacing of 2.20 m. The laterals, connected to
the hydrants, are 16-mm LDPE pipes laid perpendicular to the main line on both sides,
one per row of plants. Separate point source drippers are inserted in the laterals at a
spacing of 0.5 m, one per plant.
DRIPPER CHARACTERISTICS:
• on-line: 4 litres/h at 1.0 bar;
• filtration requirements: 160 mesh.
LATERAL CHARACTERISTICS:
• pipe: 16-mm LDPE, 4.0 bars PN, length 41 m;
• number of drippers: 81;
• water discharge: 324 litres/h;
• total number of laterals: 108;
• total number of drippers 8 748.
System flow and operation

For the simultaneous operation of all the laterals, the required flow is
35 m3/h. If one irrigation is to be completed in three shifts, the flow of the
system is 12 m3/h, a reasonable size of flow for an area of 1 ha. The duration
of application per shift at peak demand for an irrigation dosage of 39.5 m3 is
1 h 2 min. The time required to complete one irrigation is 3 h 4 min.
Operating pressure
The required pressure for the normal operation of the system is:
Pressure for the drippers bars 1.00

Friction losses in the dripper laterals 0.10
Friction losses in the main line 0.43
Friction losses in the head control 0.90
Total dynamic head (pressure) of the system 2.65
Equipment for system installation


1. 63-mm HDPE pipe, 6.0 bars 180 m 1.80 324.00
2. 16-mm LDPE pipe, 4.0 bars 4430 m 0.32 2302.60
3. Drippers, 4 litres/h,1 bar 8750 pcs 0.06 525.00
4. 63-mm x 2-in PP adaptor 1 pc 6.00 6.00
5. 16-mm x _-in PP adaptor 108 pcs 0.80 86.40
6. 63-mm PP elbow 1 pc 8.00 8.00
7. 63-mm PP end plug 1 pc 6.00 6.00
9. _-in nipple (galvanized iron or PVC ) 54 pcs 0.25 13.50
10. _-in tee (galvanized iron or PVC ) 54 pcs 0.40 21.60
11. _-in brass shut-off valves 108 pcs 2.30 248.60
3609.70
Head control
12. 2-in brass check valve 1 pc 13.00 13.00
15. 2-in tee (galvanized iron or PVC) 3 pcs 2.00 6.00
16. 2-in nipple 4 pcs 1.00 4.00
17. _-in nipple 4 pcs 0.25 1.00
18. 1-in air valve 1 pc 12.00 12.00
19. 2-in gravel filter complete 1 pc 600.00 600.00
20. 2-in disk filter, c/with gauges, etc. 1 pc 180.00 180.00
21. Fertilizer injector complete, up to 150 litres/h 1 pc 500.00 500.00
1344.00
Total cost 4953.70

Drip irrigation in watermelons (Sample design)

Drip irrigation
CHAPTER 13:
Fertigation
INTRODUCTION
In micro-irrigation, fertilizers can be applied through the system with
the irrigation water directly to the region where most of the plants roots
develop. This process is called fertigation and it is done with the aid of
special fertilizer apparatus (injectors) installed at the head control unit of
the system, before the filter. The element most commonly applied is
nitrogen. However, applications of phosphorous and potassium are
common for vegetables. Fertigation is a necessity in drip irrigation, though
not in the other micro-irrigation installations, although it is highly
recommended and easily performed.
FERTILIZER INJECTORS
Several techniques have been developed for applying fertilizers through
the irrigation systems and many types of injectors are available on the
market. There are two main techniques: the ordinary closed tank; and the
injector pump. Both systems are operated by the system’s water pressure.
The injector pumps are mainly either Venturi type or piston pumps. The
closed tanks are always installed on a bypass line, while the piston pumps
can be installed either in-line or on a bypass line.
1 Fertilizer (closed) tank. This is a cylindrical, epoxy coated, pressurized

metal tank, resistant to the system’s pressure, and connected as a bypass
to the supply pipe of the head control. It operates by differential
pressure created by a partially closed valve, placed on the pipeline
between the inlet and the outlet of the tank. Part of the flow is diverted
to the tank entering at the bottom. It mixes with the fertilizer solution
and the dilution is ejected into the system. The dilution ratio and the
rate of injection are not constant. The concentration of fertilizer is high
at the beginning and very low at the end of the operation. However,
this apparatus is still in service on a very small scale in some countries
because of its low cost and easy manufacture.
2 Venturi type. This is based on the principle of the Venturi tube. A

pressure difference is needed between the inlet and the outlet of the
injector. Therefore, it is installed on a bypass arrangement placed on an
open container with the fertilizer solution. The rate of injection is very
sensitive to pressure variations, and small pressure regulators are
sometimes needed for a constant ejection. Friction losses are

approximately 1.0 bar. The injectors are made of plastic in sizes from
_ to 2 in and with injection rates of 40-2 000 litres/h. They are relatively
cheap compared to other injectors.
3 Piston pump. This type of injector is powered by the water pressure of

the system and can be installed directly on the supply line and not on a
bypass line. The system’s flow activates the pistons and the injector is
operated, ejecting the fertilizer solution from a container, while
maintaining a constant rate of injection. The rate varies from 9 to
2 500 litres/h depending on the pressure of the system and it can be
adjusted by small regulators. Made of durable plastic material, these
injectors are available in various models and sizes. They are more
expensive than the Venturi-type injectors.
The Fertiliser Injectors

FERTILIZER APPLICATION
The fertilizer solution in liquid form is fed into the system at low rates
repeatedly, on a continuous basis, during irrigation. The flow rate of the
injector should be such that the calculated amount of solution is supplied
at a constant rate during the irrigation cycle, i.e. starting fertigation right
after the system starts operation and finishing a few minutes before the
operation ends. Regarding the choice of the fertilizers, apart from the
amount and the kind, other parameters need to be considered, such as
solubility, acidity, compatibility and cost.
Solubility. The fertilizer stock solution should always be dissolved in a

separate container and then poured into the suction tank. The types of
fertilizer should be highly soluble and when dissolved in water must not
form scums or sediments which might cause emitter clogging problems.
The solution should always be agitated, well stirred and any sludge
deposited in the bottom of the tank should be periodically removed. The
injector suction pipe should not rest on the bottom of the tank. Hot water
helps dissolve dry fertilizers. Their degree of solubility varies according to
the type and the country of origin. Potassium nitrate (13-0-46) seems
to have a low solubility of approximately 1:8, i.e. 1 kg of dry fertilizer in 8
litres of water. The solubility of potassium chloride (0-0-62) is 1:3, while
ammonium nitrate (34-0-0) and calcium nitrate (15.5-0-0) have a high
solubility of approximately 1:1. Dry phosphorous fertilizers have a lower
solubility than nitrates at about 1:2.5.
Acidity. The acidity produced by the several forms of nitrogen varies

from type to type and is greatly affected by the kind of irrigation water and
the type of soil. At least one check on the soil pH should be carried out at
the beginning of the season and one at the end. Furthermore, a complete
ionic analysis of the water is necessary.
Quantity. A simple method for calculating the amount of fertilizer

required for fertigation is to divide the annual application by the number
of irrigations. Various recipes nave been developed in different countries
based on the conventional nutrition dosages. The total quantity of
fertilizers applied is also related to the length of the growing season and
the irrigation requirements.
Table 24 - presents some of the recipes applied in Cyprus for fertigation

on a continuous basis, at a constant rate and feeding, during irrigation.
TABLE 24 - Net concentration of fertilizers in ppm

(mg/litre, or net fertilizer g/m3 irrigation water)
Crop N P K
Citrus 50 12 15
Bananas 50 15 40
Tomatoes 180 50 250
Cucumbers 200 50 200
Bell peppers 170 60 200
Cabbage 100 60 200
Onions 100 50 150
Squashes 200 50 200
Potatoes 150 50 180
Groundnuts 120 50 200
Watermelons 150 50 150
Note: The above recipes vary in accordance with the fertilizer reserves
in the soil.
Preparing the fertilizer solution
The above recipes are recommended for irrigation water with very low
salinity. As a rule of thumb for average quality water, the maximum
fertilizer concentration, which is added to the irrigation total salinity,
should have an EC of about 0.5 dS/m. For higher concentrations, the
salinity level in the soil root zone must be checked frequently and the
application adjusted according to the soil test results.
EXAMPLE: FERTIGATION WITH VEGETABLES

Crop: Tomatoes;
Concentration of NPK fertilizers: 180-50-250;
Type of fertilizers available: Ammonium nitrate (33.5-0-0) NH4NO3
Diammonium phosphate DAP (16-48- 0)
(NH4)2HPO4
Potassium chloride (0-0-60) K2O;
System flow: 23 m3/h;

Irrigation dosage: 18 m3;
Duration of application: 1.5 hours.
Phosphate and potassium are given in oxides, therefore they are

converted into P and K elements by multiplying by 0.4364 and 0.8302
respectively.
Calculation of the amounts of fertilizers needed in grams per cubic

metre of water:
K = 250 x 100 ÷ (60 x 0.8302) = 0.502 kg K2O.

P = 50 x 100 ÷ (48 x 0.4364) = 0.239 kg (NH4)2HPO4. This amount
also provides 38 g of N.
N = (180-38) x 100 ÷ 33.5 = 0.424 kg NH4NO3.
Thus, for 18 m3 of water, which is the irrigation dosage, the exact

quantities are:
0.502 kg x 18 = 9.036 kg K2O

0.239 kg x 18 = 4.30 kg (NH4)2HPO4
0.424 kg x 18 = 7.63 kg NH4NO3
The amount of water needed for the dilution of the above quantity of
fertilizers is estimated by taking into account the solubility of the fertilizers:
9.036 kg K2O x 3 litres 27.00 litres

4.30 kg Ca (H2PO4) x 2.5 litres 10.75 litres
7.63 kg NH4NO3 x 1 litre 7.63 litres
Minimum amount of water needed 45.00 litres
If the fertilizers are diluted in 60 litres of water and the duration of the
irrigation is 1.5 h (1 h 30 min), then the injection rate should be about 40-45
litres/h in order to complete the fertigation in approximately 1 h 25 min.
CHAPTER 14:
Low-cost hose irrigation
INTRODUCTION
In many countries the low-cost hose irrigation installations are popular
among small and part-time farmers for the irrigation of many crops. This
method of irrigation is an improvement on the traditional furrow-basin and
furrow irrigation approaches. The water is applied to the basins and the
furrows through _-1_-in plastic hoses which are portable, ‘hand-move’, and
can be extended in various directions. When one furrow or basin has been
filled up with water, the hose is moved manually to the next one and so on.
A considerable engineering development has turned this practice from

an old open surface method into a highly efficient closed pipe modern
irrigation method. It is a localized method using a low pressure system,
and a semi-permanent hand-move installation. It has been applied on a
large scale and used extensively in many southern Mediterranean countries
of the semi-arid zone in family managed smallholdings of about 1 ha.
Properly designed hose basin systems for trees have also been successfully
installed and operated on farms up to 20 ha.


The layout of the system and the hydraulics of design and operation are
almost the same as in the other closed pipe low pressure systems. On the
main pipeline, there are hydrants with movable or permanently laid
laterals running along the crop rows. Long hoses are connected on these
lateral lines at a regular wide spacing to deliver water to each basin or
furrow separately. Each hose covers many basins or furrows according to
its length.
The system’s piping network is also similar to the other low pressure
irrigation systems. It can be either a complete installation with all
component parts, as in the sprinkler and the micro-irrigation installations,
or a simple one. A hose irrigation system usually consists only of a main
pipeline of any kind, 50-90-mm (2-3 in) uPVC, HDPE or layflat, 4.0-6.0
bars, which also serves as a manifold, with hydrants to which the laterals
are connected. The laterals can be of any kind of 50-63-mm pipe but are
usually LDPE, 4.0 bars. Smaller diameter long plastic hoses are connected
on the laterals. Sometimes, the hoses can be fed directly from the source
of the water, which can be a small reservoir at a higher level, a low
capacity pump, or a tap. There is no need for filters, injectors or other
accessories for a head control.
HOSES
The hoses are the well-known and widely available garden hoses. They
are elasticized soft small diameter (_-1_ in) flexible PVC tubes with plain
ends. Soft black 20-32-mm PE hoses (LDPE, 2.5-4.0 bars), are also used.
The length of the hoses varies from 18 to 36 m and the water flow is 1.5-
8.0 m3/h. Thus, each hose can irrigate an area of approximately
600-2 100 m2 respectively, covered with a number of small basins or
furrows according to the cultivation. These sizes and lengths have been
found to be the most convenient for farmers. The average flow
characteristics for 24-m hoses with flow velocities up to 2.0 m/s2 are
presented in Table 25.
TABLE 25 - Flow characteristics of 24-m hoses
Kind of hose Nom. diameter Average flow - m3/h Pressure losses - bars
Flexible PVC _ in 2.0 0.40

1 in 3.6 0.30
1_ in 5.7 0.20
1_ in 8.0 0.25
Soft polyethylene (LDPE) 20 mm 1.5 0.85

25 mm 2.5 0.70
32 mm 4.5 0.40
SYSTEM TYPES AND DESIGN CRITERIA

The types of hose irrigation systems refer to the characteristics of the
water delivery hoses, their position in the field, the general operating
procedure and the method of water distribution over the land (basin or
furrow). In tree groves, each tree has a basin, whose shape and size is
mainly determined by the age and the spacing of the trees. With close
planting spacing, two to six trees can be in one larger rectangular basin
along the row. With vegetables and other field crops, the land slope, type
of soil, crop, water availability and farming practices determine the
dimensions of the basins and furrows.
All types have movable water delivery hoses which are transferred or
dragged from one spot to another. In this sense, there are four different
types or variations of the system.
Conventional hose basin for trees. With a common tree spacing of

6 x 6 m, one 24-m-long hose can irrigate 36 tree basins in all directions in
an area of about 1 300 m2. The laterals are placed along the rows 36 m
apart (every six rows) and the hoses are fitted on the laterals every six trees
(36 m). Thus, the hose spacing is 36 x 36 m. With other planting spacings,
the lateral and hose spacings differ, but not greatly, from the above. Flexible
PVC garden hoses about 1_ in in diameter have proved to be the most
suitable kind, as they can easily cross the field perpendicularly and
diagonally without being damaged (cracked). The hoses are moved by hand
from one basin to another.

Drag hose basin for trees. This type of system is an improvement on the
conventional one as it is easier to design and operate. The water delivery
hoses are 20-32-mm soft black LDPE pipes, 2.5 or 4.0 bars, connected to
the laterals. Each hose can irrigate two or four rows of trees on both sides
of the lateral line. The hose can be 20-40 m long, and the area covered
from 900 to 1 800 m2. It is called the drag hose system because at the
beginning of each irrigation the hoses are extended to the distant end
basins and then moved to the other basins by dragging them backwards.
Hose basin for trees

Hose basin for field crops. In this system, the hoses cannot cross the
basins because they may damage the crop. The size of the small basins is
usually 12 x 12 m, 6 x 12 m or 6 x 18 m. The laterals are placed at a
closer spacing than for trees, in relation to the basins’ dimensions and
arrangement. The hoses can be of any kind, soft PVC or LDPE, in the
appropriate lengths (18-24 m) and sizes (25 mm-1_ in). For example, with
basins 6 m wide and 12 m long, the lateral lines are placed along the
slope direction 24 m apart (every four basins). The 24-m hoses are
connected to the laterals every three basin lengths (36 m), irrigating four
basins upstream, two on each side, and eight basins downstream, four on
either side, for a total of 12 basins, in an area of approximately 865 m2.
The hose spacing in this example is 24 x 36 m. However, it can vary as
required. The hoses can be moved from one basin to another either by
dragging them backwards or by carrying them.
Hose furrow for vegetables. Similar to the hose basin for vegetables,
here the lateral lines are placed along the slope with the hoses connected
at the head of the furrows. They are extended perpendicular to the lateral
on either side delivering water to a number of furrows, as a drag system.
The hoses are generally 25-32-mm soft black LDPE or 1_-in soft PVC
garden hoses. The spacing of the hoses along the lateral is the same as the
length of the furrows. The length of the furrows depends mainly on the
type of soil, the slope, and the size of flow. With these systems, the furrows
are usually short, 18-30 m long, 15 cm deep and about 1 m apart. The
factors that influence the furrow layout are: farming practices; size and
shape of the field; and irrigation application depth. The lower the depth of
application and the size of the flow, the shorter the length; and the steeper
the slope, the longer the furrow. In sandy soils, the furrow is shorter than in
heavy clay soils. In medium texture soils, the following approximate
relationship between slope and size of flow can be considered:
Slope %: 0.3 0.6 1.0 1.3 1.5

Size of flow m3/h: 8.0 4.0 2.25 1.75 1.5
Hose irrigation for vegetables & field crops

Hose positions and movements
In small basins, the flow can be the minimum, while in large ones, the
flow should be the maximum possible as the rate of application is
proportional to the irrigation requirements. In sandy soils with high
infiltration rates, the small discharge hoses can be moved from one place
to another in the basin itself during the irrigation if necessary to ensure
uniform distribution of water. It is common for farmers to subdivide the
basins into smaller ones, or to construct short furrows within the basins in
order to achieve ideal results. Several furrow layouts are applied (zigzag
pattern, key pattern, etc.) in both types of systems. When the hose
discharge is highly pressurized, some informal techniques are exercised on
the spot by the farmer, such as the use of a tin vessel at the hose outlet, or
a plastic bucket to avoid soil erosion and destruction of the ridges.
Short furrows
COST
Although hose irrigation systems are classed as semi-permanent
installations, the water delivery hoses are the only movable component.
However, the cost for a complete installation is very low compared with
any other improved closed pipe technique. The average cost for all types of
hose irrigation systems is about US$660/ha. Moreover, many years of study
and observation have shown that the operating costs to the farmers, in
terms of out-of-pocket money, are much lower than for any other system.
ADVANTAGES
• High application efficiencies of about 75 percent, resulting in
considerable water savings.
• Low-cost improved irrigation installation.
• Simple technology easily managed by small children and old women.
• Gainful employment of available labour in small communities.
• Utilization of small water flows and quantities.
• Low energy (fuel) consumption.
DISADVANTAGES
• High labour requirements for system operation.
EXAMPLE DESIGNS
Hose basin with trees - conventional and drag types

Area and crop: The field dimensions (for design purposes) are taken as
140 x 72 m (about 1.0 ha) with mature trees planted in a spacing of 6 x 6
m. There are 24 rows with 12 trees in each row for a total of 288 trees.
Soil, water and climate: Medium texture soil of good structure, with
good infiltration and internal drainage. Soil available moisture: 150 mm/m
depth. The water is of good quality with no salinity or toxicity hazards; the
source is a high-level reservoir. The peak irrigation demand is in July; the
evaporation pan average readings are 7 mm/d.
Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling: The pan reading of

7.0 mm/d multiplied by 0.66 (pan correction factor) gives an ETo of 4.65
mm/d. The crop factor kc is 0.65. Thus, ETc = 4.65 x 0.65 = 3.0 mm/d. The
area shaded by canopy is 70 percent and for calculation purposes this is
taken as 82 percent. Therefore, the daily water requirements are: 3.0 x
m3). If irrigation takes place every ten days, the gross irrigation dosage is:
10 x 33 = 330 m3.
The maximum permissible irrigation interval in July on a 50 percent

moisture depletion for a trees root depth of 0.6 m is: 150 x 0.6 x 0.5 ÷ 3.0
Hose irrigation for trees (example designs) (area=1.0 ha)

Layout performance and hydraulics: In both the conventional and drag

hose basin systems, a 63-mm HDPE or PVC main pipeline is placed along
the border of the field with 2-in offtake hydrants, four for the conventional
type and two for the drag type. Laterals of 50-mm LDPE are laid
perpendicular to the mains, four and two respectively, connected to the
hydrants. The hose arrangements of the two systems differ. In the
conventional type, the hose spacing is 36 x 36 m with two 24-m-long 1_-
in garden hoses per lateral. There are four laterals and eight hose positions.
Thirty-six trees can be served from each hose position. In the drag system,
the hose spacing is 24 x 48 m with three 36-m-long 25-mm LDPE hoses
per lateral. There are only two laterals and six hose positions. Forty-eight
trees can be irrigated from each hose position. The general characteristics
of the systems are as follows:
Conventional hose basin Drag hose basin
System flow 16 m3/h 16 m3/h

Hoses Soft PVC, 1_ in, 24 m LDPE, 25 mm, 36 m
Hose discharge 4 m3/h 2.7 m3/h
Basins dimensions 5x5m 5x5m
No. of basins per hose 36 48
Irrigation frequency 10 days 10 days
Irrigation dosage 330 m3 330 m3
No. of hoses operating simultaneously 4 (double shift) 6
Time to fill a basin 17.4 min 26 min
Time to complete one irrigation 20.8 h 20.8 h
bars bars
Pressure losses in the hoses 0.2 0.7

Pressure losses in the laterals 0.3 0.4
Pressure losses in the main line 0.5 0.4
Minor local and other losses 0.5 0.5
Total dynamic head 1.5 2.0
EQUIPMENT FOR SYSTEM INSTALLATION
Conventional hose basin system (trees)


3. 63-mm PP compression end plug 1 pc 5.00 5.00
4. 50-mm PP compression end plug 4 pcs 3.00 12.00
5. 63-mm x 2_-in PP compression adaptor 1 pc 5.00 5.00
6. 50-mm x 2-in PP compression adaptor 4 pcs 3.00 12.00
9. 2-in brass gate valve 4 pcs 8.00 32.00
11. 2-in nipple 4 pcs 0.80 3.20
12. 1-in nipple 16 pcs 0.40 6.40
13. 1_-in tap hose adaptor 4 pcs 0.70 28.00
14. 1_-in soft PVC garden hose, 24 m long 4 pcs 30.00 120.00
Total cost 750.60

Drag hose basin installation (trees)


11. 2-in nipple 2 pcs 0.80 1.60
12. 1-in nipple 6 pcs 0.40 2.40
13. 1-in x 25-mm PP compression elbow 6 pcs 1.20 7.20
14. 25-mm soft LDPE hose, 4.0 bars, 36 m 6 pcs 14.40 86.40
Total cost 402.80

Hose basin irrigation for maize and hose furrow for tomatoes
Area and crops. Two plots of the same dimensions 108 x 96 m, 1.0 ha
area each, are planted with maize and tomatoes respectively in mid-April.
The maize plot is arranged in small basins, 6 x 12 m, for a total of 144
basins. The tomato plot is planted in short furrows 18 m long.
Soil, water and climate. Medium texture soil of good structure, with
good infiltration and internal drainage. Soil available moisture: 150 mm/m
depth. The water is of good quality with no salinity or toxicity hazards; the
source is a high-level reservoir. The peak irrigation demand is in July; the
evaporation pan average readings are 7 mm/d.
Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling. The pan reading of

7 mm/d multiplied by 0.66 (pan correction factor) gives an ETo of 4.65
mm/d. The crop factor for maize at harvest time in July is taken as 1.0 and
for late season tomatoes as 0.85. Thus, ETc maize: 4.65 x 1 = 4.65 mm/d,
and ETc tomatoes: 4.65 x 0.85 = 3.95 mm/d. The system’s application
efficiency is 75 percent. Therefore, the gross daily irrigation requirements
at peak are: 4.65 ÷ 0.75 = 6.2 mm (62 m3) for maize; and 3.95 ÷ 0.75 =
5.26 mm (52.6 m3) for tomatoes. At peak demand, the irrigation frequency
for maize is every seven days, while for tomatoes it is every other day.
Thus, the irrigation dosage would be: 7 x 62 = 434 m3 for maize; and 2 x
52.6 = 105 m3 for tomatoes. The available system flow is 16 m3/h.
Hose irrigation for vegetables and field crops

Layout, performance and hydraulics: In both systems, the pipe network

is almost the same, i.e. 63-mm HDPE pipes for the main line, 50-mm
HDPE pipes for the lateral lines, and 1_-in flexible PVC garden hoses. In
the basin system, the hose spacing is 36 m along the laterals and 12 m
between the laterals. There are four laterals with three hoses each for a
total of 12 hose positions. Each hose position can serve 12 basins.
In the short furrow system, the hose spacing is 18 m along the lateral
and 24 m between the laterals. There are only two laterals with six hoses
each, for a total of 12 hose positions irrigating the furrows downstream on
either lateral side. The general characteristics of the systems are:
Hose basin Hose furrow
Area 1.0 ha 1.0 ha

Crop Maize Tomatoes
System flow 16 m3/h 16 m3/h
Hose type Soft PVC, 1_ in, 24 m Soft PVC, 1_ in, 24 m
Hose discharge 5.3 m3/h 5.3 m3/h
No. of hoses operating simultaneously 3 3
No. of hose positions 12 12
No. of shifts per irrigation 4 4
Irrigation frequency at peak 7d 2d
Irrigation dosage (gross) 434 m3 105 m3
Time to complete irrigation 27 h 6.5 h
bars bars
Pressure losses in the hoses 0.20 0.20

Pressure losses in the laterals 0.40 0.40
Pressure losses in the main line 0.45 0.40
Minor local and other losses 0.55 0.50
Total dynamic head 1.60 1.50
EQUIPMENT FOR SYSTEM INSTALLATION
Hose basin installation (maize)


11. 2-in nipple 4 pcs 0.80 3.20
12. 1-in nipple 12 pcs 0.40 4.80
Total cost 867.00

Hose furrow installation (tomatoes)


11. 2-in nipple 2 pcs 0.80 1.60
12. 1-in nipple 12 pcs 0.40 4.80
Total cost 626.00
Hose irrigation jointing techniques

CHAPTER 15:
Operation
and maintenance
INTRODUCTION
The efficient operation of an irrigation system depends mainly on the
ability of the farmer to make the best use of it. For every system,
depending on the kind and the type of the installation and the way the
water is delivered to the farm, there are several steps to be taken and
factors to consider in order to ensure the efficient operation and
performance of the installation. Sometimes, the irrigation installation fails
to give full satisfaction because of poor design, faulty installation, or
equipment that does not conform to specification. However, the way both
the irrigation system as a whole and its component parts are operated and
maintained will determine the success or failure of any properly designed
and installed system.
The O&M of the irrigation system is also the key factor for good
irrigation management. Farmers need a sound knowledge of the O&M
procedures of their installation. This knowledge should be acquired from
complete information, demonstration and written instructions from the
designers and the suppliers.
OPERATION
When and how long to irrigate

The application of the exact amount of water required by the crops at
the right time is the main achievement of the irrigation installation.
Farmers normally understand matters concerning the main elements of
irrigation programming, such as water discharge and rate, operating hours
and irrigation frequency, and they can follow instructions. Properly
installed, operated and maintained irrigation networks enable farmers to
exercise absolute control over water use at farm level. Thus, it is easy for
them to apply irrigation schedules based on crop, soil, weather, and water
availability and quality factors.
Starting and stopping the system

Starting and shutting down the pressurized irrigation installation needs
to be done very carefully in order to prevent surges and water hammer and
to avoid air pockets in the pipelines.
The opening and closing of the valves at the head of the system, the
main and submain pipelines, should always be done slowly.
Where there is a pump, engine or motor driven, the supplier’s

instructions should be followed. Priming the pump, filling the pipes,
adjusting the speed and lubricating the pumping equipment are matters of
major importance. Manufacturers provide detailed instructions in their
literature for starting and operating each pumping unit.
System performance
Frequent observations and checks should be carried out during the
irrigation season to ensure the proper functioning and good performance
of the system. This involves a number of procedures for simple evaluations
based on measurements taken under field conditions.
The equipment needed for this task is as follows:

• a map/sketch of the irrigated area showing the locations of all the
system’s component parts and the various plots;
• a portable pressures gauge (0-6.0 bars) with a special adaptor and
pivot tube adjustment;
• a stopwatch (chronometer);
• a measuring tape, approximately 20 m;
• graduated vessels, capacity 1-5 litres;
• a soil auger, shove or probe;
• a notebook for recording data.
In most closed pipe pressure systems there are a number of factors that
should be evaluated to determine the level of operation and that can be
readjusted where not satisfactory.
Operating pressures: With the system in operation, pressure

measurements are taken at various points on the piping network,
preferably at the beginning and at the far end of the main and the submain
pipelines. The operating pressures of the first and last emitters on a number
of laterals are also measured. All pressures should be within the designed
range. The difference in the emitter pressure should not differ from the
recommended average pressure by more than 20 percent on level ground.
Any change should be investigated immediately.
Flow rates and water discharge: The flow rates (discharge) of the same
emitters whose operating pressures are measured are also determined. This
is done by recording the time required to fill up a graduated vessel with
water. The figures should be in accordance with the supplier’s
specifications and the difference between them should be less than
10 percent. The system’s rate of discharge is the sum of the emitters’
average flow rates.
Uniformity of application and depth of wetting: This may be checked by

probing the soil at various locations using a probe, shovel or soil auger.
The examination can be made 12-24 h after irrigation depending on the
type of soil. Water should penetrate a few centimetres below the root
depth. Areas taking less or more water can be easily identified for further
investigation.
Visual observations for evaluation purposes of any type should be

avoided as they might lead to misjudgements.
In addition to the above simple evaluations, the following checks, on-site

modifications, re-arrangements and preventive maintenance are necessary:
• Check and repair any leakage in piping or through valves.

• Position the sprinklers vertically to the ground and check spacing.
• Replace or rehabilitate clogged emitters.
• Flush the system network at least three times during the irrigation
season when water originates from underground. With reservoir
water, flush once every fourth irrigation. An approximate flushing
time of 2-3 min for each line will prevent sedimentation on the inner
pipes walls.
• Clean the filters of the system thoroughly before every irrigation.
During operation, check for the minimum difference in pressure
between the inlet and the outlet of the main filter.
• Check the air and check valves periodically for proper functioning.
• Inspect plastic equipment, valves and devices for cracks and other
physical damage.
• Flush fertilizer injectors (pump and tank) after each use. Inspect hoses
and valves.
• Conduct systematic checks to spot malfunctioning equipment affected
by physical deterioration and other possible damage by machinery,
animals, etc.
• Make frequent visual checks of the system to ensure that it is in good
condition and operating efficiently.
Pump plant
Preventive maintenance of the pumping system is essential during the
irrigation season. Equipment manuals contain trouble-shooting chapters
which are useful for solving common problems associated with the normal
operation of the pumping unit. The following checks and inspections are
recommended for most engine or electric motor driven pumps:
• noise;
• vibration;
• leakage;
• temperatures of bearings and windings;
• fuel/power consumption;
• capacity and output (water discharge and dynamic head);
• ventilation screens, clean where necessary;
• oil pressure;
• oil, lubrication, change where necessary.
MAINTENANCE
The long-term operation of the irrigation installation depends upon
simple maintenance carried out by the farmer. The periodic servicing of
pumping plants and the repair of special devices (filters, injector, etc.) is
carried out by trained maintenance and repair personnel.
Maintenance is carried out during a period of non-use to prepare the

system: a) for the off-season shut-down; and b) for use before the next
season. All equipment requires a certain amount of care in handling for
storage and maintenance. For every installation there is a procedure which
concerns various aspects of the distribution network and the pumping unit.
System network
The procedure for the network is as follows:
• Flush mains, submains, manifolds and laterals.

• Inspect for possible damage to the network and repair it.
• Open fully and drain completely all valves.
• Remove dirt, corrosion and other foreign material from the
component parts.
• Check emitters for possible clogging, damage, wear and signs of
deterioration, and replace where necessary.
• Store all emitters in a dry clean place on shelves away from fertilizers,
chemicals, oil, grease and lubricants.
• Examine the condition of air and check valves.
• Flush and drain filtration and fertilizer injection equipment.

• Clean all filter elements.
• Check condition of gaskets and seals; remove, clean and store in a
dry place.
• Retrieve all portable plastic tubes by rolling them up in coils; store
properly.
• Inspect all portable metal pipes for any kind of damage and consult
suppliers for repair; store properly away from power lines and wiring.
• Drain completely all pipes left in the open.
Pump plant
Pump plants usually consist of a centrifugal pump of some type and the
power unit (electric motor or internal combustion engine). Maintenance
instructions are available from manufacturers, pump users associations and
other technical organizations. Special care should be taken to protect
engines from moisture that can accumulate inside the machines and cause
serious damage.
Below is a list of checks, inspections and steps to be taken for the

preparation of the pumping plant a) for the off-season period and b) for use
before the next season:
Maintenance for the off-season period

Centrifugal pumps
• Drain all the water from pump and connecting pipelines.

• Where possible, remove suction lines and store them.
• Cover shaft and any exposed metal and all oil or grease lubricated
bearings with protective lubricant.
• Loosen ‘v’ belt or flat belt drive and insert piece of greaseproof paper
between belts and pulley.
• Loosen packing gland.
• Clean debris and any other material from impeller and volute.
Internal combustion engines
• Run engine to thoroughly warm up oil in the crankcase; stop engine

and drain crankcase oil; replace drain plug and refill crankcase with
high-grade engine oil; start engine and run slowly for two minutes to
complete oil distribution on all surfaces.
• Stop engine; remove all spark plugs; pour 60 ml of engine oil into
each spark plug hole; with ignition switch off, crank engine for
several revolutions to distribute oil over the cylinder walls and valve
mechanism; replace spark plugs.
• Drain oil from crankcase; drain cooling system and close drain cocks;
drain all fuel from tank, lines and carburettor bowl; replace all plugs
and close drain cock.
• Lubricate all accessories and seal all openings airtight, including air
cleaner inlet, exhaust outlet, and crankcase breather tube, with
weatherproof masking tape.
• Check oil filler cap, gas tank and radiator cap.
• Spray all accessories and electrical equipment with suitable insulating
compound.
• Insert a strip of greaseproof paper under the ‘v’ belt pulley.
• Remove battery and store fully charged.
• Where the engine is in the open, cover with waterproof material.
Electric motors
• Ensure that all bearings are well lubricated.

• Cover motor to protect against rodents, insects and dust,
but provide ventilation.
• Lock control box in ‘off’ position and cover with a canvas where
exposed in the open to protect against moisture and dust.
Preparation for use before the next period

Centrifugal pumps
• Where there is a trash screen, clean and install it properly.

• Ensure foot valve on suction line of horizontal centrifugal pumps
operates properly.
• Install suction line of horizontal pumps and/or vertical turbine pumps
and/or check they are adequately submerged; check impeller
adjustment of deep-well vertical turbine pumps.
• Clean all passages for liquid.
• Tighten packing gland to proper setting.
• Replace bearing oil, or lubricate bearings with grease.
• Ensure pump shaft turns freely without noticeable dragging.
• Start pump and check for normal operation.
Internal combustion engines
• Remove all tape from sealed openings.

• Open fuel tank valve; shut water drain cocks and add coolant.
• Check oil drain plug; replace oil filter and add correct amount of oil
to engine.
• Remove spark plugs and spray cylinder walls with a light engine oil.
• Replace spark plugs and crank engine several revolutions by hand to
spread oil on cylinder walls.
• Lubricate all engine accessories.
• Where a distributor is used, clean inside and outside of cap; inspect

cap and rotor for cracks; lubricate distributor sparingly with suitable
lubricant; where a magneto is used, inspect breaker points for wear
and gap; lubricate rotor.
• Where oil bath air cleaner is used, clean and fill with correct grade oil.
• Check all terminals and electrical connections.
• Start engine; run slowly for a few minutes; monitor oil pressure; if it
fails to come up to correct reading, stop engine and investigate cause.
• Check oil level in crankcase and bring level up to proper mark on
dipstick.
Electric motor
• Clean all debris accumulated during the storage period.

• Change motor bearing oil with special type of lubricant, do not
overfill, use grease gun to lubricate bearings.
• Change oil in reduced voltage starters.
• Check that motor ventilation vents are open; clean dust and dirt from
all moving parts of motor and panel.
• Check and tighten all electrical connections, replace overheated
connections with new material; test all coils and heaters for
continuity and shorts; clean all magnet surfaces; check for spare fuses
of proper size; ensure all conduits or shielded cables are in good
condition; check that all conduct points are corrosion free.
• Ensure service cabinet interior is moisture free.
• Operate all moving parts by hand before applying power.
CONCLUSION
Through investment in equipment for improved irrigation techniques,
farmers expect to save considerable amounts of water, to increase yields
and to improve crop quality.
Professionals and irrigation extensionists in association with

manufacturers and farmers have been working for years on the proper
O&M of irrigation system installations. Water conservation is and will
continue to be a major goal for farmers, industry and governments.
All parties concerned should cooperate to achieve this goal.
CHAPTER 16:
Irrigation terminology
A.
Actual evapotranspiration Represents the actual rate of water uptake by the plant which is determined by
the level of available water in the soil.
Alternative technology Technology that aims to use resources sparingly and to do the minimum damage
to the environment or to species inhabiting it while permitting the greatest
possible degree of control over the technology.
Aquifer properties The properties of an aquifer that determine its hydraulic behaviour and its
response to abstraction.
Available soil water storage Amount of water storable in the root zone at the time of irrigation.
B.
Balance of water resources and needs The usable water resource of a certain water management unit in a given period
of investigation, and the assessment and comparison of quantitative and
qualitative characteris-tics of the water requirements to be supplied by this
resource.
Base flow The sustained or dry weather flow of streams resulting from the outflow of
permanent or perched groundwater, and from the drainage of lakes and
swamps. Also included are water from glaciers, snow and other possible sources
not resulting from direct runoff.
Baseline study Study of the environmental conditions and organisms exist-ing in a region prior
to unnatural disturbances.
Basin irrigation An irrigation method in which crops are surrounded by a border to form a
submersion check called basin of round, square or any other form. Irrigation
water generally comes directly from the supply ditch/canal or from other basins.
Border irrigation A sub-system of controlled flood irrigation in which the land is divided into
parallel border strips demarcated from one another by earth ridges. Water is
successively delivered into each strip from a head or field ditch at its upper end.
On the upstream part of each strip is a flat zone, the level portion from which
the stream of water spreads evenly across the entire downstream portion.
C.
Cadastral surveys Surveys relating to the establishment of land boundaries and subdivisions made
to create or define limitations of titles. They also include surveys to retrace or
restore proper-ty lines and corners.
Calibrated orifices A water control structure whose orifice, perforated with great accuracy in a thin
wall, allows the passage of relatively large discharges of 50-150 litres/s, meant
to be temporarily stored in a basin or furrow.
Canal evaporation losses Losses due to evaporation from the water surfaces of canals. They are generally
accounted for as part of the total losses occurring in an irrigation system.
Capacity of a well The rate at which a well will yield water, in litres per second or cubic metres
per second.
Capital cost The total expenditure incurred on a work since the beginning of its construction,
excluding cost of operation, maintenance and repairs, but including cost of
investigations and of all extensions and improvements.
Case study General: Record of the history of a specific study or project performed.
Catchment area Specific: A written account of an event or situation to which participants are to
react. Emphasis is on decision making. A case study can be used to start a
general session, or as part of a small group session.
Centre pivot sprinkler The area from which a lake, a reservoir or a chosen cross-section of a stream or
waterway receives water (= watershed or drainage basin, but usually smaller).
Check and drop structure A sprinkler system in which the water source is in the centre, and a system of
pipes and sprinkler heads rotates or pivots about the central point to water a
given circular area.
Classification of drippers A fall or drop designed to serve, or serving also, as a flow regulating structure.
It is based on several criteria:
• the number of outlets per dripper (generally one, from six to ten in certain
cases of fruit or garden crops);
• the type of hydraulic functioning (short or long-flow path drippers);
• the method of mounting on the nozzle-line (on-line, in-line and built-in
drippers);
• the method of regulating the discharge according to the pressure in the
nozzle-line (self-regulating and non-self-regulating drippers).
Climatic cycle Actual or supposed cyclic recurrences of such weather phenomena as wet and
dry years, hot and cold years, at more or less regular intervals in response to
long-range terrestrial and solar influences, such as volcanic dust and sunspots.
Cluster sampling Where clusters of observation are formed on a basis that reduces cost (e.g.
within a limited area). Care is taken to ensure heterogeneity and to avoid
redundancy of information.
Conjunctive irrigation planning Planning an irrigation project in a given area having groundwater resources and
surface water, so that both the surface and groundwater resources yield the most
economical and suitable combination of the use of water from the two sources.
Constant-head orifice offtake regulator An offtake structure containing a calibrated gate (or orifice) upstream and an
adjustable gate downstream to control a constant head difference between the
two gates and to divert (and measure) a constant water volume from a main
irrigation canal to a distributing canal (= constant-head orifice turnout)
Consumptive water use The quantity of water used by the vegetative growth of a given area in
transpiration or building of plant tissue and that evaporated from the soil or from
intercepted precipitation on the area in any specific time. It is expressed in water
depth per unit of time (= consumptive use or evapotranspiration).
Continuous supply Continuous and constant discharge to inlets of the individual farms or fields.
Continuous flow irrigation system A system where the individual irrigators receive the quantity of water to which
they are entitled in the form of a continuous flow.
Contour ditch irrigation A sub-system of controlled irrigation in which water flows through openings in
ditches (which more or less follow the contours) or over the ditch banks as sheet
flow across the fields. The delivery is controlled by the spacing between ditches
and by the size and site of the openings of each ditch.
Control structure A stage-discharge regulating device of a spillway. It may be of any form, viz.
weir, side channel, glory spillway, orifice, tube, pipe or a channel.
Controlled flooding Water is diverted to levelled lands and in a sequential manner in such a way as
to deliver the desired dose to all points; it includes flooding from ditches,
border irrigation and corrugation irrigation.
Conventional technology Technology based on a long history of experience without making use of later
developments (compare with alternative technology).
Conveyance losses Losses of water in transit from the source of supply to the point of service
whether in natural channels or in artificial ones, such as canals, distributaries,
ditches or watercourses. They comprise evaporation from the water surface, see-
page, and incidental transpiration by vegetation growing in the water or along
the banks of natural channels, canals or watercourses (= transmission losses).
Conveyance structures Structures built to help provide general control and conveyance of the flow from
the intake structures to the area to be irrigated.
Cooperative Democratic organization for service provision controlled by its members, who
contribute equitably to the capital of the cooperative.
Corrugation irrigation A sub-system of controlled flood irrigation. Corrugations between crop rows are
fed at the head by flows from a furrow long enough to wet laterally the ridges
situated between the corrugations. In soils with a large natural slope,
corrugations with a small longitudinal slope appear to be parallel to the
contours.
Cost-benefit analysis Quantitative and qualitative evaluation of the positive and negative impacts of
a project.
Crop irrigation requirement Consumptive use minus effective precipitation.
Crop water requirement The total water needed for evapotranspiration from planting to harvest for a
given crop in a specific climatic regime when adequate soil water is maintained
by rainfall and/or irrigation so that it does not limit plant growth and crop yield.
Cross-irrigable area The total area within the extreme limits set for irrigation by a project, supply
system or canal less areas excluded because of their un-suitability for irrigation
(nature of the soil, ground too high to be irrigated by gravity flow or
economically by pumps or other water lifting devices).
Cut-off drainage system A drainage system for draining seepy hillsides. Tiles are placed along the hillside
to intercept the seep water and prevent it from reaching the bottom land, or an
open channel is dug along the hillside to achieve the same effect.
D.
Data transmission The sending of data from one place to another, or from one part of the system
to another, utilizing different transmission facilities, such as telephone or
telegraph lines, direct radio links, or satellite transmission systems.
Decision support system Systems for helping planners make decisions using models to select the most
favourable solution from among alternatives that are available according to
established criteria.
Delivery structures All the structures (canals or pipes and their appurtenant works, such as intakes,
distributors, drops and discharge structures) which ensure delivery of water to
the irrigators of an irrigation area from the main canal.
Demand management The programme adopted to achieve effective management of the use of water
resources in order to meet the general objectives of: economic efficiency,
environmental conservation, and community and consumer satisfaction.
Depreciation and renewal funds The provision for interventions necessitated by the changing of spare parts is
covered by a renewal fund which capitalizes the depreciation stocks normally
constituted for this purpose. However, it is possible to practise a less expensive
policy by capitalizing only lesser amounts based on the technical depreciation
periods of equipment, which always exceed those for legal or fiscal
depreciation.
Depth integrating sediment sampler A device to take a sample of suspended sediment in a stream. It is lowered from
the stream surface to the bed and raised to the surface again at a constant rate.
The sample of sediment laden water is drawn in continuously, thus obtaining a
composite sample which is integrated over the depth of the stream.
Derived data Records of observations and measurements of physical facts, occurrences and
conditions which have been developed from basic data by means of standard
methods of computation and estimation.
Design flood 1. The maximum flood that any structure can pass safely.
2. The flood adopted to control the design of a structure.
3. The flood against which a given area is to be protected.
Detailed investigation The investigation following reconnaissance. Such an investigation comprises: (i)
collection of necessary physical, hydrologic, geologic, topographical and
structural data to give engineers the basis for planning and estimation; (ii)
collection of data on flood damage, land use, population, water consumption
patterns, volume of water, and the expected social, environmental and
economic impact of the project; (iii) financial and economic studies; (iv)
manpower, equipment and machinery requirements; (v) overall cost in domestic
and foreign currencies, and preparations of cost estimates.
Discharge rating curve A curve which expresses graphically the relation between the discharge and its
corresponding stage (or elevation of water surface) in a stream or conduit at a
given point.
Discounted cash flow A method of evaluating cash flows in which future income and expenditure are
reduced to present values by applying a discount rate.
Distribution works and related A series of structures and equipment starting from the headworks for the purpose
collective structures of supplying water to the head of the plots belonging to a group of farmers
whose properties are part of the same irrigated area. It includes: the system of
drains to remove excess water up to the main drain; all the units and necessary
constructions for the O&M of the irrigated area; various systems of protection of
the latter (e.g. against floods); and the O&M roads.
Diversion structure A collective term for all works (weirs or diversion dams, head regulators,
upstream and downstream river training works and their appurtenant structures)
required at intakes or main or principal canals to divert and control stream/ river
flows and to regulate water supplies into the main canal or canals (= headworks
or diversion work).
Downstream regulation A method of operation in which the head and cross-regulators are controlled in
such a way that each controlled section of the canal or pipeline system or sub-
system is continuously in a position to respond immediately and fully to any
change in downstream and lateral demand. In practice, downstream control of
a system can only be achieved through automatic control, e.g. with head and
cross-regulators under distributed automatic downstream control which react to
changes in water demand sequentially from down-stream to upstream.
Drip irrigation In its simplest form, it is an irrigation method using a system of perforated plastic
pipes laid along the ground at the base of a row of plants (= trickle irrigation).
In its more advanced form, it is a micro-irrigation system in which water flow is
very low, generally less than 8 litres/h and without pressure, i.e. drop by drop.
The water emerging infiltrates directly into the soil where it wets a volume of
soil called bulb.
Drop structure A structure designed to secure the lowering of the water surface in a channel in
a short distance, and the safe destruction of the liberated surplus energy.
Dry spell A sustained period of time with insufficient precipitation.
Duty of water The relation between the area irrigated, or to be irrigated, and the quantity of
water used, or required, to irrigate it for the purpose of maturing its crop. Duty
is stated with reference to a base period and the place of its reckoning or
measurement. It is usually expressed in volume of water or rate of flow per unit
area (litres per hectare).
E.
Ecological impact The total impact of an environmental change, either natural or man-made, on
the ecology of the area.
Economic value of unit of irrigation The value of a crop raised by a unit of irrigation water if run continuously
water throughout the life of the crop.
Effective rainfall 1. In general, rain that produces runoff.

2. In irrigation practice, that portion of the total precipitation which is retained
by the soil so that it is available for use for crop production.
3. In geohydrology, that part of the total precipitation that reaches the
groundwater.
Effective rooting depth Soil depth from which the crop extracts most of the water needed for
evapotranspiration (also called design rooting depth).
Effective water holding capacity The amount of water held in the soil after the excess gravitational water has
drained away and after the rate of downward movement of water has materially
decreased, preferably given as a percentage by volume and not by weight (=
field capacity, moisture capacity).
Environmental assessment A formal process to predict the environmental consequences of human

development activities and to plan appropriate measures to eliminate or reduce
adverse effects and augment positive effects (= environmental impact
assessment (EIA)).
Environmental impact A change in effect on an environmental resource or value resulting from human
activities including project development, often called an effect.
Environmental monitoring Observation of effects of development projects on environmental resources and values.
Erosion control The application of necessary measures to control accelerated erosion of land
surfaces by vegetation or artificial structures, such as terraces, dams or bunds.
Eutrophication The process of a water body becoming anaerobic, i.e. without oxygen. Human
activities that add nutrients to a water body can accelerate this process.
Evaluation of alternatives The searching out of comparative advantages and disadvantages of alternatives
in an attempt to find the one that ‘fits’ best. The criterion of fit is sometimes
called measure of effectiveness. During the planning process, the original goals
and objectives are frequently modified and refined. Thus, the measure of
effectiveness also needs to be altered. As the planner approaches the design
stage, evaluation becomes more precise.
Exchangeable sodium percentage The degree of saturation of the soil exchange complex with sodium. It may be
(ESP) calculated by the formula:
ESP = exchangeable sodium (meq/100 g soil)/cation exchange capacity
(mec/100 g soil) x 100.
Expert system
Software that applies the knowledge, advice and rules defined by experts in a
particular field to a user’s data to help solve a problem.
F.
Farm budget analysis Analysis of the farm’s income (including that from off-farm employment
opportunities) and expenditure.
Farm irrigation efficiency The ratio or percentage of the irrigation water consumed by crops of an irrigated
farm to the water diverted from the source of supply, measured at the farm head-
gate (= farm delivery efficiency).
Farmer’s labour return Gross farm income less interest on average farm capital.
Financial rate of return The ratio of the net revenue and the sum-at-charge, expressed as a percentage,
attained or estimated to be attained after the development period of a project.
Flood control The use of techniques to change the physical characteristics of floods. These
techniques include purpose built-in river control structures. Management of
inflow of floodwater into a region as well as its outflow in such a manner that
any flooding is either kept to a minimum (return period, extent) or occurs at a
planned moment and during a planned period.
Flood control works Engineering structures: built to protect land and property from damage by flood,
e.g. levees, banks or other works along a stream; designed to confine floodwater
to a particular channel or direct it along planned pathways; or a flood control
reservoir.
Flood frequency analysis The estimation of the frequency of occurrence of floods at a site. Flood
frequency analysis attempts to fit a probability distribution to flood discharge
data and generalize the results for use at sites with no flood data. Many
techniques are in use.
Flood frequency method A method to determine only a peak discharge rate of known frequency which
deals with the runoff directly.
Flood irrigation All types of irrigation which make use of rising water from flood for inundating
areas without major structural works, e.g. flood recession, spate irrigation and
wild flooding.
Flood spreading The flooding of gravelly or otherwise relatively pervious lands in order to
recharge a groundwater basin.
Flow-duration curve A duration curve of stream flow, used for example to define minimum discharge
and identify low-flow periods for the appraisal of irrigation water with-drawal.
Full supply level Water level in a canal running with full supply discharge.
Fully automatic irrigation system An irrigation system or network on a farm, whereby the water requirements of
the plants are met automatically. It makes use of devices which measure soil
moisture (e.g. tensiometer), or other indicators of irrigation need (e.g. time
elapsed since rainfall), and trigger a series of operations to convey the necessary
water through the network at the proper time.
Furrow irrigation A method similar to corrugation irrigation used in permeable soils. It consists in
feeding narrow furrows very close to one another with small discharges so as to
wet more easily all the soil situated between two rows of crops (often orchards).
Furrows parallel to the rows may be laid mechanically with a drill plough.
G.
Geographic information system (GIS) All information concerning a point or a group of points georeferenced on the
Earth’s surface, such as maps or satellite images, digitally stored, processed and
manipulated by a computer program (e.g. IDRIS, MAPINFO, ARCINFO).
Geologic survey A survey or investigation of the character and structure of the Earth, of the
physical changes which the Earth’s crust has undergone or is undergoing, and
of the causes of those changes. The term geological survey is used to designate
an organization conducting geologic surveys and investigations.
Gravity irrigation Method of operating a system or part of a system using gravity alone, water
being available at a sufficient level (or pressure) to ensure its conveyance or
delivery to the fields or its distribution in the fields.
Greenhouse effect The warming of the Earth’s atmosphere caused by the build-up of carbon
dioxide, which allows light from the sun’s rays to heat the earth but prevents the
loss of heat.
Groundwater balance A systematic review of inflow, outflow and storage as applied to the
computation of groundwater changes. It is based on the concept that all inputs
of water in a defined space and time are equal to the sum of all outputs of water,
and the changes of water storage, in the same space and time.
Groundwater inventory A detailed estimate of the amount of water added to the groundwater reservoir
of a given area (recharge) balanced against estimates of amounts of withdrawals
from the groundwater reservoir of the area during a specific period.
Groundwater recharge Replenishment of groundwater supply in the zone of saturation, or addition of

water to the groundwater storage by natural processes or artificial methods for
sub-sequent withdrawal for beneficial use or to check saltwater intrusion in
coastal areas.
H.
Headworks A collective term for all works (weirs or diversion dams, head regulators,
upstream and downstream river training works and their appurtenant structures)
required at intakes of main or principal canals to divert and control river flows
and to regulate water supplies into the main canal or canals.
Hydraulic conductivity 1. The rate of flow of a fluid through a unit cross-section of a porous mass under
a unit hydraulic gradient, at a specified temperature (sometimes called unit of
permeability, transmission constant or coefficient of transmission).
2. The flux of water per unit gradient of hydraulic potential.
Hydrologic cycle The circulation of water from the sea through the atmosphere to the land and
then, often with many delays, back to the sea or ocean. The water passes
through various stages and processes, such as precipitation, interception, runoff,
infiltration, percolation, groundwater storage, evaporation and transpiration;
also the many shortcuts of the water that is returned to the atmosphere without
reaching the sea.
Hydrologic studies Collection of hydrological data and appraisal of available water supply for
various phases of water resources development, and appurtenant works and
operations related thereto, including the determination of the extremes, such as
floods and droughts. It includes methods and techniques for installing and using
hydro-meteorological observation stations.
I.
Indicator An operationally measurable term used in logical framework analyses, such as

objectively verifiable indicator (OVI) for the verification of project objectives
and results with regard to quantity, quality, time, place and beneficiaries.
Individual irrigation system Systems located downstream of the outlets served by the collective irrigation
system and meant to deliver water to the farms or fields of an individual area.
Infiltration rate The rate at which water penetrates the surface of a soil. The term usually refers
to water occurring as precipitation, but it is also applied to water flowing or
standing upon soil.
Inlet structure A structure built at the upstream end of the outlet conduit of the outlet works
and housing the regulating or emergency gates; usually combined with the trash
rack structure.
Institutional arrangements An interrelated set of entities and rules that serves to organize societies’ activities
for achieving social goals. The institutional arrangements should ensure that the
integrated approach is included in decisions and policies regarding river basin
management and irrigation development.
Intake A structure placed in a surface water source to permit water withdrawal.
Integrated river basin management The process of formulating and implementing a course of action to achieve
specific objectives involving the natural, agricultural and human resources of a
river basin, and taking into account the social, economic and institutional
factors operating in a river basin and their impact on the environment. It
signifies the interactions of components and the dominance of components in
the particular area.
Inventory of resources That part of the development resources vector needed for the implementation of
a specific project. It comprises the collection, generation and processing of
information on resources and their interaction.
Irrigation cycle Successive deliveries of water on all the units of a network in such a way as to
achieve a given irrigation on the entire field concerned.
Irrigation efficiency The ratio or percentage of the irrigation water consumed by crops of an irrigated
farm, field or project to the water diverted from the source of supply. It is called
farm irrigation efficiency or farm delivery efficiency when measured at the farm
head-gate; field irrigation efficiency when measured at the field or plot; and
water conveyance and delivery efficiency, or overall efficiency when measured
at the source of supply.
Irrigation potential Total possible area brought under irrigation, plus that which can be planned for
irrigation in a river basin, region or country, from available water resources,
with designs based on good technical practice at the time of assessing the
potential.
Irrigation requirements The quantity of water exclusive of precipitation, i.e. quantity of irrigation water,
required for normal crop production. It includes soil evaporation and some
unavoidable losses under the given conditions. It is usually expressed in water-
depth units (millimetres) and may be stated in monthly, seasonal or annual
terms, or for a crop period.
Irrigation units and sub-units Generally, the flow subscribed does not irrigate the field served in one
application, but only a fraction thereof, called irrigation unit. Each unit may be
a single block but may also comprise several separate parts called sub-units; this
in order to reduce the diameter of pipelines and consequently the investments.
Irrigation water quality table This indicates guidelines for the interpretation of water quality for crop
production. The table was adapted from the University of California Committee
of Consultants, the United States, in 1974 and revised in 1979. It emphasizes
the long-term influence of water quality on crop production and farm
management.
Isohyetal map A map showing lines connecting points of equal rainfall depth.
L.
Land reclamation Making land capable of more intensive use by changing its general character, as
by drainage of excessively wet land, irrigation of arid or semi-arid land, or
recovery of submerged land from seas, lakes and rivers.
Land survey Surveys relating to the establishment of land boundaries and subdivisions made
to create or define limitations of titles. They also include surveys to retrace or
restore property lines and corners. The term land survey is synonymous with
property survey and cadastral survey.
Land use planning The development of plans for the uses of land that will, over a long period, best
serve the general welfare, together with the formulation of ways and means of
achieving such uses.
Land use capability classes Division of agricultural land into classes of similar production potential with a
view to making the best use of each piece of land without causing excessive
erosion, or loss of productivity.
Lateral-move irrigation machine A sprinkler method using an automatic irrigation machine, consisting of a
sprinkler method nozzle-line fitted with rotating sprinklers or fixed diffusers, and divided into
sections by self-propelled towers with an electric motor. The nozzle-line,
straight or slightly curved in shape, moves by translation in a direction
perpendicular to its axis. It therefore irrigates a rectangular field. It is supplied
with water at some point either by directly pumping from a ditch parallel to its
movement or by successively connecting a flexible pipe to outlets fed by a
pipeline under pressure.
Leaching requirement The fraction of water entering the soil that must pass through the root zone in
order to prevent soil salinity from exceeding a specified value. Leaching
requirement is used primarily under steady-state or long-term average
conditions.
M.
Main drainage system System which conveys drainage water from the field drainage system to an
outlet.
Management of an irrigation Series of actions to design, implement, perpetuate and improve an irrigation
development project development project for the achieving of set objectives.
Mathematical modelling A specialized application of methods and concepts of mathematics, logic,

engineering and other social, economic, environmental and physical sciences
to determine what needs to be done and the best method of accomplishing it.
Sometimes referred to as operational analysis, systems engineering or
management science.
Maximum probable flood Flood which would be produced by the maximum probable precipitation and
which is computed using a rainfall-runoff relationship.
Method of water delivery Way of making an irrigation system function to convey water from the source of
supply to each field served by the system.
Micro-basin irrigation A water harvesting method used in small fields on gentle slopes. A moulding of
the land surface enables the creation on very small slopes of an artificial micro-
relief in each small field. Here the runoff water from the upper portion (run-off
area) becomes concentrated in the lower portion (crop area) where the crops are
raised, and which are sometimes reduced to a single tree (Negarin method).
Micro-irrigation with mini-diffusers A micro-irrigation system in which water is emitted in small sprinklings through
fixed small diffusers in the form of fine droplets distributed over a certain area,
or by individual low pressure jets localizing the water on the soil in separate
spots. Their discharge is generally limited (20-60 litres/h at 1 bar) and often
emitted in the form of circular sectors either to avoid wetting the neck of the
trees or to limit the range on the sides of the space between rows, which should
remain dry. Their use is limited to orchards.
Mitigation To render or become mild or milder; to modify; to reduce negative impacts of

projects, structures or any action on the socio-economy and environment.
Mobile micro-irrigation An irrigation machine (generally frontal nozzle-line) in which the mobile
nozzle-line functioning at low pressure applies water directly to the space
between rows of annual crops. Suspended flexible pipes fitted with mouthpieces
at their end feed continuously into small basins dug beforehand or simple
partitioned corrugations.
Mode of control The characteristic manner in which an automatic controller reacts to deviations
of the controlled variable(s), or in which an automatic control system performs
control functions.
Modernization of a system This operation consists in replacing certain structures by using a new or
improved technology, e.g. replacing channels and ditches by underground
pipes.
Modular range The range of conditions between modular limits within which a module or semi-
module works as designed.
Moisture-holding capacity The amount of water required to fill all the pore spaces between the soil
particles, i.e. the upper limit of the possible moisture content. It is usually
expressed as the percentage of the soil volume (1 percent equals 1 mm/dm of
soil depth), or sometimes as the percentage of the dry weight of the soil.
Monitoring well A non-pumping well used for observing the elevation of the water table; or a
(or observation well) well used for some anticipated, generally undesirable, conditions, such as
encroachment of a saltwater front or a pollutant introduced to groundwater.
Monitoring programme A programme designed to measure quantitatively or qualitatively the level of a

substance over a period of time.
Multi-objective planning Planning requiring the satisfaction of a number of mutually competitive goals.
Multi-criterion decision making A multi-criterion decision-making problem means a multi-attribute or a multi-

objective decision problem or both. Multi-criterion decision making is used to
indicate the general field of study which includes decision making in the
presence of two or more conflicting objectives and/or decision analysis
processes involving two or more attributes.
Net farm income Farm revenue minus direct costs.
Net irrigation requirement This is the crop’s irrigation need (without including losses of any kind) expressed
as a layer of water in millimetres per day, month or other period of time.
Net present value Value of benefits minus the value of costs, capital and maintenance.
Net revenue Gross revenue less direct and indirect expenditures including interest for the
year taking into consideration the sum-at-charge.
Nominal discharge of a dripper Discharge in litres per hour at the nominal pressure indicated by the
manufacturer. This discharge is determined by a test carried out as per the ISO
standard on 25 samples taken at random. In the case of a self-regulating dripper,
the test pressure is the arithmetic mean of the minimum and maximum pressures
in the regulation range indicated by the manufacturer.
Non-beneficial consumptive use The water consumed by native vegetation, evaporated from bare and idle land
surfaces and from water surfaces.
Non-renewable resource Those resources which do not regenerate themselves or maintain a sustained
yield after being utilized or destroyed.
O.
Open channel drainage Drainage accomplished by open channels or ditches.
Operation and maintenance (O&M) Operation is the organized procedure for causing a piece of equipment, a
treatment plant, or other facility or system to perform its intended function, but
not including the initial building or installation of the unit. Maintenance is the
organized procedure for keeping the equipment, plant, facility or system in such
condition that it is able to perform its intended function continually and reliably.
Operation of a canal with constant Method of operation aimed at maintaining constant, under all conditions of
volume steady flow, the volume of a canal reach situated between two gates.
Operation of a canal with volume Method of operation where the volume of a canal reach situated between two
control gates is controlled so as to take into account inflows and withdrawals (by
drawing out or pumping) which are variable over time.
Operation of a collective irrigation Method or way of controlling or operating a collective irrigation system with the
system main objective of distributing to all farms or fields in the area the water which
they should receive in a safe and economical manner.
Operation of irrigation projects 1. Functioning of irrigation works and equipment to the advantage of users for
optimum achievement of the objectives of the project. This function is
responsible for optimal management of water resources.
2. Technical support and management advice to users.
3. Suggestions for water policy and collection of dues linked to water services
(this function is responsible for the economical sustainability of the project)
Operation of hydraulic engineering The operation of structures such as weirs and dams; for example to alleviate
works downstream flood conditions.
Operation policy Principles concerning operation of components of an irrigation development

project according to the management policy adopted for a given time within the
system. It can be one for the whole project or be differentiated within the system
per type of component or geographical zone, each one of which operates
according to particular modes of management. The choice of an operation
policy is influenced considerably by the physical, human, socio-economic and
historical environment in which the development project is conceived and then
developed.
Orographic precipitation Precipitation resulting from the lifting of moist air over an orographic barrier,
e.g. a mountain range.
Overall efficiency The ratio or percentage of the irrigation water consumed by crops to the water
diverted from the source of supply (measured at the source of supply).
Overhead irrigation Irrigation by which water is ejected into the air to fall on the soil surface as
spray.
Over-irrigation Excessive irrigation with regard to the actual requirements, due to excessive
doses of watering, an insufficient irrigation interval or an overestimation of the
requirements (lesser evapotranspiration or excess of rains with respect to the
normal). It causes either a leaching of the soil if it is sufficiently drained, or a
water-logging of the soil which harms crop growth.
P.
pF of soil water The common logarithm of the water pressure expressed in centimetres of water
necessary to produce the suction corresponding to the capillary potential. Term
introduced by Schofield to express the energy with which water is held by soils.
Pan evaporation Rate of water loss by evaporation from an open water surface of pan (usually,
Class A pan or Colorado sunken pan).
Parshall flume An improved Venturi flume developed by the US Department of Agriculture and
(Parshall measuring flume) the Colorado Experiment Station at Fort Collins, Colorado, the United States,
under the direction of R.L. Parshall, to measure the flow of water in open
conduits. It consists essentially of a contracting length, a throat and an
expanding length. At the throat is a sill over which the water is intended to flow
at Belanger’s critical depth. The upper head is measured at a definite distance
downstream from the sill. The lower head need not be observed except where
the sill is submerged more than approximately 67 percent.
Partial duration series A list of events, such as floods, occurring above a selected base, without regard
to the number within a given period. In the case of floods, the selected base is
usually equal to the lowest annual flood, this in order to include at least one
flood each year.
Participation in the designing The operators should be consulted, either directly if it is a project which they
are following up, or through their officers in their hierarchy where the units of
the development corporation are responsible for the engineering of new works,
rehabilitation works or modernization works.
Participation of users in rehabilitation The planning of rehabilitation requires that any operation of a physical or
organizational character be preceded by a phase of active training, which could
be based on some carefully prepared pilot models. This way of proceeding is
accompanied by a campaign of consultation with users. The latter could
themselves take charge, at a low cost, of a large portion of the final project's
terminals. This creates the dynamism necessary for the success of the operation.
Peak period crop water requirements For a given crop, the peak crop water requirements during the month of highest
water requirements.
Percolation rate The maximum rate at which water will flow into the subsoil from the topsoil
under specific conditions, expressed in millimetres per hour or day.
Perennial irrigation An irrigation is termed perennial when the lands of the area can be irrigated
throughout the year and have the volume of water actually required.
Perfect module A device for ensuring a constant discharge of water passing from one channel
(rigid module) into another, irrespective of the water level in each, within certain specific
limits.
Perforated pipe sprinkler irrigation A sprinkler method in which the nozzle-lines consist of portable and lightweight
pipes, the wall of which is perforated with several rows of small holes in such a
way as to cause the water to be applied on both sides of the nozzle-line.
Permanent wilting point The moisture content of the soil, expressed as a percentage of the soil volume
or as a percentage of dry weight, at the time when the leaves of a plant growing
in the soil first undergo a permanent reduction in their moisture content as the
result of the deficiency in the soil moisture supply.
Permeability The property of a material which permits appreciable movement of water

through it when saturated and actuated by hydrostatic pressure of the magnitude
normally encountered in natural subsurface water.
Permissible velocity The highest velocity at which water may be carried safely in a canal or other
conduit. The highest velocity throughout a substantial length of a canal or other
conduit that will not scour.
Phreatic divide An underground divide that fixes the boundary of the area that contributes
groundwater to each stream or river system (catchment area).
Pictogram A variant of the bar chart where the bars are replaced by small schematic
pictures depicting the characteristic represented by the bar, each picture
denoting the magnitude of the characteristic.
Pilot project An early, usually small, project set up to gain experience for operating the actual
project.
Planning for a total rehabilitation If the project to be rehabilitated is large, financial and practical reasons may
make it impossible to carry out a general operation on the entire system. It is
advisable to proceed by stages, on the geographical and structural
reorganization levels.
Policy analysis This involves processes for making a set of decisions.
Ponding method (Tapoon) A method for measuring seepage losses from canals in which a selected canal
section is segregated by dikes at each end. Seepage losses are most accurately
determined by measuring the inflow required to maintain the water level in the
ponded section at a given level, due allowance being made for evaporation.
Poor drainage Occurs in soils which lose gravitational water slowly, or which are situated
where the groundwater table remains high in the profile. In most years, the soil
root zone loses excess soil water only during the summer months. In an
unimproved condition, successful cropping is unlikely (e.g. standing water,
water margin, wetland and peatland environments).
Portable flume (portable weir) A portable flume for measuring small discharges, such as in farm laterals or
watercourses, and consisting of a miniature broad-crested weir made of wooden
or iron sheets.
Potential evapotranspiration 1. The amount of water that could pass into the atmosphere by
evapotranspiration if the amount of soil water were not a limiting factor.
2. The amount of water utilized by a crop for its growth plus evaporation from
the soil if the soil contains sufficient moisture for crop growth at all times.
Potential yield (of a well) The greatest rate of artificial withdrawal from an aquifer which can be
maintained throughout the foreseeable future without regard to cost of recovery.
The potential yield (or physical yield limit) is, therefore, equal to the present
recharge, or that anticipated in the foreseeable future, less the unrecoverable
natural recharge.
Preliminary surveys The collection of survey data in the early stages of project planning. They are
further classed as reconnaissance surveys and preliminary location surveys.
Pricing - users’ fees The user, water and support service consumers owe to the providing agencies
or their WUA appropriate dues defined in bilateral contracts. Such contracts
engage reciprocally the agency (WUA) to supply the service or expected water
delivery and the user to pay for them. Such contracts can work only if the
mutual commitments are honoured without either party defaulting.
Private farming management Management activities of the basic farm unit carried out by the farmers
themselves and under their responsibility. These actions cover all the functions
of management except those beyond their competence. This does not exclude
their participation in all the functions as they can be consulted before any
decision. This mode of management also concerns a small group of farmers who
jointly exercise these responsibilities within a small irrigated area.
Probable maximum flood 1. The largest momentary discharge believed to be possible from a
consideration of meteorological conditions and snow cover on the watershed.
It presupposes simultaneous occurrence of all possible natural contingencies
favourable to high floods.
2. The maximum flood that can reasonably be expected to occur on a given
stream at a selected point with a known frequency during a designated period
or during an infinite period, assuming complete coincidence of all factors that
would produce the heaviest rainfall and maximum runoff.
3. The most severe flood that is considered reasonably possible at a location as
a result of meteorological and hydraulic conditions.
Proportional moduling The fitting of proportional modules on a supply channel.
Pumping irrigation Method of operating a system or part of a system using, fully or partly, an
artificial pressure for ensuring the conveyance of water, its delivery or
distribution in the fields.
R.
Rainfall intensity The rate at which rainfall occurs expressed in depth units per unit of time. It is
the ratio of the total amount of rain to the length of the period in which the rain
falls.
Rainfall-runoff models Any type of model simulating runoff processes as a function of rainfall and
evaporation.
Raingun sprinkler method A sprinkler method using heavy discharge and long-range rotating sprinklers,
requiring pressures higher than 5-7 bars and functioning in a fixed position.
Widely used in an individual form on mountain prairies, rainguns can constitute
high pressure sprinkler covers in the plains at intervals of 90-100 m. These
systems are highly automated. A central programmer enables individual control
of the rainguns, so allowing the units to be split easily into sub-units.
Recession hydrograph The falling limb of a hydrograph after a flood event representing the withdrawal
of water from storage in the valley, stream channel and the subsurface runoff.
A recession curve may sometimes be referred to as a recession hydrograph.
Reclamation Act or process of reclaiming swampy, marshy, deteriorated, desert and virgin
lands and making them suitable for cultivation or habitation; also conversion of
foreshores into properly drained land for any purpose, either by enclosure and
drainage, or by deposition of material thereon.
Reconnaissance investigations Bringing together all readily available socio-economic and physical
information, data and facts of a particular area; assimilating data from previous
reports and maps; carrying out minimum possible field surveys, if required,
consistent with reasonable accuracy; and examining within the shortest possible
time all the above information and data with a view to: (i) evaluating human or
socio-economic factors in the area, their present state, their trends, and the
corresponding needs and requirements; (ii) making a detailed study of
development potentials offered by water and other natural resources; and (iii)
preparing a preliminary general programme of development which should
outline the possible alternative projects, and ensure that whatever priority and
timing is chosen for each individually, proper coordination or integration of
water development schemes and of water uses will be maintained.
Recurrence interval The average time interval between actual occurrences of a hydrological event
of a given or greater magnitude, e.g. in an annual flood series, the average
interval in which a flood of a given size recurs as an annual maximum.
Reference crop evapotranspiration The evapotranspiration rate from a reference surface (grass with specific
(Eto) characteristics) which is not short of water. ETo is a climatic parameter
expressing the evaporation potential of the atmosphere at a specific location and
time of the year. Hence, it does not consider crop characteristics and soil
factors. The FAO Penman-Mon-teith method is recommended as the best
method for determining ETo.
Regulation structure A stage-discharge regulating device of a spillway. It may be of any form, viz.
weir, side channel, glory spillway, orifice, tube, pipe or a channel. (= control
structure)
Regulation with downstream control Method of regulation in which the flow in a canal (or in a pipeline) is controlled
at a gate by the level of the water (or pressure) measured by a sensor or by a
float connected to the gate placed in the immediate downstream of the gate. It
is a supply-oriented control method.
Regulation with upstream control Method of regulation in which the flow in a canal (or in a pipeline) is controlled
at a gate by the level of the water (or pressure) measured by a sensor or by a
float connected to the gate placed in the immediate upstream of the gate. It is a
delivery-oriented control method.
Regulation with volume control Method of regulation in which the volume of water in a reach may vary for
technical reasons but remains under the control of the operator.
Renewable resource A resource capable of being continuously renewed or replaced through such
processes as organic reproduction (biomass), groundwater recharge (water) or
weathering of parent material (soil).
Resource management The introduction and enforcement of restraints, including specific technical
practices, to safeguard the future of renewable resources and uphold the
principle of sustained yield.
Revenue value of unit of irrigation water The net revenue earned by a unit of water if run throughout the life period of the crop.
Risk analysis Qualification of the various sources of uncertainty in risk prediction and
comparison of relative risk.
Roll-move sprinkler lateral system A sprinkler method in which the nozzle-line, which carries medium pressure
sprinklers, is used as an axle to the wheels which support it at regular intervals.
Watering is done in a permanent shift and the nozzle-line is moved manually
between waterings to its new position by rolling it fully.
Runoff coefficient 1. (precisely): The ratio of the maximum rate of runoff to the uniform rate of
rainfall with a duration equalling or exceeding the time of concentration which
produced this rate of runoff.
2. (commonly): The amount of runoff expressed as a percentage of the total
rainfall in a given area.
S.
Salinity control Abatement or prevention of saltwater contamination of agricultural, industrial

and municipal water supplies, or reducing alkaline salts and preventing
deterioration of cultivable lands.
Seasonal irrigation An irrigation is termed seasonal when the lands of the area are irrigated only
during a part of the year, called watering season.
Sediment yield The total sediment outflow from a watershed or past a given location in a
specified period of time. It includes bedload as well as suspended load
including dissolved solids. Usually expressed as load per unit of time (e.g.
tonnes per year or kilograms per second).
Self-managed collective distribution Where the network is the property of the users, routine maintenance is done by
networks members of the network, possibly supported by a small number of paid
personnel, for preventive maintenance as well as for corrective maintenance.
Specialized maintenance is carried out by sub-contracting agencies under
maintenance contracts.
Self-management of a collective In this mode of management, the responsibility of the O&M of the collective
project by its own users project belongs to the users of the project. They are organized as an association,
farming society, cooperative or independent group. These organizations are
structured so as to be officially represented and to control the specific activities
which they entrust to a particular user among themselves or to a third party.
They participate in the discussions at the design level, and in the subsequent
ones and assess the results obtained. The specialized tasks of maintenance are
dealt with under maintenance contracts with one or more competent bodies
(company, fitter, artisan and development corporation).
Semi-automatic field water Irrigation system in which the water distribution and field application are partly
distribution system automatic and partly manual. A semi-automatic system may carry out a
(partially automatic system) sequence of operations automatically for a single irrigation, but need to be
manually started or manually reset prior to the subsequent irrigation. It may
involve use of volumetric or timer controlled valves that are started manually
but which close automatically.
Semi-module (flexible module) A device that automatically delivers a discharge which is independent of
fluctuations of water level or pressure on the delivery side, and only varies with
water level or pressure on the supply side (used for regulation with down-stream
control).
Sensitivity analysis The study of the influence of discrete parameter changes on optimized results.
Those parameters whose changes in value have more significant influence on
the results need treating with great care, while other parameters can be
recognized as relatively insignificant.
Social benefits Benefits as a result of the project, during and after construction, consisting
mainly of opportunities for: (i) employment of labour; and (ii) employment of
capital.
Sodium adsorption rate (SAR) A ratio for soil extracts and irrigation waters used to express the relative activity
of sodium ions in exchange reactions with soil:
SAR = Na+ x [(Ca++ + Mg++)/2] -0.5
where the ionic concentrations are expressed in meq/litre.
Soil classification systems System of classification of soils based on recognition of the type and
predominance of the constituents of soil considering grain size, gradation,
plasticity and compressibility. Among the widely used soil classification systems
are the US Soil Taxonomy and the FAO Soil Classification System.
Soil moisture deficit The amount of water that must be applied to the soil to cause thorough
drainage.
Soil moisture tension The equivalent negative pressure or suction in the soil moisture; expressed in
pressure units (bar or pascal).
Soil taxonomy Basic systems of soil classification for making and interpreting soil surveys by
the Soil Services Staff of the Soil Conservation Services of the US Department of
Agriculture (à soil classification systems).
Soil water stress Sum of soil water tension and osmotic pressure to which water must be
subjected to be in equilibrium with soil water.
Solidization The changing of a soil to a more highly leached and a more highly weathered
condition, usually accompanied by morphological changes such as the
development of an eluvial horizon.
Spate irrigation A method of random irrigation using the floodwaters of a normally dry (stream,
river) system. It includes the construction of earthen diversion banks across the
bed and then canals leading to embanked fields where the water is ponded until
total infiltration.
Sprinkler irrigation A method of irrigation under pressure in which water is sprinkled in the form of
artificial rain through lines carrying distribution components: rotary sprinklers,
diffusers with permanent water streams, perforated pipes. In comparison with
surface and drip irrigation, the length of the path of travel by the water drops
through the air causes:
1. great sensitivity to wind, which reduces the uniformity of distribution;
2. ‘air conditioning’ effects on the crops if used in antifrost sprinkling or
spraying.
State-of-the-art Pertaining to the current stage of development or knowledge of a subject.
Stochastic hydrology The study and application of random processes involved in hydrology.
Storm distribution pattern The manner in which depth of rainfall varies from station to station throughout
the area for a given storm.
Stratified sampling In this type of sampling, the population is divided into groups according to some
relevant characteristic and a simple random sample is taken from each group.
Stream gauging The operation of measuring the velocity of the flow of water in a channel or
conduit, and the area of cross-section of the flow for the purpose of determining
discharge.
Strip chart water level recorder A water-stage recorder in which the water stages are continuously recorded on
a strip of lined paper with the help of a clock mechanism that propels the chart.
Subsurface drainage system Any drainage system (drainage wells, open ditches or drain pipes) that is
designed to control the groundwater table.
Supplemental irrigation An irrigation carried out only occasionally to make good for short and irregular
drought periods.
Supporting soil conservation practices Special soil conservation techniques (that have gained general support) used to
control soil erosion.
Surface drainage system Shallow ditches or open drains that serve to receive surface flow or drainage
water.
Surface irrigation A method of irrigation in which water is applied to the land by allowing it to
flow by simple gravity, before infiltrating. It includes various systems depending
upon the relative magnitude of the surface flooding phase and infitration phase
after accumulation (submersion).
Surge flow Intermittent application of irrigation water to furrows or borders in a series of on-
off watering periods.
Surveying and mapping The measuring of ground surface, layout and structures, and the preparation of
maps, profiles, cross-sections and alignments.
Synthetic unit hydrograph A unit hydrograph developed on the basis of an estimation of coefficients
expressing various physical features of a catchment.
T.
Technology transfer Technology transfer consists in supplying project users or training personnel
(transfer of know-how) with technical knowledge and training essential for proper command of O&M
functions. This transfer may remain too theoretical or abstract if not
accompanied by: a transfer of know-how from the development corporation
officials to the users; a set of demonstrations; and a suitable follow-up of the
concrete operations (technical and management).
Temporary structures Constructions of any kind built by the contractor for the purpose of executing
permanent works, and which are dismantled afterwards.
Tensiometer An instrument for measuring the suction that plant roots have to exert in order
to extract moisture from the soil.
Time series A set of ordered observations on a quantitative characteristic of an individual or

collective phenomena taken at different points in time (e.g. sequences of
hydrological events of specified magnitude, such as water level, discharge).
Topographic divide A divide that demarcates the boundary of the area from which surface runoff is
derived (à watershed boundary).
Total available soil water storage Amount of soil water available in the root zone to the crop = difference between
(total available moisture (TAM)) water content at field capacity and at wilting point.
Transfer of competence When the authorities decide to restrict the role of the development corporation
(or of the state as owner), the latter has to give a concrete shape to the new
policy of users’ direct accountability. A succession of initiatives follow with the
aim of transferring all or a portion of the responsibility of the development
corporation (or the state) in the interest of the users, either at once or by
successive withdrawals.
Transmissivity Transmissivity (of an aquifer) is the product of the field coefficient of

(coefficient of transmissivity) permeability multiplied by the thickness of the saturated portion of the aquifer
Trap efficiency The ability of a reservoir or lake to trap and retain sediment, expressed as a
percent of the incoming sediment that is deposited in the reservoir or lake.
Turnkey contract A contract in which the government or organization undertaking a construction

project makes only one party responsible for all services connected with the
work, including planning, design, drawing up of specifications and
construction. This type of contract may be made on a firm-price or cost-plus
basis. It is based on function specifications describing the general features and
requirements of the finished works (e.g. an irrigation system). The contractor
draws up all the detailed engineering designs and specifications, and performs
the construction and testing. The work is considered complete when the
contractor turns over the works in satisfactory operation to the owner.
U.
Unconfined aquifers An aquifer in which the groundwater table is free to rise and fall according to
hydraulic gradients.
Underground drainage Drainage, either natural or artificial, beneath the surface of the earth.
Undertree sprinkler method Sprinkler method used in orchards with small sprayers with an outstretched jet
in order not to wet the leaves and avoid the wind effect on the distribution of
water. Such sprayers can be permanent, semi-permanent or portable.
Unit hydrograph Hydrograph of storm runoff at a given point on a given stream which will result
from an isolated rainfall excess of unit duration occurring over the contributing
catchment area and resulting in a unit of runoff.
Upstream control 1. Of a controlling element, a controlled variable or a pool: a control logic,

(upstream regulation) mainly applied to canals, in which the controlled variable is located upstream
from the controlling element.
2. Of a delivery system, or part of it: a method of operation in which the flow
allowed to the head of the system or sub-system varies freely according to water
availability or is controlled according to a predefined schedule. The head
structure or regulator is generally followed by a series of cross-regulators, whose
duty may be: to divide the incoming flow into predetermined proportions; to
maintain the water level above them within specific limits; or to pass
predetermined flows to the downstream canal sections. Upstream control of a
system can be achieved manually or automatically. For example, automatic
upstream control of a canal can be achieved with cross-regulators under
distributed automatic upstream control which will react to the changes in the
incoming flow sequentially from upstream to downstream.
Use of stress meter for scheduling in This consists in measuring daily and at the same time the soil moisture stress at
micro-irrigation a given point of the bulb which is formed under an emitter representative of the
system and recording its evolution over time.
If the stress increases regularly, there is under-irrigation and the irrigator should
increase the dose.
If the stress decreases regularly, there is over-irrigation and the irrigator should
decrease the dose.
If the stress is stable, the irrigation level may be considered satisfactory.
User fees All financial contributions to be borne by the users (or possibly their farmer in
the case of renting). The fees pay for the supply of water and accompanying
services.
V.
Vector control Process of controlling a (water-borne) disease, parasite or infection by control of

the carrier.
Volumetric water rate The charge levied according to the quantity of water actually delivered to the
outlet or turnout.
W.
Wash load Suspended material of very small size (generally clay and colloids) originating
primarily from erosion on the land slopes of the catchment area and present to
a negligible degree in the river bed itself.
Water balance Mathematical calculations for in- and outflow of water components for a given
area or soil profile.
Water budget Accounting of in- and outflow of water components for a given area or soil
(water balance) profile.
Water charge A charge levied on the beneficiaries for supplying irrigation water. It may be
(water rate, irrigation rate) based on or cover one or more of the following:
(i) O&M expenses;
(ii) depreciation charges for the whole or part of the project and O&M
expenses;
(iii) other criteria which may cover, exceed or not cover the working expenses
and interest on investment.
Water control The physical control of water by measures such as conservation practices on the
land, channel improvements, and installation of structures for reducing water
velocity and trapping sediments.
Water conveyance and delivery The ratio or percentage of the irrigation water delivered at the irrigation plot to
efficiency the water diverted from and measured at the source of supply.
Water duty Design criteria where water requirements of a given area are expressed.
Water level gauge An instrument for measuring the water level or the height of a flood (flood
(flood meter) meter).
Water resources appraisal Assessment of, with the help of observed data or other known procedures of
calculation, an overall picture of the extent (in time and space) and
dependability of water supplies (surface and ground) and the character of water
of a river basin, region or country on which an evaluation of the opportunities
for its control and utilization is to be based.
Waterlogging State of low land in which the subsoil water table is located at or near the
surface with the result that the yield of crops commonly grown on it is reduced
well below the normal for the land; or, where the land is not cultivated, it
cannot be put to its normal use because of the high subsoil water table.
Watershed management Planned used of watersheds (river basins) in accordance with predetermined
(river basin management) objectives.
Water users association (WUA) Association of water users combining both governance and management
functions (they are not the owners of the infrastructure.
Wild flooding Field ditches are run along the contours. There are no rigid design criteria for
(free flooding) this method and at best it does not give a very even application.
Working capital Rather than distributing the profitable results from a budget among the users
in totality, it is preferable to have in the balance sheet of the group a sufficient
sum to provide against emergencies and to replace equipment. On the
accounting level, this reserve is obtained by the progressive cumulation of
depreciation accounts or with a provision for maintenance. The latter can be
moduled according to the nature of equipment and life expectancy. Where
lacking sufficient reserves, the group can resort to borrowing, followed by
raising users’ fees.
CHAPTER 17:
Irrigation equipment supply
database - IES
Irrigation Equipment Supply (IES) is a database that seeks to establish a

list of irrigation equipment services worldwide. IES is developed as part of
FAO's mandate to provide information on irrigation.
Prospective beneficiaries of IES are those who need to locate information on
irrigation equipment at regional or country level. Information is given on:
• Suppliers/Manufacturers;
• Equipment; and
• Standards.
IES is located on the WEB:
http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/agricult/aglw/ies
The mention of specific companies or of their products or brand names

does not imply any endorsement by, and the view expressed do not
necessarily reflect the views of, the Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations.

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What is the objective of the handbook?

What is the objective of the handbook?

What topics are covered in Chapter 2?

What topics are covered in Chapter 2?

TECHNICAL HANDBOOK

PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION TECHNIQUES

A. Phocaides, FAO Consultant

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION

The objective of this handbook is to provide a very practical guide to

Within the Land and Water Development Division of FAO, the

Chapter 2: Pressure Piped Irrigation Techniques 3

Piped irrigation techniques compared

Chapter 3: Irrigation equipment

Annex: Equipment for open canal/surface

Chapter 4: System design 53

Chapter 5: Equipment, standards

Chapter 6: Irrigation scheduling 69

Chapter 7: Water quality for irrigation 79

Effects of soluble salts on soil 82

Crop tolerance to salinity 83

Chapter 8: Hose-move sprinkler irrigation 99

Chapter 9: Microsprinklers 109

Chapter 10: Minisprinklers 117

System layout, performance and hydraulics: 123

Chapter 11: Bubbler irrigation of trees 127

Example design 129

Chapter 12: Drip irrigation 133

Dripper characteristics: 140

Chapter 13: Fertigation 145

Chapter 14: Low-cost hose irrigation 151

Equipment for system installation 160

Equipment for system installation 164

Chapter 15: Operation and Maintenance 167

Chapter 16: Irrigation terminology 175

Chapter 17: Irrigation equipment

The application of improved irrigation methods and techniques on small

An irrigation system consists of canals and structures to convey, regulate

For any queries please contact: [email protected]

FIGURE 1.1 - Wasteful surface irrigation method

A pressure piped irrigation system is a network installation consisting of

The basic differences between traditional surface irrigation and piped

In micro-irrigation and other complete systems, e.g. sprinkler, the

There are many kinds of irrigation systems. However, a thorough

• the control station (head control unit);

FIGURE 2.1 - Scheme of a network layout.

Head control: This consists of a supply line (rigid PVC, or threaded

Main pipeline: It is the largest diameter pipeline of the network, capable

permanent assembly rigid PVC, black high density polyethylene (HDPE),

Manifolds (feeder lines): These are pipelines of a smaller diameter than

Laterals (irrigating lines): These are the smallest diameter pipelines of

These component parts replace the ones in the traditional surface

FIGURE 2.2 - Improved surface irrigation method with pipes.

• low pressure systems, where the pressure required is 2.0-3.5 bars;

b. Water delivery method

• Sprinkler (overhead) irrigation. The water is delivered in the form of

proportional to the duration of application. Where designed, it is usually

PIPED IRRIGATION TECHNIQUES COMPARED

Economic return per unit of water. Piped systems facilitate the

Operation and maintenance (O&M). The man-hours needed in the

Cost: The use of thermoplastic pipes and fittings, made of unplasticized